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A degree of Relationships A Relationship may comprise of numerous substances. The quantity of substances in a relationship is called the degree of relationship. The relationships of degree 2 are most normal and are additionally called double relationships Relational Model Databases Terminology System. The sorts of Degree of Relationships with deference degree are as per the following: - Unary Relationship - Double Relationship - Ternary Relationship The unary relationship is a sort of that is set up between the occurrences same substance compose This is otherwise called recursive relationship. Examples The above relationship implies that a man lives with someone else. - The above Degree of Relationships implies that an instructor works with another educate. - Double relationships exist between the occurrences of two elements composes. Distinctive sorts of relationships are as per the following: This sort of Degree of Relationships is utilized when “for each example in first substance class, there is just a single case in the second element class and for each occurrence in second element class, there is just a single case in the main element class”. - Examples The above relationship implies that one administrator runs just a single division. So also, one office is controlled by one director. - The above relationship implies that one nation has one president. Essentially, one president is of just a single nation. - The above relationship implies that one supervisor oversees one branch of a bank. So also, one branch of a bank is overseen by one chief. This sort of relationship is utilized when “for each occasion in first substance class, there can be numerous cases in the second element class and for each occurrence in second is just a single case in the main element class”. - Examples The above relationship implies that one state can have numerous urban areas yet one city has had a place with one state. - The above relationship implies that one school can have numerous offices yet one division is a piece of just a single school. - The above relationship implies that one boss can utilize numerous workers however one school. - The above relationship implies that one boss can utilize numerous workers however one representative is utilized by just a single manager. This kind of Degree of Relationships is utilized when “for each case in first substance class, there can be numerous occasions in the second element class and for each case in second element class, there can be occurrences in the primary element class. - The above relationship implies that one understudy may examine numerous courses and one course might be considered by numerous understudies. - The above relationship implies that one representative can learn numerous abilities and one aptitude can be learned by numerous workers. - The above relationship implies that one peruser may read numerous books and one book might be perused by numerous perusers. - A ternary relationship exists among the examples of three substance writes. - The above relationship implies that one or numerous specialists with one or numerous customers sign on one or numerous agreements. - The above relationship implies that one or numerous examiners with one or numerous developers take a shot at one or numerous ventures. The most extreme number of relationships is called cardinality. The cardinality requirement indicates the number of cases of one element that can be related to each case of the other element. There are three images used to indicate degree. A circle implies zero, a line implies one and crow’s foot image implies many. A circle O demonstrates that relationship is discretionary. It implies that the base number of relationships between each example of the main substance and cases of the related element is zero. A stroke | demonstrates that relationship is compulsory. It implies that base number of relationships between each occasion of first element and occurrences of the related substance is one. The second image demonstrates cardinality. A stroke | demonstrates that greatest number of relationships is one. A crows-foot demonstrates that numerous relationships between occasions of the related substances may exist. These images are as per the following: The base number of examples of one substance that might be related to each occurrence of another element is known as least cardinality. On the off chance that the base cardinality is zero, support is discretionary. In the event that the base cardinality is 1, support is required. Most extreme Cardinality: - The most extreme number of cases of one element that might be related to each occasion of another element is known as greatest cardinality. Example: One-to-Many Relationship (Optional): - The accompanying example demonstrates a connection amongst STUDENT and BOOK. It depicts a circumstance in a library where the understudies can acquire books from the library. The shape + with STUDENT demonstrates that base cardinality of STUDENT is zero and greatest is 1. The shape e with BOOK demonstrates that there can be zero or numerous examples of books related with one understudy. The base cardinality of BOOK is zero and most extreme is many. It implies that one understudy can get zero or numerous books and one book can be obtained by one or no understudy. Example: Many-to-One Relationship (Mandatory): The accompanying example demonstrates a connection amongst EMPLOYEE and PROJECT. It depicts a circumstance in an association where representatives deal with various activities. The shape with EMPLOYEE demonstrates that base cardinality is zero and greatest are many. The shape +t with PROJECT demonstrates that the base and most extreme cardinality is 1. There must be precisely one occurrence of the task in the relationship. It implies that zero or numerous representatives might chip away at one anticipates. In any case, one worker must work on precisely one anticipates. Example: Many-to-Many Relationship (Optional): The accompanying example demonstrates a connection amongst STUDENT and COURSE. It portrays a circumstance in an organization where the understudies can take distinctive courses to examine. The base cardinality on the two sides is zero. The most extreme cardinality on the two sides is many. It implies that one understudy can take numerous or no course to contemplate. Comparative, one course can be taken by numerous understudies or no understudy. Example: Many-to-One Relationship (Optional): The accompanying example demonstrates a connection amongst PERSON and HOBBY. It delineates a circumstance in day to day life where a man may have no or one interest. The base cardinality of PERSON is zero and greatest are many. The base cardinality of HOBBY is zero and most extreme is one. It implies that one individual can have one or no hobby. Similar, one interest can be related to numerous individual or no individual. Sub write and Super compose Entities: An element that contains some discretionary qualities or sub composes is known as a sub write substance. For example, an element CUSTOMER has the qualities Customer ID, Address, and Phone. A client can be an individual or an association. The accompanying extra information is required to be put away about the client relying upon the sort of the client. For Individual: NIC, Professional, Designation For Organization: Registration, Contact Person, Tax One approach to deal with this circumstance is to assign every single above credit to the substance CUSTOMER. The CUSTOMER contains the accompanying traits. On the off chance that the client is an individual, Registration ID, Contact Person, and Tax ID are not utilized. On the off chance that the client is an association, NIC, Profession, and Designation are not utilized. The second method to deal with this circumstance is to utilize sub writes as takes after: In above figure, Individual and Organization are sub-kinds of Customer. It implies that Customer is super kind of both Individual and Organization. The image e is utilized to demonstrate a sub write. The bent line with 1 shows that Customer must have a place with just a single sub compose. This structure of super and sub writes are additionally called speculation progressive systems since Customer is a speculation of both Individual and Organization. It is otherwise called IS-A relationship since Individual is a Customer and Organization likewise is a Customer. Speculation is a procedure of distinguishing more broad substance composes. For example, 3 HUMAN is a more broad substance compose than STUDENT or LAWYER. The substance compose HUMAN contains properties that are broader than other two element writes. It might contain the properties like NAME, ADDRESS and AGE and so on. The element composes STUDENT contains the ascribes which are particular to understudies like ROLL NO, MARKS and GRADE and so forth. Specialization is a procedure of distinguishing more particular substance writes. For example, STUDENT and LAWYER are more particular element composes than HUMAN. In the above figure, HUMAN is super written and STUDENT and EMPLOYEE are its two sub composes. The sub writes likewise contain properties of super sort alongside their own particular extra qualities. The sub writes are distinguished from one super compose with the procedure of specialization. E-R Project 1: - Draw an ER chart for the accompanying circumstances. Recognize cardinality, presence, and optionality for sub-sorts of every relationship. - 1. An organization has various workers. Every worker might be allowed to at least one anticipates or may not be relegated to a venture. An undertaking must have no less than one worker appointed and may have a few representatives relegated. - 2. A healing facility: tolerant has a patient history. Every patient has at least one history records Each patient history record has a place with precisely one patient - 3. A record: can be charged against numerous tasks however it may not be charged against any. An undertaking must have no less than one records charged against it. It might have keeps an eye on accounts charged against it. - 4. A representative: must oversee precisely one division. A division could conceivably have one worker to oversee it. Representative Manager Department. E-R Project 2: Recognize two elements compose and one relationship for every one of the accompanying sets of principles, State the cardinality and presence of the relationship for each situation. Draw the ER graph 1. A division utilizes numerous people. A man is utilized by one division at most. Solution: The following graph demonstrates that a division representatives one or numerous people. A man might be utilized by one division or he may not be utilized by any means. 2. A chief oversees one division at most. An office is overseen by one director at most. Arrangement: The accompanying graph demonstrates that a chief may oversee one office or he deals with no division. A division is overseen by one administrator or it isn’t overseen by any director. 3. A group comprises of numerous players. A player plays for just a single group. Solution: The following chart demonstrates that a group utilizes no less than one player or numerous players. A player plays for precisely one group. 4. A speaker shows one course at most. A course is instructed by precisely one speaker. Solution: The following outline demonstrates that a teacher shows one course or he teaches any course. A course is educated by precisely one instructor. 5. A buy request might be for some items. An item may show up on numerous buy orders. Arrangement: The accompanying chart demonstrates that a buy arrange contains one or numerous items. An item may show up in numerous requests and it may not show up in any request whatsoever. In a school, an understudy might be allowed to at least one posts like immaculate, screen or director. A post must be appointed to precisely one understudy. An understudy is related to understudy ID, name, address, and date of birth. A post is related to post ID and name. Attract ER graph to speak to connection amongst STUDENT and POST with cardinality. ER Project 4: In a school, an educator shows at least one classes. each class is instructed by at least one instructors. An educator is related to instructor’s ID and name. A class is related to class code and area. Attract an ER graph to speak to the connection amongst TEACHER and LASS showing cardinality. E-R Project 5: Draw the E-R show for the accompanying situation: An organization has various workers. The characteristics of EMPLOYEE incorporate Employee ID (identifier), Name, Address, and Birthdate. The organization additionally has a few undertakings. The properties of PROJECT will be Project ID (identifier), Project_ Name and Start Date. Every worker might be relegated to at least one anticipates or may not be doled out to an undertaking. A task must have no less than one representative doled out and may have any number of workers allowed. A representative’s charging rate may differ by venture and the organization wishes to record the appropriate charging rate (Billing Rate) for every worker when doled out to a specific task. E-R Project 6: Draw E-R display for the accompanying situation: A college has an extensive number of courses in inventory. Qualities, of COURSE, incorporate Course_Number (identifier), Course_Name and Units. Each course may have at least one courses as requirements or may have no essentials. Essentially, a specific course might be essential for any number of courses or may not be essential for some other course. E-R Project 7: Draw E-R show for the accompanying situation: A research center has a few scientists who chip away at least one anticipates. Scientific experts additionally may utilize certain sorts of hardware on each undertaking. Characteristics of CHEMIST incorporate Employee ID (identifier), Name and Phone No. Characteristics of PROJECT incorporate Project ID (identifier) and Start Date. Properties of EQUIPMENT incorporate Serial No and Cost. The desires to record Assign Date i.e. the date when a hardware thing was appointed to a specific scientific expert chipping away at a particular task. A scientist must be relegated to no less than one anticipates and one gear thing. A gear thing need not be relegated and a given task require not be allowed either a scientific expert or a hardware thing. E-R Project 8: Draw E-R display for the accompanying situation: A school course may have at least one booked areas or might not have a planned segment. Traits, of COURSE, incorporate Course JD, Course Name, and Units, Attributes of SECTION incorporate Section Number and Semester JD. Semester JD is made out of two parts: Semester and Year. Area Number is a whole number, for example, 1 or 2 that recognizes one segment from another for a similar course yet does not interestingly distinguish a segment. E-R Project 9: A doctor’s facility has an extensive number of enlisted doctors. Traits of PHYSICIAN incorporate Physician_ID (identifier) and Specialty. Patients are admitted to the healing facility by doctors. Traits of PATIENT incorporate Patient ID (identifier) and Patient Name. Any conceded must have precisely one conceding doctor. A doctor may concede any number of patients. Once conceded, a given patient must be dealt with by no less than one doctor. A specific doctor may treat any number of patients or may not treat any patients. At whatever point a patient is dealt with by a physician, the clinic records the subtle elements of the (Treatment Detail). Segments of Treatment Detail incorporate Date, Time, and Results. E-R Project 10 - Set up an ER Diagram for a land firm that rundowns property available to be purchased. Likewise, or meaning of every substance composes characteristic and relationship. - The firm has various deals workplaces in a few states. Properties of offers of. incorporate office Number (identifier) and area. - Every deal office is allocated at least one workers. Traits of worker representative id(identifier) and worker name. A representative must be doled out to just a single deals office. - For every deal office, there is constantly one worker allocated to deal with that office. A representative may oversee just the business office to which she is doled out. - The firm Jists property available to be purchased. Quality of property will be property _id (Identifier) and area. Parts of area incorporate address, city, state and postal district. - Every unit of property must be recorded with just a single of the business workplaces. A business office may have any number of properties recorded or may have no properties recorded. Every unit of property has at least one proprietors. Traits of proprietors are proprietor id (identifier) and owner_name. A proprietor may claim at least one units of property. A characteristic of the connection amongst property and proprietor is percent possessed. Representative: A worker of the firm works for one deals office and may oversee one deals office. It isn’t demonstrated that representative can deal with the workplace that he works in. This would require a business run the show. Deals Office: The workplace where land is sold. Property: Buildings available to be purchased, for example, houses, townhouses, and flat structures. Proprietor: The person who claims at least one properties. Traits of Employee: Worker ID: A one of a kind identifier for a representative. This trait must be special. Employee_Name: The name of the worker Attributes on Sales Office. Office Number: A one of a kind identifier for the workplace. Area: The physical area of offers office. It might comprise the city and state. Characteristics of Property: Property_ID: The one of a kind identifier for the property. Area: A composite property that comprises of road address, city, state and Zip code Properties on Owner: Owner_ID: The interesting identifier for the proprietor. Owner_Name: The name of the proprietor. IS-assigned: An representative is doled out to one deals office. A business office may have numerous workers doled out yet should have no less than one representative. Deals with: A worker may oversee one deals office or no business office. Every deal office is overseen by one worker. A business govern is required here keeping in mind the end goal to show that a worker can just deal with the business office in which he works. Records: Each property is recorded by just a single deals office. Every deal office can show one, none or numerous properties. Claims: Each property has at least one proprietors. Every proprietor can claim at least one properties. Percent claimed is a quality on Owns and tracks the percent of the property that the proprietor possesses.

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Spontaneous abortion refers to pregnancy loss at less than 20 weeks’ gestation in the absence of elective medical or surgical measures to terminate the pregnancy. The term “miscarriage” is synonymous and often is used with patients because the word “abortion” is associated with elective termination. “Spontaneous pregnancy loss” has been recommended to avoid the term “abortion” and acknowledge the emotional aspects of losing a pregnancy.1 Another emotionally neutral term is “early pregnancy failure.”2 |Clinical recommendation||Evidence rating||References| |The possibility of ectopic pregnancy should be considered when transvaginal ultrasonography reveals an empty uterus and the quantitative serum human chorionic gonadotropin level is greater than 1,800 mIU per mL (1,800 IU per L).||C||5| |Transvaginal ultrasound should be performed in the first trimester of pregnancy when incomplete abortion is suspected and is extremely reliable in identifying intrauterine products of conception.||C||7,8| |Expectant management should be considered for women with incomplete spontaneous abortions. It has an 82 to 96 percent success rate without the need for surgical or medical intervention.||A||17–22,24| |When misoprostol (Cytotec) is used to treat women with a missed spontaneous abortion, it should be given vaginally rather than orally.||B||27| |Patients who have had a spontaneous abortion should be given the opportunity to choose a treatment option.||B||28| |A 50-mcg dose of Rho(D) immune globulin (Rhogam) should be administered to Rh-negative patients who have a threatened abortion or have completed a spontaneous abortion.||C||5| |Physicians should be alert to the development of psychologic symptoms that frequently occur following spontaneous abortion (e.g., depression, anxiety).||C||31–34| For clinical purposes, spontaneous abortion often is subdivided into threatened abortion, inevitable abortion, incomplete abortion, missed abortion, septic abortion, recurrent spontaneous abortion, and complete abortion (Table 1). |Complete abortion: all products of conception have been passed without the need for surgical or medical intervention| |Incomplete abortion: some, but not all, of the products of conception have been passed; retained products may be part of the fetus, placenta, or membranes| |Inevitable abortion: the cervix has dilated, but the products of conception have not been expelled| |Missed abortion: a pregnancy in which there is a fetal demise (usually for a number of weeks) but no uterine activity to expel the products of conception| |Recurrent spontaneous abortion: three or more consecutive pregnancy losses| |Septic abortion: a spontaneous abortion that is complicated by intrauterine infection| |Threatened abortion: a pregnancy complicated by bleeding before 20 weeks’ gestation| Approximately 20 percent of pregnant women will have some bleeding before 20 weeks’ gestation, and roughly one half of these pregnancies will end in spontaneous abortion.3 Up to 20 percent of recognized pregnancies will end in miscarriage. However, when women were followed with serial serum human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) measurements, the actual miscarriage rate was found to be 31 percent.4 Many pregnancies are lost spontaneously before a woman recognizes that she is pregnant, and the clinical signs of miscarriage are mistaken for a heavy or late menses. Threatened abortion is defined by vaginal bleeding in a woman with a confirmed pregnancy. First-trimester bleeding in a pregnant woman has an extensive differential diagnosis (Table 2) and should be evaluated with a full history and physical examination. Laboratory tests should include potassium hydroxide and “wet prep” microscopy of any vaginal discharge, complete blood count, blood typing and Rh testing, and quantitative serum hCG testing. Gonorrhea and chlamydia testing also should be considered. Ultrasonography is crucial in identifying the status of the pregnancy and verifying that the pregnancy is intrauterine. When transvaginal ultrasonography reveals an empty uterus and the quantitative serum hCG level is greater than 1,800 mIU per mL (1,800 IU per L), an ectopic pregnancy should be considered.5 When transabdominal ultrasonography is performed, an empty uterus should raise suspicion of an ectopic pregnancy if quantitative hCG levels are greater than 3,500 mIU per mL (3,500 IU per L). A uterus found to be empty on ultrasound examination may signal a completed spontaneous abortion, but the diagnosis is not definitive until ectopic pregnancy is excluded. If an ultrasound examination finds an intrauterine pregnancy, ectopic pregnancy is unlikely, although heterotopic pregnancy has been reported (i.e., simultaneous intrauterine and ectopic pregnancies).5 The risk for spontaneous abortion decreases from 50 to 3 percent when a fetal heartbeat is identified on ultrasound examination.1 |Cervical abnormalities (e.g., excessive friability, malignancy, polyps, trauma)| |Idiopathic bleeding in a viable pregnancy| |Infection of the vagina or cervix| When the clinical examination reveals a dilated cervix, spontaneous abortion is inevitable. However, cervical evaluation is not reliable for distinguishing between complete and incomplete abortion.6,7 Transvaginal ultrasonography should be performed and is extremely reliable for finding products of conception, with a 90 to 100 percent sensitivity and 80 to 92 percent specificity.7,8 Etiology and Risk Factors Chromosomal abnormalities are a direct cause of spontaneous abortion. One meta-analysis9 found that a chromosomal abnormality occurs in 49 percent of spontaneous abortions. Autosomal trisomy was the most commonly identified anomaly (52 percent), followed by polyploidy (21 percent) and monosomy X (13 percent).9 Most chromosomal abnormalities that result in spontaneous abortion are random events, such as maternal and paternal gametogenesis errors, dispermy, and nondisjunction. Structural abnormalities of individual chromosomes (e.g., translocations, inversions) were reported in 6 percent of women who had spontaneous abortions, and approximately one half of these abnormalities were inherited.9 Chromosomal abnormalities are more likely to be associated with recurrent spontaneous abortion, but are uncommon even in that instance (4 to 6 percent).9 Risk factors for spontaneous abortion are listed in Table 3.1,10–14 However, other factors are notable for their lack of association with miscarriage. One study15 that examined the influence of stress on early pregnancy loss failed to find a clear association. Marijuana use, likewise, has not been proven to increase the risk for spontaneous abortion.11 Sexual activity also does not elevate risk in women with uncomplicated pregnancies. |Advanced maternal age| |Anesthetic gas use (e.g., nitrous oxide)| |Caffeine use (heavy)| |Chronic maternal diseases: poorly controlled diabetes, celiac disease, autoimmune diseases (particularly antiphospholipid antibody syndrome)| |Conception within three to six months after delivery| |Intrauterine device use| |Maternal infections: bacterial vaginosis; mycoplasmosis, herpes simplex virus, toxoplasmosis, listeriosis, chlamydia, human immunodeficiency virus, syphilis, parvovirus B19, malaria, gonorrhea, rubella, cytomegalovirus| |Medications: misoprostol (Cytotec), retinoids, methotrexate, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs| |Multiple previous elective abortions| |Previous spontaneous abortion| |Toxins: arsenic, lead, ethylene glycol, carbon disulfide, polyurethane, heavy metals, organic solvents| |Uterine abnormalities: congenital anomalies, adhesions, leiomyoma| Dilatation and curettage is the traditional treatment for spontaneous abortion; manual vacuum aspiration is another surgical option. Prompt surgical evacuation of the uterus has been recommended in the past because of the risk for infection and concerns about coagulation disorders that result from retained products of conception.1,2 However, the need for immediate surgical evacuation in all patients with a spontaneous abortion has been questioned. Many recent studies16–24 have examined the outcomes of expectant and medical management for women with spontaneous abortions. Prompt surgical evacuation of the uterus is the treatment of choice when the patient is unstable because of heavy bleeding or has evidence of a septic abortion. Patient choice is another reason to proceed with surgical evacuation. Some women may have already completed a spontaneous abortion by the time they present for clinical evaluation. If the ultrasound examination shows an empty uterus and evaluation of the expelled tissue confirms the presence of products of conception, no further action is needed; in these instances, patients have a completed spontaneous abortion and can be managed expectantly.16 If the products of conception are not physically confirmed when the uterus is empty, an ectopic pregnancy must be ruled out. Many studies17–24 have compared expectant management, medical therapy, and surgical management for women with incomplete spontaneous abortion. Expectant management proved to be successful, with no need for surgical intervention in 82 to 96 percent of women.17–22,24 Most patients who had surgical intervention were followed expectantly for two weeks before intervention was recommended.17,19,21 Medical therapy with misoprostol (Cytotec) or mifepristone (Mifeprex) does not confer significant additional benefit.23 The average time to completion of the miscarriage was nine days.20 In women with missed spontaneous abortions, expectant management has a variable but generally lower success rate than medical therapy, ranging from 16 to 76 percent.17,20,25,26 In contrast, medical therapy for missed spontaneous abortion results in high success rates for completion of a spontaneous abortion without surgical intervention. One study25 found that patients had an 80 percent success rate after using 800 mcg of misoprostol, administered intravaginally and repeated after four hours, if necessary. Intravaginal administration of misoprostol causes less diarrhea than oral administration.27 Patient preferences should be considered when choosing a treatment for spontaneous abortion. Physicians should discuss the available options and the evidence to support each option with the patient. There is evidence to suggest that women who are given the opportunity to choose a treatment option have better subsequent mental health than women who are not allowed to choose their therapy.28 However, patients express less happiness with the mode of treatment they receive and are less willing to have the same care again when they begin with noninvasive management and later require surgical intervention.29 When patients are allowed to choose their therapy, 38 to 75 percent choose expectant management.20,26,30 Psychologic Issues After Spontaneous Abortion Physicians should recognize the psychologic issues that affect a patient who experiences a spontaneous abortion. Although the literature lacks good evidence to support psychologic counseling for women after a spontaneous abortion, it is thought that patients will have better outcomes if these issues are addressed. The patient and her partner may be dealing with feelings of guilt, and they typically will go through a grieving process and have symptoms of anxiety and depression. Women who have a spontaneous abortion frequently struggle with guilt over what they may have done to cause or prevent the loss. Physicians should address the issue of guilt with their patients and allay any concerns that they may have “caused” the spontaneous abortion. Physicians should encourage the patient and her partner to allow themselves to grieve. The woman and her partner may grieve differently; specifically, they may go through the stages of grief in different orders or at different rates. They also should be aware that friends and family members may not recognize the magnitude of their loss. Friends and family members may ignore the subject of miscarriage, or they may make well-meaning comments that try to minimize the event. Connecting the couple with a counselor who has experience in helping couples cope with pregnancy loss may be beneficial. Many hospitals offer programs that provide follow-up care and literature to the woman and her partner. Two national organizations, the Compassionate Friends (http://www.compassionatefriends.org; telephone: 877–969–0010) and SHARE Pregnancy and Infant Loss Support, Inc. (http://www.nationalshareoffice.com; telephone: 800–821–6819), provide support for women and their partners as they progress through the grieving process after a miscarriage. Most studies31–34 have found that a significant percentage of women experience psychiatric symptoms in the weeks to months after spontaneous abortion. Women who were found to be especially prone to these symptoms are childless and have lost a wanted pregnancy.31 One study28 showed that women who are managed expectantly have better overall mental health 12 weeks after a spontaneous abortion. Physicians should realize the importance of providing care that is sensitive to the medical and psychologic aspects of a couple who experiences spontaneous abortion. Many patients report dissatisfaction with the medical care they receive.35,36 The Advanced Life Support in Obstetrics5 provider course offered by the American Academy of Family Physicians summarizes issues to discuss with women and their partners after a spontaneous abortion (Table 4).5 |Acknowledge and attempt to dispel guilt| |Acknowledge and legitimize grief| |Assess level of grief and adjust counseling accordingly| |Counsel how to tell family and friends of the miscarriage| |Include the patient’s partner in psychologic care| |Provide comfort, empathy, and ongoing support| |Reassure about the future| |Warn about the “anniversary phenomenon”|

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Foreign direct investment (FDI) in India is an important monetary source for Indian Economic Development since 1991. Foreign companies directly invest in fast growing private Indian business firms to take the benefits of cheaper wage rate in India and changing business environment of India that is favorable to them. India faced the economic crisis in 1991 which led to trade liberalization and thus a heavy influx of Foreign Direct Investment. It created more than 1crore jobs in the economy. FDI has seen a steady increase in INDIA since 1991 causing continuous infrastructural growth, technological advancements and generation of new employment opportunities especially in the secondary and tertiary sector. NEED FOR THE STUDY The need to study the impact and effects of the rising foreign direct investments in India on employment arises due to the widespread unemployment in the economy. Job generation has been a major area of focus for the Indian government since the time of independence because India being an agriculture centric nation employed about 67% of its working population in agricultural activities even though it’s contribution to the GDP was as less as 32.2% in 1990-91. There was a lack of industrial development, opportunities for skilled and unskilled workforce and initiative to develop the private sector. The new economic policy on 1991 led to LPG which brought about rapid economic growth and an influx of ever rising FDI. This FDI has opened new avenues for the working population, the entrepreneurs, the large number of semi-skilled population and the economy in general. A study of the trends in employment in relation to the Foreign Direct Investments shows us the success and limitations of the New Economic Policy and the nature of unemployment in India. It further helps understand the inflow of Foreign Direct Investment in different sectors of the Indian Economy. FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT IN INDIA Before 1991, FDI in India was negligible due to barriers and hindrances to trade. The first year of reform since the introduction of the LPG (Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization) saw a total foreign investment of only $74 million. However, investments have continuously risen since then, except for occasional drops between 1997 and 2000 and 2008 and 2012. The total FDI that India has received is $371 billion, since 1991(as of march 2016). The highest FDI inflow of $43.40 billion in India was recorded in the year 2008. India has been able to attract around $10.55 billion worth of FDI till March 2016. India received around $63 billion (nearly Rs 4.19 lakh crore) and replaced China as the top FDI destination in 2015, according to The Financial Times. NEW ECONOMIC POLICY 1991 Liberalization means to end the licenses, quota and many more restrictions and controls which were put on industries before 1991. Methods of liberalization under NEP are as follows- (a) Abolition of licenses except in few industries. (b) Removal of restrictions on expansion or contraction of business activities. (c) Freedom in fixing prices given to the industries. (d) Trade liberalization through import-export. (e) Simplification of the procedure to attract foreign capital in India. (f) Freedom in movement of goods and services. Privatization refers to decreasing of role of public sector and increasing that of the private sector. To execute the policy of privatization government of India took the following measures: (a) Disinvestment of public sector to private sector through ownership transfer. (b) Setting up of the Board of Industrial and Financial Reconstruction (BIFR) for the revival of loss making units in public sector enterprises and bringing them back to efficiency. (c) Dilution of the Stake of the Government in joint enterprises. If the private sector acquires more than 51% shares during disinvestment then it results in transfer of ownership and management to the private sector from the public sector. The integration of various economies of world into one big economy. Till 1991 Indian government was following a strict import policy and foreign investment policy in regard to licensing of imports, tariff, restrictions, etc. but after new economic policy government adopted policy of globalization by taking following measures: (i) Import Liberalization. Government removed various restrictions from import of capital goods to India. (ii) Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) was replaced by the new Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) (iii) Rationalization of the Tariff structure was done. (iv) Export duty was abolished. (v) Import duty was reduced. As a result of globalization, physical boundaries and political boundaries did not remain as the barriers for business enterprise. Whole world was turning into a global village. CAUSES OF INCREASED FDI • Large GDP and market potential • Advanced know-how • Skilled and competent work-force • Low labor cost and wage rate • Low taxation policy • Lower environmental protection • High tariff protection • Favorable laws and public incentives ADVANTAGES OF FDI • Stimulates economic development • Improves trade relations with the world • Boosts employment in host country • Human capital development • Transfer of resources and information • Increased productivity and output • Increment in national Income DISADVANTAGES OF FDI • Hindrance to domestic investment • Higher costs • Risk from political changes • Modern day colonialism • May impact exchange rates negatively • FDI may force local competitors out of business through predatory practices. IMPACT OF FDI The following were notable impacts generated by FDI in India- • Variety of products in the market increased thus benefitting consumers. • Rise in competition in local market led to development of domestic firms. • New factories and industrial units emerged leading to a rise in employment opportunities. • Improvement in the infrastructure and standard of living of the people. • Introduction to new innovative technology and transfer of information. • Rise in the contribution to GDP by Secondary and Tertiary sector thus indicating economic growth. FDI AND EMPLOYMENT Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) can be marked as one of the most important catalysts of generating employment in India. Although the impact of FDI on employment is not steady and involves many turbulences, it’s benefits cannot be ignored. The unsteady nature of employment created by FDI is majorly due to disparities between different sectors and industries. While some industries saw a boost in FDI leading to their modernization and rapid growth, other industries did not see a noticeable increase in FDI due to many reasons. The impact of FDI on employment in India overall has been phenomenal. Beyond any doubt, the unconstrained flow of FDI in India has accelerated the development of the nation generating huge amount of employment especially in the service sector. The agricultural sector has not been significantly affected by FDI. Effects of FDI on employment can be better understood by the table given below. India has always been an agrarian economy. The primary sector is basically the agricultural sector and includes the fisheries, forestries and other agriculture related activities. The involvement of primary sector in output generation in India has been the highest and not much has been done to transform the agricultural sector via FDI. FDI concentrated on development of industry and services in India thus the agriculture sector has not seen a significant influx of FDI. Agriculture already employed more than 66% of the working population in 1991 so there wasn’t much scope for generation of jobs. If anything, agriculture in India is overpopulated with high rate of disguised unemployment still prevailing. There has been no significant impact of FDI on the sector due to these reasons. The secondary/industrial sector received a massive thrust from FDI. The employment generation that took place has also been brisk. In the first decade of liberalization of trade i.e. from 1991 to 1999, the industries that have received maximum FDI inflows in secondary sector were the automobile industry, air and sea transport industries, railways and ports. The automobile industry received the maximum growth from FDI giving employment to around 25 million people directly and indirectly in the year 2016 rising from only 1.8 million people in the year 1991. The transportation industry received an aggregate of 9% of the total FDI between 1991 and 1999. Following the transportation industry, the industry that received 8% of the aggregate FDI inflow is that of electric equipment. It includes materials like computer software and hardware, electrical equipment and associated products. One of the major areas of growth and employment in India through the FDI route is the tertiary sector. The ‘software revolution’ or ‘Information Technology (IT) revolution’ in India can be accredited majorly to the FDI inflow in India. The software industry in India in the current scenario is the bearer of enormous employment. The BPO (Business Process Outsourcing) industry, an integral part of IT provided mass scale employment to the Indian youth. The Indian youth got a fresh life through ‘BPO boom’ as bagging a job with a handsome salary after passing out of college has become a sought after trend. It employed 2.8 million people directly and around 8.9 million people indirectly. This growth remains vibrant in the current scenario also. The IT sector has been India’s strong sector for quite some time now. It has become the fifth largest industry in India according to it’s contribution to GDP. It majorly includes Bangalore, Chennai, Pune, NCR, Hyderabad and Mumbai. The computer software and hardware sector in India attracted cumulative Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) inflows US$ 29.825 billion from April 2000 to December 2017. The IT sector ranks 3rd in India’s total Foreign Direct Investment share. India’s highly qualified workforce of technical graduates is one of the largest in the world and is available at a much lower cost saving of 60-70 per cent to source countries. BUSINESS PROCESS OUTSOURCING • In India, Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) has become the fastest growing segment of the ITES (Information Technology Enabled Services) industry. The BPO boom in India is credited to the comparatively cheap labor costs and India’s huge pool of skilled, English-speaking professionals. A BPO service provider usually manages a particular business function for another company. India is currently the number one destination in the world for business process outsourcing after overtaking China. The BPO industry in India has successfully provided jobs for over 74,400 Indians. This number is continuing to grow on an yearly basis till date. The Indian BPO sector is said to soon employ over 1.1 million more Indians. Indian BPOs have a huge share in the world’s business process outsourcing with 56% to boast. LIMITATIONS OF FDI The limitations or areas of improvement of FDI in India in relation to employment have been identified as follows: • Capital investment can be made in the agriculture sector to improve it’s contribution to GDP and reduce the manpower engaged in it. • More industries like the textile, cultural arts and crafts and native products like Khadi can be promoted by increased investment in them. • The investment can be made more evenly distributed across domestic areas within India, as of now it remains concentrated in the technological hubs and industrial areas. • FDI has not yet been able to create adequate employment due to large qualified workforce, more opportunities can thus be created. • New factories and outlets continue to open but they sometimes work against the interests of local businesses.

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If you are a dog parent, you know firsthand the benefits that our furry friends can have–they welcome us when we come home, they snuggle with us on the sofa, they guard us from the mailman, and they always bring a smile to our faces. There is countless anecdotal and research-based evidence of the enormous positive power that dogs can have. But dogs can also have JOBS! In addition to being police K9s, military dogs, and seeing-eye dogs, our four-legged buds can provide therapeutic interactions. Dogs are assisting in healing after an illness, providing reassurance to an older adult with dementia, and providing security to a returning soldier with PTSD–just to name a few benefits! We can repay them by spending time with them and keeping them healthy by getting cbd for dogs. There are two main types of pet therapy, Animal Assisted Activity (AAA) and Animal Assisted Therapy (AAT). AAA is defined as opportunities for motivational, educational and/or recreational benefits in enhancing quality of life. AAT is defined as goal-directed intervention, delivered by an appropriately credentialed health or human service professional in which an animal is incorporated as an integral part of the clinical healthcare treatment process. Published studies repeatedly highlight the benefits of pet therapy: lower blood pressure, improved cardiovascular health, release of calming endorphins (oxytocin), relaxation, lower anxiety levels, higher spirits, and lower depression. Several studies have shown that therapy dogs help to reduce pain levels and anxiety in pediatric populations. Therapy dogs have also been found to increase patient’s emotional health and their quality of life, despite the continued decline in their health. For example, a 2005 study of heart failure patients showed that exposure to therapy dogs decreased the patient’s self-reported anxiety levels, decreased their stress hormone (epinephrine) levels, decreased their PCWP, decreased systolic pulmonary artery pressure, as well as decreased heart rates versus the volunteer-only and the control groups. Another study using therapy dog intervention in patients with dementia showed a significant drop in agitated behaviors from the beginning of the therapy to its conclusion. It also showed a significant increase in the social interaction of the patients after the study ended. A study looking at children with autism and the effects of therapy dogs on their social interactions showed significant improvement in the emotional connection of the child and the dog as well as the child and the family members. Pet therapy visits significantly reduced loneliness of elderly patients in long-term care facilities, as shown in other studies. Alicia Harantschuk, president of Comfort Caring Canines Therapy Dogs, Inc., does not need to read the studies about pet therapy benefits to know how much a dog can change and better someone’s life. She knows firsthand–because she and her furry friends practice pet therapy daily. Alicia reflects: During the last seven years, I have either been researching or actively involved with pet therapy. I have taken part in over 400 pet visits with children, adults, and seniors with varying medical or emotional issues. During my involvement, I have seen breed diversity, program acceptance and the understanding pet therapy benefits evolve. At one time, it was a common perception that only Labradors and Golden Retrievers were suitable therapy dogs. Today we evaluate the individual not the breed. Now dogs of all breeds, shapes and sizes are showing the benefits a loving touch and a playful exchange can have. Therapy dogs are widely used in pediatric settings including schools, hospitals, dentist offices, reading programs, and rehabilitation settings. For seniors, it is commonplace for therapy dogs to be regulars at nursing homes and assisted living facilities. Hospice patients also benefit from time spent with a therapy dog enjoying the soft, soothing touch of their fur. Rehabilitation centers find therapy dogs can be effective patient motivators. The list goes on and on and you and your dog can learn more at Dog Training Stuart. The science shows us that good things are happening within our bodies that aid in physical healing and boost emotional well-being as a result of a AAA or AAT interactions. To ensure a successful visit, handler and canine should be well-trained and certified and there should be ongoing communication between the facility and the handler. Being prepared and informed is the first step in keeping interactions safe and successful. Interactions should only happen if the dog is healthy, well trained, in the right state of mind, and if the individual is receptive (never assume someone wants a visit). If your dog is afraid of thunderstorms, don’t attempt visits in the middle of one thinking they will just work through it! Alicia states, I have three therapy dogs who are actively making visits. Mae Belle is a 7-year-old rescued Treeing Walker Coonhound. Her physical scars show her beginnings were painful. Obedience did not come easy to Mae Belle. Getting her to understand the “sit” command took nearly two weeks. It turned out to be a lesson in patience for me. She caught on and now Mae Belle is a regular on the visiting circuit, enjoying “sofa time” with a variety of patients. Vegas is our showgirl, a 5-year-old is a rescued Pitbull Mix who loves people more than anything! She has learned more than 70 tricks and entertains everyone she meets. After receiving an “official” badge, she has been known to call meetings with management to discuss pet therapy programs. Finally, there is Dillon, a 2-year-old Mini Dachshund, who is 50% refined gentlemen and 50% clown. While on the job he is focused and obedient, but at home he can be found hiding in the washing machine, trying to eat any unsecured paper product, and trying to get on top of any high surface, even if it means moving a chair to make it happen. My dogs have shown me positivity can come from any situation, even my father’s passing, which was the catalyst to finding my life’s passion in pet therapy. My world has been forever changed, enriched, and meaningful because of my efforts and commitment to pet therapy. Alicia’s Stories from the field: One day, I received a request to help a child who was afraid of dogs after being attacked. We started slowly with the young boy walking by the dog as he entered and exited the building. Once there was a trust between the boy and the dog, I broke out my secret weapon, a piano-playing Dachshund, Dillon. It was the first time I saw the little boy smile, and in that moment I was reminded again of the importance of the work we do with our dogs and the benefits it can bring to others. Today, the little boy is getting comfortable dressing Dillon in superhero costumes, reading him a story, assisting with training exercises, and learning about canine care. We still have work to do, but the coordination and dedication of therapist, parents and volunteer are making it a success. A Friend Until the End: According to Pawster.com, end of life situations are sad and stressful for everyone. Families still want to make every effort to find comfort for their loved one. Refusing basic hygiene, socialization, and food in the nursing home setting, this patient’s family sought creative approaches to get their loved one smiling. We immediately knew Vegas, our most charismatic dog, was perfect for this mission. Even though Vegas knows over 70 tricks, she didn’t need to use one to get a smile from this woman’s face. Vegas and this woman transcended boundaries and immediately connected. Vegas even seemed to understand the Ukrainian language the woman was speaking! Vegas read this woman, and knew just how to bring joy. One day, this ferociously-friendly pup took on an uncharacteristically more demure attitude with her older friend. It was a behavior we had never seen from Vegas before. No longer was there a desire to be touched or close, she only shifted between pressing her nose to the side of the patient’s bed and sitting next to the patient’s son. Within the hour, the patient passed away, and Vegas never approached her again. Instead, Vegas comforted every person in the room. I am convinced she knew what was happening. Vegas loves people more than anything, and that day she shared a love like no other. A Ruff Road to Recovery: A fractured arm, leg, and pelvis, infection, and depression left this patient bedridden. It was the love of a pitbull that would jumpstart her recovery! With the encouragement of several warm and wet faces of love, this patient was able to continue her recovery, practicing physical therapy on a rowing machine, and ultimately healing. She was motivated throughout by her friends and it was reported that she experienced less pain during rehabilitation sessions when the dogs were there to “help” her. Alicia Harantshuk has four certified therapy dogs who have collectively completed more than 400 visits. She is the current President for Comfort Caring Canines Therapy Dogs, Inc. and a member of their evaluation team responsible for certifying prospective teams. In addition, Alicia took over the therapy dog and Canine Good Citizen training program for Philly Unleashed. She has been a guest speaker at a number of schools and has been acknowledged for her efforts in local papers and television. Alicia is always willing to step up and help individuals and other organizations get involved believing “doing good in the world is not a competition or an individual sport”. Providenza Loera Rocco is an Assistant Professor of Bioethics in the Center for Bioethics, Urban Health, and Policy, at the Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University where she also serves as the Assistant Director of the MA Urban Bioethics Program. She specializes in urban bioethics and legal and ethical issues in end-of-life care. Enza earned her master’s in Social Work and her master’s in Bioethics from the University of Pennsylvania, and she earned her law degree from Temple University Beasley School of Law. Enza also teaches at Simmons School of Social Work where she teaches courses in social policy, and at Drexel University where she teaches courses in bioethics. Additionally, she serves on the Hospice and Palliative Nurses Foundation Board of Directors. Breigh Godleski is a second year student in the Physician Assistant Program at Temple University. Currently Breigh is completing her clinical rotations, starting with Pediatrics. Breigh believes in addressing healing from every aspect, so she has a huge interest in therapy animals – so much so that she is doing her capstone project on them! EDITOR’S NOTE: The opinions expressed here by Impakter.com columnists are their own, not those of Impakter.com.

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The triquetra occupies a special place in many different cultures and holds a unique significance for each of them. In fact, when we ask, “What does the triquetra represent?”, there is no one answer that is entirely correct or suitably comprehensive. In short, the triquetra is one of those symbols that ‘means many things to many people’. It is not alone in that respect. It seems that the older that a symbol is, the more diverse a range of peoples there exists who have adopted it to their own cultures and traditions. One might even say that a widespread prevalence of a particular symbol, like the triquetra, is almost directly linked not just to its popularity but its age. Sometimes, the beliefs of different cultures sharing the same symbol may overlap significantly. In such cases, it is easy to trace the story of that symbol’s journey. In other instances, the true tale of the evolution of the use a symbol is less obvious and all memory of how it came to be adopted has long faded from our collective knowledge. The history of the use of the triquetra alternately exhibits each of those two traits. An Insight into the Elements of the Triquetra, the Trinity Knot As a basis on which to start our journey into the history of the triquetra, it is best to investigate the name itself. ‘Triquetra’ is a name of Latin origin. The Latin word ‘Triquetrus’ means ‘three cornered’ or ‘triangular’, and it is clear how this symbol gained that name. The popular term for it today is the Trinity Knot and the Irish Love Knot. Of course, this is the name by which we have come to know it but it does not point to its origins. It is because the triquetra, despite being of pagan origin, was embraced by the Church at a time when all their writings and rituals were conducted in Latin that we have ended up with this name. While the shape obviously lent itself to its name, there is a deeper meaning behind the three-sided shape that many people miss. Each of the three leaf-like shapes that form the symbol are not arbitrarily drawn, they are a mathematical shape called vesicae piscis. A vesicae piscis is the shaped defined by the overlap of two circles of equal size when each is positioned so that its center is on the other’s circumference. In ancient times, it was a symbol of the feminine because it looked like the aperture of birth. In essence the shape is a stylistic rendition of a fish. The Church adopted the name vesicae piscis, which translates as ‘bladder of the fish’ because Christ is described as a ‘fisher of men’. A trifold repetition of the vesicae piscis referred to three births, which is an idea that predates Christ and we will investigate that a little later. The beauty of the triquetra is that what appears to be a rather complicated shape is actually comprised of just three lines. It incorporates three vesicae piscis by the use of three arcs, each merging into one end of its two neighbors to complete a unicursal, a line without end. Sometimes, the triquetra is also depicted with a circle interlocking the triangular shape. That is also another aspect that receives special attention later in this piece. The very earliest representations of the triquetra are actually Indian and date back five thousand years. There is little doubt among scholars that several religious practices as well as portions of language and alphabet shared between the people of Europe and India are evidence of a shared origin that branched off many thousands of years ago. It may be that the early Indo-Europeans, commonly called the Aryans, are the link between ancient India and the triquetra we know to be an old European symbol today. The triquetra is most commonly known today as a symbol with its origins in Celtic tradition, with evidence that shows that the Norse Viking people also used it at about the same time in the 7th and 8th century A.D. The triple aspect of the triquetra made it a very versatile symbol. Many cultures put their own interpretation on its meaning(s) and we see a recurrence of the number ‘3’ and its association with the triquetra everywhere it was used. The Pagan Celtic Triquetra Symbol For the pagans who revered nature and saw the hands of their gods in all things, the Three could be God, Goddess and Man; it could represent the three realms, Heaven, Hell and Earth; others could have seen it as the world around us in sky, land and sea; or, as is popular in Wiccan circles today, they could have interpreted the triquetra as the three aspects of the female: Mother, Maiden and Crone. The last of those is very telling because of the fact that the vesicae piscis of the shape alluded to the female reproductive opening. That shape was their connection to the miracle of Life, both during the act of creating life upon union of man and woman, and the welcoming of life into the world upon birth. The triple nature of the feminine Divine is a popular theme in ancient pagan lore. The tripartite representation is probably most famous as the Triple Goddess. This symbol shows a full moon in the center with a waxing moon on one side and a waning moon on the other. The moon itself was a strong reference to the female because their menstrual cycles could be timed by it. The mensuration process was also linked the process of bringing life onto this earth, completing the circle. Thus, for the ancient Celts who populated the northern European regions before the rise of Christianity, the triquetra was very closely associated with nature and Life. The interpretations strongly hint at it being more closely associated with the female than the male. Triquetras dating to the pagan age of the Celts has been found inscribed on rocks. The Christian Celtic Triquetra However, when we talk about the relationship between the Celts and the triquetra today, the most common examples do almost entirely away with the pagan traditions and talk of the Book of Kells instead. Most do not realize that the Book of Kells, which is an ‘illuminated manuscript’ (decorated with gold, silver and/or colorful dyes) from the Christian Celtic era. It consists of Latin versions of the four gospels of the New Testament and has been dated to 800 A.D. (In a pleasant coincidence, the book is kept today in Dublin at Trinity College). In a time when Christianity was expanding into the northernmost parts of Europe, it was constantly encountering the erstwhile popular pagan religions that had flourished there. The adoption of the familiar triquetra symbol that the pagans used was the ideal way for the new religion to establish a foothold without being too disruptive and thus to deflect undue criticism and hostility. In the Celtic Christian world, the tri-symmetrical shape was quickly interpreted as alluding to the Holy Trinity of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. It can also be said that the triquetra evolved from being a symbol that hinted at the female (mother, maiden, crone) to one that would be interpreted as male (‘Father’ and ‘Son’). However, despite the prominence that the Trinity holds in the Church, we see that the early Christian Celts did not often depict the triquetra on its own in the early days of its use in their culture. The Book of Kells, one of the most magnificently-decorated works of the Insular Art (Island Art) period features the triquetra but never as the subject of discussion or of an illustration; it is always used in the margins and other spaces as a ‘filler’. In light of this evidence, it seems that although the triquetra was adopted by the Celtic Church, it was drastically reduced in importance. The Triquetra and Other European Tribes Besides the Celts, evidence of the use of the triquetra in the Germanic tribes of Northern Europe indicates that the symbol was not limited either geographically or strictly by tribal beliefs. It appears on their rune stones and has been found on their coins. Interestingly, the Germanic people are one of the peoples most closely associated with the Indo-European race, the Aryans. The oldest evidence of triquetras completes the circle back to India. From this, it seems very likely that although no trace of the symbol has been located in the Asian region between India and Europe, tribes who had used it in these two faraway regions had either interacted or interbred somewhere along the line. The Triquetra in Asian Tradition On the other hand, the triquetra does seem to have journeyed north-eastwards by some means. In Japan, the design of a tomoe, interpreted as a ‘wishing’ or a ‘hoping’, that was used on family crests comes very close to resembling a triquetra in form. While the use of familial crests is virtually dead today, except in select aristocratic circles, the design often finds its way into corporate logos. The most common representation are triple whorls known as mitsudomoe. Most people would assume that this was very exotic and specialized and that they would never have come across a Japanese version of the triquetra before. In reality, the odds are that you have probably seen it hundreds of times but simply not allowed yourself to recognize it as such. I speak of the logo of the major Japanese automobile manufacturer, Mitsubishi. That’s correct, the outline of the three-pointed star on Mitsubishi-manufactured vehicles and home appliances can be traced in a single line without end. The symbol has indeed brought great fortune to the company – its revenues account for over 1.4% of Japan’s total GDP. The Hidari Gomon, or ‘Leftwise Honoring Pattern’ is found in all shrines of the Shinto religion native to Japan. It was first used by the Ryuku Kingdom that ruled the Ryuku Islands between the 15th and 19th centuries. In Korea, the use of Taegeuk, which use interlocking curved shapes to form a multi-colored whole is most easily recognized around the world in the Yin-Yang symbol. However, that symbol’s dual nature can be further expanded so it incorporates three interlocking curved-edge shapes. This design is sometimes found on ceremonial drums. Variations of the Triquetra The triquetra symbol on its own as three intersecting vesicae piscis is the most basic version that we find, and perhaps the closest to the original that we have so many thousands of years after it was imagined. A popular version of the triquetra that we find today is one that incorporates a circle into the design. The circle on its own is a powerful shape. Without any edges and without a beginning or an end, it has long been used as a symbol of magic and even plays a part in many religious rituals in cultures around the world. In Wicca, a practitioner has to ‘Cast the Circle’ before he or she can begin an invocation. The circle here represents both a region of safety inside of which the person is protected from outside forces (and also from spirits that are invoked) and as an enclosed space that holds the spells cast and enhances their power. It is a common belief that the circle can be used to represent eternity because it has no start and no end. That is why we often hear the phrases ‘the circle of life’ and ‘the cycle of life and rebirth’. A popular interpretation today is that the act of combining the triquetra, which itself is unicursal and, therefore, a symbol of eternity, with the circle enhances the power of each of both the elements. The triquetra with the interlaced circle has become a popular symbol of love. It is often seen on engagement and wedding rings and associated decorations and paraphernalia. The circle interwoven with the triquetra is symbolic of eternal love. In this capacity, it is sometimes called the ‘Irish Love Knot’.

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Think on These Things This Matter of Culture Chapter 2 I WOULD LIKE to discuss with you the problem of freedom. It is a very complex problem, needing deep study and understanding. We hear much talk about freedom, religious freedom, and the freedom to do what one would like to do. Volumes have been written on all this by scholars. But I think we can approach it very simply and directly, and perhaps that will bring us to the real solution. I wonder if you have ever stopped to observe the marvellous glow in the west as the sun sets, with the shy young moon just over the trees? Often at that hour the river is very calm, and then everything is reflected on its surface: the bridge, the train that goes over it, the tender moon, and presently, as it grows dark, the stars. It is all very beautiful. And to observe, to watch, to give your whole attention to something beautiful, your mind must be free of preoccupations, must it not? It must not be occupied with problems, with worries, with speculations. It is only when the mind is very quiet that you can really observe, for then the mind is sensitive to extraordinary beauty; and perhaps here is a clue to our problem of freedom. Now, what does it mean to be free? Is freedom a matter of doing what happens to suit you, going where you like, thinking what you will? This you do anyhow. Merely to have independence, does that mean freedom? Many people in the world are independent, but very few are free. Freedom implies great intelligence, does it not? To be free is to be intelligent, but intelligence does not come into being by just wishing to be free; it comes into being only when you begin to understand your whole environment, the social, religious, parental and traditional influences that are continually closing in on you. But to understand the various influences - the influence of your parents, of your government, of society, of the culture to which you belong, of your beliefs, your gods and superstitions, of the tradition to which you conform unthinkingly - to understand all these and become free from them requires deep insight; but you generally give in to them because inwardly you are frightened. You are afraid of not having a good position in life; you are afraid of what your priest will say; you are afraid of not following tradition, of not doing the right thing. But freedom is really a state of mind in which there is no fear or compulsion, no urge to be secure. Don't most of us want to be safe? Don't we want to be told what marvellous people we are, how lovely we look, or what extraordinary intelligence we have? Otherwise we would not put letters after our names. All that kind of thing gives us self-assurance, a sense of importance. We all want to be famous people - and the moment we want to be something, we are no longer free. Please see this, for it is the real clue to the understanding of the problem of freedom. Whether in this world of politicians, power, position and authority, or in the so-called spiritual world where you aspire to be virtuous, noble, saintly, the moment you want to be somebody you are no longer free. But the man or the woman who sees the absurdity of all these things and whose heart is therefore innocent, and therefore not moved by the desire to be somebody - such a person is free. If you understand the simplicity of it you will also see its extraordinary beauty and depth. After all, examinations are for that purpose: to give you a position, to make you somebody. Titles, position and knowledge encourage you to be something. Have you not noticed that your parents and teachers tell you that you must amount to something in life, that you must be successful like your uncle or your grandfather? Or you try to imitate the example of some hero, to be like the Masters, the saints; so you are never free. Whether you follow the example of a Master, a saint, a teacher, a relative, or stick to a particular tradition, it all implies a demand on your part to be something; and it is only when you really understand this fact that there is freedom. The function of education, then, is to help you from childhood not to imitate anybody, but to be yourself all the time. And this is a most difficult thing to do: whether you are ugly or beautiful, whether you are envious or jealous, always to be what you are, but understand it. To be yourself is very difficult, because you think that what you are is ignoble, and that if you could only change what you are into something noble it would be marvellous; but that never happens. Whereas, if you look at what you actually are and understand it, then in that very understanding there is a transformation. So freedom lies, not in trying to become something different, nor in doing whatever you happen to feel like doing, nor in following the authority of tradition, of your parents, of your guru, but in understanding what you are from moment to moment. You see, you are not educated for this; your education encourages you to become something or other - but that is not the understanding of yourself. Your `self' is a very complex thing; it is not merely the entity that goes to school, that quarrels, that plays games, that is afraid, but it is also something hidden, not obvious. It is made up, not only of all the thoughts that you think, but also of all the things that have been put into your mind by other people, by books, by the newspapers, by your leaders; and it is possible to understand all that only when you don't want to be somebody, when you don't imitate, when you don't follow - which means, really, when you are in revolt against the whole tradition of trying to become something. That is the only true revolution, leading to extraordinary freedom. To cultivate this freedom is the real function of education. Your parents, your teachers and your own desires want you to be identified with something or other in order to be happy, secure. But to be intelligent, must you not break through all the influences that enslave and crush you? The hope of a new world is in those of you who begin to see what is false and revolt against it, not just verbally but actually. And that is why you should seek the right kind of education; for it is only when you grow in freedom that you can create a new world not based on tradition or shaped according to the idiosyncrasy of some philosopher or idealist. But there can be no freedom as long as you are merely trying to become somebody, or imitate a noble example. Questioner: What is intelligence? Krishnamurti: Let us go into the question very slowly, patiently, and find out. To find out is not to come to a conclusion. I don't know if you see the difference. The moment you come to a conclusion as to what intelligence is, you cease to be intelligent. That is what most of the older people have done: they have come to conclusions. Therefore they have ceased to be intelligent. So you have found out one thing right off: that an intelligent mind is one which is constantly learning, never concluding. What is intelligence? Most people are satisfied with a definition of what intelligence is. Either they say, "That is a good explanation", or they prefer their own explanation; and a mind that is satisfied with an explanation is very superficial, therefore it is not intelligent. You have begun to see that an intelligent mind is a mind which is not satisfied with explanations, with conclusions; nor is it a mind that believes, because belief is again another form of conclusion. An intelligent mind is an inquiring mind, a mind that is watching, learning, studying. Which means what? That there is intelligence only when there is no fear, when you are willing to rebel, to go against the whole social structure in order to find out what God is, or to discover the truth of anything. Intelligence is not knowledge. If you could read all the books in the world it would not give you intelligence. Intelligence is something very subtle; it has no anchorage. it comes into being only when you understand the total process of the mind - not the mind according to some philosopher or teacher, but your own mind. Your mind is the result of all humanity, and when you understand it you don't have to study a single book, because the mind contains the whole knowledge of the past. So intelligence comes into being with the understanding of yourself; and you can understand yourself only in relation to the world of people, things and ideas. Intelligence is not something that you can acquire, like learning; it arises with great revolt, that is, when there is no fear - which means, really, when there is a sense of love. For when there is no fear, there is love. If you are only interested in explanations, I am afraid you will feel that I have not answered your question. To ask what is intelligence is like asking what is life. Life is study, play, sex, work, quarrel, envy, ambition, love, beauty, truth - life is everything, is it not? But you see, most of us have not the patience earnestly and consistently to pursue this inquiry. Questioner: Can the crude mind become sensitive? Krishnamurti: Listen to the question, to the meaning behind the words. Can the crude mind become sensitive? If I say my mind is crude and I try to become sensitive, the very effort to become sensitive is crudity. Please see this. Don't be intrigued, but watch it. Whereas, if I recognize that I am crude without wanting to change, without trying to become sensitive, if I begin to understand what crudeness is, observe it in my life from day to day - the greedy way I eat, the roughness with which I treat people, the pride, the arrogance, the coarseness of my habits and thoughts - then that very observation transforms what is. Similarly, if I am stupid and I say I must become intelligent, the effort to become intelligent is only a greater form of stupidity; because what is important is to understand stupidity. However much I may try to become intelligent, my stupidity will remain. I may acquire the superficial polish of learning, I may be able to quote books, repeat passages from great authors, but basically I shall still be stupid. But if I see and understand stupidity as it expresses itself in my daily life - how I behave towards my servant, how I regard my neighbour, the poor man, the rich man, the clerk - then that very awareness brings about a breaking up of stupidity. You try it. Watch yourself talking to your servant, observe the tremendous respect with which you treat a governor, and how little respect you show to the man who has nothing to give you. Then you begin to find out how stupid you are; and in understanding that stupidity there is intelligence, sensitivity. You do not have to become sensitive. The man who is trying to become something is ugly, insensitive; he is a crude person. Questioner: How can the child find out what he is without the help of his parents and teachers? Krishnamurti: Have I said that he can, or is this your interpretation of what I said? The child will find out about himself if the environment in which he lives helps him to do so. If the parents and teachers are really concerned that the young person should discover what he is, they won't compel him; they will create an environment in which he will come to know himself. You have asked this question; but is it a vital problem to you? If you deeply felt that it is important for the child to find out about himself, and that he cannot do this if he is dominated by authority, would you not help to bring about the right environment? It is again the same old attitude: tell me what to do and I will do it. We don't say, "Let us work it out together". This problem of how to create an environment in which the child can have knowledge of himself is one that concerns everybody - the parents, the teachers and the children themselves. But self-knowledge cannot be imposed, understanding cannot be compelled; and if this is a vital problem to you and me, to the parent and the teacher, then together we shall create schools of the right kind. Questioner: The children tell me that they have seen in the villages some weird phenomena, like obsession, and that they are afraid of ghosts, spirits, and so on. They also ask about death. What is one to say to all this? Krishnamurti: In due course we shall inquire into what death is. But you see, fear is an extraordinary thing. You children have been told about ghosts by your parents, by older people, otherwise you would probably not see ghosts. Somebody has told you about obsession. You are too young to know about these things. It is not your own experience, it is the reflection of what older people have told you. And the older people themselves often know nothing about all this. They have merely read about it in some book, and think they have understood it. That brings up quite a different question: is there an experience which is uncontaminated by the past? If an experience is contaminated by the past it is merely a continuity of the past, and therefore not an original experience. What is important is that those of you who are dealing with children should not impose upon them your own fallacies, your own notions about ghosts, your own particular ideas and experiences. This is a very difficult thing to avoid, because older people talk a great deal about all these inessential things that have no importance in life; so gradually they communicate to the children their own anxieties, fears and superstitions, and the children naturally repeat what they have heard. It is important that the older people, who generally know nothing about these things for themselves, do not talk about them in front of children, but instead help to create an atmosphere in which the children can grow in freedom and without fear. Think on These Things This Matter of Culture Chapter 2 Texts and talks of Jiddu Krishnamurti. Krishnamurti quotes. Books about J Krishnamurti. Philosophy.

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Gita Jayanti – What it means to us? The Gita as Nectarine drink All over the globe the Hindus celebrate ‘Gita Jayanti’ on the 11th day (Ekadashi) of the bright fortnight (shukla paksha) of the month of Agrahayana (December – January). This month is also referred to as ‘Margashirsha’. Of the twelve months, Sri Krishna says in the Gita that He is Margasirsha. (X.35) It is seen that people generally attribute this day as the “Birthday of the Bhagavad Gita”. Well, can there be a birthday i.e., beginning for Divine Wisdom? As God is eternal (nitya) His knowledge is also ever present (sashwat). One cannot really say that the Song Divine has a birthday. Actually, Gita Jayanti is the anniversary of the day, nearly 5000 years ago, when Bhagwan Shri Krishna spoke rather ‘sung’ to Arjuna, on the battlefield in Kurukshetra. Sanjaya, the Minister, recited those words for the blind King Dhritarashtra. When writing Mahabharata, this Divine Song was ‘threaded into’ the great epic by ancient Maharishi Veda Vyasji for the benefit of humanity. (vyasena grathitaam puraana muninaa madhye mahaabhaaratam – First verse of Gita Dhyanam) But it is nowhere to be considered as an ‘interpolation’ as some misguided modern scholars opine. The internal evidence shows that there is homogeneity running all through language, diction and development of the subject ‘Brahma-vidya’ – the knowledge of Brahman, the Supreme. The entire story of Mahabharata, when condensed into philosophy becomes Gita. What the heart is to the human body, the Gita is to this Great Epic, says Swami Chidbhavanandaji in his English Translation of the Gita. What is Bhagavad Gita? As the great ‘cyclonic monk of India’ Swami Vivekananda has once said in the West, ‘Everything goes to show that this Vedanta philosophy must be very practical; and later on, when we come to the Bhagavad-Gita…..it is the best commentary we have on the Vedanta philosophy — curiously enough the scene is laid on the battlefield, where Krishna teaches this philosophy to Arjuna; and the doctrine which stands out luminously in every page of the Gita is intense activity, but in the midst of it, eternal calmness. This is the secret of work, to attain which is the goal of the Vedanta.’ “Bhagavad Gita” literally means Song of God or rather Song of the Spirit. Since it is a Divine Song, the language of the original lyrics and the religion of the original singer do not have much relevance. For once, it has been ‘sung’ and written down to posterity, the song itself gets life, travelling across oceans and mountains, breaking all barriers of caste, creed and nationality. Such is the influence of a divine song. However, as Bhagwan Shri Krishna, Himself being the original ‘singer’, Bhagavad Gita gets the status of being the holiest and most sacred of all the songs of God. Therefore, What is its power? The lives of the lowly change, the world-disease afflicted gets healed, the morale of the depressed is uplifted. The results are as limitless as the Singer. Mahatma Gandhi said, “When disappointment stares me in the face and all alone I see not one ray of light, I go back to the Bhagavad-Gita…I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming tragedies and my life has been full of external tragedies. If they have left no visible, no indelible scar on me, I owe it all to the teachings of Bhagavad-Gita.” The Gita consists literally 18 chapters with 700 verses (shloka). It has been said that all the Upanishads are the cows, the Milker is Krishna, the cowherd boy, Arjuna is the calf, men of purified intellect are its drinkers and milk is the supreme nectar of the Gita. sarvopanishado gaavo dogdha gopaala nandanah | paartho vatsah sudhir bhoktaa dugdham gitaamritam mahat || (4th verse of Gita Dhyanam) We have cows of varying sizes and in different colours. But the milk yielded by them is the same. Most of us do not even know how to maintain the cows. Neither are we adept in the laborious art of milking the cows. But to drink milk everyone is eligible. So also Gita is accessible for everyone, while studying the Upanishads is not for common people. However Gita is not just any milk. This milk is nectar that flowed from the Gods. What is in it for the humanity? The magical power to heal the sick, comfort the lonely, guide the lost, uplift the fallen and bring peace to the troubled. The milk is gentle and pure enough for a baby, and at the same time, strong enough for a soldier. The Gita as palm of hand Let us see what was the scenario when the Gita was ‘sung’. Arjuna, the third son of Kunti, surveyed the battlefield of Kurukshetra. The armies of Pandavas and Kauravas are standing on the opposite sides. Seeing the vast army, suddenly the great warrior was overcome with despondency and he laid down his arms. He told Krishna that he would not fight. “I do not see any good in slaughtering my own people in battle. O Krishna! I desire neither victory, nor kingdom not even pleasures.” (I.31) Thus begins the Bhagavad Gita. The teachings of the Gita were indeed applicable on a battlefield as in the end, we see in Mahabharata that Pandavas come out victorious. Can the Gita’s teachings be made applicable to our ‘inner battlefield’ also? Can we get a clear vision of our life, its pitfalls and its progress as a palm of hand? Through the story of Arjuna and the battle, we also derive lessons for our lives from Bhagavan Sri Krishna. The ‘real’ Kurukshetra is not to be sought somewhere outside rather ‘within’ us. Each of us is Arjuna, not knowing what is right and wrong, teared down with temptation, fallen with fear and feeling forsaken due to frustration. Our bodies are our chariots, being driven all too frequently by our senses as the horses. The mind, ego, desires, lust and greed are the evil Kauravas with whom we must do righteous battle, from whom we must not shy away in fear. If we give the reins of our lives to God (as Arjuna made Krishna his divine charioteer), we will surely be victorious. The Gita as a ‘palm of hand’ clearly shows us not only the destination but also in clearest terms the varying paths to reach there. One is free to select any path that suits well. Or one can even combine one with another. Throughout the Divine Song, Bhagwan Sri Krishna explains how – through devotion (bhakti), through knowledge (jnaana), and through action (karma) – one can reach the ultimate destination of union (yoga) with God. For different temperaments He lays out different paths, all the while reminding us that true, earnest yearning and pure, surrendered love for God are the surest and simplest way to attain one with the Eternal. You don’t need to be a great scholar or a learned philosopher to understand the lessons of the Gita. Nor does the Gita demands decades of exacting penance to earn God’s favour. Rather, Bhagwan Sri Krishna offers infinite and eternal comfort by His words, “He, who is full of faith and zeal and is the master of the senses attains knowledge. Having attained knowledge one immediately attains supreme peace.” (IV.39) The Gita as the Guidepost Is the Gita relevant to the West today is an oft-repeated question. We can unequivocally say that yes, it is to West as it was and has been to the East. Not only for Hindus it is relevant but also for people professing any other religion. It teaches Hindus how to be better Hindus; it also teaches Muslims to be better Muslims, Christians to be better Christians, and Jews to be better Jews. For, if something is really “truth,” it must be universal. Truth is not limited to a religious framework. If it is truth, it must pertain to all. Such is the profound truth of Bhagwan Shri Krishna’s words. The Bhagavad Gita is verily like Mother Ganga or the Sun; they do not discriminate. Mother Ganga does not bring water to only Hindus’ farms. The sun does not shine only on Christians’ gardens. Similarly, the Gita does not provide light and inspiration to only selected souls. Aldous Huxley said, “The Gita is one of the clearest and most comprehensive summaries of the perennial Philosophy ever to have been made. Hence its enduring value, not only for Indians, but for all mankind.” Sometimes, it seems that the West actually needs this wisdom even more than people of the East. Why? It is often seen that the West seem to hold even more tenaciously to their agendas, their expectations and their desires. The message in much of the West is “If you work hard, you will succeed, you will become prosperous.” So, people don’t work for the sake of being God’s hands. They work to reap the benefits, and when the benefits don’t come or don’t come quickly enough, they are frustrated. It is the Karma Yoga of the Gita is the best answer to the problems engulfing the humanity in the West. People everywhere need both the message and the comfort of the Gita. With the ongoing assault of senses leaving indelible scars in the human psyche, the Gita stands as the harbinger of peace and harmony; it comes as the remover of pain; it bestows light dispelling the darkness of ignorance. The Gita as the Reflector It is remarkable that how Gita shines as the reflector for a practical spiritual life. What we see in the life of Sri Ramakrishna reiterates this point. The Paramahamsa never cared about the relative merits of religions. Neither did he entered into intricate differences of systems of philosophy. Verily he followed the footsteps of Sri Krishna. The unquenchable thirst for God and undying love for God’s name were the hallmark in Ramakrishna’s life. By his prolonged and intense spiritual practices, Sri Ramakrishna’s unique life that was transformed from an ordinary temple priest to paragon of spiritual values can best be clarified under this Gita Reflector.

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The Robotics impact on jobs in UK Cities will be an outcome of industry 4. The January publication from the Centre for Cities at first appears gloomy. Industry 4 is also called the Fourth Industrial Revolution It does make stark reading to have reinforced from other sources like The Bank of England studies and Morgan McKinsey Consultants and reports that: - 1 in 5 jobs in the UK to be displaced by 2030 - Jobs in UK Cities are worst affected - 3.6 million jobs will be replaced by Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Robotics - 20.2% of city work forces will be affected. Northern and Midlands cities are the most exposed with 23% of jobs affected. Most at risk are jobs in: - Customer Services The report gives a real warning to Central Government and local authorities that they must “act now to prepare people and places for the changing times ahead” - Generally, those jobs that are made up of routine tasks are at a greater risk of decline, whereas those occupations requiring interpersonal and cognitive skills are well placed to grow. - Overall, one in five jobs in cities across Great Britain is in an occupation that is very likely to shrink. This amounts to approximately 3.6 million jobs, or 20.2 per cent of the current workforce in cities. - In places like Mansfield, Sunderland, Wakefield and Stoke almost 30 per cent of the current workforce is in an occupation very likely to shrink by 2030. This contrasts with cities such as Cambridge and Oxford where less than 15 per cent of jobs are at risk. As a Liverpool lad and a Midlands based company, it is most worrying to me that Jobs in UK Cities worst affected are those locally. Places like Telford at 25% predicted job losses and Stoke is even worse at 28%. Coventry set to lose 50,000 jobs. The UK average is 21% losses by 2030. For Telford who have an estimated 82,700 people in employment for the year up to June 2017. That is 20,675+ jobs which may be lost. That's over THREE times the capacity of New Bucks Head and twice the New Meadow Stadium in Shrewsbury. Standing shoulder to shoulder this amount of people would take up more that 4,000 square meters. Whichever way you look at this number, its important to remember, they are real people, with real families and real mortgages and rents to pay. They will need help to get jobs in the new economy. Whilst automation and AI (Artificial Intelligence) and the internet will bring about opportunities for some with home-working, the skills needed today are lacking. Skills like: creativity; problem solving; continuous learning and flexibility are absent in the current roles and jobs which are to be lost. People who want jobs in the next ten years will need to re-train. Who will provide that training? The companies? The local authorities? People who can problem solve and learn news skills will gain new (as-yet unthought of) jobs. However, as CE for Centre for Cities has said “there is a real risk that many places and people will lose out” In November 2017, McKinsey reported that worldwide there cold be 700 million displaced from their jobs by 2030. Price Coopers Waterhouse (PWC) have published their study and state that robotics could take up to 30% of UK jobs by 2030 The Bank of England estimates upwards of 15 million jobs are at risk from automation and AI in the UK alone. On the flip side, the Worldwide Economic Forum states that these displaced people can “easily” be employed IF they retrain. There is the added bonus that retraining and gaining the new skills required will gain higher wages. Centre for Cities Action Points/ Suggestions to retain Jobs in UK Cities - For struggling cities in particular, policy needs to create the conditions that support the development of knowledge, and the use and exchange of it. A key element of this will be to provide their residents with the skills they need to be successful in a labour market that is likely to be ever more dominated by non-routine work. - Policymakers should also prepare the workforce of the future by giving younger generations entering the labour market the right set of skills and knowledge to succeed in the jobs of the future. - The current workforce should be given adequate resources to adjust to changes in the labour market. - Those least able to adapt need to be given adequate compensation for their job loss but should also be given retraining. Jobs to go Historically, the ATM effectively put paid to the job of the Bank Teller. This particular job roles life was only extended by the ageing population in the UK. Older people were unwilling to accept paying in and getting out cash by a machine. That’s not the case with the current generations. 20 and 30 somethings are quite happy to accept and use automated checkout at the supermarket. You will see more of these. Amazon has opened a corner store only this year (January 2018) where customers can pick up their groceries and just walk out without having to queue up and pay at the checkout. The company said shoppers at its Amazon Go store will have the cost of their purchases automatically billed to their Amazon Prime account. Sensors will track customers as they go about the store and record items they pick up. The rise of supermarkets has almost killed off the existence of Milk Float delivery. Albeit the recent announcement by this Conservative Government to move away from plastic packaging might alter that. Prompted in no small way by Sir David Attenborough presenting the BBC prrogram Blue Planet, the issue of plastic pollution globally in our seas might reverse the trend for pre-packed food and give home delivered bottled milk a new lease of life. This last point demonstrates the power of direction and policy from Central an Local Government. Is there anything to worry about? The nature of work in todays' society in cities is vastly different to that of over a century ago when the second industrial revolution (the assembly line ( introduced by Henry Ford) was about to hit. Back then in the urban workforce of 1911, Domestic Service made up 8% of the UK workforce. Tasks performed by maids and butlers are now automated and made easier by machines like the washing machine for laundry, the vacuum cleaner for cleaning; the microwave for cooking; and the automatic central heating system – so no fires to light or ashes to lean away. Farriers; Saddlers; Grooms; Stable boys; coachmen, all lost jobs with the replacement of horses by the internal combustion engine. However, since that time, those able to re-train and take on monotonous jobs in the Second Industrial Revolution of the Production line found jobs in factories. Since then in the Third Industrial Revolution, those able to retrain in telecoms and IT roles when Automation on the production line was introduced have done well. Today, your car is moving forward with AI. It is switching on and dipping your main headlamp beam. Vehicles ab automatically switch on your windscreen wipers. Car Sensors can warn you that you are straying across lanes. The government has announced is is backing the push for driver-less cars. The Automated and Electric Vehicles Bill. was announced in October 2017. This technology market is set to be worth up to £50 billion to UK economy by 2035. Thus we have the oxymoron that we are creating jobs to make drivers redundant, but that is a good thing. Today there are fewer Policemen stopping you speeding, which is mostly caught on un-manned automatic cameras, and in future, your car wont even speed, which is even better. Still not convinced?. The next time you fly , ask yourself who is flying the aeroplane? It will invariably be on Autopilot for the greater part of your journey. Cities whose economies are based on these latter industries like IT and who have investment in these future technologies will fare better than those which are not. These cities and companies are clustered in the South of England. Those cities whose economy is dependant upon the likes of warehousing will fare less well. So the ability to keep Jobs in UK Cities will suffer. Are Warehousing companies worried? Apart from its main package delivery service, United Parcel Service (UPS) gets an portion of its revenue from storing and shipping parts for manufacturers. If those customers were to switch to 3D printing their own parts, that business would face a drastic reduction. UPS therefor opened its own 3D Printing Farm, so that instead of picking packing and sending parts for their clients they are Printing Packing and Sending those parts to protect their business from this disruptive technology. UPS has chosen to get on board the 3D revolution, and since 2016 has been offering a service in which UPS will print out plastic parts—anything from nozzles to brackets to prototype soap dispensers or multifaceted moving parts—around the world and deliver them. How can Local Authorities help? If Local Authorities Lobby Central Government for help, they can move away from simply managing decline to a more positive influence of actually improving their economies. Local Councils will need funds from Central Government to help manage this switch in economy and improve access to good quality schools which give the students of today (who are the workforce of tomorrow) the skills they will need. Skills like: - Creative Design - Additive Manufacture (AM) otherwise known as 3D Printing. These Authorities will also need to give access to the current workforce to retrain for Lifelong Learning. The seven year old of today is predicted to have 17 jobs by the age of 40. There is nothing more certain than change, and change is more rapid now than ever. Have we not learned the lesson of pit closures since early 1984, when the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher announced plans to close 20 coal pits. This led to the year-long miners' strike which ended in March 1985. On 21 April 2017, Britain went a full day without using coal power to generate electricity for the first time since the Industrial Revolution, according to the National Grid. The lessons were obvious that we need to manage that change in workforce. Is AI and Robotics all just theory and prediction? At Christmas 2017, many of us will have extended AI which is already in our lives. If you have a Smart Phone, you probably already ask Siri or on your Laptop Cortana to do something for you, even if it just a spell check. You may have now been given or if you are a gadget type purchased for yourself Amazon Echo which is is a hands-free speaker you control with your voice. Echo connects to the Alexa Voice Service to play music, make calls, send and receive messages, provide information, news, sports scores, weather, and more, instantly. Companies like Apple and Google have variants and are investing heavily in AI. For advanced examples: checkout Sophia from Hanson robotics to see how far this merge of AI and Robotics has gone. Take look at Boston Dynamics to see how Robots have moved away from 2 legs like their robot “Atlas” onto 4 legs with another variation “Spot2” and now wheels and legs combined with the Robot “Handle” to create new and faster robots which can go anywhere and be packhorses and warehousemen. These robots can run, and jump and are very very fast. The robots from Boston Dynamics are very far removed from a robotic arm in a factory. Something needs to change. The Digital Revolution (a report by Lord Baker), recommends that schools have voucher schemes to invest in the technology they will need. Technology to teach about coding, robotics and AM (Additive manufacture aka 3D printing). This is how the BBC micro desktop computer got into our schools. Unfettered schools from the manacles of waterfall education; exam results driven systems and league tables. The jobs students parents do, will not be around in 10 years. We need to teach students how to free-think, how to be able to cope with change and continuous learning. We need to move away from teaching students to pass exams upon exams just to get degrees. Degrees are not the outcome for society. A successful and rewarding career is a good outcome for society. The knowledge learned in a 4-year course invested in a degree is redundant before the examination is taken. Only the learning process is of value. Fact retention is less important than the ability to use AI. I saw a teacher reprimand a student recently for using a smart phone to ask google the answer to a problem. There is a time to think and there is a time to gather information and possible solutions. Todays' challenges give us less of a reason to specialise knowledge by committing facts to memory. Let students use Robotics and AI. Teach them how. Are still Luddites around Luddites would be shouting by now: "yes- but what if we dont produce electricity in the future - where will we be then?". Mans ability to overcome obstacles is extraordinary. As we journey to Mars and beyond, we whould not be clinging to the past and old ways of manufacture. For Cities to survive, we need to help students and workers of today how to train or retrain to get jobs in UK cities. Problem solving and the ability to use technology to overcome these problems is vital. Only free-thinking can surmount a problem. It is good to experience failure. Failure and iteration is the only road to success. Wake up world. Robotics is here and how. Wake up UK. Robotics and AI in the 4th Industrial Revolution (industry 4) is here and now, not the future. The UK Government centrally and locally needs to wake up. We all need to stop sleep-walking into the future, because it has already overtaken us. On some fronts it appears active, on others totally inert. Schools need direction. Without it, they carry on doing what they have always done. As a business trainer advised: “if you always do what you’ve always done.. you will always get what you always had”

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Citation: Emery P (2015) Connecting Circadian Genes to Neurodegenerative Pathways in Fruit Flies. PLoS Genet 11(6): e1005266. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1005266 Editor: Paul H. Taghert, Washington University Medical School, UNITED STATES Published: June 11, 2015 Copyright: © 2015 Patrick Emery. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited Funding: The author received no specific funding for this work. Competing interests: The author has declared that no competing interests exist. Life expectancy has dramatically increased in recent human history. As a result, neurodegenerative diseases have become a primary health issue. Circadian clocks are found in all mammalian tissues, including neurons and glia, and are, thus, likely to have an impact on the onset and progression of neurodegenerative diseases. However, the link between circadian clocks and neurodegeneration is poorly understood. Means et al. now report an intriguing connection between circadian genes and pathways implicated in neurodegenerative processes . Circadian rhythms are fundamental adaptive mechanisms that enable organisms to optimize most of their bodily functions with the day/night cycle. A critical circadian output in animals is the sleep/wake cycle. Circadian and sleep disruptions are frequently associated with neurodegenerative diseases . Furthermore, sleep abnormalities can precede the onset of other neurological symptoms. For example, patients carrying a pathogenic allele of Ataxin-2 causing Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 2 (SCA-2) experience sleep disruptions prior to suffering from ataxic symptoms [3,4]. Interestingly, in fruit flies, the ATXN2 homolog dATX2 plays a critical role in the expression of the circadian gene period (per) in circadian pacemaker neurons. Indeed, dATX2 collaborates with the translation factor TWENTYFOUR (TYF) to promote per mRNA translation [5,6]. Thus, the homolog of a gene involved in neurodegeneration contributes to the control of circadian rhythms in fruit flies. But what about the opposite connection: does the clock, or at least some circadian genes, contribute to the onset and progression of neurodegenerative diseases? Means et al. also turned to Drosophila to try to answer this important question . The Price lab has had a long interest in a critical circadian kinase called DOUBLETIME (DBT), which is the fly homolog of Casein Kinase 1 δ/ε. DBT regulates PER phosphorylation, as well as the activity of the circadian transactivator CLOCK (CLK) . DBT is, thus, critical to determining the period of circadian rhythms. Looking for DBT regulators, Means et al. identified SPAGHETTI (SPAG). SPAG downregulation leads to a long period phenotype or to arrhythmic behavior. SPAG has recently been shown to be part of a multimeric co-chaperone that works with HSP70 and HSP90 to regulate the assembly of large protein complexes . HSP proteins play an important role in the progression of neurodegeneration . Moreover, SPAG was found to affect aggregation of Huntingtin (HTT), the protein that causes Huntington disease when its polyQ domain is expanded . Means et al. uncovered a novel pathway connecting SPAG to neurodegenerative mechanisms in flies, which is modulated by circadian genes and light (Fig 1). Their results indicate that SPAG protects DBT from proteasomal degradation at specific time points: during the day about seven hours after the lights are turned on, and seven hours into the night. DBT disappearance during the day is very closely associated with activation of the caspase DRONC [11,12], but not at night. However, light exposure during the night can also cause DRONC activation, demonstrating that both light and loss of DBT are required. DRONC promotes cell death, and Means et al. show that it can also trigger TAU cleavage, which is observed in Alzheimer disease . Loss of DBT also worsened the neurodegenerative phenotype observed when human TAU is overexpressed in the fly eye. Thus, SPAG and DBT protect flies against activation of caspases that can ultimately lead to neuronal degeneration and cell death. SPAG and light modulate this protein network. Interestingly, the SPAG pathway appears to be entirely cell-autonomous since it can be recapitulated beginning from SPAG inactivation to TAU cleavage in Drosophila S2 cell culture. However, in the brain, a more complicated mechanism is at play. Indeed, DRONC activation is very broad in the brain, even when SPAG/DBT are inactivated in only 16 circadian neurons called ventral lateral neurons (LNvs), which express the neuropeptide Pigment Dispersing Factor (PDF). Moreover, the receptor for PDF (PDFR) is required for broad DRONC activation, which, in the brain at least, is largely non-autonomous. How a similar set of proteins can be involved in what appears to be rather different mechanisms of DRONC activation will need to be determined. Also surprising is the fact that downregulating DRONC only in tissues expressing circadian rhythms in the brain (clock neurons and glia) appears to block DRONC activation in non-circadian neurons. It seems that DRONC expression in circadian neurons is required for the spread of its activation. These are very intriguing observations that certainly warrant further study since this could shed light on how neurodegeneration spreads to large regions of the brain. To come back to the initial question, what is the actual role of the circadian clock in this process? In vivo, DRONC activation implicates DBT, a key circadian protein, and PDF positive circadian neurons. It would, therefore, seem likely that the circadian molecular pacemaker is implicated. Unexpectedly however, although a strong dominant negative clk mutant caused DRONC to be activated, a null per mutation—which makes flies completely arrhythmic—did not. Moreover, DRONC activation happened in clk mutant flies at the same time as in wild-type flies. Finally, short and long period per mutants had no effect on the phase of DRONC activation. Thus, although at least two circadian proteins (CLK, DBT) control DRONC activation, it does not appear that the circadian molecular clock itself impacts this process. This conclusion could seem particularly unexpected since well-characterized circadian neurons and their neuropeptidic output PDF are critical for DRONC activation in the brain. However, there are two types of PDF positive circadian neurons. The small LNvs are the actual pacemaker for circadian behavior, which means that they determine the pace and phase of circadian locomotor rhythms . Then there are the large LNvs, which have been shown to mediate various behavioral light responses, including acute light-induced arousal [15–17]. These neurons send numerous projections into the optic lobe and, thus, probably receive light input from the eyes. Moreover, they are themselves directly acutely light sensitive through the photoreceptor CRYPTOCHROME . It seems therefore plausible that prolonged light exposure would cause the large LNvs to secrete PDF and, thus, trigger the broad activation of DRONC when the protective SPAG/DBT pathway is disrupted. Importantly, Means et al. show that this protective pathway is defective in aging wild-type flies, with DRONC becoming activated even under dark conditions. Neuronal aging in flies could be linked to SPAG/DBT pathway disruption. Whether similar mechanisms are at play in aging or diseased mammalian neurons now needs to be determined. - 1. Means JC, Venkatesan A, Gerdes B, Fan J-Y, Bjes ES, Price JL. (2015) Drosophila Spaghetti and Doubletime Link the Circadian Clock and Light to Caspases, Apoptosis and Tauopathy. PLoS Genet 11(5): e1005171. pmid:25951229 - 2. Videnovic A, Lazar AS, Barker RA, Overeem S (2014) 'The clocks that time us'—circadian rhythms in neurodegenerative disorders. Nat Rev Neurol 10: 683–693. pmid:25385339 - 3. Velazquez-Perez L, Voss U, Rodriguez-Labrada R, Auburger G, Canales Ochoa N, et al. (2011) Sleep disorders in spinocerebellar ataxia type 2 patients. Neurodegener Dis 8: 447–454. pmid:21494015 - 4. Rodriguez-Labrada R, Velazquez-Perez L, Ochoa NC, Polo LG, Valencia RH, Cruz GS, et al. (2011) Subtle rapid eye movement sleep abnormalities in presymptomatic spinocerebellar ataxia type 2 gene carriers. Mov Disord 26: 347–350. pmid:20960485 - 5. Zhang Y, Ling J, Yuan C, Dubruille R, Emery P (2013) A role for Drosophila ATX2 in activation of PER translation and circadian behavior. Science 340: 879–882. pmid:23687048 - 6. Lim C, Allada R (2013) ATAXIN-2 activates PERIOD translation to sustain circadian rhythms in Drosophila. Science 340: 875–879. pmid:23687047 - 7. Zhang Y, Emery P (2012) Molecular and Neural Control of Insects Circadian Rhythms. In: Gilbert LI, editor. Insect Molecular Biology and Biochemistry: Academic Press. pp. 513–551. - 8. Benbahouche Nel H, Iliopoulos I, Torok I, Marhold J, Henri J, Kajava AV, et al. (2014) Drosophila Spag is the homolog of RNA polymerase II-associated protein 3 (RPAP3) and recruits the heat shock proteins 70 and 90 (Hsp70 and Hsp90) during the assembly of cellular machineries. J Biol Chem 289: 6236–6247. pmid:24394412 - 9. Paul S, Mahanta S (2014) Association of heat-shock proteins in various neurodegenerative disorders: is it a master key to open the therapeutic door? Mol Cell Biochem 386: 45–61. pmid:24096700 - 10. Zhang S, Binari R, Zhou R, Perrimon N (2010) A genomewide RNA interference screen for modifiers of aggregates formation by mutant Huntingtin in Drosophila. Genetics 184: 1165–1179. pmid:20100940 - 11. Quinn LM, Dorstyn L, Mills K, Colussi PA, Chen P, Coombe M, et al. (2000) An essential role for the caspase dronc in developmentally programmed cell death in Drosophila. J Biol Chem 275: 40416–40424. pmid:10984473 - 12. Dorstyn L, Colussi PA, Quinn LM, Richardson H, Kumar S (1999) DRONC, an ecdysone-inducible Drosophila caspase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96: 4307–4312. pmid:10200258 - 13. Rohn TT, Rissman RA, Davis MC, Kim YE, Cotman CW, Head E. (2002) Caspase-9 activation and caspase cleavage of tau in the Alzheimer's disease brain. Neurobiol Dis 11: 341–354. pmid:12505426 - 14. Stoleru D, Peng Y, Nawathean P, Rosbash M (2005) A resetting signal between Drosophila pacemakers synchronizes morning and evening activity. Nature 438: 238–242. pmid:16281038 - 15. Shang Y, Griffith LC, Rosbash M (2008) Light-arousal and circadian photoreception circuits intersect at the large PDF cells of the Drosophila brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105: 19587–19594. pmid:19060186 - 16. Sheeba V, Fogle KJ, Kaneko M, Rashid S, Chou YT, Sharma VK, et al. (2008) Large ventral lateral neurons modulate arousal and sleep in Drosophila. Curr Biol 18: 1537–1545. pmid:18771923 - 17. Cusumano P, Klarsfeld A, Chelot E, Picot M, Richier B, Rouyer F. (2009) PDF-modulated visual inputs and cryptochrome define diurnal behavior in Drosophila. Nat Neurosci 12: 1431–1437. pmid:19820704 - 18. Fogle KJ, Parson KG, Dahm NA, Holmes TC (2011) CRYPTOCHROME is a blue-light sensor that regulates neuronal firing rate. Science 331: 1409–1413. pmid:21385718

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Primary Sources Essay 1350 Western Civilization to 1500 Course Instructor: Dr. Dale Barbour Winter 2022 Primary Sources Essay is due February 17, 11:59 PM (CST) on UMLearn. The primary source essay will be 1,500 words in length and will consider what a set of primary documents can tell us about the society that produced them. Due date: February 17, 11:59 PM (CST) on UMLearn Word limit: 1,500 words Value: 20 per cent Submission format: You’ll be submitting to UMLearn. The file name for the document should be as follows: SURNAME Given name Assign # HIST1350 Late assignments: Marks on late assignment will be reduced by three (3) percentage points for each day they are late including Saturday and Sunday. (So, an assignment that is one day late and had received a mark of 75 per cent will be reduced to 72 per cent.) You are welcome to request an extension prior to the assignment deadline. Prompt Question: You’ll find a series of specific essay topics below. But all of them work with this fundamental question: What do these primary documents reveal about the society or historical period that produced them? Your Sources: For your assignment you will be using primary documents drawn from: Lualdi, Katharine J. Sources of The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures, Sixth Edition: Volume I. Boston/New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2019. Interpreting your Sources: You can and should use your textbook, as a secondary source, to help interpret your primary sources: Hunt, Lynn, Thomas R. Martin, Barbara H. Rosenwein, Bonnie G. Smith. The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures: Sixth edition. Volume 1 to 1750. Boston/New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2019. You can also draw on our lectures and PowerPoints. No other sources are required. Rationale Historians write about the past using two types of evidence: primary evidence and secondary evidence. Primary evidence (or “primary sources”) includes any work that was written, drawn, or produced by an eyewitness to an historical event or episode. The category can embrace a wide variety of different types of works: diaries, letters, financial records, newspaper accounts, literary works, legal documents, artwork and even material culture. Secondary sources are those which have been written as a conscious reflection on a historical event or process. They are generally composed some time after the event they seek to explain or describe. Thus, secondary works encompass anything written by an amateur or professional historian. Secondary works can include: books and scholarly journal articles, monographs and textbooks, etc. For this assignment, you’ll be working with primary documents. Consider these sort of questions when interpreting the primary documents: Who is the author, and what is his/her/their main motivation for writing the document? Which issues, events, and themes does/do the author/s emphasize? Who is the intended readership—that is, in writing the document which individuals/groups was the author attempting to reach (and, perhaps, influence)? And, lastly, what does the document reveal about the era in which it was written—that is, what can the document tell us about the historical period in which it was composed? You can use the text book as a secondary source to help interpret your Primary sources. (The Sources of the Making of the West book will also provide you with some context for the sources you’re looking at. You’re welcome to use that context material) Primary Sources Essay Topics: You can choose to write your essay on one of these topics: Athens and Sparta are familiar names in the history of Western Civilization: What can these two documents tell us about the differences between the two ancient cities? Sources of the Making of the West, Chapter 2: SOURCES IN CONVERSATION | Tyrtaeus of Sparta and Solon of Athens, Poems (Seventh–Sixth Centuries B.C.E.) The Golden Age of Athens: What can these two documents tell us about the Golden Age of Athens and the attitudes that underpinned it? Sources of the Making of the West, Chapter 3: Thucydides, The Funeral Oration of Pericles (429 B.C.E.), Hippocrates of Cos, On the Sacred Disease (400 B.C.E.) What was the role of women in Greek Society? For this essay you can tap three different sources: a court trial, the script from a comedic play, and an overhead view of a Greek house that demonstrates the gendered divisions that men and women lived by within that house. Sources of the Making of the West, Chapter 3: Euphiletus, A Husband Speaks in His Own Defense (c. 400 B.C.E.) and Overhead Views of a House on the North Slope of the Areopagus (Fifth Century B.C.E.), Aristophanes, Lysistrata (411 B.C.E.) History isn’t just written by great people, it’s also carved or written out as graffiti by unnamed individuals, or left as epitaphs to commemorate lost loved ones. What can these sources tell us about life in the Hellenistic Period and in the Roman Empire? Sources of the Making of the West, Chapter 4: Funerary Inscriptions and Epitaphs (Fifth–First Centuries B.C.E.) Sources of the Making of the West, Chapter 6: Notices and Graffiti Describe Life in Pompeii (First Century C.E.) What do these sources reveals about the struggles and divisions between the rich and the poor in the Roman Empire? Sources of the Making of the West, Chapter 5: Livy, Roman Women Demonstrate against the Oppian Law (195 B.C.E.) and Plutarch, The Gracchan Reforms (133 B.C.E.) What can law codes reveals about a society? You’re welcome to draw from either the Code of Hammurabi or the Roman Twelve Tables or both. (Don’t feel you have to compare and contrast the two law codes: you would need stronger secondary sources for that.) Sources of the Making of the West, Chapter 1: King Hammurabi, The Code of Hammurabi (Early Eighteenth Century B.C.E.) and Sources of the Making of the West, Chapter 5: The Twelve Tables (451–449 B.C.E.) This topic is your choice. However, it must draw on at least two primary sources from the Sources of the Making of the West, Chapters 1 to 7 and you should confirm the topic with me prior to going ahead with the essay. Format The essay should develop a main argument, and should include an introduction, a clear thesis statement, a “body,” and a conclusion. Students will be evaluated on the quality of their interpretations; on the thoroughness of their analyses; and on the clarity of their writing. Your theses, argument and conclusion will be based on evidence derived from the sources. In order to prove that your claims stem from the text (and that you haven’t misread them or invented claims that lack a solid evidentiary basis), you must provide citations for your evidence (i.e., footnotes or endnotes). Your footnotes should conform to Chicago Style Citation. For the first reference to any text, you should provide a footnote/endnote that contains all the necessary bibliographic information that a reader might need to find the text. It should be arranged like this: 1. King Hammurabi, “The Code of Hammurabi (Early Eighteenth Century B.C.E.)” cited in Sources of The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures, Sixth Edition: Volume I ed. Katharine J. Lualdi (Boston/New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2019), 7. This page number will change depending on what page you are citing. Subsequent references adopt a short-form. They should look like this: 2. Hammurabi, “The Code of Hammurabi,” 8. This page number will change depending on what page you are citing. If the author of the text is unknown, the footnote should use the form “Anon.” (for “anonymous”) and it should be written like this: 3. Anon, “The Twelve Tables (451–449 B.C.E.)” cited in Sources of The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures, Sixth Edition: Volume I ed. Katharine J. Lualdi (Boston/New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2019), 80. This page number will change depending on what page you are citing. Subsequent footnote: 4. Anon, “The Twelve Tables,” 82. This page number will change depending on what page you are citing. You should also cite the textbook if you are using it. It will look like this 5. Lynn Hunt, Thomas R. Martin, Barbara H. Rosenwein, Bonnie G. Smith. The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures: Sixth edition. Volume 1 to 1750. (Boston/New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2019.), 33. This page number will change depending on what page you are citing. Subsequent footnote: 6. Hunt, The Making of the West, 45. Note footnote/endnotes are numbered sequentially from the start of your essay until the end. Footnotes/endnotes should include page numbers where possible: even electronic versions of the books will generally include page numbers that you can cite. Chicago Manual of Style guidelines can also be found online at: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-1.html In addition to footnotes, your paper should include a title page and bibliography. The title page should include only the following elements. 1) the title of your paper, 2) your name, 3) the course number and section, 4) the date of submission. The title should be centered and placed about one third of the way down from the top of the page. The other information should be listed in the bottom right-hand corner of the page. A bibliography is a list of all the items you used in preparing your essay. It is placed at the end of your paper. The works should be listed in alphabetical order according to the authors’ surname. For your bibliography you should include your primary sources and the course textbook. The bibliography will look like this: Hunt, Lynn, Thomas R. Martin, Barbara H. Rosenwein, Bonnie G. Smith. The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures: Sixth edition. Volume 1 to 1750. Boston/New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2019. Lualdi, Katharine J. Sources of The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures, Sixth Edition: Volume I. Boston/New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2019. You should number your pages, beginning with the first page of text (i.e., the title page should not be numbered). NOTE: When handing in your assignment be sure to include your name in the file’s name. Grading: Your essay will be graded based on the following criteria: A clear thesis statement in your introduction Well-structured essay that conveys your argument Use and interpretation of the primary sources Clarity of writing throughout Proper citation and style Additional Information and tips Your primary sources essay will follow the format of a research essay and any good research essay should have the following ingredients: An argument: An excellent essay is more than just a collection of details and facts. You’re constructing a clear argument. In this case you’ll be looking to prove what your primary sources say about a historical period or event. Different people may make different interpretations based on the same primary sources. Key, is that your argument will be backed up by evidence that you’ve drawn from the primary sources. Clear introduction/thesis statement: A clear and concise thesis statement is your summary of what your essay is going to prove. You should put it in your introduction. That way the reader knows exactly where the essay is headed. Essay body: You should build your argument step by step. Use your paragraphs to frame each point of your argument. There should be a logical and clear flow to your essay. There is no set number of paragraphs that you should be using but generally short concise paragraphs are better than paragraphs that stretch on for a page or more. If you find that your essay has paragraphs that stretch to a page in length or longer, reassess them and break them down into smaller more tightly focuses paragraphs. Conclusion: You can use your conclusion to summarize what your essay has proven and why you think it’s important. But remember, don’t wait until the end to tell me what you’re going to prove; state that right at the beginning in the introduction. Working with sources: Working with primary sources is slow methodical work. You need to read through a primary source carefully to get a feel for what it is saying and to get a sense of its author’s opinion or intention. And remember, you are working with documents that capture people’s opinions, biases, and prejudices. When we read material written by Christopher Columbus we’re getting his interpretation of what he found in the Americas; another writer might have described something quite different. May I use “I”? In the olden days students were told never to use “I” in a research essay; the rules have loosened and you may in this class. But use the first person judiciously. Save it for when you really are expressing your judgment and your interpretation of material. 6 Why Choose Us - 100% non-plagiarized Papers - 24/7 /365 Service Available - Affordable Prices - Any Paper, Urgency, and Subject - Will complete your papers in 6 hours - On-time Delivery - Money-back and Privacy guarantees - Unlimited Amendments upon request - Satisfaction guarantee How it Works - Click on the “Place Order” tab at the top menu or “Order Now” icon at the bottom and a new page will appear with an order form to be filled. - Fill in your paper’s requirements in the "PAPER DETAILS" section. - Fill in your paper’s academic level, deadline, and the required number of pages from the drop-down menus. - Click “CREATE ACCOUNT & SIGN IN” to enter your registration details and get an account with us for record-keeping and then, click on “PROCEED TO CHECKOUT” at the bottom of the page. - From there, the payment sections will show, follow the guided payment process and your order will be available for our writing team to work on it.

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Within certain University biology departments, women make up nearly half of the faculty, and within the department of behavioral and social sciences, 70 percent of faculty members are women. But disparities still exist within science, technology, engineering and math fields. In the applied math, mathematics and physics departments, women represent under 20 percent of faculty members, according to faculty lists on each department’s website. One department head within the STEM fields is a woman. Nationally, the fields of engineering, computer science and physics retain the lowest percentages of women, and female representation is also low in mathematics and statistics, according to the National Science Foundation. Debunking gender myths In a 2005 speech, Larry Summers — then-president of Harvard — discussed the difference between men and women pursuing STEM in terms of willingness to take on “high-powered, intense work” and the greater variability of talent within the male population compared to the female population. He suggested that women’s disinterest in the greater time commitment required of STEM fields and larger numbers of extraordinarily talented men contributed more to the gender disparity in STEM fields than “different socialization and patterns of discrimination.” Jeffrey Brock, chair of the mathematics department and professor of mathematics, disagrees with the lingering stereotype that women and men have different abilities in math. But it does come up, he said, adding that the idea is “kind of like whack-a-mole — you have to stomp it out when you see it.” Andrei Cimpian, associate professor of psychology at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, noted the misconception that women are not as capable in the sciences is not supported by his research. Cimpian was part of a study published last year that surveyed 1,820 faculty members, post-doctoral fellows and graduate students from 30 disciplines. These subjects rated their agreement with different statements about what is required for success in their respective fields, and these numbers were used to calculate scores representing how much a field is perceived to demand inherent ability. “The fields in which this belief is most prevalent are also the fields in which there are both fewer women and also fewer African-Americans,” Cimpian said. He added that both groups are stereotyped as “less intellectually competent,” but noted that these perceptions are not drawn from reality. “Even though people think that men and women sort themselves into fields depending on the workload required by these fields, we didn’t really find any evidence of that,” Cimpian said. He also noted that his research found no support for the greater variability hypothesis referenced by Summers, which would suggest there are more male geniuses than female ones. Differences between genders? Some sources pointed to differences between the genders to account for the disparity between various STEM fields. “Many women are simply raised to believe that they’re supposed to be caretakers, supposed to prefer biology to, say, chemistry or physics,” wrote Eileen Pollack, author of “The Only Woman in the Room: Why Science Is Still a Boys’ Club,” in an email to The Herald. “I remember being told — repeatedly — that I shouldn’t want to major in physics because studying people and living creatures would make me happier. But I didn’t feel that way on my own.” “Women have a real tendency to be drawn towards career paths where they can see that they are making a positive impact in other individuals’ lives or in society at large,” said Katherine Smith, associate dean of biology undergraduate education and assistant research professor of ecology and evolutionary biology. “Perhaps the biological sciences offer women the opportunity to do that in a more clear way than some of our physical science analogues do.” Amara Berry ’17 said she was discouraged from an initial interest in physics throughout high school and pushed to study a subject in the humanities. Now, her interests have shifted, and she decided to concentrate in Gender and Sexuality Studies. “Any kind of penchant towards caretaking is socially constructed — not natural,” Berry said. “I always have thought that biology and (cognitive science) are very relevant to the life someone lives,” said Adrianna Wenz ’18, who switched her concentration from English to neuroscience. “That’s very relevant to when you see someone dying. You can help them in real time.” “In biomedical engineering, you’re creating something that no one has created before, and you actually have the power to directly transform a life,” said Tanaya Puranik ’19. Bethany Dubois ’18 said she felt unaware of the gender disparity in math and science until she arrived at Brown. Now a physics concentrator and pre-medical student, Dubois noted that the same skills she liked using in physics, like problem solving and applying knowledge, also drew her toward medicine. Dorit Rein ’18, a computer science concentrator, said that women may need social interaction to be successful, more so than men. Because social interaction is integrated more heavily into certain fields like medicine and psychology and is emphasized less in fields like computer science, women may be deterred from entering those fields. Devanshi Nishar ’18, a computer science concentrator, pointed out the increased severity of collaboration rules for computer science introductory courses this year as a drawback for women in the department. “I made such great friendships in (my introductory courses), and that was partially because we could talk about things,” Nishar said. “How can you build up a support network for yourself if you can’t talk about the things you’re working on?” “At Brown, specifically with computer science, the first two years are so difficult, and it really pushes away a lot of people from continuing to concentrate,” Rein said. “The people that hurts the most are women, people of color and underrepresented minorities in general.” Björn Sandstede, chair of the applied mathematics department, noted his department has begun replacing some recitations with problem-solving sessions. Students “can form teams in a way that helps them form a community,” which has seemed to help female students so far, he added. A 2011 study by Sadan Kulturel-Konak at Pennsylvania State University, Berks, indicated that women and men benefit from different teaching styles. Her study showed that men appreciate a more analytical approach — the style in which many STEM classes are taught — while women prefer a more hands-on technique. Kulturel-Konak’s research concluded that because more STEM classes are taught in an analytical style, women have begun to lose interest in STEM courses. But studies about learning differences amongst the sexes have varied greatly since the topic began to gather interest in the 1980s. In Diane Halpern’s 2012 book, “Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities,” she explained that differences in learning are generally unsupported by research. Instead of considering societal and historical forces, individuals tend to assume the inherent abilities of men and women influence their success, Cimpian said. While some factors might pull women toward fields like psychology and biology, other factors push women out of fields like applied math and physics, sources said. Pollack earned a degree in physics from Yale, but she ultimately abandoned the field to pursue writing. Her book investigates the confluence of factors that keep women out of STEM fields like physics. “Most people tend to think that only a genius can succeed in a field such as physics or math, especially the more abstract, theoretical branches of those fields,” Pollack wrote. Expectations of brilliance likely affect mathematics specifically, said Jill Pipher, director of the Institute for Computational and Experimental Research in Mathematics. She added that people may assume some fields are more accessible than others based on how difficult to learn or innate the required skills are. “It’s true that there’s a little bit of a mystique associated (with) doing math,” said Melody Chan, assistant professor of mathematics. She added that there is a “premium placed on this mysterious quality of genius.” “Physics definitely has this association where people tend to think you’re just good at it, or you’re not,” said Källan Berglund ’16, a physics concentrator. Berglund added that she feels sad to hear people say they are bad at math. “They say it like it’s part of their identity,” she added. “A lot of them say it proudly.” Echoing this sentiment, Shipra Vaishnava, assistant professor of molecular microbiology and immunology, noted that society condones a lack of math skills in girls. “It should not be okay. You should always be trying to get better at math if you’re not.” Across disciplines, there are many factors that influence success, ranging from hard work to fearlessness in the face of inhospitable environments. “Geniuses come in all races and genders,” Pollack wrote. “No one is even sure what makes a genius a genius. Intuition and confidence might be as important as raw IQ.” A lack of representation may also cause a vicious cycle in certain STEM departments, as students who see other women at work within their fields may feel more at ease within those spaces. Raphae Posner ’18, a student in the Program in Liberal Medical Education, said that she has valued working in a lab of mostly women. “I have had really great role models who appreciate the importance of young women in science,” she said. Departments with lower proportions of female faculty members have expanded their efforts to retain female students. The lack of representation can discourage women from considering those fields, Berry said. “Physics can have a much colder environment,” Dubois said, citing the lack of visibility of underrepresented minorities in teaching assistants. “Nearly everyone that I’ve interacted with has been male or a well-represented minority.” Brock said that within the math department “there’s a high point of attrition around sophomore-level courses — this is where you’re first exposed to abstract mathematics and proofs.” The department is working with a group of undergraduates to redesign the curriculum in an effort to increase retention. People often turn to the few women in the department with their questions. “I feel like this is taking an immense amount of time and energy from my studies,” Berglund said. Chan recently started a mentorship program to connect undergraduate women with female graduate students in the math department, describing it as “a low-key way to build community.” Though the math department currently has two tenure-track female faculty members, Brock said, female representation in the department is greater than that found in many math departments at other universities. “I do feel really positive about what I’ve seen from the department,” Chan said. Intersectionalities of race and gender “Most of us picture geniuses as looking like Albert Einstein — that is, as white men with crazy hair,” Pollack wrote. “Implicit biases make us think that people of color aren’t as competent in the sciences,” Berry said. “You’ve got this system that produces the same kind of thinkers over and over again.” As a black woman in engineering, Yasmine Hassan ’17 feels that different expectations are placed on her. Others have “mansplained” concepts to her, taken tools out of her hands and doubted her answers. “I can’t extract specifically my gender or race.” Professors, more than other students, have made Hassan feel as though she doesn’t belong. Hassan is a member of the National Society of Black Engineers, but she is not involved in the Society for Women Engineers or the group Women in Science and Engineering. “I don’t know how comfortable I feel in those spaces,” she said, adding she sometimes feels that “the STEM feminist agenda is very much colorblind.” Nishar pointed out that tech companies are quick to highlight their diversity initiatives, but focus more on gender balance in the workplace, rather than diversity of race or sexuality. “If they can just hone in on this one aspect — being a woman — then do they really care about diversity in the first place?” she asked. Correction: The previous version of a graphic accompanying this article mislabeled the proportion of women in the math, molecular biology, cell biology and biochemistry, molecular microbiology and immunology, molecular pharmacology, physiology and biotechnology, cognitive, linguistic and psychological sciences and computational molecular biology departments. The Herald regrets the error.

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To the day they died, I’m sure my immigrant ancestors remembered where they were when they learned of the assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, one hundred years ago. That calculated act of terrorism plunged the countries of their birth – Germany, Austria and Russia – into a brutal, four-year war, which they experienced from afar. I wonder how they coped. Were their friends and family personally affected? Without telephones or email, how were they able to know their loved ones were all right? When the United States finally entered the war in 1917, how did some of them deal with the taint of being associated with an enemy nation? When war broke out in July 1914, I had six immigrant ancestors living in New York and New Jersey. All of them came from countries swept up in what people would soon call the Great War. Mary Miller Vannote and Tillie Miller Agin My great-great-grandmother Mary Miller and her daughter Mathilde, who went by Tillie, emigrated from Germany some time in the 1880s. Based on a notation in Mary’s death record, it is possible – even probable – that they hailed from Koblenz, a historic city at the confluence of the Rhine and Moselle Rivers in southwestern Germany. Despite its close proximity to France, Koblenz remained far from the action on the Western Front. But after the war, the French occupied the city for a decade. In July 1914, Mary (then around 64 years old) was living in Kingston, N.J. with her husband William Vannote. The couple had married a decade earlier in a marriage that became a tabloid sensation. It was Mary’s third marriage, following a divorce, and William was a famous “woman hater” who had reportedly not spoken to a woman in the 37 years preceding their nuptials. Tillie, then about 42, was also living in Kingston with her husband Jacob Sylvester Agin, my great-grandfather who was then 45. Jacob worked in a limestone quarry; Tillie was a homemaker. When the war started, the couple had seven children ranging in age from 19 years to three months. My grandfather Harry, their third, was 13 at the time. Their eighth and last child, Vivian, would be born in 1916. I don’t know how invested Mary and Tillie were in their German identity. At a time when most immigrants lived in isolated ethnic enclaves where they found spouses from the same hometown, it’s striking that they both married American men. Under the practice at that time, Mary and Tillie took on American citizenship automatically. Many German-Americans opposed our getting involved in the conflict, particularly as allies of Germany’s enemies Britain and France. I wonder how Mary and Tillie felt. After a quarter century in this country, it’s possible that Mary and Tillie were fairly assimilated (particularly Tillie, who came here as a child). But that probably didn’t shield them from the wave of fierce, anti-German sentiment that swept the country. During a period when sauerkraut was renamed “liberty cabbage” and Germans were depicted in war propaganda as “The Hun,” it must have been uncomfortable for them. I don’t know anything about the family and friends they left behind (I’m still looking for evidence connecting them to a particular hometown), but they must surely have worried about friends and loved ones back in Germany. I can confirm that Jacob and Tillie’s oldest son Jacob Jr. (he later went by James) had to register for the draft in the closing months of the war. The registration form shows that James, then 21, worked at the Wright Martin Corporation factory in New Brunswick. He still lived with his family, which relocated to a house on Somerset Street in New Brunswick. I know that the Kingston quarry closed in 1918, and I believe Jacob relocated the family to take a new job as a security guard. Andrew and Mary Sabol Meanwhile, my Slovak great-grandparents Andrej (Andrew) Sabol and Maria (Mary) Daniel were raising a family in nearby Raritan, N.J. They were born citizens of the Austro-Hungarian Empire: their hometowns of Trebejov and Kysak were located in the province of Upper Hungary. Andrew emigrated in 1891 and Mary came over in 1895. When the war broke out in 1914, they had four children ranging in age from 14 to 2. My grandmother Anna, their second, was 9 years old. Andrew, then 42, worked as a railway laborer. Mary, then 34, was a homemaker and may have been running a boarding house for immigrant factory workers (as reflected in the 1910 census). Andrew became a U.S. citizen in 1900, which meant that Mary was automatically considered a citizen too. It’s not clear what they considered their native country to be. On four successive census returns, from 1900 to 1930, they listed their home country as Austria, Hungary, “Slovakland” and Czechoslovakia. My grandmother would always say her parents came from Austria (near Vienna, she’d insist, which was way off). But since Austria-Hungary was a multi-ethnic state with significant regional differences, it’s hard to know how invested any of my ancestors were in an “Austrian” identity. Austria, of course, was an enemy country as much as Germany was, but it’s not clear that Austrians suffered the same stigma Germans did. This may have been particularly true for non-German speaking immigrants from the Empire. Andrew and Mary’s hometowns of Trebejov and Kysak were far from the Eastern Front, and the region was spared the ravages of war – apart from a fatal military train crash at Kysak’s strategic railway junction in 1918. But it does appear that many men from the area were called up in Austria’s general military mobilization. Did they worry about friends or family members fighting in the war? Or, after two decades in this country, did their ties to the old country fade away? After the U.S. entered the conflict, their oldest son Andrew Jr. signed up for the draft. The draft registration card is dated September 1918. The war was over two months later and Andrew Jr. was not called up. My grandmother Katarzyna (Katherine) Bosakowska came to this country in April 1912, two years before the war started. She was also a citizen of Austria, from a town called Założce in the mostly Polish province of Galicia. Założce was situated in the far northeast corner of the Empire, a mere 10 km from the Russian border. She got out just in time. For four long years, the people of Założce suffered terribly. On August 19, 1914 – three weeks after the start of hostilities – the Russian army crossed the Seret River at Założce and kept moving west. For the next year, the town’s inhabitants lived under Russian military occupation. By September 1915, a joint Austrian-German offensive pushed the Russian army back across the border. After some gains and losses for both sides, the fighting bogged down along a thousand-mile Eastern Front that passed right through Założce. The town saw significant fighting throughout 1916, including the Brussilov Offensive, the final big military push by the Russian forces. Each time control was wrested back, the residents of Zalozce were subjected to another round of arrests, deportations and executions. Those battles caused a lot of physical damage too. The town’s Roman Catholic church – the place where my grandmother was baptized and were my great-grandparents and great-great-grandparents were married – was burned to the ground. And, tragically for this genealogy buff, the church’s metrical books of vital records, dating back to 1654, was destroyed in the fire – taking generations of family history along with it. Fortunately, Austria required the recording of a duplicate set of records in 1826. These were kept by the archbishop in Lviv. Otherwise there would be no surviving records for the Bosakowski family line. In addition to the civilian hardships, family members and friends must also have served as soldiers. In an online registry of service members from the region, I see that Katarzyna’s cousin Zygmunt Bosakowski (son of her Uncle Wojciech) was an Austrian soldier who went missing in the early days of the war. Zygmunt, born in 1891, was close in age to my grandmother, who was born in 1889. He was 23 when he went missing. Far from the fighting, Katarzyna was working as a live-in servant for a family of Russian immigrants on the Lower East Side of Manhattan. I wrote about that job – working for a man later found to be swindling immigrants in a fraudulent mail order phonograph scheme – in an earlier post. Katarzyna had lots of family here in the America, including her younger sister Honorata, younger brother Wincenty and numerous cousins. But throughout her life she also stayed in touch with the family she left behind, including her two youngest brothers Stanisław and Władysław. I suspect that her father Józef was still alive in 1914. When Katarzyna immigrated in April 1912, Józef was listed as next of kin. When Wincenty followed suit in September 1913, he was again listed as next of kin. Józef would have been 67 years old. His wife Maria Buczna, who would have been 51, may also have been alive. Given the difficult situation in Założce, how were they able to stay in touch? I can only imagine the stress, the fear and the uncertainty this must have caused. In official documents, Katarzyna always listed Austria as the country of her birth. Again, it’s not clear how much she identified with Austria personally. Did she feel any stirrings of longing or patriotism for the country of her birth? Interestingly, Katarzyna is the only one of my immigrant ancestors who never became an American citizen. My grandfather Alex Kowal applied for naturalization in 1940, once the government started registering aliens as we moved closer to involvement in World War II. Katarzyna was content to register as an alien. I’m not sure that this was out of attachment to the Empire, which dissolved in 1919. My guess is that she was not a terribly “political” person. My grandfather Alex Kowal was the only one of my immigrant ancestors, who came to America in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, to hail from an allied country. A Ukrainian, Alex was born a citizen of the Russian Empire. He left for Canada in September 1912 and came to the United States in March 1913. His hometown of Kharucha Vel’ka was located in Volhynia province, about 150 km from the Austrian border – far enough east to be spared the war’s destruction. While the Eastern Front moved back and forth throughout the course of the fighting, Austrian and German troops never penetrated that far into Russian territory. Alex left at least two living family members behind when he emigrated. He listed his father Philemon as next of kin in immigration documents. And I remember my grandfather telling me many years ago that he had an older brother who was taken away by soldiers. I always imagined he was impressed into the military, but I now surmise he he was arrested for participating in an illegal strike. I don’t know the older brother’s name or whatever became of him. Did he have to fight in the war? My grandfather would certainly have been a prime candidate for military service – 22 years old when the war started. He certainly dodged a bullet, figuratively if not literally, by coming to America. Oddly enough, I can’t find any evidence that he signed up for the draft here in the United States. As I understand it, every man between the ages of 18 and 45 was required to sign up – regardless of immigration status. Did he fail to fulfill this duty? Or is the registration form simply lost? I actually know very little about my grandfather’s whereabouts during his first three years in America. In his April 1913 immigration record, Alex and three friends indicated they were all going to Kreischerville, Staten Island to meet up with someone named Nestor Greshevitz (it was actually Grushewsky). (Bowing to the anti-German feeling sweeping the country, Kreischerville would soon be renamed Charleston.) He next appears in a paper record in November 1916, when he married my grandmother at St. George’s Ukrainian Catholic church in Manhattan’s East Village. The marriage certificate indicates that he lived at 182 Madison Street on the Lower East Side. He was employed as a “laborer.” There’s something poetic about that wedding. At a time when their two countries were at war – and, to put a fine point on it, when their armies were laying waste to Katarzyna’s hometown – a Polish woman from Austria and a Ukrainian man from Russia managed to straddle the fault lines of World War I and find love.

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Page 1: Biography Millar, John Andrew Seaman, trade union leader, politician This biography, written by Herbert Roth, was first published in the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography in 1993. John Andrew Millar was born on 8 July 1855 in India, and baptised at Jullundur, Punjab, on 6 August 1855. He was the eldest son of Eliza Sarah Hawthorne and her husband, John Craufurd Millar, a lieutenant and later major general in the British Army. His father fought in the relief of Lucknow in 1858, but at the close of the war in India the family returned to Edinburgh, Scotland, where the young Millar received his education. At the age of 15 he was sent to an uncle in Otago, New Zealand, to learn sheepfarming, but on the voyage out he decided on a seafaring career. Millar arrived at Dunedin on the James Nicol Fleming in October 1870. Soon after, he was apprenticed to P. Henderson and Company of Glasgow, managing agents of the Albion Shipping Company. He served his apprenticeship and sailed on overseas ships until 1881, when he switched to coastal steamers. On 18 February 1882, at Wellington, he married Sarah Lilian Ross, the daughter of James and Eleanor Ross of Lisnaskea, Ireland. The same year John Millar gained his mate's certificate and two years later his master's certificate, while working on small vessels of the Black Diamond Line trading in and out of Wellington. It was not unusual at this time for ships' officers to belong to the seamen's union. Millar later claimed that he joined the labour movement in 1882, and in April 1887 he was elected as the first full-time general secretary of the 1,000-strong Federated Seamen's Union of New Zealand. As the union's headquarters were in Port Chalmers, Millar and his family now moved to Dunedin. Within weeks of taking office he was able to show his mettle. The Northern Steam Ship Company in Auckland had cut overtime payments, and replaced seamen who objected with non-unionists. Instead of the traditional response of strikes and pickets, Millar proposed that the union launch its own shipping line and run it in competition with the company. It was a bold move, but it was successful. The union established the Jubilee Steam Ship Company, chartered three steamers and undercut its rival. Both sides lost heavily but after 16 months, in November 1888, the Northern Steam Ship Company was ready for peace. It agreed to re-engage its men at the old pay-rates and to employ only unionists. The union closed down its shipping line. Millar's prestige rose high after this victory, but he had become aware during the conflict that the seamen lacked the support of other workers. In October 1889 he succeeded in forging an alliance – the Maritime Council, combining seamen, miners and wharf labourers – which was soon joined by the railwaymen's, wharf carters' and mercantile marine officers' unions. Although there were trades councils operating locally, the Maritime Council functioned as a federation of key national unions and quickly gained recognition as the central voice of organised labour. Millar, the council's secretary, became the acknowledged national spokesman for the unions. Millar was not an original thinker, nor did he often put pen to paper. He defined socialism as the practice of true Christianity, and spoke of the future as a brotherhood of man, based on love, care for one's neighbours, and Christ's teachings. What socialists wanted, he told the Dunedin diocesan synod in 1893, was equal opportunities for all, equal laws for all and work for all who wanted it, but none should eat who did not work except for the aged, the sick and the children. It was in this spirit that Millar helped to establish the first trade union for women, the Tailoresses' Union of New Zealand, in Dunedin, and took office as its first secretary in July 1889. Giving evidence to the royal commission on sweating in February 1890, Millar expressed great concern about the exploitation of child labour and advocated the establishment of a board of arbitration, presided over by a permanent judge paid by the state, to settle industrial disputes. Strikes, he told the commission, were not in the interests of employed or employers. At the same time Millar was able to quote Karl Marx and he held a strong belief in the solidarity of labour. He told a meeting in Oamaru in September 1890 that he looked forward to a 'great grand commonwealth where all would be employed by and paid by the state.' In August 1890 the Maritime Council declared a general strike of its affiliates in sympathy with Australian maritime unionists, with whose central body the council had affiliated. This maritime strike, which involved an estimated 8,000 unionists, was the first major nationwide labour dispute in New Zealand. It was broken in early November by the use of non-union workers. As leader of the strike, 'King' Millar, as he became known, was vilified throughout New Zealand as a dictator and paid agitator. He was the subject of hostile cartoons and ditties in the daily press. Yet he took a moderate line during the dispute, and on one occasion even enrolled seamen as special constables and succeeded in preventing a violent confrontation on the wharves. A friendly correspondent to a newspaper described him as having 'a decidedly gentlemanly appearance, with a countenance expressive of deep thought and careful deliberation; his manner is calm and courteous, and his disposition kind and sympathetic in the extreme.' In the December 1890 parliamentary elections Robert Stout nominated Millar for the Port Chalmers seat, held by James Mills, the managing director of the Union Steam Ship Company of New Zealand. It was a symbolic contest between the two main protagonists in the maritime strike, and Millar lost by 874 votes to 647. He continued in office as the seamen's general secretary, but the Maritime Council fell apart after the strike defeat and the seamen's union too was near collapse. In 1893 Millar, who had meanwhile been appointed a justice of the peace by the new Liberal government, stood again for Chalmers (previously Port Chalmers), with the endorsement of the Workers' Political Committee. Mills had retired, and this time Millar, who proclaimed himself a radical rather than a liberal, was successful. In his maiden speech in Parliament on a Shipping and Seamen's Bill, which he had helped to draft, he impressed fellow members with his practical knowledge of the industry. In Parliament Millar formed part of the so-called 'labour party', an informal grouping within the Liberal government majority. When the electoral boundaries were redrawn in 1896 he stood for one of the three City of Dunedin seats, and continued to represent Dunedin in Parliament for the next 18 years. In 1896 unionists elected Millar to the Otago and Southland Board of Conciliation, an office he held until 1901, and to the Westland board, where he sat for two years despite his residence in Dunedin. As a member of the board of conciliation Millar obtained an intimate knowledge of the conciliation and arbitration system. In Parliament he paid special attention to industrial and shipping matters, gaining appointment in 1899 as chairman of the Labour Bills Committee. He loyally supported the Seddon administration, opposed attempts to form a separate labour party and instead helped to promote the Liberal–Labour Federation, which sought to mobilise worker support for the government. In 1890, on 28 October, the anniversary of the founding of the Maritime Council, Millar had initiated Labour Day demonstrations in support of the eight-hour working day. These annual celebrations gained statutory recognition with the passing of the Labour Day Act in 1899. The following year Millar was appointed to the Royal Commission on Federation, which took evidence on the desirability of federation with the new Commonwealth of Australia. In July 1903 the government appointed Millar chairman of committees, where he distinguished himself by his firm but fair rulings and his intimate knowledge of standing orders. When Joseph Ward formed a new cabinet in August 1906, after the death of Richard Seddon, he gave Millar the portfolios of labour, marine and customs. Millar gained much praise for piloting a complicated customs tariff through Parliament in 1907, but he quickly antagonised the trade unions when he blamed Australian seasonal workers for slaughtermen's strikes. The 1907 Annual Conference of Trades and Labour Councils condemned Millar's 'uncalled for, offensive and contemptible' remarks. The split between Millar and the industrial labour movement widened when Millar proposed changes to the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1908 which would tighten penalties for striking. The amendments, which became law the same year, included the replacement of the ineffective boards of conciliation with conciliation commissioners. Millar has been credited with saving the arbitration system from collapse, but even in his home town the Otago Trades and Labour Council resolved that the minister had 'forfeited his right to be classed as a representative of Labour' and invited him to 'proclaim himself what he has proved to be – the champion of the capitalistic class.' With a growing number of strikes in defiance of the arbitration laws, the Liberal–Labour alliance was now falling apart, and in the 1908 election Millar for the first time faced a socialist opponent. In a cabinet reshuffle in 1909 he lost the labour and customs portfolios and was given railways instead, but he was reappointed minister of labour within five months. Friend and foe alike compared Millar in these years to John Burns, the leader of the London dock strike of 1889, who had taken a seat in a Liberal cabinet 15 years later. 'The agitator has belied expectation by becoming a statesman,' a commentator wrote of Millar in 1909; 'the advocate of a class has won the confidence of all classes.' But in the 1911 election Millar was forced into a second ballot to retain his seat. The Liberal party lost its majority and retained power only with the support of four Labour members and the casting vote of the speaker. When Ward resigned as Liberal leader in March 1912 Millar was widely tipped to succeed him. But he had made too many enemies among prohibitionists (he was reputed to be a heavy drinker), freeholders (by his support for leasehold land tenure) and above all the Labour members. His name did not even go to the ballot and he was not included in the new Mackenzie ministry. The new administration soon fell, however, in a historic no-confidence vote on 5 July 1912, when several Liberals crossed the floor to vote with the conservative Reform Party. Among the defectors was an embittered, vengeful Millar. He had recently suffered a stroke but he rose from his sick-bed to enter the House clad in dressing-gown and pyjamas, took his seat on the opposition benches, and followed the Reform leader, W. F. Massey, into the voting lobby. In 1913 Millar moved to Auckland after marrying a second time. Sarah Millar had died in November 1906, and on 16 April 1913, at Wellington, John Millar married Mary Nathan, a widow and the daughter of Emma and George Siddells (a master mariner). During the waterfront strike of that year Millar voted with the Reform Party and spoke in support of its Labour Disputes Investigation Bill. In 1914 he was again chairman of Parliament's Labour Bills Committee. When he did not stand for re-election that year, Massey appointed him to the Legislative Council in June 1915. But he was able to attend only once, to be sworn in. His health had failed again, and he died at Auckland on 15 October 1915. He was buried in Dunedin. He was survived by his second wife and two daughters and a son from his first marriage. Millar was a capable, ambitious politician and a keen debater, though his speeches, delivered in a hoarse and rasping voice, were said to lack polish and humour. It was ironic that the opposition of Labour members cost him the opportunity to become prime minister, for Millar still claimed, as late as 1913, that he had the same sympathy for labour as he had had 30 years earlier. An obituary writer in the Dunedin Evening Star defended him against the charge of having deserted labour, but to representatives of the organised labour movement and their followers he was the very embodiment of a renegade: the radical leader of the 1890 maritime strike who had given his support to the harsh suppression of another major waterfront conflict in 1913.

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“We have serious enemies and growing threats around the world. Unfortunately, we have an administration whose idea of a rogue state is Arizona.” ~Mitt Romney What’s so interesting about Arizona? It’s hard to even decide where to begin! Here is a list of fun and fascinating facts that you may not know about the Grand Canyon State. In 1912, President William Howard Taft was ready to make Arizona a state on February 12, but it was Lincoln’s birthday. The next day, the 13th, was considered bad luck so they waited until the following day. Arizona became the 48th state and last of the contiguous states on February 14, 1912. (Alaska and Hawaii were admitted many years later in 1959.) Arizona was once part of the territory of New Mexico, until President Abraham Lincoln signed the Arizona Organic Act on February 24, 1863, creating the Arizona Territory. The Castilian and Burgundian flags of Spain, the Mexican flag, the Confederate flag, and the flag of the United States have all flown over the land we now know as Arizona. Phoenix is the largest city in the Mountain Time Zone. Daylight Savings Time is not observed in Arizona (except for the Navajo Nation). Arizona is the 6th largest state in terms of land area and 16th largest according to population. All of New England plus the state of Pennsylvania would fit inside Arizona. The state of Massachusetts could fit inside Maricopa County. Arizona’s land ownership is 48% federal and state, 28% American Indian, and 24% private. Arizona has the largest percentage of land designated as Indian tribal land in the United States, and the largest American Indian population of any state. More than fourteen tribes are represented on twenty reservations. The lands of the Navajo Nation span 27,000 square miles across three states (Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico) including scenic mountains, mesas and canyons in the Four Corners region, but the Navajo Nation capital is seated in Window Rock, Arizona. The first Spaniards set foot in what is now Arizona 76 years before the settlement of Jamestown, 80 years before the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth Rock, and 236 years before the Declaration of Independence. They were in search of the legendary Seven Cities of Gold. The Hopi village at Oraibi is the oldest continually occupied settlement in America. The village was built around A.D. 1100 and was discovered in 1540 by Pedro de Tovar, a lieutenant of Spanish conquistador Francisco Vásquez de Coronado. Between the years 1692 and 1711, Spanish missionary Father Eusebio Kino did more than just found missions in Arizona; he also taught many tribes the basics of agriculture and supplied them with cattle and seed grain. Tubac was the first European Settlement in Arizona (1752). Many of the founders of San Francisco in 1776 were Spanish colonists from Tubac, Arizona. Montezuma never visited Montezuma National Monument – he was born 100 years after the prehistoric dwelling was abandoned. The monument was misnamed for the Aztec emperor when it was rediscovered in the 1860’s. The negotiations for Geronimo’s final surrender took place in Skeleton Canyon near present day Douglas in 1886. The only place in the United States where mail is still delivered by mule is the village of Supai at the bottom of the Grand Canyon. The world’s largest antique, London Bridge, is located in Lake Havasu City. This is the only place in the United States that has World War II damage to it. (It was damaged in London prior to its relocation to Lake Havasu.) When England’s famous London Bridge was replaced in the 1960s, the original was purchased, dismantled, shipped stone by stone and reconstructed where it still stands today. The Empire State building is 1,250 feet tall. The Grand Canyon is about a mile (5,280 feet) deep, equivalent to 4.224 Empire State Buildings stacked on top of each other. The tallest building in Arizona is the Chase Tower in downtown Phoenix, which is 40 stories tall and 483 feet high, completed in 1972. Of the 20 tallest buildings in Arizona, 18 are located in Phoenix. However, no Phoenix buildings are among the tallest in the United States. Phoenix is the largest city in the nation in square miles. The city limits extend several miles north of populated areas along Interstate 17. Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station, located about 55 miles west of Phoenix, is the largest nuclear power plant in the country and generates more electricity than any other U.S. power plant. The “Five C’s” of Arizona are: cattle, copper, cotton, citrus, and climate. More copper is mined in Arizona than all the other states combined, and the Morenci Mine is the largest copper producer in all of North America. It would take more than 4.8 million pennies to equal the amount of copper used to make the dome on the roof of the Arizona Capitol building. Bisbee is known as the Queen of the Copper Mines because during its mining heyday it produced nearly 25 percent of the world’s copper. At one time, Bisbee was the largest city in the Southwest between Saint Louis and San Francisco. Arizona is the only state in the nation that elects a Mine Inspector. There are at least six open pit mines in Arizona. Beginning in the 1940’s, widespread mining and milling of uranium ore for national defense and energy purposes led to a legacy of 520 abandoned uranium mines located on Navajo Nation lands. As of May 1, 2010, there were nine Superfund sites on the National Priorities List in Arizona. Three other sites have been cleaned up and removed from the list; no additional sites are currently proposed. Camels were imported in the 1850s to make a wagon road across northern Arizona, which would one day become Route 66. The longest remaining intact section of Route 66 can be found in Arizona and runs from Seligman to Topock, a total of 157 unbroken miles. The Lost Dutchman, Jacob Waltz – who is alleged to be the owner of the yet-undiscovered Lost Dutchman Gold Mine in Arizona’s Superstition Mountains – was actually a German. Jerome, Arizona was named for Eugene Jerome of New York City, who never visited the town. Flagstaff might have been the movie capital of the world. Pioneer filmmaker Cecil B. DeMille originally traveled there to make his first film, but he arrived in the middle of a storm and decided to move further west to Hollywood, California. His film, The Squaw Man (1914), was wildly successful and launched the fledgling movie industry in Hollywood. Clark Gable and Carole Lombard, two of the most prominent movie stars of Hollywood’s Golden Age, were married in Kingman on March 18, 1939. Billy the Kid killed his first man, Windy Cahill, in Bonita, Arizona. Wyatt Earp was neither the town marshal nor the sheriff in Tombstone at the time of the shoot-out at the O.K. Corral. His brother Virgil was the town marshal. The worst range war and family feud in the West, which claimed the lives of dozens of ranchers, ironically occurred in a place called Pleasant Valley, Arizona. The westernmost battle of the Civil War – Arizona’s only Civil War battle – was fought on April 15, 1862, at Picacho Pass near Picacho Peak. Chino Valley’s Fort Whipple was a U.S. Army post founded in January 1864 that served as Arizona Territory’s first capital prior to the founding of Prescott. The post was moved to Granite Creek near present-day Prescott in May 1864. Prescott got its start as a gold mining town and because President Lincoln wanted to ensure that the Arizona Territorial capital was far away from the Tucson confederates. Prescott is home to the world’s oldest rodeo and Payson is home to the world’s oldest continuous rodeo – both of which date back to the 1880s. Phoenix originated in 1866 as a hay camp to supply military post Camp McDowell. The city of Phoenix was named for the mythical Egyptian phoenix bird—which burst into flame and was reborn from its ashes—because the town sprouted from the ruins of a former civilization. Downtown Yuma is one of only two designated National Heritage Areas west of the Mississippi. Kartchner Cavern near Benson is a massive limestone cave with 13,000 feet of passages, two rooms as long as football fields, and one of the world’s longest soda straw stalactites measuring 21 feet 3 inches. The best-preserved meteor crater on earth is located about 40 miles east of Winslow. Arizona is home to Biosphere II, which was once the largest airtight research facility in the world. The Navajo Nation Zoological and Botanical Park is the only tribally-owned zoo in America. The world’s largest solar telescope is located at Kitt Peak National Observatory in Sells, Arizona. The world’s tallest Kachina doll is located in Carefree, Arizona. The 39-ft. tall concrete version of a traditional American Indian doll stands at the entrance to the Tonto Hills residential community six miles east of town on Cave Creek Rd. The University of Phoenix Stadium’s retractable roof and rollout field combination is a first in North America. The state’s land grant university is the University of Arizona in Tucson. The Center for Creative Photography at the University of Arizona holds more archives and individual works by 20th-century North American photographers than any other museum in the nation. Its archives contain an estimated 3.8 million items. The Phoenix Art Museum is the largest institution of visual art in the Southwestern U.S. Sun City, built by Del Webb in 1960, was the first 55-plus active adult retirement community in the country. South Mountain Park in Phoenix is the largest municipal park in the country. The Arizona towns of Adair and Alamo Crossing are now underwater, having been swallowed up by the formation of dams that created Fool Hollow Lake and Alamo Lake (respectively). Arizona has one of the most efficient irrigation networks in the world. Massive irrigation projects with dams for water storage in lakes and reservoirs provide a large portion of the state’s water. Located on Arizona’s western border, Parker Dam is the deepest dam in the world at 320 feet. The two largest manmade lakes in the nation are Lake Mead and Lake Powell, both located in Arizona. There are 15,600 farms in Arizona with an average farm size of 1,670 acres, resulting in total farmland of 26.1 million acres. Most of the state’s farming occurs in the alluvial basins of the Colorado, Salt, Verde and Agua Fria rivers. The southern half of the state is good for year round crop growth in irrigated areas. Beef and dairy goods are Arizona’s most valuable farm products. There are approximately 1 million head of cattle in Arizona, and 186,000 milk cows in the state. Arizona also has over 165,000 hogs, 150,000 head of sheep, and 1,600,000 laying hens (which produce over 5.8 billion eggs a year). The top agricultural crop commodities in Arizona are lettuce, cotton and hay. The top agricultural crop exports are vegetables, hay, cotton, and cottonseed. Arizona alfalfa yield led the nation at 8.3 tons per acre compared to 3.4 tons nationally. Arizona ranks second nationally in its production of cantaloupe and honeydew melons, head and leaf lettuce, spinach, broccoli, cauliflower, and lemons. Yuma is the winter lettuce capitol of the world, as well as the country’s highest producer of other winter vegetables. Arizona is part of the Cotton Belt, a group of southern states that have three things in common: lots of sunshine, water, and fertile soil, all very important to growing a good cotton crop. Cotton in Arizona, which is mostly the upland variety but includes a small amount of higher-quality Pima cotton, is grown primarily along the Interstate 10 corridor from Tucson to Phoenix. The majority of the harvest begins in October. Arizona grows enough cotton each year to make more than one pair of jeans for every person in the United States. One-fourth of the state is forested, with 11.2 million acres of National Forest in Arizona. Arizona has the largest contiguous stand of Ponderosa pine forest in the world, stretching from near Flagstaff along the Mogollon Rim to the White Mountains region. There are more wilderness areas in Arizona than in the entire Midwestern U.S. Arizona alone has 90 wilderness areas; the Midwest has 50. Arizona is home to 31 State Parks, 25 National Parks, 18 National Monuments, and 6 National Forests. Established in 1919, the Grand Canyon National Park is perhaps the most famous of America’s national parks. It is an enormous stretch of canyon: 277 miles long (measured by the length of the river at its bottom), 6,000 vertical feet at its deepest and as much as 18 miles across in some places. It takes about two days to get to the bottom of the canyon and back on foot. And it receives close to 5 million visitors each year. Arizona is on the western end of the Rocky Mountain chain and the northern half of the state is very mountainous. Arizona has 3,928 mountain peaks – more than any one of the other Mountain States (Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming). Arizona has 26 mountain peaks that are more than 10,000 feet in elevation. Arizona’s highest point is Humphrey’s Peak at 12,633 ft. Near Yuma, the Colorado River’s elevation dips to 70 feet above sea level, making it the lowest point in the state. The average state elevation is 4,000 feet. Bisbee is the Nation’s southernmost mile-high city. Mount Lemmon, in the Santa Catalina Mountains, is the southernmost ski resort in the United States. The geographic center of Arizona is 55 miles southeast of Prescott near the community of Mayer. Rainfall averages for Arizona range from less than three inches in the deserts to more than 30 inches per year in the mountains. The temperature average for southern Arizona is lows of 30°F in the winter to over 100°F in the summer. In the northern portion of the state, the temperature fluctuates from 20°F to 95°F. Arizona’s diverse topography and varied climate can yield both the highest temperature across the nation and the lowest temperature across the nation in the same day. The hottest temperature recorded in Arizona was 128 degrees at Lake Havasu City on June 29, 1994. The coldest temperature recorded in Arizona was 40 degrees below zero at Hawley Lake on January 7, 1971. The “Valley of the Sun” around Phoenix is noted for its average of 350 clear sunny days per year. The state has an average rainfall of 13.6” per year giving Arizona very low relative humidity. A major climate feature of the Southwest is the North American monsoon (a distinct seasonal change in wind direction of at least 120°). Arizona receives a majority of its rainfall during this late summer period. Most Arizona soils have very low levels of organic matter, usually less than 1% by weight, and top soils around the state average only about one-half inch. The Sonoran Desert is the most biologically diverse desert in North America. The Saguaro cactus, native to the Sonoran Desert, is the largest cactus found in the U.S. The average life span of a saguaro is 150 years, but some plants may live more than 200 years. A 20 foot tall saguaro weighs approximately 1 ton (2,000 pounds). A saguaro cactus can store up to nine tons of water. It’s not easy, practical, or legal to get water from a barrel cactus. Even if you got past the spines, it would be like sucking on a bad-tasting dish sponge. More hummingbird species can be found in Sierra Vista, located in the southern portion of the state, than in any other state – earning its title as “the Hummingbird Capital of the United States.” If you cut down a protected species of cactus in Arizona, you could spend more than a year in prison. Javelinas are able to eat spiny prickly pear pads with no obvious harm to their mouths, stomachs or intestinal tracts. Javelinas are not true pigs; they are peccaries, which are native to the Americas. Arizona is home to 28 species of bats, more than almost any other state. Thirteen species of rattlesnakes live in Arizona, more than in any other state. The Gila Monster is one of only two venomous lizards in the world. The other is the similar Mexican Beaded Lizard. Their venom is a defensive rather than offensive weapon. Roadrunners in Arizona can be seen running up to 17 mph. The black bear is the only bear species still found in Arizona. The mountain lion (also called cougar, puma, catamount, and panther) is the largest cat native to North America. Mountain lions can be found throughout all portions of Arizona. Coyotes are curious, clever, and adaptable. They quickly learn to take advantage of any newly discovered food source, and are often attracted to yards with abundant fruit and wildlife. Coyotes will eat pet food and knock over unsecured garbage cans, or may walk along the tops of walls around homes in search of unattended dogs and cats.

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In the summer of 2006, at the Huntington Library in San Marino, Calif., I had the pleasure of working with a dozen Los Angeles high school teachers, test-driving the classics in the curriculum. Part of a three-year National Endowment for the Humanities project, the two-week workshop explored lessons and resources for high school classrooms, connecting antiquity to the here and now. I learned a lot from those teachers, including where the classics can better fit into history and English lessons. But when I reflect on our time together, what really stands out is one memorable June afternoon meeting centered on Plutarch's Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans. The Lives present a challenge for teachers, as do other classical works: Gladiators may have some student appeal, as the success of the recent film 300 suggests, but the classics' more typical fare is a tougher sell. Teachers often wonder if classical stories and the role models they hold up have much bearing on contemporary student life. In addition, Plutarch's language is daunting. Even short extracts in translation are challenging. Worse, they sometimes elicit hostility from teachers, especially among those who want to feature contemporary issues and new heroes. All in all, Plutarch's reputation is not what it used to be. Today, many regard his work as the musty old thing in the attic. In the age of Hollywood, Plutarch has something of a style problem. Plutarch's idea of a role model is not a prince or a movie star—nor would he admire their "messages." His moral preferences are not ambiguous or easily ducked. Plutarch is not an admirer of a "whatever" view of one's own life. Thinking many of his principles of character to be wise, my aim in this article—as it was on that June afternoon in California—is to look at Plutarch from a more positive angle. But first, why should we care about Plutarch and his Lives at all? The Lives were the most ambitious biographical project in the ancient world. The biographies were written about 100 A.D., after Rome had conquered the Mediterranean and Europe. Many are lost, but enough remain, about 50 of them, varying in length up to 30,000 words, to fill volumes and volumes. Plutarch was a sage and celebrity in the Roman Empire, a leading thinker whose biographies, commentaries, and moral philosophy provided "a lesson for the living." The age in which he lived—recorded by the contemporary poet Juvenal—was one of rich, worldly power and literary achievement. The culture was sophisticated in ways like our own. Plutarch, a Greek writing in Greek, the language of the educated classes throughout the Roman world, was equally versed in two cultures. He made his reputation in Rome. His "famous men" had lived centuries before, but they had names as well known to first-century Greeks and Romans as George Washington and Abraham Lincoln are to Americans today. He sought to link the heroes of Greece and Rome, making comparisons. Writing about them as pairs and "parallel lives," Plutarch meant to blunt the sharp stereotypes that were common then of powerful, commercial, practical Rome and scholarly, esthetic Greece, once mighty, but now overtaken. The Lives were designed to encourage mutual respect and bonds between Greeks and Romans. The stories stressed their common heritage. In designing his Lives in such a way, Plutarch sought to forge bonds between Greece and Rome—and in doing so, was taking on what amounted to a bicultural project. The Lives were immensely popular throughout the Roman Empire. They were a revived "hit" in the Elizabethan era. There is no telling how many of Shakespeare's Julius Caesars are being read in classrooms across America on any given day, but the whole story comes, replete with quotations, from Plutarch. Harry Truman claimed his first source of political wisdom came from Plutarch, read to him by his father. Mary Shelley's self-aware monster explains in a beautiful passage how Plutarch has given him humanity. Plutarch's Lives and the Bible were the two most widely read books in America between 1750 and 1900. Epitomes—short, abridged "good parts" in translation—made Plutarch familiar to people of all ages and backgrounds. Plutarch entered European letters and American lore. Pericles, Solon, Alexander, Cicero, Cato, Brutus, Antony, Caesar, and Cleopatra, among others, became symbols to which all educated people referred and made allusions. Some became so well known that they were stock figures in theater and drama, books and treatises, popular speech, and political oratory. The Lives were more than a handbook of public leadership, although they were that. Before Sigmund Freud, psychology, and self-help books, for many generations and countless people, Plutarch provided a guide to probity and time-honored clues to a successful life. Plutarch admired steadiness and condemned rashness, illustrating its perils repeatedly though his examples. As he tells his stories, he comments on the attitudes, personalities, styles, manners, winning ways, and character defects that animate the great and move them toward success or failure. In his life of Pericles, the great Athenian leader who had lived 500 years before, Plutarch reflected on the intricacies of writing history and biography: So very difficult a matter is it to trace and find out the truth of anything by history, when, on the one hand, those who afterwards write it find long periods of time intercepting their view, and, on the other hand, the contemporary records of any actions and lives, partly through envy and ill-will, partly through favour and flattery, pervert and distort truth. From the Renaissance to modern times, kings and courtiers read Plutarch for guidance on conduct and public affairs. In time, people of all backgrounds and classes read Plutarch for self-improvement, for self-help, and for insight into human character. Plutarch had an enormous influence on the 18th-century revolutions. George Washington modeled himself on Plutarch's old heroes, and Napoleon considered the Lives a manual of military and civil rule. Regarding character formation, Plutarch may be ancient, but he is far from musty. The Lives offer role models that are truly timeless. Plutarch may enrich lessons in social studies, government, ancient and modern history, biography, and literature. Let's examine some of these applications. Plutarch and the Founders In the late 18th century, spurred by classical ideas, Americans established a republican government modeled on Greek and Roman principles. This was a form of government that cherished liberty, using ancient models to try to reform government, protect individuals, advance liberty, and constrain tyranny. As Brown University historian Gordon S. Wood observes, "Such classicism was not only a scholarly ornament of educated Americans; it helped to shape their values and their ideals of behavior." Classicism was filtered through the experience of the Enlightenment, inspiring leaders in American thought and culture for several generations. For Americans, the "traits of character most praised were classical ones" and the classics were "crucial to their attempt to understand the moral and social basis of politics." Eighteenth-century American revolutionaries were looking for keys to successful government. In an age of kings, republican examples were few. The American Founders wanted to protect citizens against monarchical rule. For the Founders, the ancient opponents of tyranny and monarchy portrayed in Plutarch's Lives provided illustrations of heroism. In addition, the revolutionaries admired antiquity's unprecedented achievements in political order ("government by the governed"), especially Roman models of law and jurisprudence ("the rule of law"). These, said the Founders, were the foundations of enlightened liberalism, and as such, deserved popular respect and knowledge. The Greeks and Romans had debated and developed the principles of justice, the rule of law, and due process over the course of centuries, the Americans knew, and what had resulted were the first versions of democracy and citizenship. Plutarch's account of Cato the Younger, adapted by the great 18th-century playwright Joseph Addison, impressed George Washington as did no other classical story. To spur morale, he produced the play for his troops at Valley Forge. Facing the encroaching Caesar and his split forces, in the Addison version, Cato makes the following speech on liberty: The hand of fate is over us, and heav'n Exacts severity from all our thoughts: It is not now a time to talk of aught But chains or conquest; liberty or death. As his fate is sealed, Cato offers his case for freedom and liberty: Alas! my friends! Why mourn you thus? let not a private loss Afflict your hearts. 'Tis Rome requires our tears. The mistress of the world, the seat of empire, The nurse of heroes, the delight of gods, That humbled the proud tyrants of the earth, And set the nations free, Rome is no more. O liberty! O virtue! O my country! The play does not have a Hollywood ending. Cato commits suicide rather than submit to Caesar. He chooses death over surrender, the loss of liberty, and the takeover of his country. Cato's valor in the face of defeat by Caesar was the source of a powerful line of American thinking, one shared by citizens young and old: "Live free or die" and "Give me liberty or give me death." Plutarch met the needs of other eminent Americans as well: His stories of the patriotic Spartan women stirred Abigail Adams, Mercy Otis Warren, and Judith Sargent Murray. And textbook author Noah Webster turned to Plutarch for basic themes in his early American civics and readers, advertising Plutarch's ethics and ideals to later American generations. In Plutarch's moral stories and insights, we may discern the sources and substance of American idealism. Clarifying these ideals helps us grasp the ancient origins of very modern notions of freedom and individuality. By studying Plutarch, students may obtain insight into the foundation of their liberties. The classics are everywhere in the American language, government, and widely held notions of good and bad. Plutarch and Your Students Interested in applying Plutarch's Lives to more than just history courses, the Los Angeles teachers I worked with, who were part of a consortium called Humanitas, sought more inventive applications. They turned to Plutarch's own description of what he sought to take from history: Using history as a mirror I try by whatever means I can to improve my own life and to model it by the standard of all that is best in those whose lives I write. As a result I feel as though I were conversing and indeed living with them; by means of history I receive each one of them in turn, welcome and entertain them as guests and consider their stature and their qualities and select from their actions the most authoritative and the best with a view to getting to know them. What greater pleasure could one enjoy than this or what more efficacious in improving one's own character? And Plutarch's explanation of how he intended to do it: I am not engaged in writing history, but lives. And the most glorious exploits do not always furnish us with the clearest discoveries of virtue or vice in men; sometimes a matter of less moment, an expression or a jest, informs us better of their characters and inclinations, than the most famous sieges, the greatest armaments, or the bloodiest battles. These inquiries into character raise the subject of role models, what Plutarch and the 18th-century revolutionaries in North America and France called exempla virtutis (examples of virtue). Plutarch gives plenty of insight into psychology and what makes people tick, especially political leaders. Plutarch's moral narratives, contrasting as they do with some contemporary mores, can act as sharp foils in classroom discussions about ideals and role models. Plutarch assumed that personalities were shaped by example. Role models affected the development of attitudes—habits of thought and action—that lasted a lifetime. Said Plutarch tartly, "if you live with a lame man, you will learn to limp." In a complex effort meant to entertain and edify, Plutarch provided historical models to his readers designed to free them, to continue the tart metaphor, from the lame. In his annals of greatness, Plutarch emphasized bravery, endurance, generosity, and constancy. He praised simplicity in manners, love of beauty and liberty, and patriotism. As one teacher remarked during the workshop, there is a clear connection between Plutarch-style virtue and the Boy Scout code: Plutarch idealizes trust, loyalty, help, friendship, courtesy, kindness, obedience, and more. According to his eminent translator Arthur Clough, Plutarch's "interest is less for politics and the changes of empires, and much more for personal character and individual actions and motives to action; duty performed and rewarded; arrogance chastised, hasty anger corrected; humanity, fair dealing, and generosity." One teacher who attended the 2006 workshop uses Plutarch in an original way. He builds from Plutarch's construct of the "parallel lives." Plutarch compared the achievements of Greeks and Romans in pairs, for example, Demosthenes and Cicero, making comparisons between men of different centuries to illuminate the constancy of virtue and worthy action over time and in different places. In such a vein, after introducing Plutarch's project, the teacher asks students, in the style of Plutarch, to choose two American figures, one from the 19th and the other from the 20th century, then write an essay that explains their common qualities of style and achievement. Adolescence presents young people with choices about lifestyle and attitude. They'll imitate something: What will it be? By high school, students know that behavior has consequences; they have noble sentiments and face manifold temptations. Contemporary culture tends to rig the contest on behalf of character traits that Plutarch would frown upon. The cultural critic Tyler Cowen observes that different role models capture public attention today: "Entertainers and sports figures have displaced politicians, military leaders, and moral preachers as the most famous individuals in society, and in some cases, as the most admired." Furthermore, he says, "many people seek out whichever role models will validate that behavior…. fans use the famous for their own purposes." Thus, bad behavior by celebrities is not only made to seem glamorous and fun, it is useful for individuals who are attracted to (and looking for excuses to pursue) easy pleasure and anti-social behavior. The workshop teachers agreed that positive role models for students often came from their own families. Some families provide magnificent role models in distressing circumstances. But "good" family values, the teachers observed, are not always dominant in character formation. They noted the modeling power of television and ubiquity of social arrangements that undercut families. The manners and tastes promoted by television have long interested sociologists. In Amusing Ourselves to Death (1985), Neal Postman argued that electronic media increasingly entertain rather than inform, a trend that is having an immense impact on schools and other cultural institutions. What Hollywood often glorifies is rash, showy, adversarial behavior. Bravery and violence go hand in hand. Similarly, Times columnist Maureen Dowd coined the phrase "Hollywood values" to describe the combination of "out-of-control egos, blatant materialism, a dog-eat-dog ethos, and a devotion to pretense" that she thought had become conspicuous features of leadership in American politics. Ever the moralist, Plutarch pitches a different recipe for success and happiness, not only in his Lives but also in his other writing on moral philosophy: Though boys throw stones at frogs in sport, the frogs do not die in sport but in earnest. Good fortune will elevate even petty minds and give them the appearance of a certain greatness and stateliness, as from their high place they look down upon the world; but the truly noble and resolved spirit raises itself, and becomes more conspicuous in times of disaster and ill fortune. Man is neither by birth nor disposition a savage, nor of unsocial habits, but only becomes so by indulging in vices contrary to his nature. A shortcut to riches is to subtract from our desires. The very spring and root of honesty and virtue lie in good education. The wisdom that these maxims are trying to convey is worth exploring and writing about in high school courses. The values contest is perpetual, something faced by each generation. Will tomorrow's model be Tiger Woods or 50 Cent? Plutarch would have an easy time here. He would not hesitate making a choice, describing in graphic language why one values recipe is superior to the other, and what makes a hero and a scoundrel. Nor would he hesitate in arguing that such clarity is exactly what our students need. Gilbert T. Sewall is the president of the Center for Education Studies and director of the American Textbook Council in New York City. Previously, he was a university professor, an education editor at Newsweek, and a high school history teacher. Plutarch for the Sound-Bite Generation (extended web version) Can Plutarch Regain Popularity? By Roger Kimball

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Though she did not consider herself a philosopher, she had a significant influence on both feminist existentialism and feminist theory. De Beauvoir wrote novels, essays, biographies, autobiography and monographs on philosophy, politics and social issues. She was known for her treatise The Second Sexa detailed analysis of women's oppression and a foundational tract of contemporary feminism ; and for her Simone de beauvoir biography yahoo Simone de beauvoir biography yahoo dating including She Came to Stay and The Mandarins. She was also known for her lifelong relationship with French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre. Simone de Beauvoir was born in Paris on 9 January De Beauvoir herself was deeply religious as a child, at one point intending to become a nun. She lost her faith in her mid teens and remained an atheist for the rest of her life. De Beauvoir was intellectually precocious, fuelled by her father's encouragement; he reportedly would boast, "Simone thinks like a man! 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She grew fond of Olga. Sartre tried to pursue Olga but she rejected him, so he began a relationship with her sister Wanda. Upon his death, Sartre was still supporting Wanda. He also supported Olga for years, until she met and Simone de beauvoir biography yahoo dating Jacques-Laurent Bosta lover of de Beauvoir. In the novel, set just before the outbreak of World War IIde Beauvoir creates one character from the complex Simone de beauvoir biography yahoo dating of Olga and Wanda. Came to Stay was followed by Simone de beauvoir biography yahoo dating others, including The Blood of Otherswhich explores the nature of individual responsibility, telling a love story between two young French students participating in the Resistance in World War II. She continued her exploration of existentialism through her second essay The Ethics of Ambiguity ; it is perhaps the most accessible entry into French existentialism. In the essay, de Beauvoir clears up some inconsistencies that many, Sartre included, have found in major existentialist works such as Being and Nothingness. In The Ethics of Ambiguityde Beauvoir confronts the existentialist dilemma of absolute freedom vs. De Beauvoir used Les Temps Modernes to promote her own work and explore her ideas on Simone de beauvoir biography yahoo dating small scale before fashioning essays and books. De remained an editor Simone de beauvoir biography yahoo dating her death. The second volume came a few months after the first in France. Because Parshley had only a basic familiarity with the French language, and a minimal understanding of philosophy he was a professor of biology at Smith Collegemuch of de Beauvoir's book was mistranslated or inappropriately cut, distorting her intended message. Constance Borde and Sheila Malovany-Chevallier produced the first integral translation inreinstating a third of the original work. In the chapter "Woman: Myth and Reality" of The Second Sex de Beauvoir argued that men had made women the "Other" in society by application of a false aura of "mystery" around them. She argued that men used this as an excuse not Simone de beauvoir biography yahoo Simone de beauvoir biography yahoo dating understand women or their problems and not to help them, and that this stereotyping was always done in societies by the group higher in the hierarchy to the group lower in the hierarchy. She wrote that a similar kind of oppression by hierarchy also happened in other categories of identity, such as race, class and religion, but she claimed that it was nowhere more true than with gender in which men stereotyped women and used it as an excuse to organize society into a patriarchy. Women who do not follow the domestic norm are looked down upon in society. The fact that I ask it is in itself significant. A man would never get the notion of writing a book on the peculiar situation of the human male. But if I wish to define myself, I must first of all say: A man never begins by presenting himself as an individual of a certain sex; it goes without saying that he Simone de beauvoir biography yahoo dating a man. Most assuredly the theory of the eternal feminine still has its adherents who will whisper in your ear: De Beauvoir argued that women have historically been considered deviant, abnormal. She said that even Mary Wollstonecraft considered men to be the ideal toward which women should aspire. De Beauvoir said that this attitude limited women's success by Simone de beauvoir biography yahoo dating the perception that they were a deviation from the normal, and were always outsiders attempting to emulate "normality". She believed that for feminism to move forward, this assumption must be set aside. Despite her contributions to the feminist movement, especially the French women's liberation movement, and her beliefs in women's economic independence and equal education, de Beauvoir was initially reluctant to call herself a feminist. She publicly declared herself a Simone de beauvoir biography yahoo dating in in an interview with Le Nouvel Observateur. At the time her adopted daughter, Sylvie Le Bon de Beauvoira philosophy professor, described to the New York Times, de Beauvoir's artistic writing process. Beauvoir wrote every page of her books longhand first and only after hired typists. The book follows the personal lives of philosophers and friends among Sartre's and de Beauvoir's intimate circle, including her relationship with American writer Nelson Algrento whom the book was dedicated. Algren was outraged by the frank way de Beauvoir described their Simone de beauvoir biography yahoo dating experiences in both The Mandarins and her autobiographies. Algren vented his outrage when reviewing American translations of de Beauvoir's work. Much material bearing on this episode in de Beauvoir's life, including her love letters to Algren, entered the public domain only after her death. De Beauvoir wrote popular travel diaries about time spent in the United States and China and published essays and fiction rigorously, especially throughout the s and s. She published several volumes of short stories, including The Woman Destroyedwhich, like some of her other later work, deals with aging. De Beauvoir sided with Sartre and ceased to associate with Merleau-Ponty. In de Beauvoir's later years, she hosted the journal's editorial meetings in her flat and contributed more than Sartre, whom she often had to force to offer his opinions. De Beauvoir also notably wrote a four-volume Simone de beauvoir biography yahoo dating, consisting of: In the s de Beauvoir became active in France's women's liberation movement. She wrote and signed the Manifesto of the ina manifesto that included a list of famous women who claimed to have had an abortion, then illegal in France. Some argue Simone de beauvoir biography yahoo dating of the women had not had abortions, including Beauvoir. Inabortion was legalised in Her long essay La Vieillesse The Coming Simone de beauvoir biography yahoo dating Age is a rare instance of an Simone de beauvoir biography yahoo dating meditation on the decline and solitude all humans experience if they do not die before about the age of In an interview with Betty Friedande Beauvoir said: No woman should be authorised to stay at home to bring up her children. Society should be totally different. Women should not have that choice, precisely because if there is such a choice, too many women will make that one. It is a way of forcing women in a certain direction. In the opening of Adieuxde Beauvoir notes that it is the only major work of hers which Sartre did not read before its publication. She contributed the piece "Feminism — alive, well, and in constant danger" to the anthology Sisterhood Is Global: After Sartre died inde Beauvoir published his letters to her with edits to spare the feelings of people in their circle who were still living. Most of Sartre's letters available today have de Beauvoir's edits, which include a few omissions but mostly the use of pseudonyms. De Beauvoir died of pneumonia on 14 April in Paris, aged From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For other uses, see Beauvoir disambiguation. This is a Romance language name. The family name is "de Beauvoir", not "Beauvoir". Political philosophy Feminism Ethics. Feminism analytical epistemology ethics existentialism metaphysics Gender equality Gender performativity Social construction of gender Care Ethics Intersectionality Standpoint Theory. Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon. A Simone de beauvoir biography yahoo dating to the Critique of Political Economy. Economic determinism Historical materialism Marx's method Philosophy of nature. Adorno Herbert Marcuse C. Retrieved 9 February Retrieved 11 April Oxford University Press, Retrieved 3 February The New Yorker26 September Retrieved 11 May Philosophy, and FeminismColumbia University Press,p.

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The Wording of the Thing Buddhism is full of abstractions, terms that lend themselves to multiple translations, conceptual reformulations and biases. Ridding ourselves of the temptation to indulge in intangibles and absolutes is essential for an honest revaluation of Buddhism in the West and this is especially so when considering enlightenment. The way we talk about it must be examined carefully if we are to make sense of what it alludes to and the first step involves examining the terminology commonly used to define the thing. If the act of achieving some form of spiritual enlightenment is a genuine and worthwhile human attainment, then it must be definable outside of a religious or spiritual tradition’s idiom. The type of language that is used to describe spiritual enlightenment is too often bombastic, supernatural, and out of touch with people’s experience within the traditions. What’s more, enlightenment is often described as ineffable, which opens it up to all manner of interpretation, and basically implies that such a possibility is beyond examination, leading back to the dead end of trust in wiser authorities and their spiritual capital, leading to a hierarchical a division between those who know and those that don’t. Rather than blind faith, I would suggest that we need a clearer way of talking about the thing. Rather than dismissive assertions that it is something beyond words, we can start by looking at some of the key terms within Buddhism used to define enlightenment and see what they are actually pointing to. The language and terminology we use daily, as well as in our attempts to explain uncommon experience, are shaped by the linguistic habits we have digested and habituated through the common discourse we have with others, with our descriptions and ways of talking about the inanimate world and with ourselves through our inner-dialogue as the chatter of consciousness. The same is true at the collective level. Groups however small or large develop their own internal dialects that shape, condition, open and limit the scope of discourse. As Edward Sapir the linguist observed: ‘We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation.’[i] As far as Buddhism is concerned, it was likely DT Suzuki that first made this English word more widely known as a translation for bodhi or nirvana in the 1930s, although at the time he was translating his own Zen tradition’s term for the thing, satori. This is important for two reasons; firstly, Suzuki was drawing on scholarly texts on Buddhism written by Westerners that had already adopted the term in the previous century. Secondly, it planted the idea of enlightenment as an instantaneous, radical, almost miraculous thing, in the minds of those Westerners hearing about this religion, from the romanticised East, for the first time from a native. The idea stuck in the western imagination and the word has been ever present since. Enlightenment was not actually coined as a noun in English until the 1660s. In spite of there being much better translations, enlightenment persists as the most widespread term used to translate both bodhi (Sanskrit and Pali) and nirvana (Sanskrit), nibbana (Pali). It is worth beginning with an exploration of the term enlightenment to see whether it has any coinage, simply because of its omnipresent status in Buddhists circles and beyond. Spiritual Enlightenment is a term that is primarily considered in its function as an abstract noun, that is to say, an intangible with no grounding in mundane daily experience, which points to why it is open to all manner of interpretation. Enlightenment does exist as a verb (to enlighten), as well as an adjective (enlightening), and therefore can be related to both action and the defining of experience. Dictionary.com provides us with the following definitions: - the act or means of enlightening or the state of being enlightened - Buddhism the awakening to ultimate truth by which man is freed from the endless cycle of personal reincarnations to which all men are otherwise subject - Hinduism a state of transcendent divine experience represented by Vishnu: regarded as a goal of all religion The initial problem with the Buddhism definition is its reference to ‘ultimate truth’ and ‘reincarnation’. The former, like enlightenment, is defined in a variety of ways by Buddhist traditions and is open to as much speculation, the latter is a topic of debate and incredulence in ongoing secular western discourse and is impossible to prove, so remains an ideological proposition. However you take it, resting at this level of interpretation, we are left with vague pointers to insider knowledge and a phenomenon that is beyond validation. Apart from the issues that arise philosophically in building accurate descriptions of what it is that transmigrates, the whole notion of reincarnation risks a sort of romantic idealism that permits us to believe that secretly we will live on after death and somehow remain immortal. Letting go of reincarnation as a necessary marker for defining enlightenment allows us to have a more sober discussion of the immediate significance of achieving Buddhism’s goal as a human affair so reincarnation will be set aside as a possible factor in determining the nature, function and result of the thing. The third definition is interesting for two reasons. The first is that it actually captures a commonly held perception amongst many Buddhists. Secondly, it manages to capture the sort of definition that pushes enlightenment off into the ‘light’ recesses of the unattainable; an abstract elsewhere phenomenon that makes discussing the human experience of it impossible. Switching to the verb, we get the following from Collins Concise Dictionary: - to give information or understanding to; instruct; edify - to free from ignorance, prejudice, or superstition - to give spiritual or religious revelation to - Poetic to shed light on To enlighten is a transitive verb, which means it requires an object. There is an interaction between a doer and a receiver of the act of doing, which implies relationship and potentially, transmission. Points two and three could conceivably play a part in an eventual description of the thing, but they would need to be qualified. Point three is problematic because of the liberal interpretive possibilities regarding the word spiritual. Whereas religious can be clearly defined as in relation to the phenomenon of religion, spiritual leaves us with little to grapple with. What emerges is a shift from the abstract to the more tangible but a multiplicity of interpretation remains. Translation is problematic. Anyone who speaks another language will know all too well how difficult it can be to capture exact meanings when communicating complex or nuanced ideas and how idioms often don’t match up across languages, and therefore cultures. Verbs that are common place in one language may find no true equivalent in a second language, or exist only as a noun. Bodhi has its root meaning in the verbs to awaken or to know. Interestingly, as it was translated into other Asian languages when Buddhism migrated, differences in meaning emerged so that in Japanese we have kak, which means to be aware, and in Tibetan byang chub, which means purified and perfected. The different regional translations of bodhi may have served to highlight an element of bodhi that was more pertinent to the time and social circumstances in which Buddhism was seeded there. Each term may highlight insight gained from those cultures in their own development of their unique expressions of Buddhism and its goal. This would suggest that in the West we ought to do the same and be very clear as to what we are pointing. Initially, I will use awakened as a replacement for enlightenment as it is more tangible and faithful to bodhi’s root meaning. It is also a term that is increasingly used by the alternative dharma movement and can therefore link the work in this text back to those who are unabashed in claiming they have achieved the thing. Such folks include Kenneth Folk, Daniel Ingram, and Shinzen Young. To awaken exists as a verb and noun and relates to everyday experience as well as being a metaphor – we can wake up from physical sleep; we can wake up metaphorically from a state of ignorance. If ignorance is sleep, then to be awake is to cease to be ignorant. Such ignorance needs to be contextualised to mean becoming awake to one’s confusion, patterned habits and behaviour at a subjective level, and to the interconnected networks of relationships in society that lead and encourage people to be asleep to the conditions in which they live. The same applies to knowing. You can come to know how things are. You can explore different fields of knowledge and gain knowledge firsthand. In both cases, there are tangible, replicable processes taking place that can be understood by the individual and spoken of, elaborated and shared. Awakening describes the process of becoming or of awakening into the nature of nirvana. From this there is an initial sense of process rather than a fixed goal. Although nirvana may be associated with the idea of a perfect, blissful existence, it is not attributed such renderings in early Buddhist texts, implying instead the end or completion of practise through extinguishing the self. This appears to imply the annihilation of the self as the hub of human existence, but which self is eradicated? The loss of a self-existing, atomised-self cannot mean total annihilation of the person after all, otherwise the possibility of an awakened individual communicating with the world would never have be possible. If nirvana means the shedding of that which causes suffering, then there is a conflict with the body and our material existence. The notion of non-existence taken to its logical end means the body is the final piece to dissolve and decay before the evaporation of the embodied self. Meanwhile, the body, made of flesh and bone, is subject to the processes of erosion and decay that afflict all physical matter whilst existing in between the dichotomy of pleasure and pain. Physical suffering is an inevitable result of physical existence, so the suffering that can feasibly be eliminated during embodied existence is emotional and psychological, but not all suffering in all senses. To awaken from the suffering-self in practical terms must be concerned primarily with the psychological and emotional dimensions of being and their liberation from the characteristics of the suffering-self. Death is revered in Buddhism and typically signifies the completion of the path of awakening and an opportunity to embrace liberation, or final release, but is it a release into non-existence? Turning off the light seems to mean just that when nirvana’s original meaning is explored. Although an honest reading of nirvana’s significance may lend itself to eventual nihilism, agnosticism may be a more honest position to take and one that reflects later Mahayana emphasis on buddhahood and the returning of the awakened individual in order to free other beings from the cycles of the suffering-self and collective ignorance that sustains it. We still have no idea what consciousness really is and to assume it evaporates at the moment of death is to display an act of faith. Either way, what is of primary importance is this life and our commitment to the world we inhabit for it is only there that change can occur. The issue for those who take Buddhism’s claims seriously is to avoid holding out hope. An investment in the notion of buddhahood as supernatural being acts as a sort of cushion from the fear of being ultimately inconsequential and of the figurative and literal turning to dust which awaits our physical form and constructed self. Aside from being an act of faith, belief in nihilism seems to lead too often to hopelessness. We are not truly isolated, we are not truly atomised, and as consciousness inhabits an organic form in an organic environment, all of our acts are participatory and it is in participation that something meaningful may occur with the brief life we have. Motivation is distorted by the belief in continuation of the self and the nihilistic sense of meaninglessness, the wise choice being that we commit fully to this life in its finitude. To remain incarnate is to do so as a creature that experiences itself as part of an ongoing collective existence and to awaken may free a person from the networks of the suffering-self as they exist within the collective but not isolate that person from those networks. Since the individual continues to exist as a human being, which is to say, is embodied and finite, the capacity to function in relationship to the world, the living animate creatures and inanimate objects that inhabit it must remain. Is it possible that extinguishing the flame may thus involve birthing the individual into an ongoing experience of consciousness in which the atomised self no longer operates as a distinct operational force concerned with self-preservation? Taking this line of thought is problematic. I acknowledge this. It highlights how notions such as buddhanature may have evolved and how such a concept seems to imply some greater intelligence which is merged with and acted from. An alternative is to take the notion of extinguishing to be literal, but that would imply that bodhi is only possible at the point of death, or that one commits some form of suicide. A further option is that we are part of a collective, a single species or entity that manifests itself through the multiplicity of human births in an evolutionary spiral towards some unfathomable goal. Perhaps it too easily becomes clear why metaphysics is not a central concern of earlier Buddhisms. These lines of thought are problematic and rather than take Buddhist doctrine literally, or speculate on unanswerable questions, I will take it as possible to awaken to our all too human condition, to reduce self-referential suffering that based around an atomised self and that such a project does have value and should be made more accessible to those who are non-religious. The ontological issues emerging in this section are part of the motivation for exploring this topic phenomenologically. Dismantling the phantom-I Nirvana needs to be qualified, for we can only make sense of the world by giving it form and relating ideas to practice. Here it will mean the dismantling (extinguishing) of the structures and modalities of self that lead to psychological and emotional suffering and that surround the ‘phantom-I’. We go through a self-making process following lines of becoming once we emerge into the world after birth. These lines are multiple and interwoven, consisting of; - the education system - societal values and norms (held within the prominent social symbols and dominant narratives) - ethnocentric concerns regarding power, race - class identity - the accompanying distortion of emotional and sexual expression that mark out the clan/s we participate in and stand against - the warping of our senses in order to adapt to the ideological lines that run through the dominant model of becoming that we are woven into To peel away the conditioning that we adopt from these lines means gaining increasing clarity about the empty nature of the phantom-I and our identification with a false stable core. Nirvana signifies ending the unconscious influence of these insidious forces, gaining insight into their structures and impulsive attraction and robbing them of their psychic hold. In this way, they begin to falter and their vacuousness becomes increasingly evident. At that moment, a symbolic resorting occurs and a new symbolic order becomes possible: one in which suffering is reduced and spaciousness begins to fill experience and allow room for creativity. Dukkha is intimately related with bodhi and is probably best understood as an umbrella term for a variety of negative human experiences, most commonly translated as suffering. Some attempts have been made to find an alternative single worded translation with ‘dissatisfaction’ being perhaps the most well-known. Another alternative provided by the well-known Secular Buddhist Stephen Batchelor is anguish, which he elaborates in his Buddhism without Beliefs. Any attempt at simplification though leaves out important elements of the concept of dukkha and although it is cumbersome to do so, indicating the range of afflictions that are encompassed within the term is vitally important. This is especially so as such a concept is the starting place of most forms of Buddhism through the teaching of the Four Truths. Furthermore, having a more complete sense of the meaning and significance of dukkha is vital to meditative practice. As an umbrella term Dukkha might include the following: emotional and psychological pain and discomfort, confusion, unhappiness, dissatisfaction, the feeling or sensation of being incomplete, of being separate from experience, from the world and from others, the loss of what you have, separation from what you desire, frustration, depression, anxiety and existential loss. Further nuances could be added but this brief list develops the concept of dukkha beyond suffering as pain to include existential suffering, deep confusion about what and how we exist and relate to the world, and that perennial sense of things not being quite right, or complete. As these forms of subjective suffering centre on a false self, I shall use the following phrase ‘the suffering-self’ to encompass all of the above forms of dukkha, but please do not consider this self to be only the individual’s affliction. It is helpful to consider these faces of suffering as shared realities that are a feature of our embeddedness in lines of interbeing, rather than referents to an isolated you or I. [i] Edward Sapir’s most famous quote: http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/000131.html

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Update to the Story on the G2 Cloud’s Approach to the Galactic Core Recent observations of the G2 cloud made in the near infrared at the Keck Observatory indicate that the G2 cloud will reach its closest approach to the Galactic center around mid March of 2014 instead of June of this year. In their paper preprint, astronomers Phifer, et al. place the date of the G2 cloud’s closest encounter with the Galactic core at somewhere between the end of January 2014 and the beginning of May 2014 with a median date of mid March. Moreover they estimate that G2’s orbit will take the cloud twice as close to the GC than previously thought. The distance of closest approach is now predicted to be 130 astronomical units (AU) rather than 266 AU, as previously thought. See Astrobites Synopsis The revised trajectory for the G2 cloud dramatically increases the chances that a star hidden within the cloud might have companion stars or planets ripped from it by tidal forces and ultimately consumed by the core. Since tidal force varies as the inverse cube of distance from a massive celestial body, this means that the G2 cloud will be subjected to tidal forces 8.5 times greater than previously estimated. Also since the radiation flux from the Galactic core varies as the inverse square of radial distance, the G2 cloud and its hidden star will be subject to a cosmic ray energy flux and galactic wind energy flux 4 times greater than previously supposed. Another factor disrupting an embedded star or planet is the celestial body’s internal genic energy flux which depends on the value of the ambient gravity potential. If the G2 cloud is to approach twice as close to our Galaxy’s supermassive core as had been previously thought, this will cause the genic energy output of embedded planets or stars at pericenter to be twice as large as had previously been estimated. (More will be said about these mechanisms below.) In a Starburst Foundation forum posting made last October, I had presented the possibility that the G2 cloud may harbor a jovian planet or brown dwarf, an idea that had also been suggested by Murray-Clay and Loeb. They proposed that the G2 cloud may contain an unseen low-mass star that is surrounded by a dust and debris accretion disc and that the material in this accretion disc has been evaporated to produce the enveloping G2 cloud as a result of exposure to ionizing radiation or because the accretion disc had been tidally disrupted by previous orbital encounters with the Galactic core. The idea I proposed agrees with their idea of a low mass star or brown dwarf being present. But I believe that the G2 cloud was generated because the contained star or planet has been expelling its atmosphere due to an enormous amount of internal heating it is currently undergoing. Although some of the generated G2 nebula could have come from evaporation of a disc of material orbiting the star, I believe that the main contributor is the atmosphere of the embedded star or planet. Currently, the idea that the G2 cloud may have an embedded mass has gained more widespread acceptance following the discovery that the cloud is very compact, only about 100 AU in length. In fact this past March, astronomers Scoville and Burkert posted a paper in which they suggest that the G2 cloud may contain a 2 solar mass T Tauri star that is undergoing rapid mass loss, thereby generating the surrounding cloud. T Tauri stars have inflated photospheres typically 2 to 4 times the size of our sun and can be up to an order of magnitude overly luminous. Standard astronomical theory considers a T Tauri star to be an early type star that is accreting gas from its immediate environment to become a main sequence star. But, it is generally recognized that the region within a few light years of the Galactic core is too disruptive to allow star formation and growth through gas accretion. Scoville and Burkert do not address this problem. They do not explain how in such a turbulent environment a star could be surrounded by an accretion disc for long enough to allow it to develop into a T Tauri star. In my opinion, their suggestion is correct that the embedded star could resemble a T Tauri star whose photosphere is very expanded, overly luminous and in the process of discharging a large quantity of gas. However their suggestion that this process is fueled by matter accretion from a protoplanetary accretion disc, I believe, is off the mark. The real cause of the generation of the G2 cloud is the star’s entry into the unique Galactic core environment and the consequent stellar heating that occurs there. It has nothing to do with the star accreting a disc of debris that it may have transported with it on its inward journey. The T Tauri star idea that these astronomers have proposed in many respects resembles what I had suggested in my forum posting last October. I had proposed that the G2 cloud may contain a brown dwarf having a mass of 50 Jupiter masses which has inflated to as much as 3 times the diameter of the Sun and is undergoing a high rate of mass loss as a result of the internal heating. As I explained in my earlier posting, a star approaching the Galactic core would behave as a T Tauri star (would be radially expanded, overluminous, and outgassing its atmosphere to generate the surrounding G2 cloud) because of the enormous amount of genic energy it would be producing internally and because of the large cosmic ray flux it would be intercepting from the GC. In fact, in my opinion, any star approaching close to the GC would be expected to outgas and generate a compact ionized gas cloud similar to the G2 cloud. Of course, the genic energy concept is not widely known in mainstream science in spite of its predictive success. But, knowledge of this mechanism makes all the difference in being able to understand what is currently transpiring within the G2 cloud, and what will continue to transpire as the G2 cloud approaches pericenter in March 2014. Scoville and Burkert also suggest that the ion wind that is continuously emitted from the Galactic core impacts the G2 cloud and compresses it inward on this upwind side to form a bow shock around the star, the front of this shock reaching inward to as close as 13 AU from the embedded stellar mass. They estimate the entire G2 cloud to have a length of 100 AU and to reside mostly on the downwind side of the star. It should look similar to the cloud shown in this video below. Animation showing a star with accretion disc embedded inside a knot of dust. (courtesy of NASA and the James Webb Space Telescope) Now, with the recent prediction that the G2 cloud should actually approach to within 130 AU of the core, we see that the cloud’s diameter is about as large as its closest distance of approach to the core. In the model of Scoville and Burkert, there is a 100% certainty that the cloud will become accreted onto the Galactic core. They find that all gas in the G2 cloud that is lies more than 1 to 3 AU from the star will be tidally stripped away, resulting in an accretion of up to 0.1 earth masses onto the Galactic core. I predict that the energy output and mass loss rate of the embedded star will rise substantially in the next 10 months as the G2 cloud approaches its orbital pericenter and will result in far greater accretion onto the core than predicted by Skoville and Burkert. The total gas accretion onto the core may perhaps be as great as half an earth mass. However, this alone would produce at most a 50% average rise in the energy output from the core (Sgr A*) over perhaps several months time. As mentioned in my earlier posting, in 2001 the core was observed to produce a much larger magnitude increase in energy flux of about 3 fold over a period of one hour without any serious consequence to the Earth. [April 16, 2014 update: No rise in X-ray emission from the core has been detected as of now. This implies that the cosmic ray and gas wind from the core is so intense that it prevents any of gas stripped away from the G2 cloud from falling into the core.] The real danger is if the G2 cloud contains not one star, but two. That is, there is the possibility that the cloud may harbor a close binary star system consisting of a primary star orbited by a lesser massive companion star or of a star orbitted by one or more jovian planets. Current observations cannot exclude this possibility since dust obscuration prevents us from peering very deep into the G2 cloud. This binary star/planetary system scenario would look something like that seen in the video below. The dust and gas being dispersed to form the G2 cloud would be coming not only from a possible planetary disc around the star, but also from the central star itself and from any planets that may be orbiting it since planets would be actively expelling their atmospheres as well. Animation showing a photo-evaporating debris-laden planetary disc that surrounds a star and generates its circumstellar nebula. (courtesy of ESA and M. Kornmesser) It is known that a very high percentage of stars in our Galaxy are either binary star systems or are single stars orbited by jovian planets. Hence there is a high probability that the G2 cloud may harbor such a multi-body system. If this is the case, there is the danger that the Galactic core may tidally strip away and consume the system’s lower-mass companion star or one or more of the star’s planets at the time of pericenter passage of the core. For example, a one solar mass star similar to the Sun would have a tidal radius of 0.5 to 1 AU at its orbital pericenter which means that any stellar companions, planets, or debris orbiting at radii greater than this could be tidally stripped away from their orbit about the primary star and ultimately be pulled into the galactic core. In the case where an entire 100 jupiter mass brown dwarf were to plunge into the Galactic core in one discrete event, the energy release would be equivalent to that released in a hypernova, the most powerful of known supernova exposions (~1053 ergs). This could be enough to jump-start the Galactic core into a Seyfert state and generate a potentially lethal superwave. If this amount of energy were delivered within the space of one day, this would release energy at the rate of 1048 erg per second, giving a luminosity one hundred thousand times greater than the cosmic ray luminosity estimated to currently be coming from Sgr A* (based on my estimate of 1043 ergs/s — see Subquantum Kinetics), and equivalent to the luminosity radiated by the active core in a Seyfert galaxy. We will know if such a scenario is going to occur by closely monitoring the G2 cloud. As the cloud nears pericenter, if we see it appear to divide and spawn off a subcloud that begins rapidly accelerating directly toward the Galactic core, we will know this worst case scenario is about to occur. This subcloud will contain within it the binary companion star or jovian planet that has been tidally stripped off from the parent star. At this point we will have about four to five months two months before its possible impact on the core, at which point an exceedingly bright gamma ray burst and cosmic ray spike will be detected on Earth, far greater than any we have seen until now. The superwave will have arrived at our doorstep, possibly heralded by earthquakes occurring a few days before. [April 16, 2014 update: The estimate previously given here of there being a two month delay from the date of cloud splitting until possible core impact was in error. The best current estimate without doing actual simulations is 4.5 months.] Stellar Heating Effects in the Vicinity of the Galactic Core A one solar mass star that approaches to within 130 AU of the Milky Way’s supermassive galactic core will be subject to a gravity potential field that is 1485 times the surface gravity potential that such a star would generate due to its own mass, and about 186 times the average value of the gravity potential in its interior. In a one solar mass star that is distant from the Galactic center, I have estimated that about 12% of its total energy output is in the form of genic energy, the remaining 88% arising from nuclear fusion. When that same star is brought to within 130 AU of the Galactic core, its genic energy output will rise 186 fold causing it to exceed its former luminosity by 23 fold! Due to this rise in luminosity, the star’s diameter would expand until it reached perhaps 4 times its former size. Figure 1 shows how the luminosity of a one solar mass star embedded within the G2 cloud would increase as it progressively approached its orbital pericenter. The red curve is the star’s excess luminosity due to its increase in genic energy output and the blue curve is the star’s total excess luminosity where we add in also energy the star receives due to heating of its interior by incident Galactic core cosmic rays. If the embedded star were a 100 Jupiter mass red dwarf, its luminosity which normally would be about 0.09% of the sun’s luminosity would soar 2,500 times to 2.3 solar luminosities. So in this close vicinity to the Galactic core, stars would be rapidly losing their atmospheres, even if they were below their Eddington Limit. In a forum posting made last October, I had warned of this stellar mass loss effect which could generate large quantities of gas which could ultimately fall into the Galactic core. The new orbital trajectory for the G2 cloud substantially enhances this danger.

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Battery power may have seemed like the future of the automotive sector when William Morrison, a Scottish inventor, debuted his electric car prototype at a parade in Des Moines, Iowa, in 1888. At the time, the gasoline-powered vehicles entering the market were bizarre, finicky things. They were noisy, emitted a strange odour and required a crankshaft to start the engine. Drivers complained that shifting gears was a nuisance. It wasn’t until Henry Ford began mass-producing the Model T, first released in 1908, that the internal combustion engine (ICE) became the cheaper option for consumers. The ICE would go on to dominate the marketplace for more than a century, leaving a deep imprint on everything from the structure of the global economy to the modern design of cities. But that dominance could finally be diminishing, in part due to a surge in electric vehicle (EV) sales from automakers such as Nissan Motor Co. Ltd., General Motors Co. and Tesla Inc. Improved battery technology and incrementally lower costs for EVs has in turn propelled the theory of peak oil demand, in which the world’s thirst for oil will soon stop growing, or even taper off. Companies that generate revenues by digging up and processing the fossil fuel are left to ponder an uncomfortable question: Could the oil industry’s rapid rise end in an equally rapid fall? Opinions on the potential of EVs widely range from dismissive naysayers to devout believers. But their growing clout has nonetheless raised questions in the oilpatch over what a shrinking market would mean, particularly for the Canadian oilsands where investor returns take longer than in other regions. Industry observers say the answer is not entirely clear, especially at a time when it is difficult to separate EV hype from hard data. “The indicators are contradicting the headlines right now,” said Peter Tertzakian, executive director at Arc Energy Research Institute in Calgary. Oil is still among the largest power sources on Earth, accounting for 30 per cent of total energy consumption, alongside coal (30 per cent) and natural gas (24 per cent). Even a sharp decrease in demand for the ICE wouldn’t outright destroy the oil market: only about half of the 97 million barrels of oil the world consumes every day are used for land-based transportation fuels. The rest is used as feedstock in petrochemical plants, jet fuel, bunker fuel, lubricants, heating oil and other products. Some oil executives in Calgary’s corporate headquarters dismiss peak demand theory, or at least see it as too far away to garner any deep consideration. But some major oilsands players, including Suncor Energy Inc. and Cenovus Energy Inc., are envisioning — though not especially fearfully — their business models in a “carbon-constrained” world. “We do believe that oil demand will likely start to peak within 20-30 years at a level that is higher than today, and although demand will decline thereafter, we expect oil will still be needed for decades,” Suncor’s chief executive Steve Williams said. Oilsands players have collectively made notable improvements in reducing carbon emissions and other pollutants in recent years. Canadian Natural Resources Ltd., Canada’s largest oil and gas producer by production volume, cut back its overall emissions intensity by 5.6 per cent in 2015 compared to 2014. Suncor cut its emissions by nine per cent during the same period. The company hopes to cut its overall emissions intensity 30 per cent by 2030, according to its most recent sustainability report to stakeholders. Even so, the oilsands are still among the most energy-intensive supplies on the planet, and some analysts wonder if Canada’s heavy oil producers will be the first victims of more rigorous climate change policies. “We know that Canadian oilsands are quite carbon intensive, so they could come under pressure there,” said Paul McConnell, an analyst at Wood Mackenzie based in London. Since mid-2014, persistently lower commodity prices have helped ready oil and gas producers for a peak demand scenario. Big oilsands companies, as well as smaller conventional producers, have pared costs by drastically reducing their labour forces and moving toward leaner production models. Unlike the early 2000s, a peak demand scenario would mean that fewer new sources of supply would be needed and less often. “When you have a plateauing of demand, you’re going to have an environment where price spikes and things like that diminish,” Tertzakian said. Big multinational producers, analysts say, would forgo megaprojects in favour of incremental developments to keep competitive in a shrinking market. This is already taking place to some degree: companies including Imperial Oil Ltd., Husky Energy Inc. and Suncor are building smaller, lower-cost “replicated” oilsands facilities that can be built in modest 10,000 barrel-per-day stages and repeated. Large-scale developments, by comparison, were often in the 100,000 bpd range. Those companies, and others, are also testing new technologies to cut costs and reduce their carbon footprints. For example, they are injecting products known as solvents into bitumen reservoirs in order to produce oil using less steam, cutting back the amount of natural gas consumed in the process. They are also installing sensor systems that better predict and monitor choke points and inefficiencies at their facilities, thereby boosting productivity and reducing needless emissions. Every day, there’s a new technology being studied in our officesGrant Fagerheim, chief executive of Whitecap Resources Conventional producers across Western Canada are lowering their per-barrel costs by tweaking old technologies, such as improving their ability to inject high-pressure water into reservoirs to reinvigorate old wells — a process known as “waterflooding.” They are also piloting new ones, like using more automation in drilling and completing wells, and installing higher-sensitivity sensors that allow geologists to drill the “sweet spots” in oil formations. “Every day, there’s a new technology being studied in our offices,” said Grant Fagerheim, chief executive of Whitecap Resources Inc., a light oil producer mostly focused on assets in Alberta and Saskatchewan. But the debate over EV adoption — and the resulting decline in the need for oil — is more a question of when, rather than if. Bloomberg New Energy Finance, a research group, estimates electric vehicles will become cost competitive with the ICE on an unsubsidized basis as early as 2025. Even under such a scenario, however, some argue that rising populations in places such as Nigeria, India and Indonesia could counter any gains in EV adoption in the Western world. Moreover, a plateau in oil demand around 2025-2030 would hardly eliminate the market for oil. “That still leaves us with a staggering 100-million-barrel-per-day consumption at that time,” Tertzakian said. In the near term, EV adoption will be gradual. Globally, there are about one billion small-to-mid-size vehicles on the road today, with about 80 million new vehicles sold every year. Even if every new car sold today were electric, it would take more than a decade to displace the entire global fleet. “I’m very cautious about saying more rapid adoption can’t happen, because we don’t know what the technologies are going to look like in 2025 or 2030,” Tertzakian said. “But the near-term trajectories do not really support a rapid substitution over the course of the next decade.” Longer-term projections become much less certain — and could shift much more rapidly. The International Energy Agency predicts that 54 per cent of new vehicles sales will be electric by 2040, and EVs will make up 33 per cent of the global fleet. If major centres for electric vehicle sales such as China begin buying EVs en masse, the world could see a more radical shift in the demand for oil, effectively eliminating a massive portion of the oil market in a matter of years. The quicker adoption of electric vehicles essentially depends on two factors: battery technology and public policy. Developing the ideal battery for an electric car is a tenuous balance between cost, safety and energy density, said Linda Nazar, a professor at the University of Waterloo in Ontario who is among the country’s leading researchers of battery technology. Researchers have for years been altering the physical components of batteries in order to maximize their capabilities, creating different combinations of nickel, manganese, cobalt, aluminum and other metals to find more efficient flows of ions between a positive and negative electrode (the basic process by which batteries operate). But finding the right mix is a painstakingly slow process. A cheaper battery might be less efficient, while a safer and more stable battery might have lower energy efficiency. “Generally, you have to make compromises,” Nazar said. But realizing that next step change in efficiency, some believe, is the crucial link in the mass adoption of electric vehicles. The other main factor will be policy change. The U.K., France and some small European countries have already pledged to ban petrol and diesel-based cars over the next few decades. Many others, from China to Canada, have pledged to put regulations or incentives in place to boost EV sales. However, critics say many such proclamations are not accompanied by hard policy changes. And in the absence of incentives, sales appear to dry up: Tesla sales plummeted when Hong Kong authorities scrapped a tax break on EVs in February 2017. The removal of the incentive nearly doubled the retail cost of a Tesla Model S. But if voters continue to favour tighter environmental policy to wean the economy off oil, EV sales are bound to surge if consumer incentives are offered and charging networks are expanded. That would bring about a radically different world than the one oil producers have enjoyed for more than 100 years, and will put a hard cap on an industry that has spent most of its time growing. In the meantime, oil producers are likely to continue incrementally cutting costs and reducing their carbon footprint, grudgingly preparing for a peak demand scenario, but hoping oil’s century-long reign will hold course. You can read more of the news on source

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Electronic Structure and Properties of Palladium and its Alloys Electronic Structure and Properties of Palladium and its Alloys At a Conference held in April at the University of Leeds, organised by Professor F. E. Hoare and Professor J. S. Dugdale, a number of papers were presented and discussed on the subject of the electronic structure and properties of palladium, platinum and their alloys. The greater part of proceedings dealt with palladium, and in this article the author summarises and reviews the discussion. Palladium is not ferromagnetic, not anti-ferromagnetic and not superconducting, but no one could call it a normal metal. If we exclude manganese and plutonium, there is no metal that exerts so powerful a fascination over anyone who has ever been concerned with its nature and properties; and since no one therefore can be impartial with respect to various theories of these it must be emphasised that this report on the Conference is a personal view. After the pioneer work of Mott in the 1930s, palladium took up the role of the archetypical transition metal, that is one in which a narrow d -band containing some empty states was overlapped by a broad free-electron like s -band which dominated the conductivity. Since it is not ferromagnetic it was felt to be simpler than nickel, which it otherwise seemed to resemble as closely as or more closely than the Periodic Table would lead us to expect; and although this also meant that magnetisation evidence for the number of empty d -states was lacking, there was much indirect evidence (especially from alloys) to support the view that this number was close to the 0.6 per atom found for nickel. Discussions of magnetic properties were based on the high density of d -band states at the Fermi energy (indicated by the large value of the linear term in the low temperature specific heat), while the electrical properties were believed to be explicable in terms of s -like current carriers being scattered predominantly to d -like states. Much of this picture has recently been called into doubt. The de Haas-van Alphen data of Vuillemin and Priestly seem to require a number close to 0.36 for the s -electrons (and hence for the d -holes), galvanomagnetic data make a very large difference in s -electron and d -hole effective masses unlikely, and the very recent theories of persistent spin fluctuations of Doniach, Schrieffer and their co-workers imply that these make the traditional interpretation of the low temperature specific heat very uncertain. This last point should not be regarded as purely hypothetical, for experimental studies of the effects of magneticmoment-bearing impurities by susceptibility, neutron scattering, and paramagnetic resonance techniques have agreed in indicating that exchange interaction effects in the d -band of palladium can by no means be regarded as a small perturbation, and hence low-lying excitations of a non single-particle type must be considered. The Conference had as its aim an examination of the new situation and as its achievement a reconciliation of much of the traditional view with the new theories and results. It seemed as if the final doubts of those who hesitated to believe in ‘paramagnons’ (the name given to the persistent spin fluctuations) crumbled before the elegant experimental and theoretical work on their effects as scatterers of conduction electrons presented by Dr A. I. Schindler (U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington and Imperial College) and Dr M. J. Rice (Imperial College). Energy Band Structures Since it is now possible for one theoretician to make calculations of energy band structures for metals that others will believe, the Conference began with a survey by Dr W. M. Lomer (AERE) of the calculations that have been made for palladium and platinum. He emphasised the large maximum in the density of states near the top of the d -band found in these calculations, the role of spinorbit coupling which removes certain degeneracies between the different branches of the d -band, and the possibility that peculiar features in the Fermi surface might follow from the closeness in energy of certain points in the Brillouin zone to the Fermi surface. Dr G. Leman (Orsay and Lille) presented details of his calculations using tight-binding methods with special reference to their significance for the magnetic susceptibility and its maximum as a function of temperature; and Dr O. K. Anderson (Copenhagen) gave details of his and Professor Mackintosh’s relativistic Augmented Plane Wave calculation with special reference to the form of the three portions of the Fermi surface – one s -electron surface, one open d -hole surface (heavy holes) and one closed d -hole surface (light holes). In this last calculation an electronic specific heat was calculated which requires an enhancement factor (of a type to be discussed later) of 1.7 to give agreement with the experimental value of 9.4T millijoules/mole.deg. Fermi Surface Studies This last theoretical contribution followed a survey by Dr Priestley (Bristol) of the current status of experimental information about the Fermi surfaces of palladium and platinum, including his own de Haas-van Alphen studies, galvanomagnetic work by Alexeevski and recent low temperature de Haas-van Alphen work at the Argonne Laboratory in which the open d -band holes of palladium (which contribute most of the specific heat) have been seen. Models of the Fermi surfaces were shown. A wide range of magnetic measurements on palladium and platinum alloys with 3d transition metals and rare earths was surveyed by Dr J. Crangle (Sheffield), who emphasised the part played by the possible co-existence of both ferro- and antiferromagnetic interactions in solid solutions and ordered compounds. Results for Pd-Mn do not seem to follow the pattern of ferromagnetism at quite small concentrations found for Pd-Fe and Pd-Co. A contribution from Miss M. MacDougall (University of Leeds) presented analyses of data for very dilute Pd-Fe (down to 0.01 per cent Fe), and indicated that Curie temperatures obtained from a treatment of low field magnetisation values are in better agreement with those from resistivity results than those previously reported. Magnetostriction measurements on both para- and ferromagnetic materials were shown by Dr E. Fawcett (Bell) to yield the volume dependence of the susceptibility or magnetisation. Magnetic properties on the atomic scale can be examined by neutron scattering, and Dr G. G. Low (AERE) explained the technique and presented some results for Pd-Fe and Pd-Co. The striking feature of these is that the ‘giant’ moment associated with a solute atom is contributed to by about 200 neighbouring palladium atoms on which a small magnetisation is induced. Interest was expressed in the effects that would be produced on this magnetisation by additions of rhodium to the palladium. The use of nuclear properties of alloys in providing information about charge distributions (from Mössbauer isomer shifts) and local susceptibilities (from nuclear magnetic resonance) was shown by Dr H. Montgomery (Argonne) and Dr C. Froidevaux (Orsay). Some of the new theoretical aspects were then presented. Dr S. Doniach (Imperial College) introduced the ideas of wave-vector and energy dependent susceptibilities and explained how the long range effects in palladium lead one to expect spin fluctuations of long lifetime. These can be responsible for real scattering effects (of neutrons, as discussed later by Dr R. Lowde (AERE) for nickel above its Curie temperature, and electrons) and for renormalisation effects which are seen in enhanced specific heat effective masses. (A great deal of discussion took place at various times during the Conference of the magnitude of this enhancement; the theoretical and experimental consensus being that a factor of much more than two is unlikely for pure palladium, although data of Dr C. A. Mackliet (NRL) for Pd-Ni alloys are strong evidence for significant enhancement. There were also a number of discussions of how far changes in specific heat on alloying should be ascribed to changes in this factor and how far to changes in band structure). Dr J. R. Schrieffer (University of Pennsylvania) considered a number of aspects of spin fluctuation theory, including the role of the specific character of the band structure (Fermi surface multiplicity reduces the calculated mass enhancement) and the opposition provided by spin coupling effects to the establishment of superconductivity. Thermal and Transport Properties Specific heat data play a large part in discussions of both experimental and theoretical results, and Professor E. P. Wohlfarth (Imperial College) indicated the various ways in which the traditional interpretations of γT + βT3 form may require modification because of the partly localised-partly itinerant character of the d -electrons in palladium and the types of spin ordering that can be set up in alloys. He also reminded us that anomalous temperature dependence can be found for the γ of good old-fashioned Bloch electrons if the density of states varies very rapidly with energy. The final session was devoted to transport properties. The writer looked at the history of our view of them and concluded that the frame of the traditional picture could be kept although the objects inside it had changed their form and number, and scattering by paramagnons rather than individual d -electrons was reponsible for the T2 term at low temperatures. Dr D. Greig (University of Leeds) showed thermopower data for alloys that not only fitted the old frame but even the much-abused rigid band model. Paramagnon scattering in electrical resistivity was the subject of theoretical contributions by Dr M. J. Rice (Imperial College) and Dr P. Lederer (Orsay) who, using different models, arrived at remarkable agreement with the results found by Dr Schindler. These results showed a very large and convincing increase in the T2 term as nickel was added to palladium, with a consequent increase in exchange interaction effects.

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Report. Pollution Politics : power, accountability and toxic remnants of war. Waste. September 2014. In the first of two major reports, Aneaka Kellay examines how the weakness of current international humanitarian law allows the generation of conflict pollution that can impact both civilian health and the environment for long after the cessation of hostilities. The report argues that a new mechanism is needed to prevent and remedy environmental damage, to increase accountability and improve post-conflict response and assistance. The executive summary and recommendations are presented below, and the full text can be downloaded from here. Executive summary and recommendations Humanity’s dependency on the environment is unquestionable. Clean air, water and food are essential to survival, therefore civilian protection during and after armed conflict require the effective protection of the environment. Yet this field remains underdeveloped: “Naturally, humanitarian organizations, non-governmental organizations and media tend to focus on and respond to these immediate consequences; for example, the killing of civilians, mistreatment of prisoners, rightly received widespread media attention… although the effects might not be as shocking and immediate, the release of toxic products during armed conflict has grave and long-term impacts on the enjoyment of human rights.” Greater attention is needed on the impact of conflict on people and the environment, and on the legal system that would hold those responsible for damage to account. This report examines: · military practices and conflict pollution, · the relevance and applicability of current legal regimes, · existing accountability mechanisms and the power dynamics between polluters and the polluted, and, · impacts on affected states and the protection of civilians and the environment. What are toxic remnants of war? There is growing recognition by states, militaries and international organisations of the environmental impact of conflict and military practices. The term ‘toxic remnants of war’ (TRW) has been coined to facilitate greater scrutiny of the subject. TRW can be defined as: ‘Any toxic or radiological substance resulting from military activities that forms a hazard to humans and ecosystems.’ In this report, TRW have been categorised as direct or indirect. Direct TRW are an immediate result of military activity. For example, pollution from targeting industrial infrastructure or toxic residue from munitions use. Indirect TRW result from sequences of events or conditions connected to conflict or instability. For example, during the 2003 invasion of Iraq a number of industrial sites were damaged by conflict or simply abandoned. These derelict sites were left unsecured and were subsequently looted, exposing people to highly toxic substances. A frightened villager shows the lid of a barrel that contained ‘yellowcake’ (uranium oxides) taken from the Tuwaitha nuclear facility Iraq. The family used this radioactive barrel to store water and are complaining of rashes and skin problems. The nuclear facility was left unsecured by occupying forces after the fall of Saddam Hussein’s regime. This illustrates the humanitarian impact of indirect TRW. Philip Reynaers / Greenpeace 22.06.2003 International law, environmental protection and the conflict cycle International Humanitarian Law’s (IHL) current inability to prevent most wartime environmental damage is widely acknowledged. Many scholars, together with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), argue that IHL’s provisions for environmental protection in conflict need clarifying and strengthening. The inapplicability of much IHL in respect to non-international conflict is an additional barrier, particularly given the prevalence of internal and transnational conflict. A focus on the rights of individuals rather than the regulation of war means that Human Rights Law (HRL) could provide more robust protection for civilians and the environment. HRL can assist in clarifying obligations for clean-up and the assistance of TRW casualties. In addition, a human rights based approach would make no distinction between types of conflict. International Environmental Law (IEL) provides norms and standards that militaries should be held accountable to throughout the conflict cycle. It was established in 2008 that armed conflict: “does not necessarily terminate or suspend the operation of [environmental] treaties” between belligerents, or between belligerents and neutral parties. Analysis is ongoing on what the continued applicability of IEL during conflict means in practice. An international mechanism is needed to ensure that principles enshrined within IHL, IEL and HRL can be upheld, and to ensure that civilians and the environment they depend on are better protected. Military practice and toxic remnants of war Military practices are central to the generation of TRW before, during and after conflict. While environmental awareness within the military is slowly increasing, mission success still takes precedence. Because environmental protection within international law is poorly defined and enforced, stronger regulation is needed to ensure military necessity does not trump environmental and humanitarian concerns. Significant environmental mismanagement by the United States (US) army during the occupation stage of the Iraq War (2003–2011) reveals that environmental damage is not restricted to harm deemed necessary by operational requirements. It is also the consequence of a systemically poor regard for environmental protection. After conflict, mismanaged military waste poses a considerable threat to public health. Belligerent states are not currently obliged to assist the post-conflict clean-up of TRW, and assistance has only been provided when it has been considered strategically or diplomatically useful. The question of whether polluters should be held accountable for post-conflict toxic waste, and land remediation efforts under the Polluter Pays principle should be explored. Some progress is being made in reducing military pollution in peacetime and in limiting the exposure of military personnel. However the impact of military toxics on civilians and the environment in conflict settings remains under-researched. The politics of accountability A weak legal system with few obligations and a lack of effective implementation leads to an ad hoc approach to resolving TRW. Ad hoc approaches enable politically powerful actors to gain the advantage in bilateral agreements, in the enforcement of international law and in avoiding liabilities. Less powerful actors have difficulty in gaining access to reparations. There is a greater risk of severe military pollution where uneven power dynamics make it difficult to hold polluters to account. Strong national environmental legislation and governance can shift this dynamic. Weaker or fragile states typically have less capacity and fewer resources for decontamination, yet it is these states that are often burdened with TRW. Much TRW contamination, particularly indirect TRW, does not breach IHL. Polluters are difficult to identify and environmental mismanagement can have a larger role to play in the likelihood of human exposure to TRW. Any mechanism designed to protect civilians and the environment must consider conflict-related pollution incidents that may not be deemed illegal, but nevertheless require assessment, accountability and assistance. Building rubble in Gaza, pulverised building and domestic materials present a risk to public health and a complex post-conflict management challenge. Affected state capacity There are no obligations to assist states affected by TRW in IHL, unless a state can be proven to have acted unlawfully. In most cases, affected states manage TRW with little support. TRW can be technically challenging and expensive to resolve. Money and expertise are often lacking in post-conflict states. Infrastructure damage and political instability also impact the ability to manage TRW. International assistance is needed to support capacity building work and to offer expertise when appropriate. The enormity of the task outweighs the assistance currently available. This is a gap in the humanitarian field that non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and international agencies could fill working alongside national agencies. There is an urgent need for funding to ensure that TRW are adequately managed. A fixed mechanism that utilises the Polluter Pays principle would help clarify obligations. Militaries must be transparent and forthcoming with the information needed for clearance work. Much can be learnt from Kuwait’s ‘prepare the environment for war’ initiative. In preparation for the 2003 US led invasion of Iraq, Kuwait equipped institutions, bolstered infrastructure with international assistance, and prepared the public for a potential environmental crisis. Recognition and assistance of toxic remnants of war casualties Conflict leads to a range of public health problems, which environmental pollution and degradation play a role in, and TRW often remain unresolved, leaving communities at risk. The international community and post-conflict peacebuilding organisations must recognise the long-term public health legacy of toxic warfare. There is an urgent need to document harm, assess risk and monitor the health of vulnerable populations. The politicised nature of conflict pollution can prevent rapid assessment and risk prevention methods that could save lives. The ‘presumptive disease’ approach, used by the US government to recognise US veterans suffering from exposure to Agent Orange, proves that there are means to create policy on casualty identification and assistance, even in the face of scientific uncertainty and data gaps. Presumptive disease models could be of use in recognising and assisting civilian casualties of TRW. There is a need to develop obligations for recording TRW casualties. Without improved recording any assistance provided will be unfairly distributed. Governments should assess environmental impacts on human rights, make enviromental information public, provide access to effective remedies and facilitate participation in environmental decision-making. Conflict pollution can devastate the well-being of people and the environment long after wars’ end. Contaminated environments add to the vulnerability of already fragile post-conflict communities and states. Alongside advocating for improvement to existing international law, this report argues that a strong enforcement mechanism is also essential. Without a mechanism to hold polluters to account there is little incentive for militaries to avoid environmentally destructive practices. The lack of an accountability mechanism has also meant that assistance for clean-up, compensation, or enforced reparations have been heavily influenced by powerful global actors. Less politically powerful states and communities should not have to bear the brunt of toxic wars. Humanitarian agencies and NGOs must pay greater attention to TRW during peacebuilding operations. Capacity building work, hazard awareness, environmental monitoring, assessment and remediation of sites of harm, and health monitoring of at-risk populations must be conducted in the aftermath of conflict. While the toxicity of weapons and other military materials is increasingly being considered, militaries need to go further. Fundamental human and environmental rights should be properly regarded in military decision making. States should be transparent with targeting information and in particular, record and make available data on the use of weapons in populated or environmentally sensitive areas. TRW remediation is expensive. A mechanism that required polluters to financially assist the resolution of TRW would enable affected states some access to justice. Determining responsibility may still be difficult in many cases and assistance in managing TRW will be required from the international community. There is a need to recognise TRW casualties as casualties of war. Scientific uncertainty will undoubtedly be used by powerful actors to abdicate responsibility. However the ‘presumptive disease’ approach could be utilised to ensure that those impacted by conflict pollution are assisted. 1. Civilian protection requires environmental protection. Greater acknowledgement is needed of the critical links between environmental health and public health, between environmental degradation and human wellbeing and survival. Environmental harm from conflict and military activities has direct humanitarian consequences, consequences that often last well beyond the end of hostilities. More recognition is required of this legacy as a first step towards improving systems of assistance, strengthening post-conflict public health monitoring and focusing help on the most vulnerable populations. Protection for the environment during and after conflict should no longer be viewed as distinct from the protection of civilians. 2. Minimise and regulate polluting practices. It is clear that particular military practices, materials or tactics can have an unacceptable environmental impact, with consequences for human health and wellbeing. A lack of understanding as to this impact should not absolve parties from taking precautions or avoiding such practices. This applies as much to the targeting of industrial sites as it does to the dispersal of toxic munitions constituents or waste management practices. Judgements over the acceptability of polluting military practices or materials should not rest solely with the military. Practices and materials that can generate toxic remnants of war that place civilians and the environment at risk should be open to greater independent scrutiny and, where necessary, regulation. Dealing with pollutants at source remains the most cost-effective technique for preventing harm. 3. Environmental assessment is a prerequisite for accountability. This report has found that accountability for conflict pollution is often wholly absent. Comprehensive environmental assessment is a key first step in determining accountability but this will require the diversification of the number of actors capable of undertaking assessments. UNEP’s post-conflict environmental assessments provide a useful model but barriers remain for other actors, particularly in relation to designing and financing assessment work. International agencies, NGOs, the mine action community and citizen observatories may be well placed to undertake work in collaboration with national authorities, and in doing so help develop domestic capacity. Communities have a right to access to information that may impact the enjoyment of their fundamental human rights and this knowledge can contribute to improved health protection, environmental justice and ultimately to constraining the behaviour of polluters. 4. A new mechanism for environmental and civilian protection is needed. Improving the collection of data on environmental harm and its humanitarian consequences will help improve conditions locally and target assistance to where it is most needed. Yet without an effective mechanism that defines the obligations on belligerent and affected states to protect and assist communities, which minimises and remedies environmental harm, and which can monitor and resolve infringements, the current inequitable system will continue. Left unchallenged, the status quo will see citizens and consumers better protected than civilians during and after conflict; it will ensure that those responsible for environmental damage are not held to account; it will leave public health and environmental protection at the mercy of imbalanced power relationships and it will do nothing to reduce environmental damage in future conflicts. International Humanitarian Law’s provisions for the protection of the environment have been shown to be unfit for purpose. Yet principles enshrined in Environmental and Human Rights Law – and which are widely applied during peacetime – could and should, guide the development of a new international mechanism. 1. United Nations Special Rapporteur Okechukwu Ibeanu (2007:24) 2. Bothe et al. (2010), Hulme (2004), Das (2013), Austin and Bruch (2000) 3. ‘Transnational conflict’ describe situations in which “a non state armed group is engaged in protracted armed violence with a state and is operating from across an international border” Rule of Law in Armed Conflict Project, Qualification of armed conflicts.http://www.geneva-academy.ch/RULAC/qualification_of_armed_conflict.php 4. International Law Commission in UNEP (2009:46) 5. Mosher (2008) 6. Kuwait Prepares Environment for War, Wikileaks reference: 03KUWAIT920, 3 Mar 2003.http://wikileaks.org/cable/2003/03/03KUWAIT920.html 7. The Huffington Post, Iraq: Politics and Science in Post Conflict Health Research, 15 Oct 2013.http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/neel‐mani/iraq‐politics‐and‐science_b_4098231.html 8. US Department of Veteran Affairs, Veterans’ Diseases Associated with Agent Orange.http://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/agentorange/conditions/index.asp

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In-situ Recovery (ISR), also known as in-situ leaching (ISL) or solution mining, is a mineral extraction method where ore is dissolved by a lixiviant, leached and pumped to surface. The primary minerals extracted using ISR include: copper, uranium, water-soluble salts, and lithium. In-situ recovery involves a series of horizontal parallel wells that injects a solution into an orebody, while a neighboring well extracts the pregnant solution back to the surface. To detect if mining fluids are flowing outside of the mining area, monitoring wells are drilled around the saturation zone. The pregnant solution is then pumped into a storage pond before entering the processing plant. Once the desired minerals are extracted, the remaining liquid is pumped into a barren solution pond. The purpose of the secondary pond is to mix and level the acid/alkali solution before returning to leaching 1. Once desired levels of acidity are achieved, the barren solution is pumped back into the orebody for further extraction. Figure 1: Typical in-situ recovery mine 1 Acid Leaching Vs. Alkali Leaching The two main leaching agents for ISR projects are sulfuric acid or an alkaline leach. Both solutions provide similar chemical reactions through an ion exchange in order to leach the desired minerals. The largest factor between choosing a solution is the calcium carbonate concentration in the ore body. Sulfuric acid provides a better overall recovery, but if carbonate concentration is greater than 1.5%-2% only an alkaline solution is economical 2. Other differences between acid and alkali leaching can be seen in Table 1: Table 1: Comparison of Acid and Alkaline Leaching Solutions 2 CAPEX and OPEX of ISR Capital investments for ISR mining are significantly less than conventional open pit or underground mining. The average industry capital cost for a 1000 tpa uranium ISL mine is $148 million, including the processing plant 3. The flexibility of increasing or decreasing production also allows capital requirements to be extended across multiple years, delaying investment until the mine is generating positive cash flows. The most important parameter determining optimum operating costs is the Liquid to Solid (L:S) ratio 3. The L:S ratio is a comparison of the volume of solutions that pass through a volume of rock. A higher L:S ratio results in increased operating costs due to the higher volume of acidic solutions. Compared to conventional mining methods, ISR mines provide lower operating costs. Applications of In-Situ Mining Copper is the first metal to have been extracted using in-situ leaching as a mining method . Historical records show that this technique was first used to recover copper in 907 AD in China however, the technology has been referenced as early as 177 BC. The in-situ copper grade is usually less than 0.5% Cu with copper carbonates being the most amenable to in-situ leaching 5. The in-situ copper extraction process is distinct from other leaching methods. In order to recover the copper, either a weak sulfuric acid or cyanide solution is used 5. The sulfuric acid solution is nearly identical to the mixture used in heap leaching operations. Processing of the pregnant solution is performed by chemical precipitation or solvent extraction electro-winning (SX/EW). When chemical precipitation is used, solvents are added to the copper solution in order to solidify copper ions to extract them from the sulfuric acid mixture. SX/EW is a significantly more complex processing method involving two separate stages. Firstly, chemicals that selectively bind to copper ions are added to the solution to improve the grade of the solution 6. The copper is extracted from the second solution using cathodes that collect pure copper ions. In-situ leaching of copper can only be used as an extraction method in specific geological conditions. Firstly, the copper orebody must be below the natural water table 5. Secondly, the host rock must be adequately fractured to allow for the sulfuric acid to flow through and dissolve the copper reserve. A larger amount of fracturing results in a greater amount of copper being exposed to the acid allowing for a greater mining recovery 5. Though in-situ leaching is primarily used to extract uranium, numerous mines globally are beginning to investigate the feasibility of copper in-situ leaching as technological improvements have increased the economical feasibility of such projects. Currently, there are three major projects that are attempting to use in-situ leaching to economically recover copper. All three mines are located in Arizona and include: Excelsior Mining’s Gunnison project, Copper Fox Metals’ Van Dyke project, and Taseko Mines’ Florence project. The Gunnison mine is located southeast of Tucson, Arizona. It has a 25-year mine life and will produce a total of 1.7B pounds of copper 5. The Van Dyke project is located east of Phoenix, Arizona. The average grade of the deposit is 0.25% Cu with a reserve base of 1.4B pounds of copper. Finally, the Florence project is located in Florence, Arizona. The average grade of the deposit is 0.3% Cu with a measured and indicated resource of approximately 2.8B pounds of copper 7. In-situ leaching (ISL) was developed in the 1970’s in the former Soviet Union and the United States. ISL was used to successfully extract uranium from sandstone type uranium deposits which could not be mined using the conventional open pit or underground mining techniques 8. This technique is now used in many countries around the world including: the USA, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Australia, China, and Russia and accounted for 48% of world uranium mined in 2015. ISL is seen as the most cost effective and environmentally friendly method of mining uranium 9. Uranium deposits that are suitable for in-situ leaching must be saturated sand or sandstone below the water table and confined above and below by a non-permeable material, such as clay. These deposits may be flat or roll-front within a permeable layer. The uranium occurs as coatings on the sand grains in the form of uraninite or coffinite 9. A cross-section illustrating a typical uranium deposit suitable for ISL is shown in figure 2: As the uranium is extracted from the ground, the wellfields are progressively established to follow the orebody. The wells are generally designed in hexagonal 5-spot or 7-spot patterns, shown in figure 3, which are proven to recover the uranium at a faster rate than traditional straight rows of wells 10. A series of monitor wells are also installed in order to monitor the flow of fluids outside of the orebody and can detect if any of the mining fluids have deviated away from the mining area. The average production life of an ISL production well pattern is generally 1 to 3 years with most of the uranium being recovered within the first 6 months of operation. Overall ore recovery ranges from 60-80% for an ISL operation 9. The geology and groundwater conditions will determine the operating process for uranium ISL. For an orebody with significant calcium bearing minerals, such as gypsum or limestone, alkaline leaching must be used. If there is low calcium content, acid leaching must be used as it provides a higher uranium recovery than the alkaline solution 9. The uranium complexing agents (alkaline or acid) along with an oxidant (hydrogen peroxide or oxygen) are injected into the injection wells which enter the uranium deposit, oxidizing and dissolving the in-situ uranium mineral. This process yields a uranium complex of either uranyl sulphate (UO2(SO4)34-) in an acid leach or uranyl carbonate (UO2(CO3)34-) in a alkaline leach system and can then be precipitated with an alkali 9. The uranium-bearing solution is then pumped up the extraction wells via submersible pumps and pumped to the treatment plant where the uranium is recovered through either a resin or polymer ion exchange (IX) or liquid ion exchange (SX) system 10. The use of one system over the other depends on the quality of groundwater used. Groundwater with high concentration of ions such as chloride or nitrates, will result in low uranium loadings on the resin/polymer making SX a more feasible option. The pregnant solution is precipitated by adding ammonia, hydrogen peroxide, caustic soda or caustic magnesia then dried to produce a product containing 80-100% U3O8, depending on the temperature. The barren solution is then recharged with the complexing and oxidant agents and recycled back into the process. Kazakhstan is the world leader in uranium ISL mining with over 19 operations in 2010 and resource estimates of 651,000 tU in 2009. Mining occurs at a depth ranging from 100-300 meters but some orebodies extend to over 800 metres below the ground surface. Uranium processing is performed using the resin/polymer method, precipitated with hydrogen peroxide, and then dried to form the final U3O8 product 9. Australia has five uranium ISL mines with three currently in operation who produced over 8000 tonnes of U3O8 in 2015 with over 50,000 tU in resources. Deposits are generally located in buried river beds in uncemented fluvial sands ranging in depths from 100-130 metres. Potash and Salt Mining Solution mining can be applied to water-soluble salts (most notably potash and halite). This process entails drilling and pumping water to the deposit while pumping the resultant impregnated brine solution back to surface 11. Once the brine solution is brought to surface, evaporation is used to eliminate the water and allow for the salt to precipitate out and be treated. This can be seen in Figure 4: Solution mining provides an opportunity to mine soft rock at depths in which conventional mining would not be feasible. Due to the decreased requirement for labour in solution mining, lower operating costs are obtained. The operational cost of potash solution mining in Canada is compared to conventional mining methods in Table 2: Solution mining is optimal for deposits of large heights and low depths (exceeding 1000 m). The method is not suggested in areas with technical disturbances or faulting. The deposit must be relatively pure with stable geological conditions. The surrounding mineralization must be stable to avoid large amounts of surface subsidence as caving can occur from the excavation 13. Due to the nature of solution mining, unique risks are present while conventional mining risks are averted. The biggest concern that solution mining poses to the environment is the contamination of the ground water. Solution mining often incorporates fracking style explosions to aid the passage of the liquids underground. These explosions may create more pathways for dissolved metals, salts, natural hydrocarbons and solution mining chemicals to reach the surface or nearby water table. To prevent this, only ore bodies that are beneath an impermeable layer of clay or shale are targeted. Monitoring wells are placed above the impermeable layer to watch for any changes in the ground water content or leaks from the layer below. 14 Chemicals introduced for the solution mining processes are leaching solutions, which dissolve the desired minerals, and reducing agents that precipitate the dissolved minerals. These chemicals can have adverse effects on the local water table, bringing with them dissolved metals or minerals. 15 The United States and Canada have clean water and environmental protection acts that limit the extents of solution mining. They ensure that the ground water returns to its pre-solution mining state and limits the chemicals and dissolved solids in the ground water to be less than 500 ppm. That water must be returned to its pre-mining condition 16. In uranium solution mining, special considerations must be made to ensure no radioactive material escapes into the local environment in any stage of the process. Although there is less contact with radioactive material via ore dust or radon release seen in conventional uranium mining, workers must still be monitored for alpha and gamma radiation to comply with OSHA guidelines 16. The water requirements in solution mining are extremely high and can have adverse effects on the local environment if a large source of water is not readily available for use. The water can be rehabilitated after processing, however the costs and processing methods may leave water that is too contaminated to be reintroduced into the local water ways or tables. Tailing dams are used to store the contaminated water. The waste water can also be pumped back underground where the minerals were extracted however, this will require additional monitoring of the site to ensure no movement of the contaminated water to the local water table through the impermeable layer. In salt or potash solution mining the creation of large salt caverns is common. Due to the soft nature of the rock, subsidence of the rock is common. Measures must be taken to ensure that the deposit is deep or small enough that there is no notable ground subsidence or that subsidence is permitted and allowed in that location 17. These salt caverns can be used to store materials that do not dissolve the salt barriers. This has been used for the storage of hydrocarbon liquids and gasses, industrial waste, nuclear waste and tailings. The salt creep can cause massive loss of storage and must be compensated by the cavern’s depth, size and operating pressure. Salt falls in the cavern can cause leakage or blockage in the system. These problems have had mixed results of fixing the problem with remotely controlled submersibles. 1 International Atomic Energy Agency (2005). Guidebook on Environmental Impact Assessment for In Situ Leach Mining Projects. IAEA. 2 V. F. P. W. R. R. R. M. Graham Taylor (2004). Review of Environmental Impacts of the Acid In-Situ Leach Uranium Mining Process. CSIRO Land and Water. 3 A. Z. G. J. Maxim Seredkin (2016). In Situ Recovery, an alternative to conventional methods of mining: Exploration, Resource Estimation, Environmental Issues, Project Evaluation and Economics. Ore Geology Reviews. no. 79, pp. 500-514. 4 Mudd, G. M. (2000). Acid In Situ Leach Uranium Mining: 1 – USA and Australia, Victoria University. 6 Bartos, P.J. (2002). SX-EW copper and the technology cycle. Available: ht tps://www.researchgate.net/publication/223704369_SXEW_Copper_and_the_Technology_Cycle 7 (2015). What are In-Situ Recovery Copper Projects?. Available: http://in vestingnews.com/daily/resource-investing/base-metals-investing/copper- investing/isr-copper-projects-excelsior-mining-copper-fox-metals-taseko-curis- arizona/ 8 Commonwealth of Australia (2010). Australia's In Situ Recovery Uranium Mining Best Practice Guide. Canberra. 9 World Nuclear Association (2016). In Situ Leach Mining of Uranium. Available: http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/in-situ-leach-mining-of-uranium.aspx. 10 Uranium One. What is ISL/ISR Mining?. Uranium One Inc. Available: http://uranium1.com/index.php/en/mining-operations/what-is-isl-mining. 11 (2016). Code of Practice for the management of particulate matter (PM2.5) Emissions in the Potash Sector of Canada. Environment and Climate Change Canada. Available: https://www.ec.gc.ca/lcpe-cepa/default.asp?lang=En&n=A92426AA-1&offset=4 13 Bach, J. (1999). Solution Mining – Introduction. K-Utec Salt Technologies. Available: www.k-utec.de/fileadmin/redakteur/CPV/Dokumente/Solution_mining_03.ppt 14 (2016). In Situ Leach Uranium Mining: An Overview of Operations, IAEA Nuclear Energy. 15 (2016). In Situ Leach Mining of Uranium, World Nuclear Association. 16 (2015). Uranium Mines and Mills. Available: http://nuclearsafety.gc.ca/eng/uranium/mines-and-mills/index.cfm 17 R. L. Thoms and R.M. Gehle (2002). A Brief History of Salt Cavern Use.

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The ports that you use to connect keyboards, mice, and hard drives to your Macs have changed over the years. Current Macs have USB-C, which provide standard USB speeds, along with faster Thunderbolt to compatible peripherals. But what’s the difference between USB-C and Thunderbolt ports, and how can you tell them apart? And which cables do you need to get the most out of them? In this article, I’m going to explain what Thunderbolt and USB-C ports are, how to identify them, how they work, which features they offer, and how to choose the right cables for your needs. In this article: - A brief history of Mac data transfer ports - What’s the difference between USB-C and Thunderbolt ports? - How to choose the right cable? - One cable to rule them all? - Don’t forget dongles, adapters, and hubs… - How can I learn more? A brief history of Mac data transfer ports The history of personal computing has been marked by a series of milestones in data transfer capabilities. The earliest Macs could connect to cassette decks at paltry speeds. The 1983 Lisa had a serial port; this was long standard on computers to connect to peripherals. It also had a parallel port, to connect to a printer. The Macintosh Plus added a SCSI port in 1986. This “small computer system interface” was a lot more flexible: it had faster throughput than previous ports, and you could daisy-chain devices. Mac users lived with these limited options until 1998, when the iMac added USB ports. The first USB ports were slow, but this was a revolution. In late 1999, the first iMac with FireWire (also known as IEEE 1394) was released, although you could add a FireWire card to some Macs before then. This was the first taste of fast (for the time) data transfer on Macs. The FireWire 400 port ruled for years, and was supplanted by FireWire 800. The numbers 400 and 800 indicated speeds in megabits per second, abbreviated Mbps. Note that data transfer speeds are usually measured in bits—not bytes—per second. One bit is one-eighth of a byte, so a 400 Mbps interface implied that you could theoretically transfer a 50 MB (megabyte) file in about a second (real-world speeds were somewhat slower, however). Although USB 2.0 had a theoretical speed of up to 480 Mbps, FireWire was still faster at sustained data transfer. FireWire ruled until USB 3 was added to Macs in 2011. This protocol provided data transfer rates of up to 5 Gbps (gigabits per second), and the ability to send data to displays. (Note that 1 Gbps is equivalent to 1,000 Mbps.) At the same time, Macs started including Thunderbolt ports, with 10 Gbps throughput. Thunderbolt 2 came along in 2014, with up to 20 Gbps, and Thunderbolt 3, in 2017, offered up to 40 Gbps. Today’s Thunderbolt 4 maintains that 40 Gbps throughput, but adds other features, including support for dual 4K displays. It also includes protection against DMA attacks, to block attackers with physical access from reading or modifying computer memory—a potential problem with earlier Thunderbolt, FireWire, and even USB 4 standards. The first two iterations of Thunderbolt used ports with a non-reversible connector, in the shape of the old Mini DisplayPort. Thunderbolt 3 and 4 eschewed their former shape in favor of modern USB-C shaped ports with reversible connectors. What’s the difference between USB-C and Thunderbolt? Since Thunderbolt 3, the Thunderbolt protocol now uses USB-C style ports and cables. And that can be a problem; it’s confusing to have different but related technologies that share the same connector. You used to know that if you could connect a USB cable, it would be able to transfer data at the speed of the USB interface. USB-C cables are different: some transfer more or less data, some also send power, at varying wattages, and some are actually Thunderbolt cables, supporting all of that protocol’s features. And, by the way, the USB standard is now up to USB 4, which provides up to 40 Gbps throughput just like Thunderbolt 4. The now ubiquitous USB-C port comes in many versions. Here’s an example of the current 24″ iMac. The less expensive model, at the left, has two ports, both Thunderbolt / USB 4. The more expensive model has four ports, two of which are only USB 3. You can tell these ports apart by the small Thunderbolt symbol above two of them. In practice, since you may not be able to easily look behind your Mac, you have to remember that, on the four-port iMac, the two Thunderbolt ports are the ones closest to the center of the display. I mentioned the different data transfer speeds above, but there’s another factor to consider: how much power these ports provide. USB 3 and 4 ports can send from 4.5 W to 240 W, and Thunderbolt 3 and 4 can send 15 W, with Thunderbolt 4 providing one 100 W port on a computer. And this is bi-directional; you can charge a laptop by connecting a USB-C cable from a charger, and you can power peripherals, such as portable hard drives, using power from the computer. You think this is confusing? Have a look at this USB-C cable logo chart. All USB-C cables, regardless of their data throughput and power rating, look alike; there’s no way to tell, when you look at a cable, what it is capable of. Some manufacturers are starting to add logos, similar to the ones above, to cables, but I bet you probably have a lot of USB-C cables already without logos. If you see a USB-C cable described as a “charging cable,” you should assume it’s not rated for data throughput. And some cables that are designed to send and receive data may only support low power levels. And I haven’t even touched on using these cables with a display; while some displays can work with USB 3 connections, it’s more likely that a high-resolution display will require Thunderbolt. For example, to connect to Apple’s new Studio Display, you need a Thunderbolt 3 cable or better; this is, in part, because the display also provides 96 W power, so you can, for example, connect a MacBook Pro and use the display while charging the laptop. How to choose the right cable? It can be confusing to choose the right USB-C shaped cable. Let’s start with Thunderbolt cables, and then move on to other USB cables. Thunderbolt 3 and 4 cables generally have the Thunderbolt logo, so you can be sure that it supports data transfer of up to 40 Gbps—but other specs may vary. Most Thunderbolt cables deliver power, though different cables may provide different wattages. While Apple’s cables are more expensive than those of other manufacturers, you can’t really go wrong if you buy a Thunderbolt cable from Apple. The specs are clear, so you know what you’re getting. For plain USB-C, it’s a bit different. If you have a recent iPad, and either sync content from your Mac or back up your iPad to your Mac, then you know that data synchronization is quite slow. This is because the charging cable that Apple provides in the box only goes up to 480 Mbps. This low speed applies to both the USB-C (to USB-C) Charge Cable that comes with iPad models that have a USB-C port (not a Lightning port), as well as for the USB-C to Lightning Cable that comes with iPad models with Lightning ports (the latter cable also comes with iPhones). If you have an iPad or iPhone with a Lightning port, unfortunately, Apple’s Lightning ports to date have only supported 480 Mbps data sync speeds, so don’t expect a third-party cable to make syncing any faster. However, with more recent iPad models that have a USB-C port instead of Lightning, you can transfer data much faster—even at Thunderbolt speed—but you’ll need to buy a cable that supports it. You don’t necessarily need to buy a Thunderbolt cable, but you might as well, given the similar pricing and potential to avoid confusion in case you re-purpose the cable in the future. You can buy a cable from Apple or from a number of familiar, trustworthy brands, such as Anker, CalDigit, OWC, etc. If you sync often, you should get a cable that provides both power and better data throughput, such as Apple’s or Belkin’s Thunderbolt 3 cables mentioned in the next section of this article. One cable to rule them all? At this point, you might be asking yourself, why not buy Thunderbolt 4 cables exclusively? If a Thunderbolt 4 cable is compatible with Thunderbolt 3, USB 4, and other USB-C shaped ports and devices, why buy anything else? The answer is price—at least if you really want to buy a cable directly from Apple. If you don’t necessarily need Thunderbolt 4 cables, but you have unlimited funds, you might not have any problem buying Apple’s Thunderbolt 4 Pro Cables, which cost $129 for 1.8m or $159 for 3m. But given that the next step down, Apple’s 0.8m Thunderbolt 3 (USB-C) Cable, costs a mere $39, it’s kind of hard to justify the extra $90, unless you really need Thunderbolt 4 exclusive features or can’t live without that extra meter. (Apple also sells a Belkin brand 2m Thunderbolt 3 cable for $79.95, if you just want a longer Thunderbolt 3 cable.) If you want to synchronize data from an iPad model that has a USB-C port (rather than a Lightning port), this cable will transfer data faster than the USB-C Charge Cable (see below) that came with your iPad. Meanwhile, the aforementioned Apple USB-C Charge Cable comes in 2m and 1m lengths at just $19 each. It supports power of up to 96 W, so if all you want to do is charge a USB-C device, and you don’t think you’ll ever use the cable to transfer data at high speeds, this is the least expensive Apple brand cable you can buy. So, for most people, buying an Apple brand Thunderbolt 4 cable may only make financial sense if you own a Thunderbolt 4-capable device and computer, and want to utilize features that are only available with the latest standard. Thankfully, Apple isn’t the only company that sells Thunderbolt 4 cables. Both OWC and CalDigit sell high-quality Thunderbolt 4 cables for significantly less than Apple charges. OWC’s Thunderbolt 4 cables come in 0.7m, 1m, and 2m lengths, for $24, $34, and $57, respectively, each with a 3-year warranty. CalDigit’s Thunderbolt 4 cables come in 0.8m, 1m, and 2m lengths, for $30, $40, and $75, respectively, each with a 2-year warranty. Both brands’ cables feature the Thunderbolt logo with a “4” beneath it, so you’ll always be able to easily identify exactly what kind of cable it is at a glance. Given these much lower prices, if you’re willing to buy a cable from a trusted, third-party brand rather than from Apple, it’s actually pretty affordable to buy Thunderbolt 4 cables exclusively. You’ll know you’re getting the best quality cables regardless of how you may end up using them, while avoiding potential cable confusion in the future, at a decent price. Don’t forget dongles, adapters, and hubs… For many people, the ports on their Macs aren’t enough. With only two ports on the entry-level iMacs and laptops, and still just four on the more expensive models (with the exception of the Mac Studio), it doesn’t take long before you need more. You can use a Bluetooth keyboard and mouse, but if you have other peripherals for interacting with your computer, such as a graphics tablet, that’s one port used. Do you use an external hard drive to store files or back up your data? That’s another port. And if you want to keep a cable connected to your Mac to charge your iPhone or iPad, that’s another one. These few ports get used up quickly. In addition, it’s likely that many of your peripherals are not USB-C, but rather USB Type A (the old rectangular connector), requiring dongles to make the conversion. In general, dongles shouldn’t affect the speed or power going through the cables, but some may. If you need a USB-C to USB-A hub, make sure it supports at least USB 3.0, and preferably USB 3.2 (though this is only really necessary if you connect disks to the hub). There are also a number of hubs that split out a single Thunderbolt cable into as many as a dozen ports or more. These hubs often have a wide variety of ports, not all of which will be useful. For example, CalDigit’s Thunderbolt Station 4 offers 18 ports, including five USB-A for older peripherals, an Ethernet jack, audio in and out jacks, a DisplayPort, and two SD card slots, along with four USB-C ports. Devices like this are a great way to extend your Mac, though they are expensive, and you will likely not use all the ports on the device. With every change to the connections we use with computer peripherals, there are difficulties adapting. After a wide array of plugs and jacks, it looks like USB-C style ports and cables are here to stay, at least for a while. The fact that this plug can handle both USB and Thunderbolt, and offers backwards compatibility, means that it should be easier to manage over the years. For now, however, you probably have plenty of peripherals that don’t use USB-C, and depend on hubs and dongles, but over time, you may be able to use all your external devices with this type of plug. How can I learn more? Each week on the Intego Mac Podcast, Intego’s Mac security experts discuss the latest Apple news, security and privacy stories, and offer practical advice on getting the most out of your Apple devices. Be sure to follow the podcast to make sure you don’t miss any episodes! You can also subscribe to our e-mail newsletter and keep an eye here on The Mac Security Blog for the latest Apple security and privacy news. And don’t forget to follow Intego on your favorite social media channels:

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Stratified random sample Taking a stratified random sample (also: stratified random sample ) can be advantageous in statistics if the population can be divided into meaningful groups, the so-called strata . Meaningful here means that the layers are relatively homogeneous in themselves and differ from one another as clearly as possible with regard to one or more features that also influence the expression of the ultimately interesting feature. Typical classes that play a role for random samples to answer social-scientific, medical or market research-relevant questions would be age groups or population classes according to income, educational qualification, place of residence, etc. The purely random selection of the sample elements is now restricted by specifying the sample sizes per stratum and then drawing a purely random sample in each stratum. (The individual random samples are evaluated separately and the results are then summarized.) This "prohibits" extreme samples which, for example, happen to contain almost only elements from one stratum and consequently get better point estimates , i.e. H. Smaller variance estimator . With a suitable stratification, the total sample size can be reduced compared to a simple random sample drawing with the same accuracy of the results, which lowers the costs of data collection. Population size, number of layers, characteristic of interest . The following is . Scope of the shift . Expression of the feature in layer . relative layer thickness. Expected value in shift . Variance in layer The following applies: The total variance is the sum of the variance in the strata and the variance between the strata . Estimates for the population parameters We focus on estimating . Let be the sample sizes per stratum and the total sample size . Let the sample values from the layers continue. Then there is an unbiased estimate for and an unbiased estimate for . For comparison with the estimator of interest here , the sample mean based on pure random selection is used. Types of stratification - Proportional layering : A proportionally stratified random sample is used when the sizes of the samples taken from the various strata are proportional to the proportion of the stratum in the population: each stratum is represented in the sample in the same proportion as in the population. If you choose, they are proportional to the extent of the shift . is significantly smaller than if the expected values differ greatly in the layers, i.e. H. when the variance between the layers is large. In the case of proportional two-fold stratification , the sample sizes in the stratified cells will often not be whole numbers, see also controlled rounding . - Disproportionate layering : If the sizes of the random samples taken from the strata are independent of the proportion of the stratum in the population, it is a disproportionately stratified random sample. In the simplest case, random samples of approximately the same size are drawn from all strata. A motive for such an approach can e.g. For example, it could be that the random sample to be taken for a very small stratum with proportional stratification and reasonable effort for the overall survey would be too small for a meaningful statistical evaluation. For example, in the surveys for the PISA studies, disproportionately stratified samples are used in order to determine the properties of smaller strata such as those of the students in the small federal states of Hamburg and Bremen with sufficient accuracy. (In order not to distort the study results overall, the results obtained from the individual layers are again weighted proportionally.) Special forms of disproportionate stratification are the variance-optimal and the cost-optimal stratification. - Variance-optimal stratification : then the variance is significantly smaller in the case of strongly differing stratifications than in the case of proportional stratification, because strata with a large scatter are sampled more strongly. Proportional stratification is optimal for variance when all are equal. - Cost-optimized stratification : Let be the total cost available and the cost of selecting an element from layer . If one now minimizes the variance of under the secondary condition not to exceed the costs, then the result is As a rule, the above value is not a natural number and should therefore be rounded. Stratification is the division of the population into layers. There are two sub-problems: - Establishing the number of layers. - The definition of the stratification. The aim is to solve the two sub-problems in such a way that the estimates become more accurate. However, this usually requires prior information about the population (e.g. from official statistics or previous studies). A solution above. The Dalenius stratification model, including corresponding approximate solutions such as the cum rule or the equal aggregate rule, presents a problem. Comparison with cluster sample In the case of stratified samples and cluster samples , the population is subdivided into groups - in the case of the stratified sample these are the strata, in the cluster sample the so-called "clusters" or clusters. The main difference between the two sampling methods lies in the statistical properties of the groups in comparison with one another and with the population. The application of the cluster sample is based on the assumption that each cluster is as ideal a scaled-down image of the population as possible, i.e. that it comes as close as possible in terms of expected value and variance or distribution of the characteristic of interest and other possibly correlating characteristics: the clumps are as close as possible in themselves heterogeneous as the population and ideally very similar in this regard. In contrast, the strata of the stratified sample are expediently chosen so that they are essentially more homogeneous than the population with regard to the characteristics relevant for the selection of the strata (i.e. each have a smaller variance than the population for these characteristics) and differ from one another with regard to the expected values differentiate these features as much as possible Comparison with quota sample The quota sample is very similar to the proportionally stratified random sample in two respects: Both procedures aim to firstly divide the population to be examined into groups that are characterized by certain relevant features; and secondly, to take samples from these groups, the relative size of which is determined by the proportion of the group in the population. The difference between the two methods lies in the use of a random or arbitrary selection process for the individuals / elements ultimately included in the sample: The stratified random sample has a definable probability of drawing for each element of the population, while no such probability of drawing can be stated for the quota sample. An arbitrary selection can be based on self- selection, for example : the investigator searches for suitable study participants via an advertisement, contacts suitable members of an online panel who have agreed to take part in opinion polls, or addresses randomly suitable passers-by, only a few of whom are in favor decide to answer him. He does this until he has met the quotas for his samples. If the characteristics of the participants who induced them to self-select also influence the characteristic of interest, the results of the quota sample will be distorted compared to the results of a stratified random sample (something similar happens with a random sample, however, due to non-response ). The interviewer may also experience sample distortion in the quota sample . E.g. passers-by are addressed based on sympathy or a list of telephone numbers is “processed” in a certain order. Quota samples are cheaper, faster and less demanding in terms of their requirements than stratified random samples; in many cases they can be a viable substitute for them. Quota sampling is the method of choice in commercial market and opinion research and is also used in academic research. - L. Kish: Survey Sampling . Wiley, 1965, especially pages 75–112 (Chapter 3: Stratified sampling ) - H. Stenger: Sample theory . Physica-Verlag, 1971, especially pages 115–150 (Chapter 6: Stratification ) - WG Cochran: Sampling Techniques. 3. Edition. Wiley, New York 1977, especially pages 89–149 (Chapter 5: Stratified random sampling and Chapter 5A: Further aspects of stratified sampling ) - J. Hartung: Statistics. 15th edition. Oldenbourg, Munich 2009, especially pages 278–287 (Chapter V, Section 1.5: Stratified random selection ) - Marcus M. Gillhofer: Recruiting participants in online social research . Joseph Eul Verlag, Lohmar 2010, ISBN 978-3-89936-905-2 , 5.2.2 The stratified random sample, p. 68 f . ( ). - Rüdiger Jacob: Lecture "Methods and Techniques of Empirical Social Research - 7th Selection Process". (PDF) University of Trier , accessed on November 6, 2019 . - For sampling within the PISA extension. (PDF) Max Planck Institute for Human Development , accessed on November 6, 2019 . - RGCumming: Is probability sampling always better? A comparison of results from a quota and a probability sample survey . In: Community Health Studies . 14, No. 2, 1990, pp. 37-7. doi : 10.1111 / j.1753-6405.1990.tb00033.x . PMID 2208977 . - Michael Meyer, Thomas Reutterer: Qualitative market research: concepts, methods, analyzes . Ed .: Renate Buber, Hartmut H. Holzmüller. Gabler, Wiesbaden 2007, ISBN 978-3-8349-0229-0 , Sampling Methods in Market Research, p. 239 ( ). - Duane R. Monette, Thomas J. Sullivan, Cornell R. DeJong: Applied Social Research: A Tool for the Human Services . Brooks / Cole, Belmont 2011, ISBN 978-0-8400-3205-8 , Quota Sampling, pp. 152 (English, ).

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Concept of an Ecosystem The concept of an ecosystem was proposed by Robert Whittaker who was an American psychologist and researcher in the domain of succession and vegetation gradients. According to him, there are three measures of diversity in an ecosystem such as alpha, beta and gamma diversities. Alpha diversity within an ecosystem refers to the number of species. Beta diversity encompasses the comparison of diverse ecosystems in environmental gradients. For instance, in a mountainous area that is situated within a coastal area. Beta diversity depicts the size in the change of species from one ecosystem to the other. Gamma diversity reflects the total diversity in a region such as geography diversity. It is the total of the Alpha diversity about diverse ecosystems. Now our experts from Assignment Help UK will tell you about the concept of Biodiveristy. Concept of Biodiversity Biodiversity is referred to as the various existing within and among the various forms of life on a site, landscape or ecosystem. Biodiversity can be termed as and measured like an attribute consisting of two components such as richness and evenness. Richness refers to the number of groups of genetically are functionally related individuals in the species. It has been found in most of the surveys conducted on vegetation that richness is depicted in the form of the number of species and it is normally referred to as species richness. Evenness consists of the proportion of species for functional groups that exist on a site. The more is the equal species in proportion to one another, the greater will be the evenness of the site. A site having low evenness reflects that there are a few dominant species located in the site. Diversity is used for describing variation in diverse forms such as genetic, life form and functional group. Genetic diversity consists of species and varieties. Life from diversity consists of mosses, trees, grasses, and forbs. The functional group consists of evergreen vegetation, deep-rooted plantation, nitrogen-fixing and soil crust. Biodiversity is measured to identify a combination of richness and evenness existing across a species. One of the main reasons for measuring biodiversity is high biodiversity is often considered synonymous with the health of an ecosystem. Commonly, diverse communities are considered to have enhanced stability, productivity, and resistance to innovation and other types of disturbances. A diverse habitat consisting of a variety of plants have multiple advantages such as follows: - Offering foraging ground for a large variety of vertebrate and insect species. - Achieving stability that generous from the plants in the community that can survive insect plagues, disease outbreaks or drought such that the site has some protection of its soil and forage during those years. - There are plants which contain diverse genetic material that can be used in long term survival and achieving stability of the community. - The community will benefit from having a mixture of plants. For example, the condition of the soil improves when there are nitrogen-fixing deep-rooted plants that permeate nutrients up towards the surface from the layers of soil below other plant roots. Some species of plant functions together for achieving effective survival which is referred to as commensalism and thereby more stability is achieved in diverse communities. - Plant communities which are healthy and diverse usually have their niches filled and they are theoretically less exposed to invasions by noxious and opportunistic species those had been introduced in the region. Now our experts from Homework Help UK will tell you about this with the help of an Infographic. Concept of Alpha Diversity Alpha diversity (α-diversity) refers to the mean diversity in species in different sites or habitats within a local scale. The terminology was founded by R. H. Whittaker, along with the terminologies of beta diversity (β-diversity) and gamma diversity (γ-diversity). The idea of Whittaker encompassed the concept that the diversity of species in totality within a given landscape that is the gamma diversity can be determined by two diverse concepts. The mean diversity of species at different sites or habitats within a more local scale which is referred to as alpha diversity. The differentiation existing between the habitats is referred to as beta diversity. The area of the particular landscape and the sites of habitats within it can be of diverse sizes and in diverse situations. There has been no significant consensus reached for determining the spatial scales that will be adequate to put alpha diversity in a quantifiable form. So, the experts in this discipline have proposed that the definition of alpha diversity need not be tied with a typical spatial scale. It is possible to measure alpha diversity for a dataset which contains subunits of any scale. These subunits can be of diverse forms such as sampling units that have already been utilized in the field at the time of carrying out the inventory. They can also be grid cells which are delimited only to conduct an analysis. When the results are extrapolated beyond actual observations, it has to be considered that the diversity of the species in the subunits, commonly depicts the underestimation of the diversity of the species in the comparatively larger areas. Alpha diversity has been defined in a variety of ways by several ecologists. According to Whittaker, the term was used for diversity in species in a single subunit and also to refer to the mean species diversity within a collection of subunits. It is often argued by many people that the definition of alpha diversity as a mean across all the subunits is preferable. This is because this idea agrees more effectively with the idea that was given by Whittaker who said that diversity in the total species contains alpha and beta components. The various definitions of alpha diversity might vary according to the assumption of species diversity. It is often found that various researchers utilize the values that are provided by one or more than one indices of diversity, for instance, species richness that is the degree of richness in many species and it does not consider the degree of a rarity in the individuals but biodiversity can. The Shannon index and the Simpson index are two of the other indices that are used to measure species richness. However, there has been an argument on several occasions that it would be much better to utilize the effective number of species as a system that will be a universal measure of diversity in species. The measure of Alpha Diversity The measure makes it possible to weigh the species that are rare and abundant in a variety of ways. This happens just in the manner the diversity indices collectively perform but the meaning of it is more intuitive and convenient to understand. Therefore, it can be said that the effective number of species can be considered as the number of species which are equally abundant and those are required for or obtaining the same mean proportional species abundance like what is observed in respect of the data set of interest. Here all the species might not be equally abundant. So, we can say that alpha diversity refers to the diversity that exists in a single ecosystem or sample. The simplest measure of alpha diversity is the richness, the number of species or OTUs that are observed within the sample. There are other metrics which consider the abundance of the OTUs or frequencies of the OTUs. This happens to attribute lower weight to a lower abundance of OTUs. The abundance of distribution is possible to be observed by using the octave plot. Interpretation and estimation of Alpha Diversity Interpretation is necessary to keep in mind that NGS amplicon sequencing is not effective to measure frequencies for the presence or absence of OTUs effectively. This is the reason behind and unclear and misleading biological meaning of Alpha diversity metrics that are developed for traditional ecology and it is often very difficult to interpret. Estimators of Alpha diversity reveal that there might be some rare species that have not been effectively observed. The purpose of an alpha diversity estimator is to extrapolate from the available observations to the total number of species existing in the community. One of the most reputed estimators for NGS OTUs is Chao 1. We can understand that estimators cannot be effectively implemented to NGS OTUs has the rare species remain underrepresented by using an abundance threshold where singletons are discarded. Regardless of the number of spurious OTUs, there is an increase at lower abundances. Hence, it is evident that the lower abundance still of the distribution is extremely uncertain and it attempts to extrapolate renders no sense. Now our experts from Do My Assignment UK will tell you abou the refraction in Alpha Diversity. Rarefaction in Alpha Diversity Rarefaction is one of the important incidents associated with Alpha diversity to get adequate observations to achieve a successful measurement of an Alpha diversity metric. This is undertaken by drawing a rarefaction curve that depicts the changes in a metric in the form of several observations that keeps on increasing. If the curve converges into horizontal asymptote then it depicts that more observations or more reads will show little or no impact on the metric. Recording the estimators the asymptote of a rarefaction curve depends based on the lower abundance tail in the distribution. Hence, it is considered to be of dubious value when it is applied to the NGS reads. It is certain for the number of OTUs to increase with an increasing number of reads due to errors even though all the species present in a sample are taken into account. Therefore, it is for certain that the rarefaction cars have to converge into a positive slope. Now, we come to discuss the units of measurement of Alpha diversity. Alpha diversity metrics use various units at different times. Many a time, the meaning is not obvious and often it is observed that metrics having different units are not possible to be compared with one another. For instance, the Shannon index measures entropy where the unit is expressed in the form of bits of information if the logarithms have base 2. However, open on many occasions natural logarithms with base e or base 10 are considered. It is interesting to learn that neither of the variants of the Shannon index is related to the number of OTUs. People sometimes do not disclose the variant that is used and this is the reason behind the difficulty in interpreting the numerical values. Alpha Diversity as a tool of biodiversity measurement Alpha diversity indicates the diversity that exists within a typical area or ecosystem and it is measured by the number of species or the richness of species within that ecosystem. For instance, if we are involved in monitoring the impact of British farming practices on the diversity of native bird species in a particular area of the country then and we have to compare the diversity of the species within different ecosystems like the undisturbed deciduous wood, a hedgerow bordering a small pasture and arable field of considerable size. It is possible for us to walk through a transect in which one of the three ecosystems and undertake a counting of the number of bird species that can be observed. In this way, it is possible for us to determine the Alpha diversity in respect of each of the ecosystems. We should understand that Alpha diversity tool considers abundance tables as inputs. Abundance tables are created in the workbench through the observance of 3 tools such as OTU clustering, Taxonomic Profiling and Build Functional Profile. When OTU clustering and Build Functional Profile are used then the abundance tables that are developed are based on count and the measures of Alpha diversity that are calculated from such tables provide and an absolute number of species. But, at the time when an abundance table is used that is generated by Taxonomic Profiling Tool then Alpha diversity results do not depict the absolute number of species but the estimates that are convenient in comparative studies that are undertaken for assessing the depth in sequencing or to compare diverse communities. For more infromation you can check with Assignment Writing Service.

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On April 26, 1986, an explosion, generally often known as the Chernobyl catastrophe, occurred on the Chernobyl nuclear energy plant in the northern half of the Soviet Union in Ukraine . At 1:23 the reactor power levels elevated, and the next occasions led to an explosion that released greater than 50 tonnes of radioactive material into the environment. In the following days, 32 individuals died the subsequent day in Chernobyl, and many extra suffered burns from radiation. Almost eight.4 million inhabitants of Belarus, Ukraine and Russia have been exposed to the launched radioactive cloud. The accident is considered to be probably the most damaging nuclear accident in historical past, and the region itself continues to be struggling afterwards. No. 4 for assessing radiation levels. The specialists were not capable of learn exactly as a result of the radiation ranges of 200 meters (656 ft) above the reactor had reached 1,500, however the counters could not read something over 500. helicopters burned lead plates weighing 40 kilos (88 lb) each into the reactor, followed by several tons of radiation absorbing sand. Nevertheless, the measure was flawed because the extent of the disaster was as never seen earlier than. Pilot Alexander Petrov, who replied, stated: “It took greater than 24 hours to get issues completed. [ . . . ] At first, our commander didn't know what to do. We have been flying to see what happened, then we returned and we flew in the morning. 9 A Late Evacuation The quantity of radiation that the Chernobyl disaster appeared within the environment was 50 million rounds, equal to about 500 Hiroshia bombs. The police walked the streets with fuel masks, however the residents have been stored in the dead of night and heard only rumors. Armen Abagia, who was then head of one of Moscow's nuclear analysis institutes, urged the Soviet government to right away evacuate Pripyat. Abagia recalled: “The youngsters ran in the streets; Individuals have been hanging by washing the linen to dry. And the environment was radioactive. Residents started panic when there was a "metal smell" in the air and the environment was totally different. It was close to midnight on April 26th when the evacuation was ordered; 1200 buses and 200 vans moved 47,000 Pripyat residents. The locals thought they might return house later, but that never occurred. 8 Contamination spreads to other nations The road despatched by Pripyat residents spread radiation to wider areas. Evacuation took 3.5 hours. One resident reminded: “The queues of the stuck buses left the city. One after another, like giants beetles, a kilometer after a kilometer. Traffic was crazy. Only a survivor of World War II can imagine a similar scene. ” Just some days after the unique disaster, the wind modified path and started to blow nice radiation in the direction of Kiev, the capital of Ukraine. The town organized the annual Might Day parades, when the government assured the citizens that the whole lot was regular. Lastly, 11 days after the catastrophe, officials warned the residents of Kiev that they need to avoid consuming leafy vegetables and staying indoors. Later in Might, Russia's first deputy minister additionally warned that vodka and pink wine were not enhancing radiation publicity – despite the overall belief. More than 500,000 inhabitants in Ukraine have been lastly pressured to go away their houses. 7 Army reservations made their personal protecting clothing Greater than 600,000 civilian and army personnel have acquired the "Chernobyl Clergy" tribute, because the cleansing began Originally, robots from western Germany, Japan and Russia have been used for decontamination but could not act on high levels of radiation. As an alternative, the work was handed over to individuals who could not be uncovered for greater than 40 seconds. Most of the liquidators have been army reserves, and the military did not have sufficient uniforms to work in radioactive circumstances. As an alternative, the stocks made their own protective clothes using four mm lead plates to protect the aprons to guard the spine and bone marrow. Photographer Igor Kostin reminded: "Smart also has a vine leaf that adds extra comfort." Many healers have subsequently suffered from critical health problems, some of which have been fatal. Dr. Robert Peter Gale, generally known as "Chernobyl Doctor", was one of the various docs and scientists who introduced the 15 states to help in the post-disaster state of affairs. Dr. Gale handled patients who had suffered such a high radiation exposure that even bone marrow transplantation could not save them. And not using a functioning bone marrow within the body, the patient often dies inside four weeks. It was additionally troublesome to estimate how much radiation patients had been exposed to, as a result of the gradual loss of hair and darkening of the skin have been the one seen indicators In 1986, Dr. Gale and the top of the Soviet Central Bank Institute for Superior Medical Research signed an agreement to watch 100,000 individuals who have been residents. within the hazard zone ", which was within a 30-kilometer radius of the encompassing space, which ultimately turned the Chernobyl exclusion zone. He stated: “The doctor offers with life and demise each day. Nevertheless, dying with us is a biological occasion. We don't assume of our own dying. With the Chernobyl occasions, I targeted alone mortality – all our mortality. Unfortunately, these tragic occasions are driving us into action. 5 The buried village The village of Kopach is situated 7 km from the Chernobyl disaster. This can be a scary and desolate place, as a result of the Soviet army was buried and buried in Kopach's houses. Nevertheless, this plan made solely extra harm than good. Chernobyl Information Yuri Tatarchuk defined: "Kopachi was very badly polluted, so it was determined to bury it in the house. It was a good suggestion at that time, nevertheless it wasn't. Excavation pushes the radioactive materials solely deeper into the soil and nearer to the water desk, so that the contamination unfold even additional. “ As we speak, solely two buildings are standing, one of which is a former nursery where youngsters weren’t evacuated for 36 hours of exposure. Tatarchuk stated afterwards: "It was a criminal offense. [ . . . ] No less than 5000 individuals suffered badly at that time, while pregnant ladies have been merely advised abortions. It was a cruel time. four Chernobyl puppies It’s a fantasy that Chernobyl can’t stay a life that is merely not true. It’s estimated that over 900 deceptive canine stay within the exclusion zone. Many could be found within the former energy plant's deserted cooling tower. Puppies are believed to be the offspring of pet canine submitted by their house owners; the residents have been only given a number of hours earlier than they have been evacuated and advised to take only very important personal gadgets and a specific amount of food. Wildlife dwelling within the space has pushed canine out of the woods. Now volunteers, including veterinarians and radiation specialists, have shaped the Chernobyl charity. Canine are tagged and their radiation publicity examined. They are also used to review the illness, including rabies. Some canine are outfitted with radiation sensors and GPS receivers that help to map the radiation ranges in the exclusion zone. 3 The Chernobyl Youngsters's Inborn Injury After the disaster, the town residents beneficial Kiev to take common showers, hold their home windows closed and wash their furniture repeatedly. Precautions weren’t adequate, as docs have reported an increase in start defects since 1986. Belarus has a border with Ukraine, and the Chernobyl nuclear energy plant is sort of near that border; In 2010, UNICEF introduced that 20% of young individuals in Belarus endure from persistent sicknesses or injuries resulting from congenital injury. . Another widespread start defect in this area is microcephaly, the place the child's head is smaller and isn’t in relation to its different physique. In 2014, Michael Donnelly, Chairman of the Chernobyl Youngsters's Attraction Board, stated: “These children are forced to suffer without their own fault. [ . . . ] It's not better than 28 years ago. The level of radiation in the Chernobyl zone is still the same as in 1986. ” 2 contaminated wild animals Month After the Chernobyl catastrophe, radioactivity had spread to the Swedish Galsjo Forest. Elk was contaminated and the moment when their bodies have been thrown into the quarry after their heads and fur had been detached, was taken to the digital camera. The 10 square kilometer (4 mi2) forest that surrounds the Chernobyl nuclear power plant has turn into generally known as the "red forest" after air pollution has induced the dying of timber and their leaves turn deep pink. When individuals have been evacuated, wildlife grew quickly with restricted predators to hunt them – the wild boar multiplied eight occasions within two years of the disaster. Radiochologist Sergei Gaschak explained: “Animals do not know the radiation and they take the area irrespective of the radiation state.” The Pink Forest is now one of probably the most polluted areas on the planet with more than 90 % of the soil's radioactivity. The mouse embryos used in the research have dissolved underneath circumstances, and the remaining horses that lived 6 kilometers away from the facility plant died as a result of thyroid decay. 1 Chernobyl leaders sentenced to labor camp In July 1987, Chernobyl manufacturing unit director Viktor P. Bryukhanov, chief engineer Nikolai M. Fom and deputy Anatoly S. Dyatlov have been sentenced to twenty years in a labor camp. They have been found responsible of critical violations of the security laws that led to the explosion. Decide Raimond Brize announced within the Chamber, "The factory had a lack of control and a lack of responsibility." The department's officials have been additionally criticized for not having evacuated the town of Pripyat earlier. At present, the previous sarcophagus covers the damaged nuclear reactor of the nuclear power plant, and the structure of the new protected insulation (NSC) is above it. Though more than three many years have passed because the Chernobyl disaster, there are nonetheless many penalties at this time Cheish Merryweather is a true fan of crime and strange fanatics. May be discovered both from home events who informed everybody Charles Manson was just 5 or at house studying actual legal magazines.

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Officially recognized minerals, formed by nature: more than 5,000 Formed due to human activity: 208 Human industry and ingenuity has done more to diversify and distribute minerals on Earth than any development since the rise of oxygen over 2.2 billion years ago, experts say in a paper published today. The work bolsters the scientific argument to officially designate a new geological time interval distinguished by the pervasive impact of human activities: the Anthropocene Epoch. In the paper, published by American Mineralogist, a team led by Robert Hazen of the Carnegie Institution for Science identifies for the first time a group of 208 mineral species that originated either principally or exclusively due to human activities. That’s almost 4% of the roughly 5,200 minerals officially recognized by the International Mineralogical Association (IMA). Most of the recognized minerals attributed to human activities originated through mining — in ore dumps, through the weathering of slag, formed in tunnel walls, mine water or timbers, or through mine fires. Six were found on the walls of smelters; three formed in a geothermal piping system. Some minerals formed due to human actions can also occur naturally. Three in that category were discovered on corroded lead artifacts aboard a Tunisian shipwreck, two on bronze artifacts in Egypt, and two on tin artifacts in Canada. Four were discovered at prehistoric sacrificial burning sites in the Austrian mountains. Unparalleled pace of diversification According to the paper, the first great ‘punctuation event’ in the history of Earth’s mineral diversity occurred more than 2 billion years ago when the increase of oxygen in the atmosphere — 'the Great Oxidation’ — gave rise to as many as two-thirds of the more than 5,200 mineral species officially recognized today. Says Dr. Hazen, who co-wrote the paper with Edward Grew of the University of Maine, and Marcus Origlieri and Robert Downs of the University of Arizona: “Mineral evolution has continued throughout Earth’s history. It has taken 4.5 billion years for combinations of elements to meet naturally on Earth at a specific location, depth and temperature, and to form into the more than 5,200 minerals officially recognized today. The majority of these have arisen since the Great Oxidation event 2 billion years ago." “Within that collection of 5,200 are 208 minerals produced directly or indirectly by human activities, mostly since the mid-1700s, and we believe that others continue to be formed at that same relatively blazing pace. To imagine 250 years relative to 2 billion years, that’s the difference between the blink of an eye (one third of a second) and one month.” “Simply put, we live in an era of unparalleled inorganic compound diversification,” says Dr. Hazen. “Indeed, if the Great Oxidation eons ago was a 'punctuation event’ in Earth’s history, the rapid and extensive geological impact of the Anthropocene is an exclamation mark.” A mineral species is defined as a naturally occurring crystalline compound that has a unique combination chemical composition and crystal structure. As of February, 2017, the IMA had approved 5,208 species (see rruff.info/ima for a complete list). The authors of the recent paper argue that with so many minerals and mineral-like compounds owing their origin to human activities, “a more comprehensive understanding and analysis of the mineralogical nature of the Anthropocene Epoch is warranted.” Humanity has had a major impact on diversity and distribution in the mineral world in three principal ways, according to the paper: 1 a) Manufacturing synthetic “mineral-like” compounds, and b) causing minerals to form as an unintentional byproduct of human activity a) Directly creating synthetic mineral-like compounds such as YAG (yttrium aluminum garnet) crystals used in lasers, silicon “chips” for semi-conductors, carbide grits for abrasives, and various specialty metals and alloys for magnets, machine parts, and tools. Other examples include bricks, earthenware, porcelain, glass and limestone-based Portland cement — the world’s most common form of cement, used in concrete, mortar, stucco and grout — a combination of calcium silicates, calcium sulfates, and other compounds. b) Indirectly contributing to the formation of new minerals through mining, with new compounds appearing on mine walls or in mine dumps, for example. Of special interest are minerals found associated with ancient lead-zinc mining localities, including some possibly dating from the Bronze Age, and others from as far back as 300 AD. 2) Large scale movement of rocks, sediments, and minerals In addition to creating new compounds, human activities such as mining and the transport of stone blocks, rocks, sediments, and minerals from their original location to help build roads, bridges, waterways, monuments, kitchen counters, and other human infrastructure, rivals in scale nature’s redistribution such as via glaciers. Mining operations, meanwhile, have stripped the near-surface environment of ores and fossil fuels, leaving large open pits, tunnel complexes, and, in the case of strip mining, sheared off mountaintops. Road cuts, tunnels, and embankments represent further distinctively human planetary modifications. 3) Global redistribution of highly valued natural minerals Diamonds, rubies, emeralds, sapphires, and a host of semi-precious stones, accompanied by concentrations of gold, silver, and platinum, are found in shops and households in every corner of the globe. Collections of fine mineral specimens juxtapose mineral species that would not occur naturally in combination. From modest beginner collector sets of more common minerals to the world’s greatest museums, these collections, if buried in the stratigraphic record and subsequently unearthed in the distant future, “would reveal unambiguously the passion of humans for the beauty and wonder of the mineral kingdom," the paper says. New compounds forming Says Dr. Downs: “Given humanity’s pervasive influences on the environment, there must be hundreds of as yet unrecognized ‘minerals’ in old mines, smelters, abandoned buildings, and other sites. Meanwhile, new suites of compounds may now be forming in, for example, solid waste dumps where old batteries, electronics, appliances, and other high-tech discards are exposed to weathering and alteration." Adds Dr. Origlieri: “In the sediment layers left behind from our age, future mineralogists will find plentiful building materials such as bricks, cinder blocks, and cement, metal alloys such as steel, titanium, and aluminum, along with many lethal radioactive byproducts of the nuclear age. They might also marvel at some beautiful manufactured gemstones, like cubic zirconia, moissanite, synthetic rubies, and many others.” Says Dr. Grew: "These minerals and mineral-like compounds will be preserved in the geological record as a distinctive, globally-distributed horizon of crystalline novelty—a persistent marker that marks our age as different from all that came before." Some anthropogenic minerals wouldn’t be recognized today Calclacite, described by a Belgium-based scientist in 1959, and which originated in an old oak storage cabinet for mineral specimens at the Royal Museum of Natural History, Brussels, is an officially recognized mineral that wouldn’t qualify today; in 1998 the IMA decided to disallow any substance “made by Man.” Other recognized anthropogenic minerals in this category include slag-related minerals as well as a pair from Russia, niobocarbide and tantalcarbide, which some experts believe may have been a hoax — “a laboratory product … deliberately passed off as a natural material” in the early 1900s. Though unlikely to pass scrutiny today, says Dr. Grew, previously recognized minerals such as these, rather than being invalidated, have been allowed to remain in the IMA catalog. The IMA did agree to recognize a mineral in cases “in which human intervention in the creation of a substance is less direct.” The origin of up to 29 forms of carbon: humanity Of the 208 human-mediated minerals identified by the Deep Carbon Observatory researchers, 29 contain carbon. Origins and forms, along with movements and quantities, are four themes of the DCO (deepcarbon.net). Dr. Hazen is the DCO’s Executive Director. Now we know that as many as 29 carbon minerals originated with human activities, of which 14 have no recorded natural occurrences. It is fair, therefore, to consider the 14 as the youngest carbon mineral species. Among the 14, candidates for the very youngest include a dozen minerals related to uranium mines. The mineral andersonite, for example, is found in the tunnels of certain abandoned uranium mines in the American Southwest. At places along the tunnel walls, sandstone becomes saturated with water that contains elements that form a beautiful crust of yellow, orange, and green crystals. Prized for its bright green fluorescent glow under a black light, a good sample of andersonite will fetch up to $500 from a collector. Another notable carbon-bearing mineral is tinnunculite, determined to be a product of hot gases reacting with the excrement of the Eurasian kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) at a burning coal mine in Kopeisk, Chelyabinsk, Russia. It was subsequently discovered also on Russia’s Mt. Rasvumchorr — an entirely natural occurrence. Tinnunculite is one of eight new minerals identified as part of the Deep Carbon Observatory’s Carbon Mineral Challenge (http://mineralchallenge.net/), launched in 2015 to track down an estimated 145 carbon-bearing minerals yet to be formally recognized. The IMA recognized tinnunculite as a mineral in 2015. Although yet to be confirmed by the International Union of Geological Sciences, there is growing advocacy for formal recognition of the “Anthropocene Epoch,” the successor of the Holocene Epoch, which began some 11,500 years ago when the most recent ice age glaciers began to retreat. Epochs are normally separated by significant changes in the rock layers to which they correspond. A 35-member Working Group on the Anthropocene (WGA) recommended formal designation of the epoch Anthropocene to the International Geological Congress on 29 August 2016. It may be several years before a final decision is reached. About the authors: - Robert Hazen is Senior Staff Scientist at the Carnegie Institution of Washington, DC, and Executive Director of the Deep Carbon Observatory - Edward Grew is a Research Professor, Earth and Climate Sciences, University of Maine - Marcus Origlieri is a Research Associate, University of Arizona - Robert Downs is a Professor of Geosciences specializing in mineralogy and crystallography, University of Arizona Carnegie Science seeks to encourage discovery and the application of knowledge to the improvement of humankind. carnegiescience.edu The Deep Carbon Observatory is an international network of nearly 1000 multi-disciplinary scientists committed to investigating the quantities, movements, forms, and origins of carbon in deep Earth. deepcarbon.net Click to download full-sized images. ChalconatroniteBlue fine-grained crust of chalconatronite from Mont Saint-Hilaire in Quebec, Canada. Michael Scott donated this sample. rruff.info/chalconatronite. NealiteReddish brown acicular crystals of nealite coating a vug (cavity in a rock) from an Oxygon slag locality in Laurion, Greece. Michael Scott donated this sample. rruff.info/nealite. FiedleriteFiedlerite consists of colorless prismatic crystals associated with phosgenite, polytype 1A. This sample is from Laurium in Attica, Greece and was donated by Michael Scott. rruff.info/fiedlerite. SimonkolleiteColorless hexagonal tabular crystals of simonkolleite associated with blue platy crystals of composition CuZnCl(OH)3 on a copper mining artifact from the Rowley Mine in Maricopa County, Arizona, USA. Danielle Sotomayor and Keith Wentz donated this sample. rruff.info/simonkolleite/R130616. MetamuniriteMetamunirite, R060624, is a tan colored radial spray of bladed crystals. This mineral was found in Big Gypsum Valley, San Miguel County, Colorado, USA and donated by Michael Scott. rruff.info/metamunirite. AbhuriteAggregate of tan-colored platy crystals of abhurite from the wreck of the SS Cheerful, 14 miles NNW of St. Ives, Cornwall, England. Michael Scott donated the sample. rruff.info/abhurite. |All photos courtesy of RRUFF.| Top photo: Simonkolleite. Colorless hexagonal tabular crystals of simonkolleite associated with blue platy crystals of composition CuZnCl(OH)3 on a copper mining artifact from the Rowley Mine in Maricopa County, Arizona, USA. Danielle Sotomayor and Keith Wentz donated this sample. Rruff database.

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Oh dear, you really had to ask, didn't you? Explaining the Arab-Israeli conflict is probably an easier task! To be honest, it's quite easy to explain what the Partitions themselves were. It's answering the 'Why?' that involves a lot more explanation. We'll try and make it as clear as we can for you: The Polish Partitions were a series of three territorial seizures of Polish-Lithuanian land between 1772 and 1795 by neighbouring powers - The Kingdom of Austria, The Kingdom of Prussia and The Russian Empire. While the Poles famously resisted every time, their territory gradually became smaller and smaller. Eventually, in 1795, Poland would be completely wiped off the map and wouldn't exist as a country at all for about 123 years! We'll talk about what happened afterwards, later on.... The history behind the Partitions is a reflection of the geopolitical power dynamics that have existed from the early Middle Ages right up to current times. Poland has literally been in the middle of European power politics since becoming a self-declared sovereign state. The influence of its various neighbours and the fluctuations of its borders have contributed to the country's regional cultural nuances. It also continues to fuel the political ideology of many Polish nationalists who view Poland in an endless struggle for independence. The Long & Complex History of Polish BordersLike many other nations in Europe, the borders of Europe have changed more times than costume changes in a Broadway musical. But few nation-states have been as dynamic in their border fluctuations as the lands known as 'Polenia' or 'Polska' (for the sake of this article, we'll refer to it as 'Poland'). Why has this been the case? Well, geographically-speaking, Poland is the approximate centre of Europe. With the exception of the mountainous south, its lands are wide-open and flat. It's this geographical characteristic that has long been attributed to the etymology of the country's name - 'Polen' (ENG: field). Being a flat, open country stuck in the middle of major European powers has often meant armies have been able to quickly roll across it and easily take what they please. As for borders, it all started around 960CE when Duke Mieszko I founded the first independent Polish state, the Duchy of Poland, converted to Christianity and began christening the lands that lay under the jurisdiction of his union of West-Slavic tribes; in fact, Mieszko's official baptism in 966CE is considered the symbolic birth of what we consider the Polish state today. Over the following three decades, Mieszko and his descendants would quickly expand their territories towards the Baltic coast and further south. However, the Baltic coast proved a bit of a challenge, especially in christianising the fiercly-resistant pagan tribes that lived there. After more than two centuries without success, Mieszko's descendant, Konrad I, invited the Germanic order of Teutonic Knights to settle in the area in 1226 hoping they would finally get the job of 'civilising' those northern tribes done, once and for all. Further west, the Holy Roman Empire, then under the Germanic Hohenstaufen dynasty, began expanding north-west into Pomerania from 1181. This was the beginning of the 'Germanisation' of the region. The brutal extermination of Baltic pagan culture saw the Teutonic Order control the majority of the Baltic coast by 1410. It was during this time that the villages of Marienburg (Malbork) and Königsberg (Kaliningrad) were founded. The Teutonic Knights would eventually turn on their former Polish allies, invading Gdańsk and the surrounding area in 1308. By the mid-15th century, the area we know today as 'Pomerania' had largely become, both culturally and linguistically, a Germanic area. Elsewhere, the relatively-young European power would squirm between the Ruś (now Ukraine, Belarus and Russia) to the east and Hungary to the south, while being occasionally interrupted by some unexpected guests, most notably the Mongol invasion in 1240 and the Galicians briefly forcing their way through in 1259. As the situation with the Teutonic Order became unbearable in the north, Poland made its historic alliance with Lithuania in 1386 and eventually stopped the expansion of the Teutonic Knights by defeating them at the Battle Of Grunwald in 1410. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth & the Dominance of Central EuropeWhen the Polish-Lithuanian Union was officialised as a Commonwealth in 1569, it was one of the largest political powers in Europe and indeed a force to be reckoned with. At one point, it stretched from the Baltic to as far south as the Black Sea. Even in its final pre-partition form, it covered most of modern-day Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia! They were stars of the continental map in 1683, when they decisively fought back the Ottoman-Turks at the Battle of Vienna in 1683, halting the so-called 'Islamic Invasion' of Christian Europe. But the glory years of the Commonwealth were numbered, as it continued to be weakened by numerous conflicts. The Commonwealth waged war with Russia between 1654–1667 and were also invaded by Sweden in the early 18th-century during what is now known as the 'Deluge'. Call it jealousy or just pure belligerency, it seemed like no one really liked the idea of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was clear that the only way to deal with this mighty power was for the surrounding nations to have some kind of joint strategy to force the Commonwealth into submission. Furthermore, since 1573 the Commonwealth had adopted a system of Elective Monarchy, which allowed the representative nobility (PL: szlachta) to elect their king or queen (the first was a French guy who lasted 5 years and fled the country never to return!). While this sounds quite democratic, the Polish-Lithuanian nobility were subject to bribery and this is how the Saxon monarch Augustus II the Strong got on the throne in 1697 (Russia and Austria had something to do with that!). Augustus II aimed to centralise royal power, and in the process of doing so, he ordered 25,000 Saxon troops within the Commonwealth's borders. Such a move caused outrage amongst the Szlachta and the Commonwealth was on the brink of Civil War. Using this turmoil as an excuse, Russian military entered the country and Tsar Peter the Great posed as a mediator in the infamous 'Silent Sejm' of 1717. While Augustus II was ousted as monarch, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was now effectively a vassal state of Russia. First Partition of PolandIn the grand irony of history, the decline of the old enemy of Poland, the Germanic Teutonic Order, had since become the foundation of another rival power in Europe - the Kingdom of Prussia. It was their monarch, Frederick the Great, that engineered the first land grab of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. As relations between Austria and Russia became heated, Frederik proposed territorial seizures from the Commonwealth by each neighbour in order to 'restore the regional balance of power in Central Europe' This was agreed on August 5, 1772. Second Partition of PolandOver the proceeding 20 years, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had been pushing for political reforms, in particular the establishment of a governing model similar to a Constitutional Monarchy. This was famously adopted as their Constitution on 3rd May 1791. From this point onwards, the country became The Commonwealth of Poland. Of course, the neighbouring powers reacted with hostility towards the reforms and the Polish-Russian War broke out in 1792. Commonwealth forces were ultimately no match for the superior Russian forces, though resistance in the southern theatre under the command of now-revered Pole Tadeusz Kościuszko and Prince Józef Poniatowski kept the enemy back for a longer period. The 'Second Partition of Poland' on January 21, 1793 was set in motion, after King Stanisław Poniatkowski opted for a cease-fire. Russia and Prussia annexed more territory on either side of the Commonwealth, whilst Austria did not participate in this round. Outraged by the King’s capitulation, Kościuszko – who hadn’t lost a single battle of the short-lived campaign – and the other notable commanders and politicians still faithful to the cause, emigrated to Leipzig to plot an uprising against Russian rule in Poland. The 'Kościuszko Uprising' & the Third/Final PartitionIn the aftermath of the Second Partition of Poland, those constituencies of the population which had opposed the reforms of the May Constitution had lost all credibility and Kościuszko saw the prospect of orchestrating a successful national uprising as less than impossible and more than necessary. He announced the Uprising on Kraków’s market square on March 24th, 1794. Assuming the powers of commander-in-chief of all Polish forces, he issued an act of mobilisation requiring at least one able-bodied male from every five houses in Małopolska to join his army, equipping themselves with an axe, pike, scythe or carbine. Large units armed only with farming tools were quickly formed. Once again, Kościuszko proved himself to be a superb military commander, winning a key victory at Racławice. News of Kościuszko's success inspired insurrections across the Commonwealth, however, Polish forces were too weak to continue their campaign against Russia, Prussia and Austria. In the third and final partition of Poland, between its three neighbouring powers, Poland was completely erased from the world map. It would be another 123 years before a Polish state would exist again! Back from the Dead - The Second Republic of PolandIf you think that's the end of the story, think again! There were another 3 uprisings between 1795 and 1918 where Poles living in the partitions continued trying to overthrow their occupiers. Most notably the November Uprising of 1830 in the Russian partition prompted Tsar Nicholas I to remove any existing self-autonomy that remained there. Unfortunately, these moments of organised resistance ended in failure, though amazingly, even after their country had ceased to exist for over a century and a half, the Polish identity and the idea of a Polish state still remained. They just had to wait for some external factors to loosen the grip of their occupiers. And it came in 1918... Following the end of World War I, Germany and Austro-Hungary were on the losing side and Russia withdrew from the eastern front due to the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917. Finally, the new Polish state came into formation - the Second Polish Republic. This was threatened by a short war with Bolshevik Russia, who aimed to push the communist revolution westward. They were miraculously defeated at the Battle Of Warsaw in 1920 by Polish forces, an event which is now known as 'The Miracle On The Vistula'. Following Russia's withdrawal, Poland was able to consolidate more of the former Polish-Lithuanian lands to the east. The League of Nations turned Danzig into the semi-Autonomous 'Free City State' that was separate from both Germany and Poland. The complex political and economic arrangements motivated Poland to push for access to the Baltic Sea (see our article on 'The Polish Corridor'), as well as the development of its own port in Gdynia. Legacy of the Polish PartitionsLife in the partitions, particularly in the Russian- and Prussian-occupied areas, was a period of Polish cultural repression and economic hardship, and many Poles involved in the uprisings of the period were either imprisoned, ruined financially or forced into exile. This was the start of a huge exodus, which is now referred to as 'The Great Emigration'. In this period, some of the most notable historic Poles moved abroad, mainly to France, to fulfil their life achievements. For more, see our article: Big In Paris: The Great Emigration from Poland to France. The old divisions that existed between 1795 and 1918 had varying effects on Poland's development. Cities like Bydgoszcz (formerly Bromberg), Wrocław (Breslau) and Poznań (Posen) were heavily developed and invested-in during their periods under Prussian rule. Linguistically, the voivodeships of Wielkopolska and Pomerania have a higher number of Germanic words in their regional dialectics, as well as using 'Polish' Germanisms - German expressions that have been translated literally into Polish. 'Mazurek Dąbrowskiego' AKA 'Dąbrowski's March' AKA 'Poland Is Not Yet Lost' was written in 1797, two years after the final partitions were drawn up. The lyrics, by Józef Wybicki, express the idea that the nation of Poland, despite lacking an independent state of its own, would not disappear so long as the Polish people were still alive and fighting in its name. It would be officially adopted as Poland's national anthem in 1926. When Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia invaded Poland in September 1939, many Poles were plunged into an existential crisis, seeing the invasion as a return of the 123-year partitions. A high number of suicides during the period are attributed to people not willing to accept what they saw as 'history repeating itself'. Amongst these numbers, was Polish author/artist Stanisław 'Wiktacy' Witkiewicz. In the 21st Century, it's been noted that the political division of Poland between a more progressive 'A' region in the west and the more conservative 'B' region in the east is correlated with the old partition borders. This is usually attributed to the west (Poland A) having experienced much higher development rates under Prussia, compared to the eastern half (Poland B) which had been severely neglected economically and socially by the Russians and the Austrians.

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>Most of the sea's creatures live in the shallowest 660 feet — the epipelagic or euphotic zone — where penetration of light is sufficient to support a food web based on photosynthetic algae. By some estimates, 90 percent of all marine life lives in this region, feasting (directly or indirectly) on the bounty harvested from the sun. >It's not an environment that fosters colors, shapes or habits like those of the marine animals we know well. In deep-water species, hues tend toward the muted, mouths to the toothy and shapes to the long and serpentine. Many of the deep's inhabitants carry onboard lighting in the form of bioluminescent patches or spots called photophores that help them hide from predators or find meals or mates. In short, plenty of the characters we meet as we plunge into the mesopelagic (660 to 3,300 feet) and bathypelagic (3,300 to 13,124 feet) layers are creepy and cool — in a word, scarismatic. >The spotted ratfish (Hydrolagus colliei) belongs to the chimaeridae family, a mysterious group that arrived on scene when dinosaurs were a saurian twinkle in some early tetrapod's eye. Like their more evolved relatives the sharks, members of family chimaeridae have cartilaginous skeletons, claspers (appendages that help the male hold the female during mating) and leathery egg cases. While most of these living fossils shun the shallows, in the icy, green waters of the Pacific Northwest spotted ratfish appear within recreational diving limits, which qualifies them as dual-depth residents. With fetching emerald eyes, ratfish are arguably cute, but they do boast a few quirks, including a venomous spine near the dorsal fin, traces of a third pair of appendages and an oversized, oily liver that helps the fish stay neutrally buoyant anywhere in the water column. >Another odd limb on the tree of life is the sea lamprey. Like salmon, these homely eels begin life in freshwater streams, migrate to the ocean as adults and then leave salt water to head upriver, where they spawn and die — an unusual lifestyle known as anadromy. Here, however, the resemblance ends. The lamprey is a member of an ancient lineage of jawless fish many times removed from its lifestyle doppelganger. That distance is visible in the lamprey's lack of fins or bones and its distinctive downturned, jawless mouth, which is perfect for clinging and sucking. In oceanic adulthood, the lamprey parasitizes a large passerby, fastening its circular, tooth-lined mouth to the unlucky host, which it doses with an anticoagulant before slurping a meal of blood and tissue. Come spawning time, that same funnel-shaped orifice will affix to a series of river rocks as the lamprey battles its way upstream. >While the lamprey exemplifies how weird even the visitors to the deep can be, many full-time residents are truly fearsome to behold. The Pacific blackdragon (Idiacanthus antrostomus), which lives in depths from about 330 to 3,300 feet, is one of the most bioluminescent fish in the ocean, replete with glowing photophores. These light organs run along its back and belly, shine under the eyes and dangle alluringly at the end of a long chin barbel, which the females use to attract prey. Males and females differ to a frightening degree. The 3-inch he-dragon seems a sad echo of the formidable female. Living only long enough to mate, males lack chin barbels, teeth and even stomachs — features the 2-foot she-dragons have aplenty. >With an oversized mouth, long, sharp teeth and a bioluminescent lure dangling from its chin, the dragonfish is a voracious predator and an iconic deepwater species. >Voracious predators, the females have enormous sharp teeth and multiple distensible stomachs that allow them to snag and gulp huge meals — handy traits where food is rare and stockpiling necessary. Big gulps get an assist from yet another exotic adaptation: a head that can bend completely backward to allow the mouth to open unusually wide. An odd bit of developmental biology makes this feat possible. Called the occipito-vertebral gap, it's a bit of flexible notochord left over after the rest of the structure has ossified (turned to bone) from tail to head. In other fishes, backbones harden from the head downward. >A dragonfish relative, the viperfish (Chauliodus sloani) is a member of the same family (Stomiidae) and a sometime snack of its cousins. But for sheer wickedness of appearance, most bets are on the viperfish, with its outsized overbite and lower fangs that protrude from the mouth and curve back toward the eyes. Where the dragonfish backbone sports a gap, the first vertebra behind the viperfish's head serves as a bumper to absorb the high-speed impacts of collisions with the prey it chases down. Like the dragonfish, Chauliodus also fishes with bioluminescent bait, but the viperfish lure glows at the tip of an elongated dorsal fin, drawing an unwary victim directly into the path of the transparent but deadly fangs. >Bioluminescence is handy in other ways, too. Several photophores run along each of a viperfish's sides to help it hide from hungry mouths that lurk below. This common form of camouflage is known as counterillumination and works by disrupting whatever silhouette — no matter how faint — a creature might cast in the weak rain of photons filtering down from above. Counterillumination also helps hatchetfish (Sternoptyx diaphana) live another day (or night) as they make their way up and down the water column, traveling at night into the more productive upper layers to feed. This behavior, known as vertical migration, is common among deep-water fishes. >Hatchetfish hide from predators below using bioluminescent organs on their bellies to blend in with surface light. >The fangtooth (Anoplogaster cornuta) vertically migrates as well. Found in most of the world's oceans, often at spectacular depths of 16,000 feet or more, this oddball forsakes bioluminescence. Tiny eyes sit atop a head that is freakishly large, accounting for nearly a third of the animal's 6-inch-long body. Muscular compared to most other deep-water predators (whose bodies were designed for lurking), the fangtooth is thought to be an aggressive pack-hunter with keen chemical and electrical receptors that "smell" and feel the vibrations of anything edible close by. While short on vision, the fangtooth bite packs a wallop. Anoplogaster sports the largest teeth — relative to body size — of any fish in the ocean. The teeth in the upper jaw are large enough to prevent the fish from completely closing its mouth, while the lower fangs, when not in action, are holstered in special sockets inside the roof of the mouth extending upward on either side of — and protecting — the brain. >Not all of the fauna that flourish in the deep ocean are fierce in appearance; some are actually ethereally beautiful. Snipe eels (Avocettina bowersii) are long, thin stunners whose slender jaws taper and curve outward like the beak of an avocet, a shorebird also known as a snipe. Feeding mainly on small shrimplike crustaceans, adult snipe eels contrast dramatically with their larval young. The thin, leaf-shaped juveniles are transparent and spend their youth in shallow water. With a global distribution, both young and old snipe eels are snacked upon by a host of large ocean predators. >Had this juvenile snipe eel not been scooped from the deep, both its “beak” and body would have grown long and thin. >In the dark depths, appearances can be deceptive. One creature that sports some truly alien biology looks surprisingly familiar. Galatheid crabs (which are actually lobsters) are scavengers — dumpster divers of the deep. Sometimes called "pinch bugs" or "squat lobsters," galatheids favor diets that are unconventional even for gleaners. They dine on fallen trees, coconuts and other woody plant debris that falls to the ocean floor, creating small oases of food. One pale member of this group of crustaceans shared headlines with strange giant tubeworms when hydrothermal vents were first found a few decades ago. Ghostly white galatheids swarm in abundance around the vents, feeding on dead animals and chemosynthetic bacteria. >At the base of this food chain, our story comes full circle in a community of life that is dense, diverse and dynamic — in that respect not unlike the shallow world we visit while scuba diving. Like the experiences and excursions of a dedicated diver, there is much more to the story. The deep sea is a world ripe for exploration, and we are fortunate to live in a time when technology allows us to glimpse it. >The whole story of these ambassadors from below could never be told in the space of a few pages. Several research organizations, including the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute and Moss Landing Marine Lab, collaborated with photographer Jason Bradley to make these images possible. >The Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute’s (MBARI) remotely operated vehicle Ventana is equipped with an array of instruments that give topside researchers from MBARI and Moss Landing Marine Laboratory eyes and arms. >© Alert Diver — Summer 2013

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Key features of report writing ks2 - Features report While the focus is. Excellent for peer marking through assessment for learning. Non- Chronological Reports ( Matthew Sephton) ; Features of Non- Chronological Reports ( Anne Hayton) ; Report Writing - Using Mind Maps ( C/ D) ( Susan D' Arcy) ; Non- Chronological Reports ( Wendy James) PDF; Non- Chronological Reports Checklist ( A. Lower Key Stage 2 English Plans ( Set A) | Hamilton Trust Use dictionaries and thesauri to check spellings they are unsure of. Related flowcharts and planning templates are also included. At Pobble we believe in children taking responsibility and pride in their learning. Identify key features and explore vocabulary in a variety of recounts. Both can be downloaded here: 4 Writing Purposes – Roadsign Images · 4 Writing Purposes. Main features of newspaper article writing for Key Stage 2. The example texts are probably of more use at the upper end of KS2, and could almost certainly be improved, but they are a starting point for teaching and analysis by the children to draw out key features, etc. Writing a Newspaper Article | Scholastic If you are trying to get students to use more facts and details in their discussions and writing, this is the activity that you' re going to want to introduce to them. Inform differentiated child- friendly success criteria for the writing. Key Features: Chronological ( time order) Past tense. Key features of report writing ks2. A report is a formal text that gives you information about a subject that you are interested in and would like to know more about. The features of report writing are; generalised participants, impersonal objective language, timeless present. It is recommended that you consult your Faculty Guidelines and/ or Unit Guide for advice on the required report format for a particular unit. And quantitatively to identify features of writing that pupils learning EAL handle less. Primary Resources: English: Text Level: Non- Fiction: Non. Celebrate the launch of. Point out the key features of instruction texts, including a list of materials needed, language ( use of imperative. It provides some general advice on the content and structure of a report. Results 1 - 20 of 595. When will the story take place? Seasons – or to be more precise TERMS of birth – are really important. Subheadings Write in columns. Literacy Resources, KS2 Literacy Posters, Features of Different Text. Distinguish Between Explanations, Instructions and Non. Strand 6 – Word Structure and Spelling at KS2. You will find the document pages that will allow you to set up Writing Circle Binders or. Reports Language Toolkit'. Identify the key factors of what effective teachers know, understand and do which enables them to put effective teaching of literacy into practice in the primary phase;. Pay someone to do my homework assignment online! For writing - Hargate Primary School Biography. Features in Detail. Analyse the non- chronological report on elephants and label the features. GCSE is the qualification taken by year olds to mark their graduation from the Key Stage 4 phase of secondary education in England, Northern. How can I report to governors on the quality of teaching and learning? SPLAAT : Safe Play At All Times - Key Stage 2 - RoSPA. Uk Free, printable posters that show the features of non- chronological reports for KS2 pupils. • What do we Know about. In this worksheet, students practise distinguishing between three types of non- fiction text: explanations, instructions and non- chronological reports. O' Neil) DOC - All Checklists ZIP; Writing a Non- Chronological. This paragraph signals the end of the text. Use to help children remember important features to use in their writing. The process - interview, map information onto grid, talk the article through before shared and independent writing. While many of the strategies and examples presented in this report are similar to those in the Key Stage 1 guidance report, they are often more complex. Features of Non- Chronological Reports ( Anne. Suitable for Upper Key Stage 2, but can be adapted for other year groups. This resource also has lots of useful follow- up activities. Inside the provided packet, you will find a teachers guide for how to complete the. Characterisation: Who are the main characters? The guide includes annotated examples of pupils' writing to assist teachers in making reliable and valid teacher assessments as well as examples of grammatical features and how. This is a report. Structure: How will the story begin? Features of reports - Research & Learning Online - Monash University. 1x PowerPoint file presenting the story as a series of 9 illustrated slides, for use with interactive whiteboards. With the exception of a concern that children should know about the purposes of writing, the KS2 responses were different from those for early writing and. Writing a News Report click images to view or download. It also presents its language features. SUCCESS CRITERIA. Free Interactive Primary or Elementary Key Stage 2 ages 6- 11 years, Literacy and English Teacher Resources and fun Kids Games. I can write a ' WOW! Snappy catchy headline/ title. Key features of a newspaper article Write a non- chronological report using notes made from texts read. The report writing skeleton looks like. ' Wow Words 5Ws established early on. Progression in non- chronological report - Babcock Education All non- fiction text types cover have the same five key issues to look at. This chart shows the percentage of pupils in England achieving the national standard in KS2 Reading, Writing and Maths in. These paragraphs may include technical language. Set of posters showing simple definitions of different genres of writing. Docx - EAS at Key Stage 2. This variation is likely to be motivating and engaging and it provides an opportunity to explicitly teach the features and structures of different types of text,. Considered unfounded because teacher pupil conferences, a key feature of the process approach, involved teachers. Instructions KS1. Chronological Reports - Key Stage 2 Literacy Children should listen to, speak, read and write explanation texts for a wide range of audiences. Non- Chronological Report Assessment Criteria and. The Explanation Writing Pack - - Teaching Packs Pie Corbett & Julia Strong. Key features of report writing ks2. Identify the presentational features used to communicate the main points in a broadcast; Identify key sections of an informative broadcast, noting how the language used signals changes or transitions in. Includes Recount, Instructions/ Procedures, Narrative, Report, Explanation, Persuasion and Discussion. Recount text KS1. Links to key aspects of learning. Key features the 6 non- fiction text types have in common. The principle of cross key stage comparability rests on the premise that an age independent scale of progression exists. Butterflies are insects. What is recount writing? A concluding paragraph. INNOVATION – on the exemplar text modelled through shared writing. This is the headline. Samwhat83, Feb 16th. Video] Newspapers: Reading, discussing, analysing and writing. Narrative / Features of text forms / Resources, research, and. Key Features of Non. If the anatomy of an animal is vitally important to understanding a text, a detailed. Medium and Long Term Plans summarise books used and grammar taught. Curriculum topic: Reading: Comprehension. How to write an essay about me and my family writing a letter of application ks2 common app essay question help report writing ks2 key stage 2 or writing; ; Using film and media in ks2 and. - Communication4All Practical guide to assessing writing at key stage 2: volume 1: Non- chronological report writing and descriptive writing at lower key stage 2. • non- chronological. A handy checklist to help your students identify and highlight the features of a Non- Chronological Report text. Non- Chronological Report KS1. Last week, the Education Endowment Foundation ( EEF) published their latest guidance report, ' Improving Literacy in Key Stage Two'. The children will also write a newspaper report based on the book ' Tuesday'. Here for Terms and Conditions - Help / About Us - Key to Symbols - Contact. Reporting to governors on teaching and learning | The Key for. Curriculum subtopic: Understand. There' s no point in having an amazing news story but leaving the most important fact to the last sentence. School of Education, University of Leeds. Setting: Where will the story take place? Factual Report Writing Plan. If the author wants a reader to understand where a country is in the world, then providing a map helps the reader visualize and understand the importance of that country' s location.BBC - KS2 Bitesize English - Reports : Read English writing exercise - reports revisionbite. The State of Writing in English Primary Schools. Support LA with identifying features. Components of Writing. The next step will be for. A report is a formal text that gives you information about a subject that you are interested in and would like to. This will build the success. Images for key features of report writing ks2 Report Writing. JamesDaughton, May 9th. Features of recount writing: Where will I find. Language features. It is written for someone who wants to find these things out. Writing a Suspense Story photo credit Nasa / Goddard Space Flight Center / Reto Stöckli Talk to your partner What is Suspense? Features of reports. Explore many of the features of non chronological reports in more detail with many examples to help your children grasp the key points more effectively. Order a much needed writing service to work on one of your assignments. Report writing ks2. Guardians, carers and teachers who are involved in Key Stage 2 Literacy.English Writing Genre Marking Ladders. Genre marking ladders - www Paul Gardner - University of Bedfordshire, lead Researcher and author of the report. Comparability Study of Pupils' Writing from Different Key Stages Focus your class on the skills of producing non- chronological reports with Pie Corbett' s fantastical, mythological beasts. Explore Janine Jose' s board " Ks2 non chronological report writing" on Pinterest. Professor Lynne Cameron and Dr Sharon Besser. What do they look like? This power point discusses what the text type, explanation, is. These checklists can also be used to encourage children to incorporate the different features of particular genres in their writing. Turquoise Year 5 | Winhills Primary Academy curriculum- linked activities to support KS2 literacy and humanities teaching. Kaczorowska eu law essays, key features of creative writing ks2. It portrays the strange night that a small town was visited by hundreds of toads on levitating lily pads! Features of an Explanation Text - SlideShare. This download contains: 1x guide for teachers, containing the source story and 9 activity ideas. To encourage children to check their own work.Genre ticklists - Pobble The children' s outcome is to write a description of the trenches, creating atmosphere with different language choices. Report Writing in Year 5/ 6 | Wardley Primary School Provide examples of these showing them photos and questions from the PowerPoint from slides 1- 6 ( See Resources) ( slides 7- 9 are for lesson 4). Lesson 3: Writing news - BBC News School Report The diagram below illustrates the key components of writing. Being a Scottish teacher working in Scotland, I use of a suite of videos filmed and hosted by Education Scotland, which features a number of writers discussing their inspirations and motivations, how to create characters, how to write in genre and how to redraft. Persuasive Writing- We will. English writing exercise - reports revisionbite. Persuasive writing ( through DVD blurb, newspaper report, advertisement and wanted poster). Elephant report writing - Non- chronological reports - Home page. Openers like ' it is believed that. NON- FICTION WRITING GENRES. EXAMPLE OF INFORMATION REPORT. A Powerpoint for KS2 about the features of a newspaper report. English learning as a second language. Report Texts Checklist - report, writing a report, report - Twinkl Quick refresher for a p7 class to remind them of key features before they start their research. National Literacy Strategy Weekly Teaching Objectives Distinguish Between Explanations, Instructions and Non- Chronological Reports. Encourage your children to develop their vocabulary further by downloading our word pack for Newspaper Reports. Three Writing Checklists - Get your children to review and improve their explanation. English: Children could write a report about their imagined dinosaur' s habitat, food and behaviour, and. 11 best Ks2 non chronological report writing images on Pinterest. The videos are all around five minutes long.To help students plan for writing of narratives, model, focusing on: Plot: What is going to happen? This was a main feature in the assessment system proposed by.How to teach non- fiction wiritng 18 Febmin - Uploaded by Heart Lake LiteracyThis video is about Creating a News Report. A report gives factual information about a range of subjects. The language features of a report text are often ( but not always) :. Information Report Template and Scaffold This Key Stage 2 module brings together a selection of Daily Telegraph articles from our. Having practised how to include the key features of a report, the children then wrote. Teacher' s Pet - Journalistic Writing Posters - FREE Classroom. Thus, we have created editable, word formatted, genre tick- lists across a range of the most popular writing genres. | See more ideas about Key stages, Report writing and Non chronological reports ks2. Oak CE Primary School - Year 5 Each paragraph should give information about one feature of the. Free Printable Set of posters showing simple definitions of different genres of writing. Report - The Blitz. Our new report examines the gap - including 15 key lessons informing our practical work with teachers and senior leaders Our Research Schools aim to lead the way in. Hamilton' s Y3/ 4 English plans cover all of the statutory objectives of the National Curriculum for England for Lower Key Stage 2. This is an introductory guide to report writing. Transcript of Newspaper articles - features. Year 5 Non- fiction Unit 2 – Recount - UK Government Web Archive Four Examples of Explanation Writing - Your pupils can explore our differentiated explanation writing examples, identifying key features and highlighting technical vocabulary. Returning to the model text on the BBC website, model with the children how to identify the key features of this informational text starting at the top. Text to internalise the key features of the text type to learn how to write. Report Writing Help Ks2, Papers Writing Service in Texas - odden. Instructions KS2. Key features of report writing ks2. Reflective writing: a basic introduction. Elsienomore, Oct 17th. These are: Audience; Purpose; Examples; Typical structure; Typical language features. Evidence Facts and opinions. It is different from a recount or an explanation text because it isn' t. Non- chronological report writing and descriptive writing at lower key. Creative Curriculum KS2: Teaching across the curriculum using a story - Google Books Result Find out more and download an FFT Term of Birth report for your own school. Frances Godfrey – Leedon Lower. This supports the use of text- based approaches to literacy, where all outcomes for speaking and listening, reading and writing are based on the analysis and. What will be the problem? [ Forms part of the Big & Small project]. It can summarise the report. These checklists can be used to encourage children to incorporate the different features of particular genres in their writing. Explore how these features can help organise own writing. Text features go hand- in- hand with comprehension. This manual provides guidance on how schools may approach the teaching of a number of writing genres. A poster to show the purpose, structure and key features of persuasive writing. Non- chron report. Boxing up explained | Pie Corbett The children have been learning to write newspaper reports and took the great picture book ' Tuesday' by David Wiesner as inspiration. We also link to examples of reports. Effective Teachers of Literacy" - University of Leeds Explore the different features, browse resources and get lesson ideas for writing non chronological reports with your class this term. Suspense is a technique that a. Progression+ XC KAL( recount) in the TGAT report, led to the development of level descriptions that form the framework for national curriculum assessment. Begin drafting an introductory paragraph. In many ways, EAL writing at KS2 was more fluent and more accurate than the writing. Report Writing Help Ks2, Purchase Dissertation Online in California. Consider how the writer uses language and literary techniques to interest the reader. I can write 2- 3 ' key features' paragraphs to organise the information into specific. Grove13, Nov 23rd. Writing scripts and news stories also means understanding that you need to get straight to the point! Research Report RR586. Geography Report. With their almost endless.

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Located in Northern New Mexico, about 50 miles north of Santa Fe, Abiquiu boasts stunning red rock formations. The town is best known as the home of artist Georgia O'Keeffe, who lived at her Ghost Ranch residence from 1949 until her death (at the age of 98) in 1986. Now the home to numerous artists, Abiquiu hosts a studio tour each year on Columbus Day weekend. (~Aimee) Community operated, man-made waterways used for irrigation, acequias carry snow runoff or river water to fields. Originally brought to Spain by the Arabs, the canal systems were adapted by Spanish settlers for use in the Southwest. (~Aimee) Definition: A kind of clay used as a building material, typically in the form of sun-dried bricks; a brick of such a type or a building constructed from such material. Origin: mid-18th century: from Spanish, adobar meaning to plaster. Adobe has long been the traditional building material of the Southwest. Structures made from it are undulating and sculptural in nature, yet their mass gives them a sense of permanence and timelessness. The word adobe originated in the Arabic language and was brought to America by Spanish colonists at the end of the 15th century. It is used to refer to the earth from which structures are built, the structures themselves, and the unbaked clay bricks made from the earth. In New Mexico, archaeologists have discovered remnants of adobe walls built by Pueblo Indians that date back to 1200 AD, 400 years before the arrival of the Spanish. From that time, through the 15th century, there is evidence of two types of earthen walls. One was coarse adobe, which started with a stiff mixture of mud and was blended with anything from stones to pot shards. The mud was applied by the handful, layer on top of layer, until the desired wall height had been reached. A more sophisticated method made use of hand-formed, unbaked clay bricks. When the bricks were dry, mud mortar was used to hold the bricks in place on the wall. Believe me, nothing can take the place of the feeling you get when you enter an old, well-maintained adobe structure. In the summer, its akin to walking into a cool, refreshing cave; and in the winter, there is nothing more delightfully cozy than sitting in front of an authentic kiva fireplace. Ultimately, its a big part of the process of truly being in touch with the wondrous and sacred land that is Americas Great Southwest. (~Jean) NOTE: See our special feature about Adobe Adobe Architecture (see Adobe) Ancient Indians used adobe (a mixture of sand, soil, straw and water) to build their villages. Spanish settlers were familiar with the material from use in their homeland and readily adopted it in the American Southwest. It was ideal for building in an area that had few large hardwood trees for lumber. The Spanish added refinements, making the adobe into bricks and creating the distinctive curved corner fireplaces that can heat an entire room. The earliest true adobe homes consisted of a few small rooms with the widths being determined by the length of the vigas used as ceiling beams. Over the vigas, latillas (cedar poles) were laid and flat earthen roofs topped it off. Canales were a crucial feature of adobe construction, as they directed water through a parapet off the rooftop. Poorly maintained or located canales resulted in rapid destruction of the fragile sun-baked adobe bricks. Original adobe walls were very thick, often three to four feet deep, with few windows in order to keep out cold and heat. Todays modern adobe-style homes are built to withstand the effects of rain and weather, but still incorporate many of the original design elements of true adobe homes (with the exception of very thick walls). A cement and plaster mixture is hand troweled over a frame structure, which is insulated and covered with wire mesh before the plaster is applied. Canales are still used to drain water from the rooftops, which are often flat. Despite modern innovations, the ancient art of adobe architecture lives on throughout the Great Southwest. (~Jean) NOTE: See our special feature on Adobe Architecture One of the oldest areas or neighborhoods in the Santa Fe area, Agua Fria (known as the Historic Agua Fria Village) is two square miles, running along the street of the same name on the northwest side of the city. Originally a village and home to the a primarily Hispanic population, the area is now home to 2,051 people (based on the 2000 census). The villages location (545 acres of rural, agricultural New Mexico wedged between Santa Fe city and county lines) is a centuries-old community that continues to battle for its identity. (~Jean) A long-haired mammal related to the llama. Indigenous to the high Andean Plateau, they played a central role in the Incan culture. Alpacas produce one of the world's finest and most luxurious natural fibers. It is clipped from the animal without causing it injury. Soft as cashmere and warmer, lighter and stronger than wool, it comes in more colors than any other fiber-producing animal (approximately 22 basic colors with many variations and blends). This cashmere-like fleece, once reserved for Incan royalty, is now enjoyed by spinners and weavers around the world. First imported to the United States in 1984, Alpacas are now being successfully raised throughout the country. They are quite popular in Northern New Mexico, where they are also enjoyed and admired for their gentle nature. (~Aimee) A European tribe, better known after the Saxon raids of England combined the two tribes as Anglo-Saxon. The word is commonly employed in New Mexico in reference to all Caucasians of European descent. (~Aimee) Definition: "A steep-sided gully cut by running water in an arid or semi-arid region." An arroyo is a nearly vertically walled, flat floored stream channel that forms in fine, cohesive, easily eroded material. Arroyos can cut as deeply as 65 feet into the valley floor, are often wider than 165 feet, and can be hundreds of miles long. Arroyos exist throughout the Western United States, but are most common in arid and semi-arid climates in the Southwest. They are found throughout New Mexico. The rapid widening and deepening of arroyos have both changed the physical environment and been a costly nuisance in the West since settlement began in the mid-1800s. From 1870 to 1890 the number of livestock in New Mexico alone increased from 300,000 to 2,300,000. Valley floors, which were the most dependable forage areas for the animals, were quickly overgrazed. The fragile vegetation was consumed, and the soil was compacted and left extremely susceptible to erosion. To further exacerbate the soil conditions, both humans and livestock created trails along stream channels and nearby hillsides forming small ditches, leaving the land surface susceptible to arroyo formation. (~Aimee) A tree with rounded, long-stalked, and typically coarsely-toothed leaves that tremble in even a slight breeze. There are several species, in particular the North American quaking aspen, and the bigtooth aspen. The aspen is one of the few hardwood trees that thrive in the arid sections of the Western United States, such as New Mexico. Throughout the summer, the silver underlining of the aspen leaves fluttering in the wind is a sign of a storm brewing, and in the autumn, you will find huge swaths of golden aspens amidst the dark green conifers which cover the southern Rockies. Compared to coniferous forests, aspen stands have a richly diverse number of species thriving within their ecosystems. An aspen canopy typically allows more sunlight to reach the forest floor than do conifers, and stands of aspens are renowned for the wildflowers found within them. The leaves, twigs and bark are highly nutritious, and deer and elk use them for overwintering. Black bears, cottontails, porcupine, and snowshoe hares feed on bark, buds, and foliage, and grouse and quail eat the winter buds. Small mammals, such as shrews, mice, and voles abound. And, of course, aspen is a favorite food and building material for the North American beaver. The layered structure of an aspen grove is popular with birds. Snags provide perches for birds of prey, and sites for cavity nesters. Aspen stands across the American West are home to such species as the warbling vireo; shrub nesters, like the flycatcher; cavity nesters, like the mountain bluebird; and ground nesters, like the hermit thrush; as well as hummingbirds and birds of prey. (~Aimee) A Bit of Aspen Movie Trivia: In the film "Phenomenon," John Travolta's character finds himself the center of controversy after an unexplainable incident leads to a tremendous expansion of his mental faculties. In a meeting with the townspeople, he attempts to smooth over the misunderstandings by imparting some of the new wealth of information he has learned, and demonstrating that everything and everyone is connected. One of the examples he uses is the fact that the largest organism in the world is a grove of aspen trees in Colorado. (~Aimee) Pictured top to bottom: 1} Scenery in the Abiquiu area; 2} Adobe bricks; 3} An adobe house in Santa Fe, New Mexico; 4} Alpacas at home on a New Mexico farm; 5} south of Santa Fe, New Mexico; 6} Aspen trees in the fall

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The chief operating officer is one of the key members of the C-suite in many organizations. In addition to overseeing the operations of the organization, he or she may also be the second-in-command to the CEO. For a long time, this position has played a key role in running large organizations. However, you may be surprised to learn how few companies have a COO position. According to the Harvard Business Review, only 37 percent of the largest European businesses had an active chief operating officer role in 2010. The United States isn’t far off of these numbers. So, what is a chief operating officer? How did the position come to exist? What is changing about this role currently? And, what can we expect in the future for COOs? What Is a Chief Operating Officer? The primary purpose of this job is to oversee the daily operations of the company. It is a C-level position. Therefore, it typically handles a relatively high-level oversight of operations, with the specifics delegated to lower-level executives and managers. In many cases, the COO position exists to allow the CEO to focus more on strategy and the long-term and less on the everyday management of the organization. As such, the specifics of the chief operating officer job description may vary depending on the needs and personality of the chief executive officer it is serving under. Depending on the company, the COO may also function as a second-in-command to the CEO. While often unofficial, this relationship is why the duties of the top operations executive are so variable: his or her function is to support the CEO in running the business. This also means that the COO is frequently seen as the logical successor to the current chief executive officer. The Origins of the COO Although having managers dedicated to daily operations is hardly a new concept, the title of chief operating officer only arose in the second half of the 20th century. It emerged as the C-level nomenclature for corporate offices took precedence. Quickly the COO position became one of the big three C-suite jobs along with the CEO and CFO. In many cases, the aim of the COO role was to shift some of the daily oversight responsibilities away from the CEO. However, despite quickly becoming a staple in many large corporations, the position was loosely defined from its beginning. Due to its nature as the right-hand person for the CEO, the chief operating officer was almost immediately a corporate chameleon. For example, Richard D. Parsons held the job at Time Warner despite having no authority over the organization’s operating division. In other cases, the COO job was much more clearly operations related and the corporate president served as the second-in-command. Trends Among Chief Operating Officers Today EY, a research and leadership development organization, recently conducted a study of chief operating officers to learn more about their work. Notably, this included insights from COOs about what they thought of their roles and how things are changing. About a third of COOs and half of their colleagues in the C-suite consider the position to be the toughest job in the organization. This is largely informed by the necessity for flexibility and foresight. Large organizations are growing increasingly complex and ensuring their operational success both today and in the future can be a serious challenge. This level of challenge may see the COO filling the role of C-suite MVP. It can serve as both a reward for top team members and a way to get the most value out of talented people. Many of the respondents to EY’s research also indicated that the job is not sufficiently strategic. Its historical role has been in executing the long-term goals of the leadership team. However, many people holding the position today think that this focus is too microscopic. Instead, they believe chief operating officers of the future will need to play a greater role in the strategy to be successful. Undoubtedly the biggest trend of the research is that people in the top operations job feel the role is in a state of flux. New challenges and opportunities mean that it is not as defined a position as it once was. This can make being a COO stressful. However, it can also present opportunities for growth and success to ambitious executives. A large percentage of the COOs studied by EY noted that their greatest concern is the “lack of acceptance or understanding” of their roles. They believe that a lot of people don’t understand what the operations chief is supposed to be or how best to use his or her talents. This may help explain another major trend today: the declining prevalence of chief operating officer positions. The Decline of COO Positions Many organizations have done away with the chief operating officer role. According to executive search firm Crist Kolder Associates, only 36 percent of Fortune 500 and S&P 500 companies had a COO in 2014, down from 48 percent in 2000. This is likely the result of new information technologies allowing chief executive officers to oversee operations more directly. Therefore, they are able to handle the various non-C-level, operations-related executives and managers reporting to them without the need for a COO as a middle person. It is also notable that it is growing increasingly less common for the CEO and chairperson of the board to be the same individual. This split has further increased the leadership capacity of the CEO. In turn, this minimizes the need for a C-level executive specializing in operations. As individual executives are able to handle more responsibilities, organizations are also getting flatter. Rigid hierarchies are going out of vogue as leaders realize that a collaborative approach to running their businesses is more productive. Again, this reduces the need for the traditional hierarchy of executives. Finally, more boards are expecting their executive searches to be both internal and external. They want to find the right person for the job rather than simply elevating an anointed successor. This trend has taken away from the function of the COO as the heir apparent to the CEO. All this means that maintaining a chief operating officer position is less popular among the world’s largest corporations. However, removing the position isn’t the only option. Other organizations have reimagined it to better match the needs of today. In fact, many companies that have eliminated the role may, perhaps, have been better served by a creating a new definition. A New Chief Operating Officer for the New Business World Over the last decade or two, the C-suite has been introduced to some new titles. For example, some companies now have chief brand officers and chief diversity officers. These new roles reflect new priorities for organizations. Branding has taken a larger stage and maintaining a diverse workforce is a requirement for many companies. Not surprisingly, changing priorities means that the chief operating officer role of today is different from when it was first conceived. In some organizations, it has become the top leader for the employees while the CEO acts as the public face. The COO may also help other C-level executives connect their work with the rest of the organization. For example, if a CIO is working to introduce new technologies to the company, the operations chief may help him or her better understand the needs of the team members. Furthermore, as more businesses take a collaborative approach to their work, having someone focused on aligning team members with the strategic goals of the organization is important. So, while the need for an executive head of operations may have changed, that doesn’t mean the role is unimportant. In fact, it may be more necessary than ever to have a COO. Roles a COO May Play Today As the positioning of the chief operating officer changes within the leadership team, his or her key roles also change. There are many ways that a COO can continue to be helpful in the modern business world: - Strategy Implementation: This is the role most closely related to the traditional responsibilities of the job title. The top operations executive can focus his or her efforts on making the C-suite’s strategies a reality. This may be executing the CEO’s long-term goals, working with the CFO to find well-aligned acquisitions or a host of other implementation-related jobs. - Change Leadership: Perhaps the only constant in the business world is change. In some cases, an organization will bring on a COO to handle the leadership change of a particular strategic shift. In other cases, an organization may want someone in the role to help manage the ever-changing needs of the organization in a dynamic world. - Experienced Mentorship: Developing leaders is essential to the success of an organization. The chief operating officer can offer his or her experience and insight to help develop younger leaders. This can be a significant job, especially if the demands on the CEO prevent him or her from filling this role. - Partner: Sometimes chief executives simply need someone to work with them to get things done, whether that is as a sounding board, someone to serve as backup or someone to be a right-hand. This facet of the job is why the top operations executive has often been considered the second-in-command in many organizations. Someone serving as a chief operating officer may fill some, all or none of these roles. However, they represent some of the most common applications of the position in companies today. They also demonstrate how flexible the job can be and how organizations may be able to better use their COOs in the future. Expected Changes for Chief Operating Officers in the Future You may wonder what to expect from chief operating officers in the future. Some suggest that we are seeing a resurgence of the use of COOs. As leadership teams begin to better understand what the position can achieve, the interest in having one as part of the C-suite increases. According to Nate Bennett and Stephen A. Miles, writing for the Harvard Business Review: “We can easily argue that there is a growing need for the role. First, consider the widening scope of the CEO’s job. Today, we have bigger companies, with expanding global operations, aggressively pursuing acquisitions.” They add that CEOs are expected to be the public face of the company while also interfacing with the company’s team. In other words, while the CEO may have greater leadership capacity, the expectations for the top executive have also increased, perhaps to a greater degree. So, many organizations may be able to benefit from an operations chief acting as second-in-command. Others argue that with the always increasing rate of change in the business world, COOs are needed as an agent of change. David Spencer, writing for CIO, summed it up simply: “the modern COO connects the dots.” Organizations need to adapt to stay competitive and they need someone who can help hold things together as they change. Exactly what will happen is impossible to say. One thing we can be certain of is that the future of the COO will not look like its past. The business world is ever-evolving and leadership teams evolve with it. So, whether there is a resurgence of chief operating officers or a continued decline, those who do hold the title will need talent and experience to be able to face the challenges of tomorrow. Ensure Your Company’s Operations Success Whether you have a growing company that isn’t ready for a full-time COO, want to reduce the position to part-time or just need some outside expertise, Kamyar Shah’s fractional remote COO service can help. As the role of the chief operating officer is constantly changing, it can be helpful to have on-demand access to insight and talent when you need it. Get in touch today to learn how Mr. Shah can help with your operations or other executive needs. His years of experience across multiple industries afford him unique insight into how to prepare a business’ operations to meet the challenges of today and the future.

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By: Chris Bueley, AML Oceanographic AML Oceanographic has developed a novel UV-based antifouling technology for use on virtually any submerged surface. The performance of the system in reducing fouling induced measurement error on in-situ conductivity cells is comparable to the leading chemical-based system, as demonstrated in a described trial. Introduction Many systems used to monitor the world’s oceans consist of long-term, in-situ deployments of sensors. It is widely understood that the primary factor limiting the duration of these deployments is biofouling , defined as the unwanted and oftentimes rapid accumulation of marine growth on submerged equipment . Unchecked, this marine growth will overwhelm cameras, block lights, confound sensors, and inundate structures. In light of these limitations, significant effort has been exerted over the years towards developing mitigation strategies, with mixed results. Existing commercially available antifouling techniques may be categorized into two groups: (1) mechanical methods that consist of wipers or scrapers, and (2) chemical dosing techniques. Limitations of mechanical antifouling methods include poor reliability and an inability to protect complex geometries; conductivity cells, for example, are difficult to brush effectively. Alternatively, chemical dosing techniques are subject to a range of environmental Concerns. In previous years, there have been promising investigations into the use of Ultra-Violet radiation (UV) as an antifoulant , , . This method is attractive as it is non-contact, non-toxic, mechanically simple, and suitable for protection of complex geometries. AML Oceanographic has developed the industry’s first commercially available UV-based antifouling system, which may be used to protect virtually any submerged surface. This article presents the mechanical embodiment of the technology, hereafter referred to as UV•Xchange, and describes a trial that demonstrates that its ability to reduce fouling-induced measurement error is comparable to leading chemical-based techniques. generally occurs in five stages , with the first three stages characterized by the progression of organic biofilms, and the remaining two stages described by the growth of higher order organisms. UV primarily functions as an antifoulant by disrupting development of the first three stages. The driving mechanism of early stage growth is the cellular replication of colonizing cells – a process susceptible to interruption by UV. Much of the radiation present in the UV-C band (200 to 280 nm) is absorbed by DNA nucleotides, which damages them and arrests cellular division. This prevents the replication of early-stage adsorbing cells such as biofilms and other colonizers, precluding progression to late-stage higher order communities and ultimately resulting in the complete arrest of biofouling development. UV•Xchange is designed to provide antifouling protection to any submerged equipment. It is composed of a series of stackable LED modules housed within a glass pressure case, as shown in Figure 1. The LED modules (2) emit UV radiation through the wall of the glass pressure case (1) in broad 70° cones (5) to irradiate target surfaces. Each module may be independently rotated to provide coverage in multiple directions. The stem (4) is compatible with AML Oceanographic X-Series instruments. Operation of the system is controlled through a configurable duty cycle which allows users to tailor the level of protection to the aggressiveness of a particular fouling environment. To provide protection to AML sensors, UV•Xchange mounts on an endcap with the LED modules appropriately aimed, as shown in Figure 2. Alternatively, mounting UV•Xchange on a Micro•X allows the system to be fixed to any equipment, enabling the protection of any lights, cameras, sensors, etc. AML Oceanographic has conducted a number of in-situ trials to establish the performance of UV•Xchange. One such trial has been conducted at the Hawaiian Undersea Research Laboratory (HURL), located near Honolulu, Hawaii – a location known for its aggressive fouling. The 2- month trial consisted of four Metrec•X instruments outfitted with conductivity sensors. Two of the instruments were protected with UV•Xchange systems (referred to as UV1 and UV3), with two left unprotected as controls. Reference conductivity readings were provided by a Sea-Bird CTD (Sea-Bird Electronics, SBE-19 PlusV2) with a chemicalbased antifouling system. After 2 months, the housings of all instruments were heavily fouled, as shown in Figure 3. The primary control conductivity sensor (Figure 3, left) was inundated with growth while the sensing elements of two UV-protected instruments (center and right) remained clear. Of note is the protection provided to the instrument rack from incidental UV radiation, identified as (3) in Figure 3. This demonstrates the broad area of influence of a UV•Xchange module (refer to item 5 in Figure 1). For reference, the distance from the LED module to the clean area is approximately 12 cm in the middle image. A plot of measurements from each instrument is included in Figure 4. As shown in the figure, the unprotected control instrument (dashed line) exhibits clear deviation from the three protected instruments (Reference, UV1, UV3) in less than one week. In contrast, measurement plots from the protected instruments overlap for the entire duration of the deployment and no systematic drift is evident. Performance of UV•Xchange may be quantified through comparison of Mean Average Error (MAE), defined as the mean of differences between two data series. The MAE error budget is the maximum error attributable to sensor accuracy limitations and is calculated by summing accuracy specifications of the compared sensors. For example, the MAE for the control sensor versus the reference sensor is 1.395 mS/cm, as shown in Figure 5. This significantly exceeds the error budget of 0.013 mS/cm (based on published accuracies of 0.003 mS/cm and 0.010 mS/cm for the Sea-Bird and AML sensors, respectively) and indicates clear measurement error in the control (unprotected) sensor due to fouling. In contrast, the MAE for UV3 against the reference sensor and UV1 is calculated to be 0.042 and 0.030 mS/cm, respectively – a clear improvement over the control instrument. Measurement disagreement is attributed to sediment buildup on the horizontal conductivity tubes of UV3 (refer Figure 3). Alternatively, the MAE for instrument UV1 against the reference sensor is 0.011 mS/cm. This is less than the error budget and indicates that UV•Xchange’s ability to limit foulinginduced measurement error is comparable to chemical-based methods. In summary, the HURL trial has quantifiably validated the ability of UV•Xchange to retard biofouling on in-situ sensors and structures. Figure 3: AML instruments after 2 month deployment at HURL. (1) UV•Xchange, (2) conductivity sensors, (3) incidental clean patches on rack. From left to right: primary control sensor, UV1, UV3. In addition to the trial conducted at HURL (and others not mentioned), AML Oceanographic has partnered with Ocean Networks Canada (ONC) to conduct a technology demonstration of UV•Xchange in a long-term in-situ deployment. In October of 2013, AML Oceanographic deployed three instruments to the Folger Pinnacle observatory off the coast of Bamfield, British Columbia. Two instruments are protected by UV•Xchange systems and one is an unprotected control. The trial is currently ongoing and is scheduled to operate for a year, with high-definition video feedback of the instruments and real-time measurements available to the public (refer to http://www.AMLoceanographic.com). Figure 6 includes an image capture from the observatory’s camera after 2 months. As shown, growth on the control instrument (far right) is extensive while the two UV•Xchange protected sensors (left and center) remain free of fouling. Final results from this technology demonstration will be published in late 2014. Figure 6: AML Oceanographic instruments deployed on ONC’s Folger Pinnacle platform, approximately 2 months after deployment. Left and center instrument protected by UV•Xchange system, right instrument is unprotected control. (1) UV•Xchange system, (2) C•Xchange sensor, (3) SV•Xchange sensor, (4) Tu•Xchange sensor. Extensive barnacle and algae growth is apparent on the unprotected conductivity and sound velocity sensors, respectively. UV is an attractive antifoulant as it is non-contact, mechanically simple and may be used to protect complex three-dimensional surfaces. AML Oceanographic has developed an antifouling system capable of protecting virtually any submerged surface. The efficacy of UV•Xchange has been established through a number of successful in-situ trials and performance has been shown to be comparable to existing chemical-based systems. Due to the inherent advantages of this system over existing commercially available technologies, UV•Xchange may allow for deployments and durations not previously possible. Further information about this system is available at www.AMLoceanographic.com. The author of this article extends thanks to Ocean Networks Canada and the Hawaiian Undersea Research Laboratory fortheir support in testing this technology. K. E. Cooksey and B. Wigglesworth-Cooksey, “Adhesion of bacteria and diatoms to surfaces in the sea: a review,” Aquatic Microbial Ecology, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 87–96, 1995. J. S. Patil, H. Kimoto, T. Kimoto, and T. Saino, “Ultraviolet radiation (UV-C): a potential tool for the control of biofouling on marine optical instruments,”Biofouling, vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 215–230, Jan. 2007. A. Lakretz, E. Ron, and H. Mamane, “Biofouling control in water by various UVC wavelengths and doses,” Biofouling, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 257–267, Apr. 2010. L. Delauney, C. Compere, and M. Lehaitre, “Biofouling protection for marine environmental sensors,” Ocean Science, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 503–511, 2010. “UV Disinfection Guidance Manual.” Environment Protection Agency, Jun-2003.

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There are lots of different types of food poisoning bacteria and viruses that can make us ill when we eat or come in to contact with contaminated food. In this guide our experts look at thirteen of the most common bugs that can cause food poisoning. We look at what foods they commonly affect, typical symptoms, what to do if you become infected and proactive tips on preventing contamination. Can bacteria and viruses cause food poisoning? Most food poisoning cases are caused by either bacteria or viruses that have contaminated food and are then consumed allowing bugs to enter and infect the body. Most cases of food poisoning can be prevented with propper cleaning, separating, cooking and chilling procedures The type of bacteria or virus present in the food that is eaten will determine your symptoms, and how severe they are. We can prevent many cases of food poisoning by following the basic regime of cleaning, separating, cooking and chilling. What are the most common types of food poisoning bacteria and viruses? Some of the most common types of bacteria and viruses causing serious illness are listed below, along with tips on how to prevent food contamination and so keep you and others safe from harm. Bacillus Cereus is a type of contamination caused by spores, which can grow in leftover rice which is stored for too long at room temperature. If you have food poisoning caused by bacillus cereus, you can expect around 24 hours of vomiting and diarrhoea, which often comes on within 30 minutes of eating the contaminated food. Try to drink lots of water and rest, but if you think you are becoming dehydrated, call your GP or NHS Direct for advice. The best way to prevent illness caused by bacillus cereus is to ensure foods are cooked properly. If you have leftovers, cool them quickly in a shallow layer, put them in to a clean, airtight container and put them straight into the fridge. Fortunately botulism is a very rare, but dangerous type of food poisoning bacteria. Botulism infection is often caused by eating food which hasn’t been canned or preserved properly. It can also be found in soil, and in other foods such as cream-filled pastries or custard. Young children can also pick up botulism from honey. There is a range of symptoms associated with this illness. Very young children or babies may appear weak, lethargic and “floppy”. Older patients may suffer eyesight problems, slurred speech and have difficulty in swallowing. If you suspect botulism in yourself or a family member, you should go to A&E immediately as this is not an illness you can manage yourself at home. You can reduce your risk of botulism by avoiding eating from cans which are broken, damaged or bulging, and by not giving honey to babies under 12 months of age. Campylobacter food poisoning Most cases of campylobacter related food poisoning are picked up from raw chicken or turkey. It may also be present in shellfish, milk which has not been pasteurised, or untreated water from streams or lakes. This type of food poisoning can cause high temperatures, vomiting and diarrhoea, which may contain blood. The illness can last from 2 up to 10 days, and you can usually treat yourself at home by maintaining fluid levels and plenty of rest. The good news about campylobacter is that it is a bacterium that is very easy to kill. To be safe, always cook food through until piping hot in the middle. Avoid cross contamination; by for example using the same chopping board for salad and raw chicken. Don’t drink unpasteurised milk, and take water purification tablets when camping rather than drinking out of a lake or stream. In the UK clostridium perfringens is one of the most common types of food poisoning bacteria, which is thought to be responsible for as many as a million cases each year. The foods most commonly associated with clostridium perfringens are beef, poultry and gravy. If you are affected by this type of food poisoning bacteria you will vomit, have abdominal pains and suffer from diarrhoea. Bacteria such as clostridium perfringens can be killed by ensuring all food is well heated to at least 82 centigrade throughout. If you are cooking food to use at a later date, chill it quickly and refrigerate or freeze as soon as possible. Cronobacter sakazakii is a bacterium that is very rare, but can cause serious or fatal damage to the central nervous system. Most cases associated with cronobacter are contracted from baby formula milk. Symptoms include jaundice, fever, constant crying or lethargy. Any baby showing these symptoms should receive medical attention immediately. Avoid cronobacter infections by always following manufacturer’s instructions when making up formula milk. Hot water at 70oC or more should always be used when making up bottles… and never keep bottles for more than 24 hours after making them up. Escherichia coli (E. coli) E.coli bacteria is found in a wide range of different foods, from unpasteurised milk and cheese to bagged salads and contaminated water. Once a person is infected by this bug, they can pass it to others through faecal contamination. E. coli causes very severe abdominal pain, diarrhoea and vomiting. In most cases, infected people start to feel better after a week. Otherwise healthy adults can treat the infection at home by drinking water and taking plenty of rest. However, very young children or adults with existing health conditions may need hospital treatment. Avoid picking up E. coli in the first place by practicing good food hygiene. Always ensure minced beef products such as burgers are cooked through. Avoid unpasteurised milk and cheese products. As this bacteria is carried by many farm animals, ensure that everyone washes their hands thoroughly after contact with sheep, goats or cows. Hepatitis A contracted from food is very uncommon in the UK. However, it is something which you need to be aware of when travelling to warmer parts of the world. If you are travelling to areas where Hepatitis A is a problem, then speak to the nurse at your GP practice about immunisations. Hepatitis A can be transmitted through sewage and untreated water, and can be picked up from shellfish, any raw food such as salad or from food handlers with poor hygiene. Listeria is a rare form of food poisoning bacteria which can be picked up from products made using unpasteurised milk, from soft cheese such as brie or camembert, or from chilled deli products such as sliced meats or pate. Listeria infection causes listeriosis, a serious illness which can cause high temperatures, muscle aches, confusion or loss of balance. It’s particularly serious in pregnant women, as listeriosis can cause premature labour and death in unborn babies. Antibiotics can be used to treat listeriosis, but to be successful they must be administered quickly. Pregnant women in the UK are routinely advised to avoid soft cheeses and pate to reduce the risk of listeria. Everybody should avoid raw or unpasteurised milk, and any cheeses or other products made from it. Also known as the “winter vomiting bug”, norovirus can cause serious nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea and is highly infectious. Although norovirus can be spread by food, it’s more likely that you pick it up from contaminated surfaces such as door handles, hand rails etc,, or from someone else who is affected. However, if infected food workers touch ready to eat foods such as sandwiches or salads the infection can also be transferred in this way. If you contract norovirus, you should start to feel better after 2 or 3 days. Drink as much water as you can to stay hydrated, and take plenty of rest. The best way to prevent norovirus is being strict about handwashing. Always wash your hands after using the bathroom, before preparing food and before eating. People who have sickness or diarrhoea should not prepare food. Wash kitchen surfaces down with a bleach based cleaner to prevent further infection from spreading. Salmonella is most commonly associated with chicken, eggs and poultry but can also be found in vegetables, fruit and nuts. Salmonella can also be contracted from contact with reptiles and amphibians. If you contract salmonella, you can expect the typical food poisoning symptoms of vomiting and diarrhoea, lasting between four days and a week. Salmonella is particularly dangerous for small children, or the elderly, and in serious cases, hospital treatment might be required. Avoid salmonella by making sure that all eggs, chicken and poultry products are cooked through. Take care not to use the same chopping board for raw chicken, then other products. If you keep reptiles or amphibians as pets, get into the habit of thoroughly washing your hands with soap and hot water after handling them or cleaning out their tank. Shigella is also known as dysentery, and is typically associated with overseas travel rather than being picked up in the UK. It causes stomach cramps, high temperatures, nausea and diarrhoea. Treat a shigella infection be taking extra care over handwashing, and drink plenty of fluids. If you are lucky enough to be on holiday overseas, try to stick to hot cooked foods rather than salads and fruit. Avoid ice in drinks, and only drink unopened or sealed bottled water rather than straight from the tap. Staphylococcus aureus is a type of food poisoning sometimes known as “staph”. People who are infected with the bug can transfer it to food if they don’t wash their hands properly and then touch food designed to be eaten straight away, such as puddings or sandwiches. This type of infection can cause sickness very quickly, within as little as 30 minutes. Sufferers will experience abdominal cramps, nausea and vomiting. The good news is that most people recover with 24 hours, aided by fluids and rest. You can help prevent staph infections by cooking food through to piping hot. Use a thermometer if you are unsure of the temperature and refrigerate any leftovers promptly. Always wash your hands before preparing food and don’t prepare food for others if you are ill with vomiting or nausea. If you’ve ever been ill after eating raw oysters, then it was probably either norovirus or vibriosis which was to blame. Vibrio bacteria causes the classic food poisoning symptoms of nausea, pain and diarrhoea and can last for around three days. It’s very easy to avoid this type of infection, as the vibrio bacteria are killed by cooking. Never eat raw shellfish and make sure anything you cook is piping hot throughout. Professional food testing and laboratory analysis solutions WTS offer a comprehensive range of food testing and laboratory analysis solutions to support our clients in meeting their quality and food safety obligations. With offices in London serving the South and South East England, Manchester (North West), Birmingham (Midlands), Bristol (South East England and Wales), Leeds (North and North East) and Glasgow (Scotland), supported by regional teams of specially trained technicians and consultants we can offer professional, cost effective food testing and laboratory analysis solutions across the whole of the UK. Contact us today to learn how our expert food testing and laboratory analysis services can help you meet the increasingly stringent food quality and safety standards. More information about food testing and laboratory analysis solutions Read our reviews

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We are searching data for your request: Upon completion, a link will appear to access the found materials. Environmental disasters: it is often said, speaking, of so many tragic situations and which we certainly would have gladly avoided witnessing, but technically with this expression we mean those phenomena that have a vast impact on the environment, of natural origin or not, and that are catastrophic due to the number of living organisms involved, the severity of the effects on them and the vastness of the territory concerned. There are also so many near-miss environmental disasters that we cannot remain silent, at least for the potentially catastrophic risks. Man-made environmental disasters In general i environmental disasters they can be caused or derive from an action performed by a particular animal species. Without turning around too much, we can clearly say, given in hand, that man is often the animal species mentioned above, as well as being the victim of what he causes. He, and the territory in which he lives. We have numerous case examples ofenvironmental crimes In history, and still today, it is not common that i environmental disasters are caused by animals other than us. If this happens, it is about non-native breeds that, artificially introduced, destroy a certain habitat that had previously been created and had its balance. Before their arrival. THE environmental disasters they are a different phenomenon from natural calamities which are characterized as completely natural events. What happens, however, because the world is not made up of watertight compartments, is that the negative effects of certain catastrophes for which man is not to blame, are amplified by acts or situations created by man. Said thus it seems a rare and difficult mechanism, instead there are examples under our eyes, even banal ones. Let's take a storm - natural disaster for which we are not to blame. If it hits a hilly area that we humans have seen fit to deprive of all trees - deforestation - here is where a devastating landslide can occur. It starts as a calamity, rain from the sky, and ends up being one of the many natural disasters we have on our consciousness. World famous environmental disasters There are natural disasters of various kinds, for example chemical, linked to hydrocarbons, fires, nuclear. Among the most famous we find the one that took place on December 3, 1984 in Bhopal, India, when a pesticide leak from a Union Carbide factory caused an estimated 4,000 deaths. On that occasion a real "deadly fog" invaded a large area whose inhabitants have suffered serious consequences: over 50,000 have reported very serious damage such as blindness, kidney failure and permanent illness. One can not fail to mention that the outbreak of the Chernobyl nuclear reactor of April 26, 1986 when the attempt to test a new theory led to the propagation of radiation in quantities 400 times greater than the Hiroshima bomb. The most affected countries were Belarus and Ukraine, but the toxic cloud even reached Ireland, the death toll was 56 but there were also over 4,000 cases of cancer and numerous other indirect damage to man and the environment. For Italians, rather well known among the environmental disasters it is also that of 10 July 1976 a Seveso, in Brianza. A cloud of tetrachlorodibenzoparadioxin (TCDD) at that time was released from a pesticide factory and around 37,000 people were exposed to the highest ever recorded levels of dioxin. For the same reason, 80,000 animals have been slaughtered and the territory has not yet forgotten what is one of the most recent environmental disasters in northern Italy that is still “under study”. Less known but peculiar as environmental disasters, that of the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, a very high-intensity marine vortex capable of attracting waste and garbage, still floating in the Pacific between Japan and Hawaii, and that of the Mississippi Dead Zone. It is a sort of - literally - dead zone, located at the foot of the river of the same name in which the ecosystem is compromised due to the "exaggerated" discharges released into the water. Environmental disasters caused by oil Among the most recent environmental disasters caused by oil around the world we find that of the oil platform Deepwater Horizon: in the Gulf of Mexico, Louisiana, between April 20 and July 15, 2010 it spilled from 414 thousand tons of crude oil to over one million. A quantity yet to be estimated but certainly inadmissible. The oil disaster at the Jiyeh Lebanon power plant was also terrible, between 14 and 15 July 2006 with a budget of between 20 and 30 thousand tons of crude oil. In January 2001 another of these environmental disasters hit the Galapagos Islands, not even a year earlier, South Africa, in Cape Town: we are in June 2000 and 1,400 tons of crude oil. Going back in time but staying in the category of environmental disasters caused by oil, I remember the Exxon Valdez accident. This oil on March 24, 1989 ran aground on Prince William Sound's Bligh Reef, pouring 40.9 million liters of crude oil on the Asian coast next to Alaska. It left terrible consequences but “at least” it went down in the history of environmental disasters as a turning point. Let's not exaggerate, let's define it as a point of "positive inclination": after all that spilled crude oil, the maritime transport regulations have been changed which made the'Adoption of a new technology, much safer, double-hulled. Recent environmental disasters Of recent natural disasters there are both in Italy and in the rest of the world and we will most likely realize that we do not even know them all. And let's not blame it, they often don't find space and visibility, sometimes they get used to it, others being the fault of man, and I hide the consequences like dust under the carpet. Or corpses in the closet. But sometimes, as happens in the environmental disasters, the corpses are far too many. In the very recent 2015 in the United StatesIn Colorado, 11 million gallons of mud contaminated with heavy metals such as arsenic and lead from an abandoned mine accidentally spilled into the Animas River. Remaining current, in Italy we land in Veneto: it is 2012 when huge quantities of highly toxic foundry slag disposed of illegally under the route of the A31 motorway between Vicenza and Rovigo, still under construction at the time. The toll of 60 deaths for one of the most recent environmental disasters is that of the explosion due to a methane gas leak in 2010 in the Raspadskaya mine, in the Siberian region of Kemerovo. It is still on everyone's lips, because it is very recent, but also more widely followed among the environmental disasters, that of 2011 in Japan. I refer to what happened to Fukushima where four serious accidents occurred in the nuclear power plant namesake after the earthquake of 11 March 2011 which was also followed by a tsunami. Environmental disasters: law The most recent law that touches on the theme of environmental disasters in Italy it was approved on May 19, 2015 by the Italian Senate and generally concerns crimes against the environment, known for having transformed some crimes against the environment from "simple offenses" to offenses included in the Italian penal code. The same law meant that the statute of limitations doubled and the sentences even reached 20 years in prison. Regarding i environmental disasters from that approval we see what has changed. First of all their definition. "Certain events" tragic must be considered in their own right environmental disasters if they cause "the irreversible alteration of the equilibrium of an ecosystem, the alteration of the equilibrium of an ecosystem whose elimination is particularly onerous and achievable only with exceptional measures, the offense to public safety due to the importance of the fact for the 'extension of the compromise or its harmful effects or the number of people injured or exposed to danger ». The penalties range from 5 to 15 years, but not only: when i environmental disasters are committed in a protected or restricted area, or cause damage to protected animal or plant species, then there is also an aggravating circumstance. Another novelty of last year's law (2015) that I like to remember is theintroduction of 5 new crimes: environmental pollution, environmental disaster, the impediment of checks, failure to reclaim and traffic of radioactive material. Finally they are "Crimes", official. Environmental disasters in Italy: the book To get an idea of the current situation of our territory and how much it has experienced in history, there is an interesting one volume published by Il Mulino and written by Gabriella Corona. Is titled "Brief history of the environment in Italy”And tells about the transformations our peninsula has undergone at an environmental level. Inevitable, dutiful, and well done by the author, connect this environmental story with everything that has also changed in the economic, political and social spheres. Only in this way, as can be read in this book, is it possible to make a picture of reality that has a meaning and can suggest how act in the future. In the various chapters we find Italy in recent decades, the scene of a strong acceleration of hydrogeological instability and land consumption. We have before our eyes, even when reading, the worsening of the quality of life in metropolitan areas, the advancing concrete, the disappearance of green areas, the emergencies related to waste such as in the city of Naples - but unfortunately it is not the only one, only the most "shouted". They should not be forgotten, and fortunately Corona does not, even themarine and air pollution and the emergence of new pathologies affecting plants, humans and other animals, first, second or even third. If you liked this animal article keep following me on Twitter, Facebook, Google+, Pinterest and… elsewhere you have to find me! Related article that may interest you: - Seismic risk in Italy: map - Soil siphoning - Earthquakes: CNR's early warning tools - Tornadoes in Italy - Flow of a river

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"He was most renowned of all ancient kings for munificence, valor, and graciousness." In Hrolf's Saga, tales of virtue are vividly articulated. Characters in the saga personify ethics as conflicts unfold in an epic of honor & treachery, valor & cowardice, generosity & greed. These tales elucidate ancestral Norse cultural ethos within the context of its own warrior-poet story-telling tradition. The ancient skaldic author(s) wisely leaves it to audiences to interpret whatever moralistic lesson may be being conveyed. The summary series presented below preserves this tradition, sharing story as the primary means for articulating virtues that characterize ancestral Norse cultural ethos, asking readers to interpret for themselves. There is no universally accepted doctrine of Norse cultural virtue, but epic stories like Hrolf's saga can offer insight into ancient ancestral worldview and inform personal practices in the present day. Universally, story and story-telling traditions connect humanity to its cultural heritage, identity and sense of virtue. Scholars agree that traditional cultural knowledge is transmitted through story, along with values and instructions for living in relation to the world. Fixico (2003) characterize story as a, "vehicle for sharing traditional knowledge and passing it from one generation to the next... its purposes include sharing information, lessons in morality, confirming identity and telling experiences of people,” (pp: 22); Salmon (2008) echoes this, characterizing cultural histories, stories, and mythos as, “…cultural metaphors of our relationship with place…,” that articulate a "moral landscape,"(pp: 100-101). In Hrolf's saga, ascriptions of virtues to characters and actions are explicit throughout the narrative and reveal aspects of an ancestral Norse cultural and moral landscape. Moralistic allegories are embedded throughout the narrative of Hrolf's saga. Hrolf's character virtues are on full display in the story of his final days. It tells that a great army grew to challenge him, but, "King Hrolf paid no attention... his thoughts were more on generosity, magnificence and courage. He dwelt on the valor in his heart pondering on how to provide for all his guests in a way that would allow his fame to travel the farthest" (Byock, 1998; pp: 71). The virtues exhibited in Horlf's final days - hospitality, generosity, joyfulness, discernment, valor and reputability - are also exonerated in the Havamal. Havamal is a narrative poem, told in the words of a wise man, traditionally said to be Odin, offering counsel to those who seek wisdom. Stanzas directly articulate instruction on behavior. Occasionally, characters in Hrolf's saga emulate Odin's role in the Havamal, offering wise council to other characters in the story. Consistencies suggest a common ethos and worldview articulated within the context of a widespread warrior-poet tradition. Havamal on Hospitality 2. Hail to the giver! | a guest has come; Where shall the stranger sit? Swift shall he be who, | with swords shall try The proof of his might to make. Havamal on Generosity 41. Friends shall gladden each other | with arms and garments, As each for himself can see; Gift-givers' friendships | are longest found, If fair their fates may be. Havamal on Joyfulness 15. The son of a king | shall be silent and wise, And bold in battle as well; Bravely and gladly | a man shall go, Till the day of his death is come. Havamal on Discernment 1. Within the gates | ere a man shall go... Full long let him look about him; For little he knows | where a foe may lurk, And sit in the seats within. Havamal on Valor: 16. The sluggard believes | he shall live forever, If the fight he faces not; But age shall not grant him | the gift of peace, Though spears may spare his life. Havamal on Reputation: 77. Cattle die, | and kinsmen die, And so one dies one's self; But a noble name | will never die, If good renown one gets. (Trans. Bellows, 1916) Attestations of King Hrolf occur in several ancient literary sources, including the Prose Edda (Skaldskarparmal), the Poetic Edda (Grottasongr), and the Ynglinga Saga (Of King Adil's Death and Death of Rolf Krake). Although there may be some historical basis for the stories told of him, these sources are not reliable for historical accuracy, and in some instances even contradict each other. However, one theme that is consistent, in the context of the skaldic tradition, drama unfolds around characters in who embody various virtues. In Skaldskarparmal, Snorri explicitly exonerates King Hrolf's character, stating, "he was most renowned of all kings...," and proceeds to tell why. "Why is gold called Kraki's Seed? In Denmark there was a king called Hrólfr Kraki: he was most renowned of all ancient kings for munificence, valor, and graciousness. One evidence of his graciousness which is often brought into stories is this: A little lad and poor, Vöggr by name, came into the hall of King Hrólfr. At that time the king was young, and of slender stature. Vöggr came into his presence and looked up at him; and the king said: 'What wouldst thou say, lad, for thou lookest at me?' Vöggr answered: 'When I was at home, I heard say that Hrólfr the king at Hleidr was the greatest man in the northern lands; but now there sitteth in the high seat a little pole, and he is called King.' Then the king made answer: 'Thou, boy, hast given me a name, so that I shall be called Hrólfr the Pole (Kraki); and it is the custom that the giving of a name be accompanied by a gift. Now I see that with the name which thou has fastened on me, thou hast no gift such as would be acceptable to me, wherefore he that has wherewith to give shall give to the other.' And he took from his hand a gold ring and gave it to him. Then Vöggr said: 'Above all kings be thou most blessed of givers! Now I swear an oath that I shall be that man's slayer who slays thee.' Then spake the king, laughing loudly: 'Vöggr is pleased with a small thing.' "Another example is the tale told concerning the valor of Hrólfr Kraki: That king whom men call Adils ruled over Uppsala; he had to wife Yrsa, mother of Hrólfr Kraki. He was at strife with the king who ruled over Norway, whose name was Ali; the two joined battle on the ice of the lake called Vaeni. King Adils sent an embassy to Hrólfr Kraki, his stepson, praying him to come to his aid, and promised wages to all his host so long as they should be away; King Hrólfr himself should have three precious gifts, whatsoever three he might choose from all Sweden. King Hrólfr could not make the journey in person, owing to the strife in which he was engaged with the Saxons; but he sent to Adils his twelve berserks: Bödvar-Bjarki was there for one, and Hjalti the Stout-Hearted, Hvítserkr the Stern, Vöttr Véseti, and the brethren Svipdagr and Beigudr. In that battle King Áli fell, and the great part of his host with him; and King Adils took from him in death the helm Battle-Swine and his horse Raven. Then the berserks of Hrólfr Kraki demanded for their hire three pounds of gold for each man of them; and in addition they required that they might bear to Hrólfr Kraki those gifts of price which they had chosen for him: which were the Helm Battle-Boar and the birnie Finn's Heritage,--on neither of which iron would take hold,--and the gold ring which was called Pig of the Swedes, which Adils' forefathers had had. But the king denied them all these things, nor did he so much as pay their hire: the berserks went away ill-pleased with their share, and told the state of things to Hrólfr Kraki. "Straightway he begin his journey to Uppsala; and when he had brought his ships into the river Fýri, he rode at once to Uppsala, and his twelve berserks with him, all without safe-conduct. Yrsa, his mother, welcomed him and led him to lodgings, but not to the king's hall: fires were made there before them, and ale was given them to drink. Then men of King Adils came in and heaped firewood onto the fire, and made it so great that the clothes were burnt off Hrólfr and his men. And the fellows spake: 'Is it true that Hrólfr Kraki and his berserks shun neither fire nor iron?' Then Hrólfr Kraki leapt up, and all they that were with him; and he said: 'Add we to the fire In Adils' dwelling!' took his shield and cast it onto the fire, and leapt over the flames, while the shield burnt; and he spake again: 'He flees not the flames Who o'er the fire leapeth!' Even so did his men, one after another; and they laid hands on those fellows who had heaped up the fire, and cast them into the flames. Then Yrsa came and gave Hrólfr Kraki a deer's horn full of gold, the ring Pig of the Swedes being with the gold; and she bade them ride away to the host. They vaulted onto their horses and rode down into the Plain of the Fýri; and soon they saw King Adils riding after them with his host all in armor, hoping to slay them. Then Hrólfr Kraki plunged his right hand down into the horn, grasped the gold, and strewed it all about the road. When the Swedes saw that, they leapt down out of their saddles, and each took up as much as he could lay hold of; but King Adils bade them ride on, and himself rode furiously . His horse was called Slöngvir, swiftest of all horses. Then Hrólfr Kraki saw that King Adils was drawing close up to him, took the ring, Pig of the Swedes, and threw it toward him, and bade him receive it as a gift. King Adils rode at the ring and thrust at it with his spear-point, and let it slide down over the shaft-socket. Then Hrólfr Kraki turned back and saw how he bent down, and spake: 'Now I have made him who is mightiest of Swedes stoop as a swine stoops.' Thus they parted. For this cause gold is called Seed of Kraki or of Fýri's Plain. Thus sang Eyvindr Skald-Despoiler: God of the blade of battle, We bear through Hákon's life-days The Seed of Fýri's valley On our arms, where sits the falcon. Even as Thjódólfr sang: The king sows the bright seed-corn Of knuckle-splendid gold rings, With the crop of Yrsa's offspring, In his company's glad hand-grasp; The guileless 'Land-Director With Kraki's gleaming barley Sprinkles my arms, the flesh-grown Seat of the hooded falcon. Trans. Brodeur 1916 33. OF KING ADILS' DEATH. King Halfdan's son Helge ruled at that time over Leidre. He came to Sweden with so great an army, that King Adils saw no other way than to fly at once. King Helge landed with his army, plundered, and made a great booty. He took Queen Yrsa prisoner, carried her with him to Leidre, took her to wife, and had a son by her called Rolf Krake. When Rolf was three years old, Queen Alof came to Denmark, and told Queen Yrsa that her husband, King Helge, was her own father, and that she, Alof, was her mother. Thereupon Yrsa went back to Sweden to King Adils, and was queen there as long as she lived. King Helge fell in a war expedition; and Rolf Krake, who was then eight years old, was taken to be king in Leidre. King Adils had many disputes with a king called Ole of the Uplands; and these kings had a battle on the ice of the Venner lake, in which King Ole fell, and King Adils won the battle. There is a long account of this battle in the "Skjoldunga Saga", and also about Rolf Krake's coming to Adils, and sowing gold upon the Fyrisvold. King Adils was a great lover of good horses, and had the best horses of these times. One of his horses was called Slongve, and another Raven. This horse he had taken from Ole on his death, and bred from him a horse, also called Raven, which the king sent in a present to King Godgest in Halogaland. When Godgest mounted the horse he was not able to manage him, and fell off and was killed. This accident happened at Omd in Halogaland. King Adils was at a Disa sacrifice; and as he rode around the Disa hall his horse' Raven stumbled and fell, and the king was thrown forward upon his head, and his skull was split, and his brains dashed out against a stone. Adils died at Upsal, and was buried there in a mound. The Swedes called him a great king. Thjodolf speaks thus of him: -- "Witch-demons, I have heard men say, Have taken Adils' life away. The son of kings of Frey's great race, First in the fray, the fight, the chase, Fell from his steed -- his clotted brains Lie mixed with mire on Upsal's plains. Such death (grim Fate has willed it so) Has struck down Ole's deadly foe." 34. ROLF KRAKE'S DEATH. Eystein, King Adils' son, ruled next over Sweden, and in his lifetime Rolf Krake of Leidre fell. In those days many kings, both Danes and Northmen, ravaged the Swedish dominions; for there were many sea-kings who ruled over many people, but had no lands, and he might well be called a sea-king who never slept beneath Trans. Laing, 1844 Let's grind still more! And King Hrolf will avenge Halfdan on King Frothi. He will be called his mother's son and also her brother, we both know that. Trans. Crawford, 2015

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Discussion Papers Series Discussion paper #5 [PDF] The Holocaust as a Guidepost for Genocide Detection and Prevention in Africa by Edward Kissi Ph. D. Assistant Professor of African History, University of South Florida We must remember and draw lessons from the crimes committed against the Jews during the Holocaust if we are to prevent similar tragedies in the future. Africa should be particularly vigilant of these dangers in light of its recent past. Events in Africa since the genocide in Rwanda in 1994, suggest that the deliberate targeting of stereotyped groups, with the expressed intention of annihilating them, continues. This reinforces two salient lessons about the behaviour of governments and the reactions of society to genocide. First, a government in power determined to pursue a program of annihilation of particular groups, in the name of monopolizing power or creating a supposedly “pure and perfect” society, often succeeds in doing so. The ideologies and actions of the Nazi regime and the Hutu-led government of Rwanda illuminate this sad fact. There are also a number of players and factors that are compounding the violence against the mainly "non-Arab" ethnic groups in Darfur that could threaten the existence of these groups if steps are not taken soon to protect them. Second, there may be something lurking at the core of humanity that either attracts human beings to violence or makes them indifferent to violence against others. Tepid responses of society to the fate of the Jews of Europe in the midst of World War II, and to the Tutsis during the Rwandan genocide of 1994, highlight this. While verbal protests might point to a reservoir of decency and goodwill in humanity that could be mobilized to prevent genocide, new approaches to genocide prevention may be required, such as practical, bottom-up, local and sub-regional responses, to replace existing top-down, international bureaucratic mechanisms. One such approach might be a “rescue operation”, negotiated and assisted by local and sub-regional actors, aimed at removing the target groups from the genocidal environment. An example of this was the successful removal, by land and air, of imperilled Ethiopian Jews from Ethiopia to Israel, in the 1980s. The need for quick intervention was a valuable lesson learned from the Holocaust, when “international actors” -- the powerful and resourceful Allied Powers -- failed to act to save or rescue European Jews in Nazi Germany. Certainly, a successful “rescue” or “negotiated exodus” of endangered groups is contingent on the willingness of local and regional actors, such as Sudan, in the Ethiopian case, to assist in the rescue process, or Israel, as another state or society, neighbouring or distant, to accept the threatened group. That willingness could be easily generated when individuals and the rest of society come to see rescue as an important lifeline to humanity in peril, and regard indifference to the plight of the vulnerable as a form of bystanding similar to being a perpetrator of genocide. The apologies that nations and former heads of governments continue to offer for not doing enough to save the victims of genocide point to the consequences on an individual and on society of being a bystander. Memories of standing by while fellow human beings are being slaughtered can traumatize individuals who witness genocide but who might have helped to prevent it. This often guarantees bystanders a prolonged bruised conscience for their lack of ethical behaviour and the outrage of future generations for having done nothing to prevent or stop the violence. The twenty-first century requires a “global war on genocide” with as much commitment of resources and attention as the on-going “global war on terrorism”. Success in a global war on genocide will, undoubtedly, depend on genocide early-warning systems that can detect signs that a genocide is being perpetrated. Signs of Genocide Comparative studies of genocide since the Holocaust have yielded important information about the early-warning signs of an impending genocide. These signs include radio broadcasts of hate speeches and the demonization of target groups (as in the case of Rwanda). Massive cross-border movements of particular groups to neighbouring states (as in on-going movements of people from Darfur to Chad) could be a sign that a form of targeted persecution of these groups is occurring in the groups’ countries of residence. Prevention of persecuted groups from fleeing, especially when marked by physical killings of members of the group, betrays an existing or developing intent, on the part of the persecutors, to destroy that group. Protracted conflicts over power and control of the state, between governments and armed groups, in which none of the combatants demonstrates any desire to settle their grievances peacefully, can create a genocidal situation. That situation existed in Ethiopia, from 1977 to 1991, when Ethiopia’s military government and its armed opponents fought over issues of power, secession and ethnic self-determination. The same situation exists in Darfur, where the government of Sudan and armed rebel movements have been fighting since February 2003, over issues of power, regional autonomy, ethnic self-determination and the distribution of development resources. A genocidal situation existed in Rwanda, from October 1990 to March 1994, caused by armed warfare between the Hutu-controlled government and the Tutsi-led anti-government armed group, the Rwanda Patriotic Front, over similar issues. As we now know, genocidal situations can easily degenerate into an actual genocide. Lessons of the Holocaust As lessons from the Holocaust affirm, perpetrators of genocide often use the cover of war to pursue a planned programme of annihilation of particular groups. The Allied Powers failed to detect overt and subtle warning signs that the destruction of the Jews of Europe constituted a key part of Nazi war aims in World War II or they simply ignored them. As a result, the Allied Powers appeared to have been more interested in defeating Nazi Germany than saving the Jews ignorant, perhaps, of the fact that by the time victory came, much of the hidden Nazi objective of exterminating the Jews of Europe would have been accomplished. The targeted killings of the Tutsi by Hutu extremists in Rwanda also occurred in the context of a protracted war in which negotiated ceasefire and peace conferences appeared to be the top peace goals of international mediators. Hence, protracted wars of attrition in Africa should be carefully monitored for any systematic killing of particular groups in an actual genocide disguised as a domestic power struggle. Acting on these warning signs at their early stages are the best ways of preventing an impending genocide in the context of war. Furthermore, the Nazis aspired to create a broader German Reich, or a Greater Germany based on openly expressed ideas of merging lands, outside of Germany, inhabited by German-speaking peoples. Nazi utopian aspirations also included hopes of acquiring and ruling over wider territory in the name of creating living space for Germans. An African continent with arbitrarily-drawn “colonial boundaries,” that have restructured ethnic landscapes, has much to fear from these Nazi-type territorial ambitions. People who live in the Horn of Africa region must assume the moral responsibility to oppose the lingering idea of “Greater Somalia” that has since 1962 inspired Somali irredentists to seek annexation of lands in Kenya, Ethiopia and Djibouti inhabited by Somali ethnic groups. A Somali irredentism in the Horn of Africa, on the order of the German anschluss (merger) and lebensraum (living space) in Eastern and Central Europe in the course of World War II may be unlikely. However, the Holocaust and the genocide in Rwanda signal that sometimes the unimaginable could be triggered by a few with tanks and utopian ideas. However not every killing in the context of war, openly-expressed prejudices and stereotypes about particular groups suggest an ongoing or pending genocide (1). The Holocaust should also alert Africans, and African Member States of the United Nations, to that genocide’s other notable victims besides European Jews: homosexuals. Cultures that inspire homophobic sentiments can be potential seedbeds of genocide, and should be monitored. Responsibility to Protect vs. Obligation to Prevent Though not sufficient to predict a genocide, studies of the Holocaust and the genocide in Rwanda have galvanized world opinion towards a commitment to prevent genocide or intervene in one to save lives. During the World Summit in 2005, world leaders called for the acceptance of a universal principle of the responsibility to protect civilians from crimes against humanity when governments are unwilling to do so. This is another laudable “universal principle”, among many since 1945. But whose responsibility is it to protect target groups? And what might be the best form of protection so that the world does not witness another genocide unfold? Given the mixed history of international responses to genocide, including “protective” missions to save civilians, from the Holocaust, to United Nations safe-havens that did not stop genocide in Srebrenica in Eastern Europe, to the unfolding genocide and crimes against humanity in Darfur, the best protection is, in fact, prevention. And a top-down “United States-led” or “United Nations-mandated”; “armed humanitarian interventions” or “sanctions regime” might not be the best or practical way to implement this commitment on the African continent. Past genocides suggest that waiting for outside intervention or an “international” responsibility to protect threatened groups can be lengthy, elusive, and costly in lives. The success of “responsibility to protect”, as a moral principle, can best be implemented through local and sub-regional endeavours with some foreign help. The recent history of regional protective actions to safeguard civilians has been more encouraging than their international alternatives. With some help from the United States, the Economic Commission of West African States Cease-Fire Monitoring Group [ECOMOG] stopped armed conflict and violence in Liberia and Sierra Leone, in the 1990s. Proximity, familiarity with a region, and the possibility that nations in the region, such as the case in West Africa, can easily organize rescue missions to save the targeted, provide better, quicker and more efficient protection. Sub-regional commitments to a responsibility to protect civilians from crimes against humanity means there should be special offices for the detection and reporting of early-warning signs within these regional organs. It is possible that sub-regional interventions could be abused by regional powers. However, this possibility could be minimized by granting a role to the United Nations in a new sub-regional genocide prevention and civilian protection initiative. United Nations logistical support and financial incentives can make service in regional intervention forces appealing and curb the misuse of such interventions by regional powers. African countries can prepare their national populations to accept possible deaths of their troops while providing a moral service to protect groups in their neighbourhood with whom they have cultural affinities and in a region whose stability is essential to their security. Armed conflicts between governments and armed anti-government groups have been the greatest causes of crimes against civilians in contemporary Africa. State leaders bent on monopolizing power or using it to determine the distribution of resources exact retribution on presumed civilian sympathizers of the state’s armed opponents. The history of such conflicts since the 1970s in Ethiopia, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Rwanda and Sudan has revealed that belligerent armed “liberation” or “militia” groups in Africa are not innocent victims of state terror. Governments and armed rebel groups are unlikely to protect civilian populations presumed to oppose them. Thus, in Darfur, one may need to go beyond a commitment to protect civilian populations from crimes against humanity such as the burning of villages and the raping of women. It is essential for “world leaders” (broadly-conceived to include leaders of African nations) to assume another commitment to be balanced in their condemnations of the perpetrators. If one is to condemn the state of Sudan, then armed opponents of the Sudanese government such as the Sudan Liberation Army (SLA) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) should be condemned in the same manner. Not condemning the actions of the SLA and JEM (now called the National Redemption Front), that could potentially engulf the entire Horn of Africa sub-region in genocidal violence, is to condone and encourage the morally hazardous behaviour of these armed non-state groups. Besides sub-regional protection efforts, it is also necessary to situate a principle of “responsibility to protect” in a wider framework of local genocide prevention efforts. It is now time to also use culturally-familiar institutions, with their inherent values, to develop a regime of indigenous moral responsibilities to oppose genocide and genocidal rhetoric. Human rights activists in every African country should establish their own local councils of “Elders” and “Community leaders”. These Elders and Community Leaders command enormous respect in their local cultures. Using their roles in society, and invoking forgotten customs that once outlawed genocidal ideas, they can work outside of state frameworks to make prevention of genocide and all forms of mass murder a customary obligation once again. After all, success of genocide, anywhere, depends on the willingness of local populations to accept or condone the physical destruction of a particular group among them. If perpetrators in Africa have to contend with opposition from influential local elders or intervention from sub-regional countries to rescue or protect the victims, perpetrators of genocide may rethink their desires. And if a courageous and conscientious society makes it impossible for perpetrators to succeed, a costly international responsibility to protect civilians, while genocide is underway, would be unnecessary. States and leaders who commit or support genocide have come to believe that they could proceed without challenge from their people, neighbours and the rest of the world. Here, again, the lessons of the Holocaust are noteworthy in their most negative sense. The manner in which the Holocaust occurred, especially the tepid international response at the time, made subsequent genocides more likely. Post-Holocaust perpetrators of genocide appear to have taken inspiration from the Holocaust. They have reproduced its core elements and imagery and taken cues from the lack of organized local and international rescue or protection efforts. As Alison des Forges reveals in her book, Leave None To Tell the Story (1999) (2), Rwanda’s assassinated president Juvenal Habyarimana and his “intimates” seemed to have admired Adolf Hitler and the Third Reich. Habyarimana had in his residence and possibly viewed “copies of films about Hitler and Nazism”. Hutu nationalists in Rwanda imitated other methods of the Third Reich. What has become known as the “Ten Commandments of the Hutu”, partly exhorted Hutus to maintain the purity of their identity by refraining from marrying Tutsi women and men. That is the closest the architects and supporters of genocide in Rwanda came to reproducing, in that country, in December 1990, the infamous Nuremberg Laws enacted by the Nazi regime in Germany, in September 1935, with the same object of maintaining Aryan “purity” through proscriptions of marriages between Jews and Germans. Hutu perpetrators of genocide were also close to the Nazis in the manner in which they devalued their Tutsi victims. For the Nazis, the Jews were “vermin” to be exterminated from Europe’s industrial societies and the rest of the world. For the Hutu perpetrators, the Tutsi were “cockroaches” to be sought and killed in Rwanda’s agrarian society. Announcers on Hutu-controlled radio stations, used to incite the genocide, brazenly exhorted their listeners to kill all Tutsi and moderate Hutus without bothering about international opinion or response. Des Forges is, therefore, correct in arguing that Hutu perpetrators “had learned that this kind of slaughter would be tolerated by the international community”. Although some ordinary and uninformed people help to carry out genocide, those who initiate and plan genocide are not ordinary and uninformed people. Recent planners of genocide in Africa have been well-educated elites who have a remarkable understanding of international politics and the operations of international organizations. They have also read about the fate of the Jews in World War II. In post-colonial Africa, elite initiators of genocide can easily portray any international interventions as another example of foreign meddling or neo-colonialism. That charge resonates on the African continent. It derives its force and appeal from the memories of European colonial rule, in the 19th and early 20th centuries; the failed United Nations intervention in the Congo and subsequent Cold War intrigues on the continent in the 1960s. These facts encourage informed perpetrators of genocide in Africa to believe that they can get away with murder. Thus, new strategies of genocide prevention in Africa that do not depend on “international” actors need to be developed. Conclusion: Holocaust and Genocide Education Genocide prevention and civilian protection strategies in Africa should also include Holocaust and genocide education. The United Nations can provide African countries with video footages of the Holocaust and other genocides with local language translations to be shown in all rural and urban areas. Holocaust Remembrance in Africa should come with state-mandated teaching of genocide in all schools and military academies to renew appreciation of and respect for others. Such educational programs should be promoted at the early school-going age before genocidal mentalities develop. Meaningful Holocaust and genocide education in Africa should be placed in the context of familiar historical memories and a broader discussion of one of the Holocaust’s most important lessons: the painful price of prejudice. Those memories include the history of the slave trade, participation of African chiefs and merchants in it, and annihilation of particular ethnic groups in the name of progress and pacification in Africa under European colonial rule. These crimes, etched in the collective memory of Africans, originated from the same human prejudices and disregard for human life that devalued the humanity of European Jews and produced the Holocaust. Help from abroad boosts morale. But, ultimately, solutions to genocide and other forms of mass killing in Africa must come from within. To be seen to be solving one’s own problems, and not making them the “responsibility” of others, is the best expression of independence. (1) Kissi, Edward. Revolution and Genocide in Ethiopia and Cambodia, Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 2006. (2) Des Forges, Alison. Leave None To Tell the Story, New York: Human Rights Watch, 1999. - Why might local and regional genocide prevention measures work in Africa better than international approaches? What are some of the obstacles that prevent effective international intervention in African armed conflicts? - Comparative studies of genocide since the Holocaust have yielded important information about the early-warning signs of an impending genocide. What are these warning signs and how could an early-warning system be developed to raise regional and international alarms? - What parallels can be drawn between the Holocaust and genocide in Africa? - Why should the historical lessons of the Holocaust be incorporated into the educational curriculum of African schools? What can African school children gain from learning about the tragedies of World War II? The discussion papers series provides a forum for individual scholars on the Holocaust and the averting of genocide to raise issues for debate and further study. These writers, representing a variety of cultures and backgrounds, have been asked to draft papers based on their own perspective and particular experiences. The views expressed by the individual scholars do not necessarily reflect those of the United Nations.

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Based on content from the NIH publication, “Palliative Care in Cancer.” Palliative care is care given to improve the quality of life of patients who have a serious or life-threatening disease, like cancer. The goal of palliative care is to prevent or treat, as early as possible, the symptoms and side effects of the disease and its treatment, in addition to the related psychological, social and spiritual problems. The goal is not to cure. Palliative care is also called comfort care, supportive care and symptom management. When is palliative care used in cancer care? Palliative care is given throughout a patient’s experience with cancer. It should begin at diagnosis and continue through treatment, follow-up care and the end of life. Who gives palliative care? Although any medical professional may provide palliative care by addressing the side effects and emotional issues of cancer, some have a particular focus on this type of care. A palliative care specialist is a health professional who specializes in treating the symptoms, side effects and emotional problems experienced by patients. The goal is to maintain the best possible quality of life. Often, palliative care specialists work as part of a multidisciplinary team to coordinate care. This palliative care team may consist of doctors, nurses, registered dieticians, pharmacists and social workers. Many teams include psychologists or a hospital chaplain as well. Palliative care specialists may also make recommendations to primary care physicians about the management of pain and other symptoms. People do not give up their primary care physician to receive palliative care. If a person accepts palliative care, does it mean he or she won’t get cancer treatment? No. Palliative care is given in addition to cancer treatment. However, when a patient reaches a point at which treatment to destroy the cancer is no longer warranted, palliative care becomes the total focus of care. It will continue to be given to alleviate the symptoms and emotional issues of cancer. Palliative care providers can help ease the transition to end-of-life care. What is the difference between palliative care and hospice? Although hospice care has the same principles of comfort and support, palliative care is offered earlier in the disease process. As noted above, a person’s cancer treatment continues to be administered and assessed while he or she is receiving palliative care. Hospice care is a form of palliative care that is given to a person when cancer therapies are no longer controlling the disease. It focuses on caring, not curing. When a person has a terminal diagnosis (usually defined as having a life expectancy of six months or less) and is approaching the end of life, he or she might be eligible to receive hospice care. More information is available in the National Cancer Institute fact sheet Hospice. Where do cancer patients receive palliative care? Cancer centers and hospitals often have palliative care specialists on staff. They may also have a palliative care team that monitors and attends to patient and family needs. Cancer centers may also have programs or clinics that address specific palliative care issues, like lymphedema, pain management, sexual functioning or psychosocial issues. A patient may also receive palliative care at home, either under a physician’s care or through hospice, or at a facility that offers long-term care. How does a person find a place that offers palliative care? Patients should ask their doctors for the names of palliative care and symptom management specialists in the community. A local hospice may be able to offer referrals as well. Area hospitals or medical centers can also provide information. In addition, some national organizations have specific databases for referrals. For example, the Center to Advance Palliative Care has a list of providers by state. The National Hospice and Palliative Care Organization’s website also has a list of providers. What issues are addressed in palliative care? Palliative care can address a broad range of issues, integrating an individual’s specific needs into care. The physical and emotional effects of cancer and its treatment may be very different from person to person. For example, differences in age, cultural background or support systems may result in very different palliative care needs. Comprehensive palliative care will take the following issues into account for each patient: - Physical. Common physical symptoms include pain, fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, shortness of breath and insomnia. Many of these can be relieved with medicines or by using other methods, like nutrition therapy, physical therapy or deep breathing techniques. Also, chemotherapy, radiation therapy or surgery may be used to shrink tumors that are causing pain and other problems. - Emotional and coping. Palliative care specialists can provide resources to help patients and families deal with the emotions that come with a cancer diagnosis and cancer treatment. Depression, anxiety and fear are only a few of the concerns that can be addressed through palliative care. Experts may provide counseling, recommend support groups, hold family meetings or make referrals to mental health professionals. - Practical. Cancer patients may have financial and legal worries, insurance questions, employment concerns and concerns about completing advance directives. For many patients and families, the technical language and specific details of laws and forms are hard to understand. To ease the burden, the palliative care team may assist in coordinating the appropriate services. For example, the team may direct patients and families to resources that can help with financial counseling, understanding medical forms or legal advice or identifying local and national resources, like transportation or housing agencies. - Spiritual. With a cancer diagnosis, patients and families often look more deeply for meaning in their lives. Some find the disease brings them more faith, whereas others question their faith as they struggle to understand why cancer happened to them. An expert in palliative care can help people explore their beliefs and values so that they can find a sense of peace or reach a point of acceptance that is appropriate for their situation. Can a family member receive palliative care? Yes. Family members are an important part of cancer care, and, like the patient, they have a number of changing needs. It’s common for family members to become overwhelmed by the extra responsibilities placed upon them. Many find it difficult to care for a relative who is ill while trying to handle other obligations, like work and caring for other family members. Other issues can add to the stress, including uncertainty about how to help their loved one with medical situations, inadequate social support and emotions, like worry and fear. These challenges can compromise their own health. Palliative care can help families and friends cope with these issues and give them the support they need. How is palliative care given at the end of life? Making the transition from curative treatment to end-of-life care is a key part of palliative care. A palliative care team can help patients and their loved ones prepare for physical changes that may occur near the end of life and address appropriate symptom management for this stage of care. The team can also help patients cope with the different thoughts and emotional issues that arise, like worries about leaving loved ones behind, reflections about their legacy and relationships, or reaching closure with their life. In addition, palliative care can support family members and loved ones emotionally and with such issues as when to withdraw cancer therapy, grief counseling and transition to hospice. For more information, see the NCI PDQ information summary Last Days of Life. How do people talk about palliative care or decide what they need? Patients and their loved ones should ask their doctors about palliative care. In addition to discussing their needs for symptom relief and emotional support, patients and their families should consider the amount of communication they need. What people want to know about their diagnosis and care varies with each person. It’s important for patients to tell their doctors about what they want to know, how much information they want and when they want to receive it. Who pays for palliative care? Palliative care services are usually covered by health insurance. Medicare and Medicaid also pay for palliative care, depending on the situation. If patients do not have health insurance or are unsure about their coverage, they should check with a social worker or their hospital’s financial counselor. Is there any research that shows palliative care is beneficial? Yes. Research shows that palliative care and its many components are beneficial to patient and family health and well-being. A number of studies in recent years have shown that patients who have their symptoms controlled and are able to communicate their emotional needs have a better experience with their medical care. Their quality of life and physical symptoms improve. In addition, the Institute of Medicine 2007 report Cancer Care for the Whole Patient cites many studies that show patients are less able to adhere to their treatment and manage their illness and health when physical and emotional problems are present. Furthermore, patients who have serious illnesses and receive palliative care consultations have lower hospital costs than those who don’t. These consultations help determine treatment priorities and, therefore, help patients avoid unnecessary tests and procedures. (More information.) Does NCI support palliative care research? Yes. NCI supports a number of projects in the area of symptom management and palliative care. Clicking the following links online will launch real-time searches of NCI’s list of cancer clinical trials for supportive and palliative care that are currently enrolling participants. The search results can be further narrowed by trial location, drug name, intervention type, and other criteria. - Behavorial and psychological supportive care trials. - Educational and training supportive care trials. - All supportive and palliative care trials. General information about cancer clinical trials is also available on NCI’s Clinical Trials Home Page. In addition, NCI’s Office of Cancer Survivorship sponsors research that addresses symptom management for patients and families who have completed treatment.Based on content from the NIH publication, “Name of publication.” Moreover, NCI’s Community Clinical Oncology Program sponsors a number of clinical trials that are designed to treat many cancer-related symptoms. These symptoms include nausea and vomiting, fatigue, peripheral neuropathy, pain and sleep problems. Trials that are designed to prevent symptoms are also listed. Next Avenue Editors Also Recommend: - Providing Comfort and Care for End of Life - Matching the Right Services With a Person’s Needs - How to Plan and Discuss Your End-of-Life Care - How to Help a Loved One With End-of-Life Decisions Next Avenue brings you stories that are inspiring and change lives. We know that because we hear it from our readers every single day. One reader says, "Every time I read a post, I feel like I'm able to take a single, clear lesson away from it, which is why I think it's so great." Your generous donation will help us continue to bring you the information you care about. What story will you help make possible?

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What is Restorative Yoga? The practice of Restorative Yoga can be defined as a yoga practice in which we support the body to such an extent that we feel safe enough to completely relax the body and mind. The postures are restful and are held for a long time in order to release mental and emotional tensions. Our mind is constantly busy mulling over future and past actions. We are exhausted by thinking about what we could have done or will do. This disconnection with the present often prevents us from truly practicing yoga, and therefore often reduces the discipline of yoga to mere physical exercise. Yoga is so much more than just the physical shapes we assume during practice. In a true yoga practice, we connect with our innermost Self - our true Self. Yoga asanas and breathing exercises, performed in a state of mental and physical equanimity are the backbones of the ancient yoga tradition that guides us on the way to reconnecting with our spirit. Restorative Yoga allows us to truly stop. Thanks to the use of supports, we are able to completely relax every cell of our body and to nudge it into the state of parasympathetic nervous system arousal. Restorative Yoga provides precisely the right kind of physical and mental activation that allows us to enter a deeply relaxed state. What is the purpose of Restorative Yoga? Restorative Yoga primarily seeks to let the body enter into a state of rest and relaxation and activate the parasympathetic nervous system more easily. As the word ‘restore’ connotes, Restorative Yoga seeks to bring the body and mind to a natural state of calmness and harmony by gently and mindfully allowing the body to move between movement and stillness. Restorative Yoga is often regarded as active relaxation because the poses do not involve too much stretching and straining. Moreover, as we hold the poses for longer duration, the body gets enough time to drop into a state of complete relaxation. The mind slows down, the breathing deepens, and the bodily functions get balanced. Restorative Yoga nourishes and soothes the body and mind. As such, a regular practice not only heals and strengthens a weak and tired body but also brings about deep emotional healing. Thus, Restorative Yoga becomes more of a therapeutic yoga style than simply a fitness oriented practice. How to practice Restorative Yoga Restorative Yoga focuses on two main points: letting go and grounding. In the practice of Restorative Yoga, props are essential to reach our goal. When we say props, we also mean simple props that you can find in your own home. They do not need to be special yoga props. How to do Restorative Yoga at home? Common props that you will need for the practice of Restorative Yoga at home: - One yoga mat - One bolster or two rolled blankets - One chair - Three to five blankets or towels - One trouser belt or bathrobe belt - Two yoga bricks or two fairly large books - One eye pillow of 15 or 150 grams or a small hand towel For how long do we hold poses? Restorative Yoga poses are held for five to 30 minutes, and the final relaxation in Shavasana is up to 25 minutes. Who should do Restorative Yoga? The biggest plus of Restorative Yoga is that it can be adapted to everyone, regardless of age and experience. The use of many supports allows everyone to practice the postures. There are seemingly infinite variations for each pose which makes sure that everyone can experience relaxation in each pose. Restorative Yoga and the nervous system Relaxation is the solution to truly rest and to reactivate the physiological functions of the body. Relaxing does not mean sleeping. In fact, if sleep is disturbed, we do regenerate at all, but we feel even more exhausted. During sleep, there are dreams and other stages that can create muscle and mental activation. Relaxation is the time when there is no physical or mental effort, and the mind is completely calm. In the practice of Restorative Yoga, the relaxation is “active.” And through the mindful performance of the postures and the focus on the breath, we quickly enter a parasympathetic state. What happens when the parasympathetic nervous system is activated? The autonomic nervous system is responsible for regulating the body's unconscious actions. The parasympathetic system is responsible for "rest and digestion" responses, which are all activities that occur when the body is at rest, including sexual arousal, salivation, lacrimation, urination, digestion, and defecation. The action of the parasympathetic nervous system is complementary to that of the sympathetic nervous system, which is responsible for the activities associated with the "fight or flight" response. When we are in a state of relaxation and tranquillity, and consequently, when our mind is calm, our nervous system enters the parasympathetic state. Benefits of Restorative Yoga When the body is under stress, non-essential functions such as digestion, cell reproduction, intestine, and cell growth are blocked. Restorative Yoga, by rebalancing the nervous system, helps digestion to perform its basic functions and the intestine to absorb nutrients and generate waste material. Improves memory, concentration, and mental clarity There are countless scientific studies that show how the balance of the nervous system and a witty and tamed mind leads to stages of deep concentration that cannot occur in stages of agitation and anxiety. Regulates blood pressure Stress states cause blood pressure to rise and interfere with its balance; states of relaxation slow down the heartbeat and regulate blood pressure to healthy levels. Supports women during pregnancy, menopause, and menstruation Restorative Yoga, with all its modifications and variations, is an excellent practice to rebalance the entire female hormonal system. This is especially true in so-called altered stages, such as moments of hormonal change like adolescence, pregnancy, and menopause. Helps with managing endometriosis Restorative Yoga helps in pain management and hormonal balance. It helps women to regain physical and mental peace, activates hormonal rebalancing, and reduces the perception of pain. For years now I have been part of a research group that works closely with women who suffer from endometriosis and with women from all over Lombardy who decided to combine medical treatment with a path of Restorative Yoga and therapeutic Yoga to alleviate the situation. Supports the body during periods of grief Restorative Yoga helps after major trauma, such as the loss of a loved one or after an accident or illness. Supports in case of trauma Practicing Restorative Yoga helps in case of physical trauma, but also of psychological trauma. When practiced regularly, it induces a process of self-healing and awareness of our reactions to the difficulties of life. I find the practice of Restorative Yoga to be of great support for rehabilitation therapies of all kinds and as a support to mental professionals, such as psychologists and therapists. Helps to lose weight Restorative Yoga teaches us how to become more aware, and it lessens the need to overeat. Regular practice, even just for 20 minutes a day, increases the awareness of our actions, teaches us to love ourselves, reduces the need to compensate for the malaise of modern life with food or "junk food." It is a great starting point to redefine our eating and lifestyle habits. Popular Restorative Yoga poses Setu Bandha Sarvangasana Hold for: 5-15 min - Releases tension in the lower back and brings heavy heart rejuvenation. - Helps prevent arterial blockages or cardiac arrest by resting the heart muscles and increasing blood circulation in the arteries. - It soothes the brain and opens the chest by stabilizing blood pressure, helps fight hypertension and depression. - Relieves eye or ear ailments, migraines, stress-related headaches, nervous exhaustion, and insomnia. - It improves digestion and strengthens the abdominal organs. Relieves back pain, strengthens the spine, and relieves neck tension. - Helps rest tired legs and prevents varicose veins. Do not practice if you suffer from: - high blood pressure - if you are pregnant for more than three months Hold for: 5-15 minutes - Relieves anxiety. - Relieves digestive problems. - Helps with migraines, depression, menstrual cramps, varicose veins. - Helps in the menopause stage. - Regulates blood pressure. - Helps relieve arthritis. Do not practice in case of: - eye problems - heart problems - hiatal hernia - high blood pressure Supta Baddha Konasana Hold for: 10-15min - Regulates blood pressure. - Helps during menstruation and menopause. - Prevents hernia. - Relieves back pain in the lumbar area, varicose veins, and sciatica. - Reduces the pain caused by hemorrhoids. - Relieves indigestion and flatulence. - Corrects uterine prolapse. Do not practice in case of: - spondylolisthesis or spondylolysis. - discomfort in the neck or lower back even after varying the height and positioning of the supports. How Restorative Yoga benefits every kind of student Below you can find an overview of how the practice of Restorative Yoga practice can fit every kind of yoga student. Healthy and active students The practice of Restorative Yoga helps our body's tissues to regenerate, and therefore, will help the active student to experience better performance and to maintain an active life without getting tired. Stressed and hypertensive students From the very first lesson onward, will help re-educate the body and mind to a state of relaxation. Students with specific conditions For special situations, a teacher needs to make a personal assessment and understand what poses will help the student in his/ her process. As the holding times of the poses are long you have sufficient time to assist students individually. Restorative Yoga will make their mind stronger and more rational through the practice of observation and detachment. Restorative yoga, combined with Yoga Nidra, can greatly reduce anxiety and panic attacks. Student recovering from an illness Restorative Yoga will aid in the student's recovery because, during the practice of Restorative Yoga, the body activates the healing processes. Restorative Yoga for teachers. Yoga teachers get exhausted too Even yoga teachers often get tired. This is especially true in the world of online teaching. Many yoga teachers practice a lot. Not in silence, though, but they practice along while teaching online classes, often with little attention and introspection. Restorative Yoga is ideal for helping a teacher's body regenerate and "heal." More and more often, teachers experience chronic pain in the back and leg ligaments and shoulders problems. Therefore, it's an ideal practice for those who teach modern dynamic yoga. Yoga teachers lose their personal practice The second reason is a little more delicate to admit, but I know that it happens often and to almost all teachers. Yoga teachers lose their personal practice, or in any case, lose its quality. By teaching a lot, teachers identify with the teaching and lose their healthy routines. Teachers start to put students and classes first, and so we also have a lot of stressed yoga teachers, overburdened with rent, too many online and live classes, and too many projects. Restorative Yoga helps teachers take quality time for themselves and remember why they became yoga instructors.

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|File:Joseph Henry (1879).jpg| December 17, 1797| Albany, New York, U.S. May 13, 1878 (aged 80)| Washington, D.C., U.S. |Alma mater||The Albany Academy| |Known for||Electromagnetic induction, Inventor of a precursor to the electric doorbell and electric relay| |Spouse(s)||Hariet Henry (née Alexander)| William Alexander (1832–1862)| Mary Anna (1834–1903) Helen Louisa (b. 1836) Caroline (b. 1839) Joseph Henry (December 17, 1797 – May 13, 1878) was an American scientist who served as the first Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Joseph was an American scientist who invented electromagnets. He was the secretary for the National Institute for the Promotion of Science, a precursor of the Smithsonian Institution. He was highly regarded during his lifetime. While building electromagnets, Henry discovered the electromagnetic phenomenon of self-inductance. He also discovered mutual inductance independently of Michael Faraday, (1791-1867), though Faraday was the first to make the discovery and publish his results. Henry developed the electromagnet into a practical device. He invented a precursor to the electric doorbell (specifically a bell that could be rung at a distance via an electric wire, 1831) and electric relay (1835). The SI unit of inductance, the henry, is named in his honor. Henry's work on the electromagnetic relay was the basis of the practical electrical telegraph, invented by Samuel F. B. Morse and Sir Charles Wheatstone, separately. Henry was born in Albany, New York to Scottish immigrants Ann Alexander Henry and William Henry. His parents were poor, and Henry's father died while he was still young. For the rest of his childhood, Henry lived with his grandmother in Galway, New York. He attended a school which would later be named the "Joseph Henry Elementary School" in his honor. After school, he worked at a general store, and at the age of thirteen became an apprentice watchmaker and silversmith. Joseph's first love was theater and he came close to becoming a professional actor. His interest in science was sparked at the age of sixteen by a book of lectures on scientific topics titled Popular Lectures on Experimental Philosophy. In 1819 he entered The Albany Academy, where he was given free tuition. Even with free tuition he was so poor that he had to support himself with teaching and private tutoring positions. He intended to go into medicine, but in 1824 he was appointed an assistant engineer for the survey of the State road being constructed between the Hudson River and Lake Erie. From then on, he was inspired to a career in either civil or mechanical engineering.The Albany Academy by Principal T. Romeyn Beck. Some of his most important research was conducted in this new position. His curiosity about terrestrial magnetism led him to experiment with magnetism in general. He was the first to coil insulated wire tightly around an iron core in order to make a more powerful electromagnet, improving on William Sturgeon's electromagnet which used loosely coiled uninsulated wire. Using this technique, he built the strongest electromagnet at the time for Yale. He also showed that, when making an electromagnet using just two electrodes attached to a battery, it is best to wind several coils of wire in parallel, but when using a set-up with multiple batteries, there should be only one single long coil. The latter made the telegraph feasible. Using his newly developed electromagnetic principle, Henry in 1831 created one of the first machines to use electromagnetism for motion. This was the earliest ancestor of modern DC motor. It did not make use of rotating motion, but was merely an electromagnet perched on a pole, rocking back and forth. The rocking motion was caused by one of the two leads on both ends of the magnet rocker touching one of the two battery cells, causing a polarity change, and rocking the opposite direction until the other two leads hit the other battery. This apparatus allowed Henry to recognize the property of self inductance. British scientist Michael Faraday also recognized this property around the same time. Since Faraday published his results first, he became the officially recognized discoverer of the phenomenon. In 1848 Henry worked in conjunction with Professor Stephen Alexander to determine the relative temperatures for different parts of the solar disk. They used a thermopile to determine that sunspots were cooler than the surrounding regions. This work was shown to the astronomer Angelo Secchi who extended it, but with some question as to whether Henry was given proper credit for his earlier work. In the fall of 2014 history author Jeremy T.K. Farley released "The Civil War Out My Window: Diary of Mary Henry." The 262-page book featured the diary of Henry's daughter Mary, from the years of 1855 to 1878. Throughout the diary, Henry is repeatedly mentioned by his daughter, who showed a keen affection to her father. Influences in aeronautics Prof. Henry was introduced to Prof. Thaddeus Lowe, a balloonist from New Hampshire who had taken interest in the phenomenon of lighter-than-air gases, and exploits into meteorology, in particular, the high winds which we call the Jet stream today. It was Lowe's intent to make a transatlantic crossing by utilizing an enormous gas-inflated aerostat. Henry took a great interest in Lowe's endeavors, promoting him among some of the more prominent scientists and institutions of the day. In June 1860, Lowe had made a successful test flight with his gigantic balloon, first named the City of New York and later renamed The Great Western, flying from Philadelphia to Medford, New York. Lowe would not be able to attempt a transatlantic flight until late Spring of the 1861, so Henry convinced him to take his balloon to a point more West and fly the balloon back to the eastern seaboard, an exercise that would keep his investors interested. Lowe took several smaller balloons to Cincinnati, Ohio in March 1861. On 19 April, he launched on a fateful flight that landed him in Confederate South Carolina. With the Southern States seceding from the Union, during that winter and spring of 1861, and the onset of Civil War, Lowe abandoned further attempts at a trans-Atlantic crossing and, with Henry's endorsement, went to Washington, D.C. to offer his services as an aeronaut to the Federal government. Henry submitted a letter to U.S. Secretary of War at the time Simon Cameron of Pennsylvania which carried Henry's endorsement: - Hon. SIMON CAMERON: - DEAR SIR: In accordance with your request made to me orally on the morning of the 6th of June, I have examined the apparatus and witnessed the balloon experiments of Mr. Lowe, and have come to the following conclusions: - 1st. The balloon prepared by Mr. Lowe, inflated with ordinary street gas, will retain its charge for several days. - 2d. In an inflated condition it can be towed by a few men along an ordinary road, or over fields, in ordinarily calm weather, from the places where it is galled [i.e. swelled or inflated] to another, twenty or more miles distant. - 3d. It can be let up into the air by means of a rope in a calm day to a height sufficient to observe the country for twenty miles around and more, according to the degree of clearness of the atmosphere. The ascent may also be made at night and the camp lights of the enemy observed. - 4th. From experiments made here for the first time it is conclusively proved that telegrams can be sent with ease and certainty between the balloon and the quarters of the commanding officer. - 5th. I feel assured, although I have not witnessed the experiment, that when the surface wind is from the east, as it was for several days last week, an observer in the balloon can be made to float nearly to the enemy's camp (as it is now situated to the west of us), or even to float over it, and then return eastward by rising to a higher elevation. This assumption is based on the fact that the upper strata of wind in this latitude is always flowing eastward. Mr. Lowe informs me, and I do not doubt his statement, that he will on any day which is favorable make an excursion of the kind above mentioned. - 6th. From all the facts I have observed and the information I have gathered I am sure that important information may be obtained in regard to the topography of the country and to the position and movements of an enemy by means of the balloon now, and that Mr. Lowe is well qualified to render service in this way by the balloon now in his possession. - 7th. The balloon which Mr. Lowe now has in Washington can only be inflated in a city where street gas is to be obtained. If an exploration is required at a point too distant for the transportation of the inflated balloon, an additional apparatus for the generation of hydrogen gas will be required. The necessity of generating the gas renders the use of the balloon more expensive, but this, where important results are required, is of comparatively small importance. - For these preliminary experiments, as you may recollect, a sum not to exceed $200 or $250 was to be appropriated, and in accordance with this Mr. Lowe has presented me with the in closed statement of items, which I think are reasonable, since nothing is charged for labor and time of the aeronautic. - I have the honor to remain, very respectfully, your obedient servant, - JOSEPH HENRY, - Secretary Smithsonian Institution. - I have the honor to remain, very respectfully, your obedient servant, As a famous scientist and director of the Smithsonian Institution, Henry received visits from other scientists and inventors who sought his advice. Henry was patient, kindly, self-controlled, and gently humorous. One such visitor was Alexander Graham Bell, who on 1 March 1875 carried a letter of introduction to Henry. Henry showed an interest in seeing Bell's experimental apparatus, and Bell returned the following day. After the demonstration, Bell mentioned his untested theory on how to transmit human speech electrically by means of a "harp apparatus" which would have several steel reeds tuned to different frequencies to cover the voice spectrum. Henry said Bell had "the germ of a great invention". Henry advised Bell not to publish his ideas until he had perfected the invention. When Bell objected that he lacked the necessary knowledge, Henry firmly advised: "Get it!" On 25 June 1876, Bell's experimental telephone (using a different design) was demonstrated at the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia where Henry was one of the judges for electrical exhibits. On 13 January 1877, Bell demonstrated his instruments to Henry at the Smithsonian Institution and Henry invited Bell to demonstrate them again that night at the Washington Philosophical Society. Henry praised "the value and astonishing character of Mr. Bell's discovery and invention." Henry died on 13 May 1878, and was buried in Oak Hill Cemetery in the Georgetown section of northwest Washington, D.C. John Phillips Sousa wrote the Transit of Venus March for the unveiling of the Joseph Henry statue in front of the Smithsonian Castle. Henry was a member of the United States Lighthouse Board from 1852 until his death. He was appointed chairman in 1871 and served in that position the remainder of his life. He was the only civilian to serve as chairman. The United States Coast Guard honored Henry for his work on lighthouses and fog signal acoustics by naming a cutter after him. The Joseph Henry, usually referred to as the Joe Henry, was launched in 1880 and was active until 1904. Bronze statues of Henry and Isaac Newton represent science on the balustrade of the galleries of the Main Reading Room in the Thomas Jefferson Building of the Library of Congress on Capitol Hill in Washington, D.C. They are two of the 16 historical figures depicted in the reading room, each pair representing one of the 8 pillars of civilization. After the Albany Academy moved out of its downtown building in the early 1930s, its old building in Academy Park was renamed Joseph Henry Memorial, with a statue of him out front. It is now the main offices of the Albany City School District. In 1971 it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places; later it was included as a contributing property when the Lafayette Park Historic District was listed on the Register. - 1826 – Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy at The Albany Academy, New York. - 1832 – Professor at Princeton. - 1835 – Invented the electromechanical relay. - 1846 – First secretary of the Smithsonian Institution until 1878 - 1848 – Edited Ephraim G. Squier and Edwin H. Davis' Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, the Institution's first publication. - 1852 – Appointed to the Lighthouse Board - 1871 – Appointed chairman of the Lighthouse Board - Henry (unit) - Multiple coil magnet - Timeline of historic inventions - Timeline of communication technology - American Philosophical Society - History of Albany, New York - "Planning a National Museum". Smithsonian Institution Archives. Retrieved 2 January 2010. - "A Brief History of Electromagnetism" (PDF). - Ulaby, Fawwaz (2001-01-31). Fundamentals of Applied Electromagnetics (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. p. 232. ISBN 0-13-032931-2. - "Joseph Henry". Distinguished Members Gallery, National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 2006-11-30. - Scientific writings of Joseph Henry, Volume 30, Issue 2. Smithsonian Institution. 1886. p. 434. - "The electromechanical relay of Joseph Henry". Georgi Dalakov. - Henry, Joseph (1845). "On the Relative Radiation of Heat by the Solar Spots". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 4: 173–176. - Magie, W. F. (1931). "Joseph Henry". Reviews of Modern Physics 3 (4): 465–495. Bibcode:1931RvMP....3..465M. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.3.465. - Benjamin, Marcus (1899). "The Early Presidents of the American Association. II". Science (Moses King) 10: 670–676 . Bibcode:1899Sci....10..670B. doi:10.1126/science.10.254.670. Retrieved 2007-09-23. - Hellemans, Alexander; Bryan Bunch (1988). The Timetables of Science. New York, New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 317. ISBN 0-671-62130-0. - Mayer, Alfred M. (1880). "Henry as a Discoverer". A Memorial of Joseph Henry. Washington: Government Printing Office. pp. 475–508. Retrieved 2007-09-23. - Wytheville Enterprise Farley compiles Civil War diary. - Alexander Graham Bell and the Conquest of Solitude, Robert V. Bruce, pages 139-140 - Alexander Graham Bell and the Conquest of Solitude, Robert V. Bruce, page 214 - US Coast Guard Cutter Joseph Henry - Ames, Joseph Sweetman (Ed.), The discovery of induced electric currents, Vol. 1. Memoirs, by Joseph Henry. New York, Cincinnati [etc.] American book company [c1900] LCCN 00005889 - Coulson, Thomas, Joseph Henry: His Life and Work, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1950 - Dorman, Kathleen W., and Sarah J. Shoenfeld (comps.), The Papers of Joseph Henry. Volume 12: Cumulative Index, Science History Publications, 2008 - Henry, Joseph, Scientific Writings of Joseph Henry. Volumes 1 and 2, Smithsonian Institution, 1886 - Moyer, Albert E., Joseph Henry: The Rise of an American Scientist, Washington, Smithsonian Institution Press, 1997. ISBN 1-56098-776-6 - Reingold, Nathan, et al., (eds.), The Papers of Joseph Henry. Volumes 1-5, Washington, Smithsonian Institution Press, 1972–1988 - Rothenberg, Marc, et al., (eds.), The Papers of Joseph Henry. Volumes 6-8, Washington, Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992–1998, and Volumes 9-11, Science History Publications, 2002–2007 |40x40px||Wikimedia Commons has media related to Joseph Henry.| |40x40px||Wikisource has original works written by or about:| - Finding aid to the Joseph Henry collection at the University of Pennsylvania Libraries - The Joseph Henry Papers Project - Finding Aid to the Joseph Henry Collection - Biographical details — Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (1967), 58(1), pages 1–10. - Dedication ceremony for the Henry statue (1883) - Published physics papers — On the Production of Currents and Sparks of Electricity from Magnetism and On Electro-Dynamic Induction (extract) - Joseph Henry Collection, Smithsonian Institution - National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir |Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution | Succeeded by| Spencer Fullerton Baird Lua error in Module:Authority_control at line 346: attempt to index field 'wikibase' (a nil value).

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Architects are required to be able to write clearly in diverse professional settings. These include the creation of notations on drawings, the development of concise project descriptions and the composition of materials for websites, the compilation of extensive site documentation, and the development of large-scale programs and proposals. The Writing Standards for Architecture Students at FIU provide a common baseline for acceptable writing in professional and academic settings and offer suggestions toward better, more effective writing. Professional architects and university students rely on word processing programs to assist with spelling and grammar. At the most basic level, all assignments completed for courses in architecture (including design studios) must be typed texts that have been composed or finished in a word processing software. Students should be vigilant users of the “spell check” and “grammar check” functions on all software, including MSWord, Illustrator, Photoshop, PowerPoint, AutoCAD, and Rhino, etc. Any error in spelling or grammar is unacceptable in writing assignments or on presentation drawings. Students should be particularly mindful of spelling and grammar errors in emails to their professors or other professionals. In addition to following the guidelines presented here in the Writing Standards, students should strictly follow the specific instructions for individual assignments laid out by their instructors. Stylistic and Grammatical Guidelines Please follow the specific guidelines listed below in every applicable situation. - Write in the active voice. Instead of “red was used for the exterior” try “Tschumi chose red for the exterior.” Make it clear that the architect (or client, or contractor) ACTS in a specific way. - Identify each person fully (first and last names) the first time you mention him or her, then refer to the same person by LAST NAME ONLY each subsequent time. For example, the very first time you mention the architect, identify her as Zaha Hadid, then every time after that identify her as Hadid. Avoid using the figureʼs first name alone (ie. Zaha). - Be careful when using plural and possessive nouns.”Buildings” means more than one building; “building’s” means something belonging to the building. - Be accurate when using punctuation in quotations. “Note where I put this comma,” and “pay attention to this exclamation mark!” “Do you recognize a misplaced question mark?” “Please put periods where they belong.” A valuable exception is when you include a quoted phrase within your own exclamatory or questioning sentence. For example, can we all believe that Kahn “asked the brick what it wanted to be”? - “Then” and “than” are often confused. Examples:a) First the foundations were laid then the walls were constructed. b) The number of people in the room was greater than that allowed by the Fire Marshal. Remember that a “critic” writes a “critique,” and never the other way around. - Never write “I feel that…” or “My opinion is that…” or &”I disagree…” because these papers are written as interpretations. Anything you don’t quote or paraphrase (anything you do not attribute to another writer) is assumed to be your opinion. - Of course, when you ARE conveying the thoughts of another writer (or architect, or whoever) you must either quote or paraphrase that person. The former requires quotation marks, while the latter does not. In both cases, you MUST identify the person in your text and you MUST include a citation, such as a footnote or endnote. Two examples: Louis Kahn said that bricks wanted to be made into walls.12 (paraphrase) “I asked the brick what it wanted to be,” Kahn once claimed, “and it said, a wall.”12 (quotation) In both cases, a footnote follows the sentence. Always include a source for a quote or paraphrase. Failing to do so may result in charges of plagiarism and disciplinary measures. See the FIU handbook for university policies concerning plagiarism. - Avoid repetition. Do not to use a word more than once in a paragraph, and be careful not to repeat words too much in the paper as a whole. - Use standard footnote/endnote formatting, as defined by the Chicago Manual of Style or the MLS. For information on Chicago-style formatting for written papers, go to The Chicago Manual of Style Online. The Department of Architecture strictly follows the rules and policies of the college and university when it comes to plagiarism. According to the FIU Handbook, the definitions of cheating and plagiarism are the following: Cheating: The unauthorized use of books, notes, aids, electronic sources; or assistance from another person with respect to examinations, course assignments, field service reports, class recitations; or the unauthorized possession of examination papers or course materials, whether originally authorized or not. Any student helping another cheat may be found guilty of academic misconduct. Plagiarism: The deliberate use and appropriation of another’s work without any indication of the source and the representation of such work as the student’s own. Any student, who fails to give credit for ideas, expressions or materials taken from another source, including Internet sources, is guilty of plagiarism. Any student helping another to plagiarize may be found guilty of academic misconduct. Please see the FIU Student Handbook for graduate and undergraduate students by clicking here. LEARNING CULTURE STATEMENT In the fall of 2005, the NAAB issued an additional condition for accreditation: Studio Culture. In 2009 “studio culture was extended to the more inclusive condition of Learning Culture. Each accredited School of Architecture is now required to have a written policy addressing and shaping its studio and learning culture. Several years ago, the American Institute of Architecture Students (AIAS) created a task force to address both the positive and negative aspects of studio culture and issued its report in 2002. In that report, the AIAS call for explicit policies to support the positive aspects of studio culture, while curbing some of the more unhealthy practices. The positive values identified by the Report include optimism, respect, sharing, engagement, and innovation — values that are shared and supported fully by FIU’s Architecture department. DESIGN LEARNING CULTURE FIU’s Architecture department encourages an academic environment conducive to design learning through thoughtful connections between studio and non-studio courses. Design education at FIU encourages critical discourse based on collaboration, creativity, and learning through making. A healthy learning culture engenders an environment where students and faculty come together to ask questions and make proposals, innovate through today’s knowledge to address tomorrow’s challenges. The learning culture must support and develop respect for the diverse backgrounds of the faculty and student’s educational and professional experiences, and approaches to design. DESIGN STUDIO CULTURE The Architecture Department recognizes the inherent value of the design studio model. Studio learning encourages dialogue, collaboration, risk-taking, innovation, and learning-by-doing. The studios and labs offer an environment where students can come together to ask questions and create proposals. These proposals are developed and discussed among classmates, faculty, visiting professionals, and the public-at-large. Studio and lab-based learning offer intensive one-on-one instruction from faculty members, and provide the opportunity for each student to develop his/her critical thinking skills and spatial and material sensibilities. The design studio and labs offer a synthetic form of education, where project-based learning becomes the foundation for developing an understanding of and commitment to the department’s core values — broad mindedness, inter-connectivity, professionalism, exploration and activism — all in service of architecture’s fundamental mission: to improve the quality of the built and natural environments. Open-ended questions – The Architecture department encourages students to embrace studio-based learning as a unique and valuable educational model. Studio learning requires an environment that allows for open-ended questioning, for which there may be no right answers. Balance – The Architecture department supports its students and faculty in leading balanced lives. Time-management – Students are encouraged to work smarter, not necessarily longer in studio. Design process – The Architecture department affirms the value of design intention, design process, and design product, thus encouraging and evaluating (1) the student’s understanding of the ideas that motivate and the forces that inform the project at hand (“grasp”), (2) the student’s assiduousness in the development of ideas and use of information in the process of design (“process” or “effort”), and (3) the material and graphic quality of the studio’s final products — be they models, drawings, or representations in other media — as well as the appropriateness of the proposed design in its real-world context (“product”). Grades – Grades are but one measure of a student’s performance in studio. Advising and counseling are considered integral to the learning culture. Collaboration – In addition to individual design projects, FIU’s Architecture department values partner and group projects at every level of design research and development. Interdisciplinary opportunities – To become effective designers of, and advocates for a quality built environment, FIU’s Architecture department supports interdisciplinary work between the three design disciplines that constitute the School of Architecture. The department encourages community-based research and engagement through which students can acquire a broad range of skills and experiences. Faculty development – Faculty who teach studio are selected for their ability to inspire students to learn, engage students in critical thinking, bring forward their particular expertise, and convey a sense of optimism about the field of architecture. Critiques/Reviews – Public presentation and display of the work of the design studio is valued, and is essential in developing skills for effective verbal communication. The Architecture department supports considered and respectful dialogue—whether spirited debate or reflective discussion — during public presentations. Diversity – The Architecture department supports active, and open dialog. The studio is a place where diverse life experiences and opinions are shared. A culture of respect and open inquiry supports the life-long learning process that begins in school. Maintenance of the Studio Culture Policy – To ensure the effectiveness and implementation of the Studio Culture Policy—as well as to create the opportunity to amend or change policies outlined therein, the Architecture department’s Studio and Learning Culture Policy will undergo review every two years by representatives of the faculty and student body. The policy will also be reviewed periodically in an open forum that invites the participation of all students and faculty members. Social Space – The Paul L. Cejas School of Architecture Building is an asset for student socialization and for events. Its courtyards, lawns, terraces, staircases and walkways are valued spaces that enhance the culture of learning. Travel – The Architecture Department values travel both locally and abroad. Immersion in other cities and cultures provides our students with critical experiences. The firsthand interaction with completed buildings and those under construction enrich learning throughout the curriculum. Respect – The Architecture Department respects diversity and the dignity of the individual.

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There are over 500 current programming languages, with more being written every day. Admittedly, the majority of these overlap and a large number were never meant to be used outside of a theoretical or lab setting. But for the programming languages that are used in everyday coding and businesses, you have to make a choice. What languages should you learn, and why should you invest your time in learning them? As this is a site devoted to Python, we’ve already told you why Python is a great language to learn. And you probably know about how Python is probably the most preferred language for the Raspberry Pi (as most come preloaded with it). And knowing that, you know what amazing things you can do with a Pi kit and just a little ingenuity. While it’s easy to see how you can tinker with Python, you might be wondering how this translates to actual business and real world applications. What we’re going to do now is tell you about eight top-tier companies that you know that use Python. That way you can see what great real world opportunities there are for Python developers out there. Industrial Light and Magic Industrial Light and Magic (ILM) is the special effects powerhouse that was founded in 1975 by George Lucas to create the FX for Star Wars. Since then, they’ve become synonymous with FX, winning multiple awards for their work in movies and commercials. In their early days, ILM focused on practical effects, but soon realized that computer generated effects were the future of FX in general. Their CGI department was founded in 1979 and their first effect was the explosion sequence of the Genesis Project in Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan. Originally, ILM’s CGI studio ran off of a Unix shell, but this was only handling a relatively low amount of work. Because the studio foresaw the future of CGI, they started looking for a system that could handle the aggressive upscaling that they saw in the future. ILM chose Python 1.4 over Perl and Tcl, opting to use Python because it was a much faster to integrate into their existing infrastructure. Because of Python’s easy interoperability with C and C++, it was simple for ILM to import Python into their proprietary lighting software. This let them put Python in more places, using it for wrapping software components and extend their standard graphics applications. The studio has used Python in multiple other facets of their work. Developers use Python to track and audit pipeline functionality, maintaining a database of every image produced for each film. As more and more of ILM’s programs were controlled by Python, it created a simpler unified toolset that allowed for a more effective production pipeline. For a real world example, look no farther than OpenEXR, an HD file format used by ILM. As part of the package, PyIlmBase is included (although it does have a Boost dependency). Despite numerous reviews, ILM continues to find Python to be the best solution for its needs. The combination of an open source code combined with the ability to back-port changes ensures that Python will continue to meet ILM’s needs for a long time. Google has been a supporter of Python from nearly the very beginning. In the beginning, the founders of Google made the decision of “Python where we can, C++ where we must.” This meant that C++ was used where memory control was imperative and low latency was desired. In the other facets, Python enabled for ease of maintenance and relatively fast delivery. Even when other scripts were written for Google in Perl or Bash, these were often recoded into Python. The reason was because of the ease of deployment and how simple Python is to maintain. In fact, according to Steven Levy – author of “In the Plex,” Google’s very first web-crawling spider was first written in Java 1.0 and was so difficult that they rewrote it into Python. Python is now one of the official Google server-side languages—C++, Java, and Go are the other three—that are allowed to be deployed to production. And in case you aren’t really sure about how important Python is to Google, Python’s very own BDFL, Guido van Rossum, worked at Google from 2005 to 2012. To top it all off, Peter Norvig said: “Python has been an important part of Google since the beginning, and remains so as the system grows and evolves. Today dozens of Google engineers use Python, and we’re looking for more people with skills in this language.” Facebook production engineers are exceptionally keen on Python, making it the third most popular language at the social media giant (just behind C++ and their proprietary PHP dialect, Hack). On average, there are over 5,000 commits to utilities and services at Facebook, managing infrastructure, binary distribution, hardware imaging, and operational automation. The ease of using Python libraries means that the production engineers don’t have to write or maintain as much code, allowing them to focus on getting improvements live. It also ensures that the infrastructure of Facebook is able to scale efficiently. According to a 2016 post by Facebook, Python is currently responsible for multiple services in infrastructure management. These include using TORconfig to handle network switch setup and imaging, FBOSS for whitebox switch CLIs, and using Dapper for scheduling and execution of maintenance work. Facebook has published numerous open-source Python projects written for Py3 including a Facebook Ads API and a Python Async IRCbot framework. Facebook is currently in the process of upgrading their infrastructure and handlers to 3.4 from 2, and AsyncIO is helping their engineers in the process. In 2016, the Instagram engineering team boasted that they were running the world’s largest deployment of the Django web framework, which is written entirely in Python. This likely still holds true today. Min Ni, a software engineer at Instagram says this about their production-use of Python: “We initially chose to use Python because of its reputation for simplicity and practicality, which aligns well with our philosophy of ‘do the simple thing first.’“ Since then, Instagram’s engineering team has invested time and resources into keeping their Python deployment viable at the massive scale (~800 million monthly active users) they’re operating at: “With the work we’ve put into building the efficiency framework for Instagram’s web service, we are confident that we will keep scaling our service infrastructure using Python. We’ve also started to invest more into the Python language itself, and are beginning to explore moving our Python from version 2 to 3.” In 2017, Instagram migrated most of their Python code base from Python 2.7 to Python 3. You can watch the PyCon 2017 keynote talk that Lisa Guo and Hui Ding gave and hear about their experience with this massive code migration: This music streaming giant is a huge proponent of Python, using the language primarily for data analysis and back end services. On the back end, there are a large number of services that all communicate over 0MQ, or ZeroMQ, an open source networking library and framework that is written in Python and C++(among other languages). The reason that the services are written in Python is because Spotify likes how fast the development pipeline is when writing and coding in Python. The most recent updates to Spotify’s architecture have all been using gevent, which provides a fast event loop with a high-level synchronous API. To provide suggestions and recommendations for users, Spotify relies on a large volume of analytics. To interpret these, Spotify makes use of Luigi, a Python module that synchs with Hadoop. This open source module handles how the libraries work together, and consolidates error logs quickly to allow troubleshooting and redeployment. In total, Spotify uses over 6000 individual Python processes that work together over the nodes of the Hadoop cluster. This huge crowd-sourced question and answer platform thought long and hard about what language they wanted to use to implement their idea. Charlie Cheever, one of the founders of Quora, had their choice narrowed down to Python, C#, Java, and Scala. Their biggest problem with proceeding with Python was the lack of typechecking and its relative slowness. According to Adam D’Angelo, they decided not to go with C# because it’s a proprietary Microsoft language and they didn’t want to be beholden to any future changes put out. Additionally, any open source code had second-class support at best. Java was more painful to write in than Python and it didn’t play as nicely with non-Java programs as Python did. At the time, Java was also in its infancy, so they were worried about future support and if the language would continue to grow. Instead, the founders of Quora took their lead from Google, choosing to use Python where they could because of its ease of writing and readability, and implemented C++ for the performance critical sections. They got around Python’s lack of typechecking by writing unit tests that accomplish much the same thing. Another key consideration for using Python was the existence of several good frameworks at the time including Django and Pylons. Additionally, because they knew that Quora was going to involve server/client interactions that wouldn’t necessarily be full page loads, having Python and JS play so well together was a huge plus. Netflix uses Python in a very similar manner to Spotify, relying on the language to power its data analysis on the server side. It doesn’t just stop there, however. Netflix allows their software engineers to choose what language to code in, and have noticed a large upsurge in the number of Python applications. When surveyed, Netflix engineers cite the standard library, the extremely active development community, and the rich variety of third party libraries available to solve nearly any given problem. Additionally, because Python is so easy to develop, it has become a linchpin in many of Netflix’s other services. One of the primary places that Python is used is in the Central Alert Gateway. This RESTful web app processes alerts from anywhere, and then route them to people or groups that would need to see them. Additionally, the app has the power to suppress duplicate alerts that have already been handled and in some cases, perform automated solutions such as rebooting a process or terminating something that is starting to look shaky. This app is a huge win for Netflix considering the sheer volume of alerts. Handling them intelligently means that developers and engineers aren’t flooded with redundant calls. Another area that Python is used at Netflix is with monkey apps used to track security changes and history. These monkeys are used to track and alert any changes in EC2 security related policies in any groups, tracking any changes in these environments. They are also used to ensure to track the dozens of SSL certificates attached to Netflix’s multiple domains. In tracking, Netflix has seen a reduction in unexpected expirations drop from one very quarter to none since 2012. This cloud based storage system uses Python in its desktop client. If you have any doubt at all about how invested Dropbox is in Python, consider that in 2012, they managed to convince Guido van Rossum, Python’s creator and benevolent dictator for life, away from Google and into the Dropbox fold. Rossum joined Dropbox under the condition that he would be an engineer, not a lead or even a manager. In his first year, he was able to help bring about the ability to share datastores with other users within the Dropbox community. While a great many of Dropbox’s libraries and internals are proprietary and not open source, the company has released a very efficient API coded in python that allows you to see how their engineers are thinking. You can also read between the lines when you read interviews with Dropbox engineers about how a huge percentage of their server side code is Python. It’s also interesting to note that while the client side programs are coded in Python, they make use of various libraries on both Mac and Windows machines to allow a unified experience. This is because Python doesn’t come preinstalled on Windows and depending on your Mac, your Python version will vary. This website had 542 million visitors every month across 2017, making it the fourth most visited website in the United States and seventh most visited in the world. In 2015, there were 73.15 million submissions and 82.54 billion pageviews. And behind it all, forming the software backbone, was Python. Reddit was originally coded in Lisp, but in December of 2005, six months after its launch, the site was recoded into Python. The primary reason for the change was that Python had a wider range of code libraries and was more developmentally flexible. The web framework that originally ran the site, web.py, is now an open-source project. In a 2009 interview, Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian were asked during Pycon why Reddit is still using Python as its framework. According to Huffman, the first reason is the same as the reason for the change: “There’s a library for everything. We’ve been learning a lot of these technologies and a lot of these architectures as we go. And, so, when I don’t understand connection pools, I can just find a library until I understand it better myself and write our own. Don’t understand web frameworks, so we’ll use someone else’s until we make our own…Python has an awesome crutch like that.” The second reason for Reddit staying with Python is a common thread that runs through all of the companies who build with it. According to Huffman, it’s the readability of the code: “When we hire new employees … I don’t think we’ve yet hired an employee who knew Python. I just say, ‘everything you write needs to be in Python.’ Just so I can read it. And it’s awesome because I can see from across the room, looking at their screen, whether their code is good or bad. Because good Python code has a very obvious structure. And that makes my life so much easier. […] It’s extremely expressive, extremely readable, and extremely writable. And that just keeps life smooth” Update: And yes, that now makes 9 world-class companies that use Python in production. Initially we didn’t count Instagram separately because the company is owned by Facebook. But given the impressive scale the Instagram team operates at, we thought it made sense to give them a separate bullet point. In this post we looked at eight world-class and successful software companies that use Python in production. But they’re not the only ones. As of 2018 Python adoption has reached a new peak and continues to climb. Did we miss anyone one this list? Leave a comment below and let us know about your favorite Python shop!

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Saturn’s moon Enceladus is just over 300 miles (500 kilometers) in diameter, not even half as wide as Pluto’s moon Charon. But despite its size, and despite the Saturn system being outside of what was thought to be our star’s habitable zone where liquid water can exist on a planet's surface, some scientists now think Enceladus is capable of harboring life. The global ocean of Enceladus is likely as dark as a place can be, but is likely neither serene nor quiet. As Enceladus travels in its elliptical orbit about Saturn, the moon flexes as it gets nearer to its parent planet, then farther, then nearer again. Four great cracks known as the “tiger stripes” near its south pole spread, then squeeze and grind. Warm salt water, gases and minerals erupt through those fractures in the miles-thick ice shell and blast through the surface at 800 miles (1,300 kilometers) per hour into space. Among all that activity, something else may be steadily burbling — a thing previously known to exist only on Earth. The Cassini mission has discovered evidence for hydrothermal vents in Enceladus. “A lot of origin-of-life scientists believe that this is the place where life could have started on Earth.” “Around a hydrothermal vent on Earth, it’s dark because no sunlight reaches that deep in the ocean,” said Cassini project scientist Linda Spilker. “But, you have heat energy and nutrients shooting out, so you get lots of different kinds of life close to the vent.” Where There’s Smoke In some places on Earth, ocean water seeps deep into the seafloor where the subsurface is heated by magma. Hydrothermal vents are places where that hot, mineral-rich water erupts through the seafloor back into the ocean. The water churning forth is so thick with particles and dissolved minerals that it looks like smoke, which is why the chimney-like vents are called “black smokers,” along with their cousins, “white smokers.” Black smokers tend to be the hotter of the two, reaching about 700 degrees Fahrenheit (about 350 degrees Celsius). Their “smoke” is black because it’s rich in iron sulfides and sulfides of other heavy metals. White smokers are less hot, around 100 to 200 degrees Fahrenheit (40 to 90 Celsius), and their “smoke” is closer to white because it’s rich in minerals composed of calcium and magnesium. On Earth, both types of hydrothermal vents have bustling ecosystems. “They may be different but all hydrothermal vents tend to have not just bacteria and other microorganisms, but large, multicellular, complex organisms as well,” said Morgan Cable, a research scientist who studies ocean worlds at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Those organisms include crabs, octopi and tubeworms. Confirming the presence of hydrothermal vents on another world is extraordinary, not simply because life can exist around them. “A lot of origin-of-life scientists believe that this is the place where life could have started on Earth,” Cable said. “So that gets us very excited about finding a place where conditions might not only allow for life to exist, but conditions that might allow for an origin of life as well.” No spacecraft has landed on Enceladus, drilled through its miles-thick ice shell or visited its seafloor to observe an extraterrestrial hydrothermal vent. But Enceladus has supplied Cassini with free samples of its ocean environment by steadily spraying ocean water into space where the spacecraft’s instruments can analyze it. And scientists have studied the environment around Earth’s hydrothermal vents for decades, which gives them a comparison for Cassini data. From sampling the moon’s water jets and Saturn’s E ring (which is made of material from those jets), Cassini scientists have found three lines of evidence that suggest the moon's global ocean hosts active hydrothermal vents. Released from ice particles in the plume, tiny bits of rock were discovered and analyzed by Cassini’s bucket-like Cosmic Dust Analyzer (CDA). After a four-year analysis of CDA data, combined with computer simulations and laboratory experiments, scientists determined that the grains were silica — the form of silicon that is commonly found in quartz sand on Earth. They also concluded that the grains most likely form when hot water carrying dissolved minerals emerges from the seafloor into the much cooler ocean. Hot water can hold more dissolved material than cool water for the same reason that hot air can retain more water vapor than cool air. When warm, humid air on Earth rises and cools, the water vapor condenses into clouds and sometimes rain. Though the materials are different, the principle is the same for hot, mineral-rich water emerging from hydrothermal vents into far colder water. “This causes certain chemicals, such as silicates, to precipitate from the fluid as small mineral particles,” said Chris Glein, a geochemist at the Southwest Research Institute who works with Cassini’s Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer (INMS) team. "Rock candy is formed in much the same way as when sugar is added to hot water and then allowed to cool." The silica crystals sampled from the Enceladus plume were between two and eight nanometers (billionths of a meter) in diameter. “The only way that you can get grains of that size of pure silica is if they were formed in a salty water ocean and if they were exposed to temperatures of at least 90 degrees Celsius,” Cable said. That’s almost 200 degrees Fahrenheit. “That’s pretty hot —hydrothermal vent hot. White smoker hot.” But silica crystals are just one line of evidence. In addition to water and rock, other material is carried up in the plume including ammonia, carbon dioxide and methane. During multiple Cassini flybys, the INMS instrument analyzed plume material, but kept finding more methane than scientists had expected. Scientists tried to come up with alternative scenarios to account for the excess methane, but none fit. Hydrothermal vents were simply the most likely source. “We see a lot of methane associated with hydrothermal vents on Earth, and so this gives us another line of evidence supporting hydrothermal activity,” Cable said. A third line of evidence is the detection of molecular hydrogen (H2). During the spacecraft’s final close flyby of Enceladus, Cassini flew through the plume at just 30 miles (49 kilometers) above the surface in October 2015 to determine if it contains any H2. “Molecular hydrogen from the plume is very hard to measure,” Cable said. Some of the material in the spacecraft can release hydrogen and give Cassini’s sensitive instruments a false positive. “This really close flyby was intended to help with that,” Cable said. In some hydrothermal vents on Earth, molecular hydrogen is produced at an extraordinary rate, and some organisms use it as food. “Unlike the complex organic molecules we eat, like those in pizza, microbes in hydrothermal environments are perfectly happy feasting on inorganic compounds like molecular hydrogen, which are produced by geochemical reactions between water and rocks,” Glein said. “They are like buffets for microbes – the food just keeps coming!” "A high abundance of hydrogen might also mean that the ocean has a high pH that would present a challenge for life." While the presence of H2 is further evidence of hydrothermal vents, it doesn’t necessarily increase the likelihood of life flourishing in the Enceladean ocean, according to Steve Vance, a geophysicist at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory. “It might mean that there’s food that bacteria can eat, but a high abundance of hydrogen might also mean that the ocean has a high pH that would present a challenge for life.” Using knowledge of life and its environments on Earth, scientists can begin determining the habitability of other worlds. Figuring out the time required for life to spring up, however, is more difficult. “It’s something we don’t have a lot of information on because none of us were around when life started on Earth,” Cable said. Scientists can study fossils of trilobites or dinosaurs, but the simplest lifeforms, like the ones that started it all, don’t fossilize well because they’re soft and microscopic. Even if they were preserved through fossilization, Earth is active — ancient meteor impacts, wind and rain, plate tectonics, volcanic activity and life itself perpetually re-sculpt our planet’s surface, erasing geologic records of the past. That leaves few rocks on Earth more than 3 billion years old or so, and life is thought to have begun hundreds of millions of years earlier even than that. Despite the challenges, scientists have for decades attempted to estimate how long it took for life to form from non-living matter. Their estimates change as scientists learn more and as computer models improve, but they also vary depending on the environment where life might have begun. For example, if life began in tidal pools, it may have taken between a few hundred thousand years and a few million years for life to get started once all the ingredients were present. Scientists think an upper time limit for life originating on Earth is somewhere around 25 million years. During the geologic period in which life began, massive meteorites collided with Earth every 25 million years or so, and the impacts were so destructive that they’d interrupt the changing chemistry that would eventually become the reproducing and self-preserving stuff of life. The chemical process would then have to start over. So, on Earth at least, molecules had to transform from almost-life to life within 25 million years or not at all. And if life began in or around hydrothermal vents? “Let’s say you have all the ingredients for life there, but no life yet. Wait about 10 million years and you should have life,” Cable said. And the liquid water, the heat, and the inferred hydrothermal activity on Enceladus have been going on for 40 million years or more. Maybe more than 100 million years. If you compare that against the 10 million years, there’s plenty of time for life to have emerged,” Cable said. “It seems like all the ingredients are there. The question is: Is life there?” A Fresh Set of Eyes “The next step is to go fishing so to speak, but in a very methodical manner,” said Glein. The Cassini spacecraft launched in 1997 equipped with the technology of its time, and scientists didn’t then know Enceladus had a plume, an ocean or hydrothermal vents, so they didn’t include instruments on the spacecraft capable of detecting evidence of life, such as proteins. In the future, scientists would like to send a new mission to Enceladus equipped to detect evidence of life that Cassini wasn’t built to see. “We're confident we could do this because the plume provides access to samples of Enceladus’ ocean,” Glein said. “To find life elsewhere in our own solar system would be tremendous,” said Spilker. “But to find the possibility of life in the outer solar system is a complete paradigm shift with Cassini.”

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« ΠροηγούμενηΣυνέχεια » 3. Mention the chief carbohydrates, giving their composition, sources and 12 distinguishing tests, 4. Write brief notes on tannins, alkaloids, glucosides, and albuminoids. 12 SECTION II. 5. Point out the relation which exists between hydrocarbons, alcohols and 13 acids of the methane series. How do the physical properties of the members of each group change with molecular weight? Starting with hydrocarbons, by what general methods may alcohols and acids be prepared ? 6. What is meant by “saponification"? Describe a method by which 12 soft and hard soap is prepared and explain the use of soap for washing purposes, 7. How do amines differ from amides in composition and in behaviour? 13 8. Point out the analogies and the differences that exist between terpenes, 12 N.B.–The answers to Sections I and II should be arranged and given up to the Examiners in two separate books. 1. A man has a field in the form of a right-angled triangle whose area is 12 15 acres, and whose sides are as 3, 4 and 5; he wants to have a gravel walk round the outside of the field which is to contain just 1 acre and to be of equal breadth in all places, so that the walk along the sides is rectangular and at the corners circular sectors. Find the breadth of the walk and the length of the wall which would enclose it all round. 2. Draw a plan of a field and find its area from the following notes: the 10 lengths are expressed in links : 300 240 160 100 $0 0 From A 5. Find the cubical contents of a log of timber 30 feet long, the crosssectional areas at intervals of 5 feet being respectively 7-5, 6:08, 3:54, 2-52, 1.86, 1•34, 0.92 square feet. Find also the volume if only the cross-sectional areas of the two ends and the middle were given. 4. The transverse section of a wedge is an isosceles triangle, the sides 9 of which are double of the base and the perimeter is 25 inches ; also the ree parallel edges of the wedge are 15, 17 and 22 inches : find its rolame. 5. The chord of an arc of a circle is 48 inches and its height is 7 inches; 10 find approximately the length of the arc and also the radius of the circle. 6. The outer diameter of a hollow iron roller is 1 foot 9 inches, the 10 thickness of the metal 14 inches, and the length of the roller 5 feet. Supposing a cubic foot of cast iron to weigh 464 lbs., what would the roller cost at 16s. per cwt. and how many times would it turn round in rolling 5 acres of land ? (n = 3:1416.) 7. The perpendicular height of a cone is 5 feet and the diameter of its 10 base 3 feet; a thread .01 inch in diameter is wound round from the bottom to the top, so as to cover the whole convex surface, each round just touching the preceding one. Find the length of the thread approximately. & The circumference of the base of a hay-stack is 40 feet, the circnm. 12 ference at the eaves 60 feet, the perpendicular height of the lower part 15 feet, and that of the upper part 16 feet ; how many tons are contained in the stack, supposing each cubic yard to weigh 216 lbs. ? 9. How far distant must the centre of a sphere of radias 1 foot be 3 placed from an observer's eye, in order that ia of the whole surface may be visible to him ? 10. Give a description of the sliding rule and state how it is used for measuring timber, taking dimensions and casting up contents. MONDAY, 4th NOVEMBER. [10 A.M. TO 1 P.2.] 1. Describe the various kinds of albumen met with in albuminous seeds, 13 giving examples in illustration. What is the function of albumen ? 2. What is the tracheal (vascular) tissue ? Describe the various forms 10 of tracheæ, and name the plants and parts of plants where they are ordinarily met with. 3. Enumerate the distinctive characters of Angiosperms and Gymno- 1.5 sperms as well as Monocotyledonous and Dicotyledonous plants. 4. Discuss the relative merits of the Artificial and Natural systems of 10 Classification of plants, and give a brief outline of Bentham and Hooker's Natural System. 5. How do plants propagate themselves in ways, other than the sexual 10 e prorduction ? Illustrate by series of examples, 6. Give a short account of the nature, mode of infection, preven tion and 35 cure of Potato Disease Fungus. 7. Give the general characters of the Natural Orders Cucurbitaceæ, 15 Compositeæ and Labiateæ, Name the economical and agricultural plants belonging to each of them. 8. Describe the plants placed before you. TUESDAY, 5TH NOVEMBER, [2 P.M. TO 5 PM.] 1. Describe the differences between the alimentary canal of the horse 10 and ox and give an outline of the digestive process in each. 2. Name the bones of the foreleg of the horse and the hindleg of the 10 3. Name the extensor and flexor muscles of the foreleg of the ox. 10 4. Describe the position of the following parts of the horse :-Poll, 10 withers, counter, gaskin and glinns ; in the ox, the muffle, dewlap, croup, dental pad, and flap of the flank. 5. Give the boundaries of the abdomen and name the organs found 10 therein, 6. Describe the brain and explain what reflex action meanse 10 7. Give the normal temperature of the horse, ox and sheep, and state 10 what conditions influence the heat of the body. 8. Describe the skin and give its functions. 10 9. Define death, growth, development, and generation. 10 10. What is the retina and what purpose does it serve. [10 A.M. TO 1 P.M.] AGRICULTURE-PAPER I. 1. Write down a detailed description of the cultivation of Ginger, Garlic, 35 and Carda mum. 2. Which is more advantageous-mixed cropping or rotation of crops and 15 3. Write down all the field operations of Maize, Bajri and Groundnut ;3.) crops in order of time from ploughing to the preparation for narket. t. Name and describe the diseases which affect the sugarcane crop WEDNESDAY, 6TH NOVEMBER. [2 P.M. TO 5 P.M.]' 1. Give seed rates and outturns of the following crops : Tur, Rice, Til, Chillies. What is grafting? State the advantages of the system. 3. Give vernacular and scientific names of the plants that are useful fur feneing. 4. Describe the preparation of Alæ fibre. 5. Give the analyses of Niger and Safflower cakes and justify the age of feeding cakes as manure. 6. Name the different varieties of Tea and describe their manufacture. EXAMINATION FOR THE DEGREE OF LICENTIATE "ADARJI MERNOSJI MASANI, M.A., B.Sc. ...} In Geology. ...} In Botany. ::} In Agriculture P. R. MEHTA, M.R.A.C. MONDAY, 4T5 NOVEMBER. (10 A.M. TO 1 P.M.] What is the exact signification of the term Rock? Describe how 10 edimentary and igneous rocks are formed. By what other names is each known ? Give the characteristic differences between them. 2. Give a short explanation of the following terms :-Dip, strike, bade, 10 inticline, syncline, fault, outcrop. 3. Give a short account of the formation of soils. Describe the changes 10 that a granitic rock passes through under the process of weathering. Give the special characters of Black cotton soil or Regur. 4. What is coal ? How is it formed? Name the principal coal. 10 bearing fields of India, and give their characteristic fossils. 5. Give an exact and comprehensive definition of a fossil. How are fossils preserved ? What do they teach us ? 6. How do you distinguish between minerals and rocks ? Illustrate 10 your answer by typical examples. 7. What are the characters and essential constituents of the following 10 rocks?: Limestone, saudstone, shale, granite, gneiss, trap, laterite. 8. Mention and describe the principal forms of free silica found in 9. Explain what is meant by weathering, denudation, soil, subsoil ? 10 Draw a vertical section to show the manner in which most arable lands vary in structure from the surface into the interior, and name the individual gradations. 10. Of what two principal parts do all soils consist ? Of what minerals 10 principally do all soils consist? How would you name a soil which con. tained one of these substances in large quantity ? 1. What are the reserves available for new growths in plant life before 15 they are in a position to absorb and elaborate fuod, independently of such reserves ? In wbat organs, and under what forins do they occur? 2. How is Stelar tissue arranged in Dicotyledonouş and Monocotyledon- 10 ous stems ?

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Nigeria, in spite of its oil reserves, is still fundamentally an agricultural country, at least in terms of the population working on the land. 71% of the Nigerian workforce is engaged in agriculture. Over 90% of Nigeria's agricultural output comes from peasant farmers who dwell in remote rural areas where 60% of the 150million total population lives. Agricultural landholdings are generally small and scattered, with the average number of farm plots per household ranging between 2 and 28 plots increasing from the South to the North. Nigeria cultivates over 25 million hectares of land for various food crops. And yet, despite all these obviously abundant human and natural resources, Nigeria is still unable to feed her citizens. Nigeria produces only 500,000 tonnes of rice while annual consumption is 2.5 million tones. Nigeria is the world's second-largest rice importer after Singapore. Before now, Nigeria spent over $350million on rice importation alone. Now there is a global food crisis, but can the Nigeria ruling class turns things round overnight? Why the crisis? The present world food crisis is primarily a grains shortages crisis. Annual world grains output has been declining for decades. It was estimated at 1,900million tons or less in 1995, this was at a time when over 3,000million tons of grains produced annually is required to meet global dietary needs. Today, world grains carryover stocks are at the same absolute level they were over 25 years ago. Stocks dropped from 460-490 million metric tons in the late 1980s down to less than 250million tons in 1995 - the level of stock in 1969. Scores of countries have gone from national self-sufficiency in basic grains, to import dependency or donated cereals aid. But now, the grains are not even there for grab. Various reasons have been advanced as the cause, mainly from bourgeois apologists. Nature is first to be blamed: the Myanmar cyclone that flooded 5000 square kilometres has been blamed, floods in Indonesia and Sri Lanka are also mentioned. But how do you explain a colossal reduction in the stock that brought the 1995 stocks to the 1969 level while the population keeps on growing? A devalued dollar has also been blamed, as have high prices of petrol and so on. But what was the value of the dollar in 1995? How much was the petrol during this period in question? No way can e accept these excuses; these reasons are one-sided and could not completely explain what went wrong. Necessity sometimes expresses itself as an accident. What is happening is a necessary product of capitalism in its present senile stage. Capitalism reigns in anarchy. Capitalism means domination of the non-living over the living, of profit over labour and, most accurately, capitalism means horror without end. The present food crisis is linked directly to one fact provided by the CIA World Fact Book of January 2008, which reveals that of the US$46,660,000 million world GDP, agriculture is just 4% of this sum, industry 32%, while the service sector carries a whopping 64% of total GDP. Capitalists want to make money out of money, without taking any risk in production. More capital is going to speculative businesses and stocks, under the guise of services. Capitalism does not exist for the benefit of human beings, but for profit. It is taking money away from productive investment, into gambling and weapons of mass destruction. It brings a life of luxury to a diminishing few and misery for an ever-expanding majority. What we are presently experiencing is the inevitable outcome of the way capitalism works. All the aforementioned reasons advanced by bourgeois apologists are just the last straw that broke the camel's back. As if this were not enough inhumanity against humankind, the food that is not enough to meet our dietary needs is now being used for biofuels. Capitalists prefer fuelling a car to feeding a hungry man. A forecast issued by the International Food Policy Research Institute points out that a termination of the swindle of subsidies for biofuels production would result in an immediate 20% price reductions for corn, 14% for manioc, and 11% for wheat, but does this appeal to the defenders of a system that survives on human misery? How sincere is the ruling class's attempt to resolve the crisis? The working class in Nigeria, as in any other country, should not be carried away with the crocodile tears being shed by the bourgeoisie. They are pretending as if they only discovered today that over two billion human beings have always been living without food, decent shelter and good clothes; that in Nigeria for instance, 71% of the population lives on less than US$1 a day, that over one million children die annually in Africa of malaria; 26,500-30,000 children die each day due to poverty. Tens of millions die simply because they are poor. They have no access to good health care, education, electricity and other modern amenities. What has alarmed the ruling class is the spate of protests and bloody riots of the people that has been sweeping round the world. It is estimated that food related protest are going on in over 40 countries. A government has been swept away in Haiti as a result. Egypt is in turmoil. Senegal experienced some of the bloodiest rioting in the recent past, all for food. The masses have been pushed to the limit of their tolerance. Trotsky said many years ago, that the bourgeoisie will only concede a little to the masses when it is threatened with losing everything. What has alarmed the ruling classes is not the deplorable, unfortunate condition of the people, but the fear of losing control, of losing their property, fear of the people moving farther than the limits set by the labour leadership, fear of revolution. If the people had remained docile, the ruling class would have simply treated this crisis the way they have treated all previous injustices against humanity, blaming the people and nature for all the anguish, as they are fond of doing. Can the Nigerian government resolve the crisis? The Nigerian government is in a far better position today to carry this deceit to a far extent. The Nigerian government is presently raking in big money, thanks to the petro-dollars. As a result of this, the government can afford to completely remove all duties and taxes on imported grains as they announced two weeks ago. The Nigerian government has concluded deals with the Thai, Indian and American governments to import 500,000 tons of rice to flood the Nigerian market. The first batch of the consignments will enter Nigeria by the middle of June. The plan is to sell this rice at half its price to the people. The government has also promised to pump 100billion Naira into agriculture as a long-term solution to the food shortage. With petrol at over $130 per barrel, the Nigerian government can promise heaven and earth. But there are series of challenges confronting the Nigerian ruling class, which makes all these emergency measures laughable. First among these is the issue of corruption. Corruption is a life wire of any regime in a backward country like Nigeria; only a government of the working class could end corruption. Most of this rice will not reach the ordinary people that need it. A very innocent and ordinary question can be asked; why can't the government carry out a massive cultivation of the land to grow grain, especially rice, corn and wheat, that can be grow in Nigeria? The problem is that this step is impermissible under capitalism. The policy as dictated by the IMF/World Bank is that the government has no business doing business. Imperialism has imposed on Nigeria via the various Structural Adjustment Programmes a policy that states that subsidies on food, fertilisers, fuel, transport etc. are bad for the economy. The same programmes dictate that the economy of a country like Nigeria must be completely open to the world market. The end result has been the destruction of industry and agriculture. Capitalist government exists for the few and thrives only when there is mass poverty and misery. The massive importation of food - provided as "relief" in the short-term ‑ will further undermine the already sick local production. Cheap - subsidised - agricultural produce from the richer countries will further undermine the small Nigerian farmers. What they have not been capable of doing for decades would require a miracle for them to urgently do now. Although, at present they have money to order 500,000 tons of rice, to manage the removal of taxes and duties on grain importation, in short, to carry out a form of deception, this money will not always be there. Rather than this money solving the food problem, under capitalism it will exacerbate it, it will further undermine the local production, it will further fuel corruption and further destabilize an already unstable political atmosphere. Capitalist Nigeria absolutely incapable of solving this fundamental problem The present food crisis is a necessary outcome of the workings of capitalism; a capitalist Nigeria is absolutely incapable of solving this fundamental problem. Just as it is incapable of uniting Nigerians, just as it is incapable of developing industry, as it is incapable of building a modern infrastructure, of ending corruption and most deplorably of ending the misery of Nigerians, to expect it to resolve this one is to expect the Lion to eat grass. In half a century of formal independence the Nigerian ruling class has proven incapable of developing a modern infrastructure. It has not even been capable of maintaining its own oil refineries, which have all collapsed and now Nigeria, an oil-exporting country, is forced to import refined fuel! Oil, which should have provided a real material improvement for the masses, has actually contributed to the deindustrialisation of Nigeria's already meagre industrial base and at the same time the collapse of its agriculture. All that the ruling elite has been capable of has been leeching off the wealth produced by the workers of the country. Nothing is going to change now. If anything it is getting worse. Only a socialist Nigeria, under the democratic control of the working class, can permanently end the various crises we are saddled with. Combining the immense material resources and the millions of Nigerian workers and peasants, the country could lift itself out of poverty very soon, and provide enough food for its population. - Impending world economic crisis: how will it affect Nigeria? by Ola Kazeem in Lagos (May 20, 2008) - Hunger in Nigeria by Didi Cheeka in Lagos (May 20, 2008) - Nigeria 2008 May Day Celebrations by Ola Kazeem in Lagos (May 6, 2008) - The Nigerian judiciary and electoral fraud by Oke Ogunde in Lagos (April 25, 2008) - Niger Delta: the bankruptcy of individual terrorism and the historical crisis of capitalism by Didi Cheeka in Lagos (December 20, 2007) - When Labour Shut Down Nigeria! by Oke Ogune, Lagos (June 22, 2007) - Where is Nigeria Going? by Ola Kazeem in Lagos (June 5, 2007)

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Table of Contents : - Native Americans - Life of Indians, Religion, Government - Destruction of Native Americans - Native Americans Today - Cultural Regions of Native Americans Native Americans or Indians were the first people to live in the New World. They had been living there long before the first Europeans arrived. In 1492, Columbus sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to find a shorter and faster route to India. When he landed on an island near the American coast he thought he had reached India, so he called the people he met there Indians. Many historians think that the first Indians came to the American continent from Asia over 20,000 years ago. At that time it was very cold and ice covered most of the northern part of our world. Indian tribes wandered across the Bering Strait and spread down to the southern part of South America. Indians lived in different ways and had different cultures that depended on the climate and their surroundings. Most Indians concentrated on the important things in life: getting food, making clothes and building houses. Indians ate many different kinds of food. Those who lived on the plains of the Central United States ate the meat of buffalo. The Pueblos of the south-western part lived on corn, beans and squash. Indians in Alaska and Canada were fishers and hunted deer and other wild animals in the forests. Most Indians ate berries and collected nuts. Indians cooked their food in ovens that they made with hot stones. They preserved meat by smoking or drying it in the sun. Marriage and Children Many Indians married at an early age – girls between 13 and 15, boys between 15 and 20. In some Indian tribes parents chose husbands and wives for their children. Some Indian tribes allowed men to have more than one wife. After a man died his wife often lived with his brother’s family. Most Indian families were small because many children died at birth or at an early age. When boys got older they were tested for their strength and bravery. Many had to live alone in the wilderness for a long time. In many areas, Indians lived in big families called clans. These clans were a group of relatives who had one common ancestor. Many Indians made clothes from animal skins and furs. Buffalo skin and rabbit fur were especially popular. They also used bird feathers to decorate their heads. Indians of the tropical regions only wore simple skirts. Some tribes wore no clothes at all Houses and Homes Indians built many different types of homes because they lived in different climates and didn’t have the same building materials. Some groups built large houses with many rooms where many families could stay together, others had small dwellings in which only very few people lived. The Inuit of Canada built snow houses during the winter and in summer they lived in tents made of animal hides. In some parts of America, Indians built wigwams that were covered with leaves. Some tribes built houses into the earth that they covered with leaves and grass. Indians of in the Great Plains built tepees made of buffalo skin. The Pueblo Indians of the south-western part of America used sun-dried bricks to make houses. Families and whole clans joined together to form tribes. Hundreds of tribes lived in America when Columbus arrived in 1492. Each tribe lived in its own area, shared the same language and had its own religion. The leader of the tribe was called a chief. Decisions were made at meetings of the tribal council. Members were important people of many different families. Indians often fought against other tribes because it was sometimes the only way to settle disputes. The bow and arrow was the most common weapon of the Indians. Some tribes put poison on the arrowheads. Many Indians fought with spears and tomahawks. When an Indian defeated his enemy he often took his scalp as a prize to show to others. Killing an enemy tribesman often made a warrior famous and respected. When white people came to North America, Indians bought guns and other new weapons from them. Arts and Crafts Native Americans worked in many arts and crafts. They created beautiful pottery, made baskets to carry food and wove cloth into blankets and rugs. Indians also painted their pottery with colourful patterns. Some made wall paintings of important ceremonies or everyday life. Indians did not have one single religion, but they did have many beliefs. They believed in a mysterious force in nature and in spirits that were higher than human beings and influenced their lives. People depended on them when they searched for food or when people were ill. Some tribes believed in one or many gods – special sprits that were more powerful than others. Shamans were religious people who had close contacts with spirits. They were often medicine men and treated sick people in a family. They set broken bones and used plants to cure certain diseases. When helping the ill they often moved around their bodies and sang songs. Many ceremonies were held to help Indians get enough food. The Plains Indians thought that the buffalo dance would help them hunt buffalo. Some tribes held harvest festivals and organised rain dances where they prayed to gods for enough rain. Music accompanied the Indians through everyday life. Many tribes sang to the rhythm of rattles and drums. Some tribes used flutes and whistles. - Native Americans - Multiple Choice Exercise - Native Americans - Vocabulary Matching Exercise 1 - Native Americans - Vocabulary Matching Exercise 2 - Native Americans - Match the Sentence Parts - Life of Native Americans - Fill in the missing words - Native Americans - Fill in the correct word - Native Americans - True or False - Native Americans - Crossword 1 - Native Americans - Crossword 2 - Pocahontas - Choose the missing words Downloadable PDF Text- and Worksheets - accompany = to go with somebody or something - ancestor = a member of your family who lived a long time ago - area = place - arrowhead = the sharp pointed end of an arrow - at birth = when a baby is born - basket =container made of wood that is woven together; you can put things in it - bean =a small seed or fruit that comes from a climbing plant ; it is cooked and used as food - beliefs = ideas that you think are true - berry = a small soft fruit with seeds - blanket =a cover for a bed, made of wool - bow and arrow =a weapon made of a long curved piece of wood; the ends are connected with a string; you shoot long thin pointed pieces of wood with it - bravery =actions that show you have courage and are not afraid - brick = a hard block of baked clay used to build houses - buffalo = an animal that is like a large cow with long curved horns - building material = things that you use to build houses with - ceremony = a very important event - cloth = material that is used to make clothes - coast = where land meets the sea - common = popular, liked by many people - common =shared - cover = a layer over something - craft = to make things with your hands - cure = to heal - decision = choice - decorate = to make something look very nice by putting things on it - deer = a large wild animal that can run very fast. It eats grass and has horns - defeat = to win against - depend = affected by something else - depend on = if you need something - disease = illness - drum =musical instrument that you play be hitting the surface with a stick - dwelling = a place where people live - enemies = people you don’t like and fight against - especially = above all - few = not very many - flute =musical instrument that looks like a pipe ; you blow air into it and cover some of the holes to make a sound - force =power, strength - fur = the thick soft hair around an animal’s body - Great Plains = a large area of flat land in the middle of the USA - harvest =to bring in the fruits or the crop - hide = an animal’s skin - historians = people who study history - influence =to have an effect on - join = to get together - oven = a place in which you cook food - plains = large areas of flat and mostly dry land - poison =something that you eat or drink that may kill or hurt you - popular = if many people like something very much - pottery = objects made out of baked clay - pray =to say words to God - preserve = to make something last for a long tme - rattle = an object that makes noise when you shake it - reach = get to - relative = member of a family - respected = if other people like you because you have done good things - rug = a small carpet - scalp = the skin on top of your head - set = to repair - settle disputes = to end arguments - share = to have together - skirt =clothes that women wear ; they hang down from the waist - spear = a pole with a sharp point on one end - spirit = something that has no body but people think it exists - spread down = move to - squash = large vegetables that have a hard skin - strength = the power and energy that makes someone strong - sun-dried = if you leave something in the sun to dry - surroundings = the world around you - tent = a sheet of cloth that is held down by poles and ropes; it is used for camping - tomahawk = a light axe used by Indians - tribal council = when members of the tribe get together to discuss important things - tribe = a group of people who have the same way of life and the same language. They are ruled by a leader - tribesman = a member of a tribe - warrior = a very brave fighter - weapon =something that you use to attack a person with, like a gun or a knife - whistle =a small object that you blow into; it produces a high sound - wilderness = land where nobody lives or works on

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Can There Be a Science of Morality? Can we have a science of morality? This question has been thrown around quite a bit of late, especially fuelled by the spirited ejaculations of one Sam Harris. Harris firmly believes there are no barriers to a science of human values, but I fear things aren’t that simple, and I’m not alone in this concern. While a ‘science of morality’ is a laudable notion in a loose sense, such a science would, by necessity, look nothing like what Harris has in mind. Harris is seeking not only a science of morality, but a science of human values. He wants a “universal conception of human values” that can be checked, verified and proven using the tools of empirical science. But that’s just not going to work. Science doesn’t do that kind of thing. At least not without assistance from other disciplines, like philosophy. And if we try to force science alone into providing us with values, there is no shortage of traps that will inevitably spring up. It’s worth remembering that Harris isn’t the first one to call for a science of morality. Herbert Spencer and a number of other naturalistic ethicists around the end of the 19th century thought they could finally use scientific tools to discover human values. Spencer happened to believe that evolution, in particular, was the tool of choice. He held that evolution was intrinsically progressive, and he equated ‘more evolved’ with ‘more valued’. And we homo sapiens were the most evolved organisms around so, thankfully, we found ourselves at the top of the value tree. There are a few clangin’ great problems with this view – such as that there’s no evidence from within science that evolution is intrinsically progressive in Spencer’s sense, nor that such progress (if it existed) could be equated with value. But the chief clanger was flagged by G.E. Moore in his book Principia Ethica. You’ve probably heard of this issue under the oft used, and oft abused, moniker of the ‘naturalistic fallacy’. Despite its common usage, the naturalistic fallacy doesn’t simply state that you can’t derive an ought from an is. Instead, it suggests that ‘the good’ – which Moore sees as the object of moral enquiry – is a simple (rather than complex) and undefinable idea. Like the colour ‘yellow’ can’t be broken down or explained in any other way – particularly not by simply pointing to a yellow thing and identifying the colour yellow directly with the yellow object. Yellow is a property of the object, and as such, defies any simple identification with any other natural properties. As such, identifying ‘the good’ with evolutionary progress, or another natural property like happiness, as Harris does, is spurious. Then there’s the other naturalistic fallacy, which is more often referred to as Hume’s Law, or the is-ought fallacy. This says that no amount of is facts alone will tell you how something ought to be. Thus I can describe, in minute detail, the factual circumstances surrounding some killing, but without adding a value in there somewhere – such as ‘killing an innocent person is wrong’ – can we derive a moral judgement from the situation. The question is: where do these foundational values come from? If science only trades in facts, then that can’t be the source of values. They must come from somewhere else, but where? And there you have one of the great driving problems of the last century or so of moral philosophy. Likewise, it’s a problem for Harris, whether he chooses to acknowledge it or not. Of metaethics and men Harris has stated that the is-ought problem isn’t such a big barrier, and we can undertake empirical investigation into how much suffering or happiness an organism experiences – and that will lead us to derive new values that can shape our behaviour. But all he’s doing is smuggling in his prior values – i.e. that morality is about the well-being of conscious beings, as measured by happiness or suffering. But he doesn’t justify that foundational value. And that’s why he’s been the target of so much criticism by incredulous philosophers. Yet Harris is outwardly dismissive of philosophy and metaethics: Many of my critics fault me for not engaging more directly with the academic literature on moral philosophy. There are two reasons why I haven’t done this: First, while I have read a fair amount of this literature, I did not arrive at my position on the relationship between human values and the rest of human knowledge by reading the work of moral philosophers; I came to it by considering the logical implications of our making continued progress in the sciences of mind. Second, I am convinced that every appearance of terms like “metaethics,” “deontology,” “noncognitivism,” “anti-realism,” “emotivism,” and the like, directly increases the amount of boredom in the universe. Hey, I’m sympathetic to the idea that doing metaethics is a dreadful way to spend your time. But even if you think that most metaethics is garbage (as I happen to), you can’t just ignore it and move on. You at the very least need to state why you think it’s garbage, and why it doesn’t impact your argument. Sidestepping your opponents has never been a well respected argumentative technique, at least, not in respectable circles. And, sadly, Harris’s half-arsed engagement with philosophy has only done his cause a disservice. Because there is an important role for science in moral philosophy – but science alone doesn’t a moral philosophy make. Rebel without a clue Ultimately, I think Harris is rebelling against two long-standing traditions that have deeply (and often detrimentally) influenced moral discourse. The first is moral rationalism and non-naturalism. This is the kind of moral philosophy that stems from the likes of Plato and Kant, and maintained by G.E. Moore. All of these thinkers held that morality was a subject seeking truth, but that truth couldn’t be discovered by looking around the world. Thus they held a disdain for empirical research. Kant even dismissed doing moral psychology – or ‘moral anthropology’ as he called it – as a dreadfully mistaken way of understanding how we ought to behave. The other is moral relativism – but not relativism of the philosophical brand, as advocated by the likes of Westermarck, Wong or Harman. Harris is rebelling against post-modernist moral relativism. This is the brand of relativism that is based on a worldview that suggests there is no objective reality that is knowable, so everything is ultimately subjective. It says that we subjectively project our values on to the world, and our subjectivity is in turn shaped by our enculturation – which is largely influenced by existing power structures in the world and what others want us to believe. As such, oppression of the weak by the strong involves the strong (i.e. government, corporations, mainstream media, etc) shaping the worldview of others to have them behave in ways that maintain the power of the strong. Nefarious stuff. According to this pomo perspective, our values are intricately linked to our particular worldview, as shaped by our history. But there’s no privilaged worldview, no objective worldview. As such, it’s impossible to justify criticism against another culture’s values because we don’t have any objective bar against which to measure it. And any criticism of the ‘weak’ by us (i.e. the Western mainstream oppressive imperialists) risks further perpetuating the oppression of the weak by the strong. That view is, sadly, deeply flawed. And Harris isn’t the only one who thinks so. But it’s sad that in rebelling against both non-naturalism and mad-dog pomo relativism he neither understands what he’s rebelling against, nor wishes to engage with literature that might help him rebel effectively. Towards a science of morality But rebel one can, and science is a crucial tool in that rebellion – but it’s only one tool, not the entire toolbox. In sidestepping philosophy, Harris is actually missing out on a route that might not only aid his programme of naturalising ethics (in the sense of grounding it in the natural world – the world described by science), but might improve his position. That route is a new kind of anti-realist error theory developed by Joshua Greene. Greene, in his 2002 dissertation, argues that morality isn’t about truth – not of the mystically binding kind sought by many philosophers – but that this doesn’t doom ethics to rampant relativism or bleak nihilism. Instead he admits that there are no fundamental, binding, metaphysical oughts – so the thing the realists of the naturalist or non-naturalist kind are looking for just don’t exist. But that there are facts about being nice to other people. The key is to realise that seeking metaphysically necessary oughts is folly, so we need to construct morality on other grounds, and use this as the source of our foundational values. I’ve argued before that morality is best understood as a mechanism that facilitates prosocial and cooperative behaviour, because such behaviour can help us advance our interests. I believe this is where morality came from, and our moral sense evolved over millennia in order to help solve the problems of fostering prosocial and cooperative behaviour. This is an empirical fact, not a metaphysically necessary fact. But, I think that enough people will agree that they want to advance their own interests, and that being social and cooperative is the best way to do it (‘I won’t interfere with your interests if you won’t interfere with mine’ – classic social contract theory, a la David Gauthier). As such, we can build a moral framework that allows us to promote our own interests by protecting the interests of others. That’s where you get your foundational values. They’re contingent, empirical and debatable – and forever will they be that way. This stands in stark contrast to Harris, who wants to use science to discover values by looking in the world, and hold them to be true with the same conviction that we know the charge of an electron. The truth is that there is no truth of the matter to be discovered concerning fundamental moral values, only agreement to be made between individuals. However, once you have this anti-realist, contractarian framework, you use facts to fill in the gaps. Once you agree that killing an innocent person is wrong, you need a lot of facts to determine whether, in a particular situation, an innocent person has been killed. This is where science is crucial. Science can also play a role in exploring the problems that morality is trying to solve, i.e. how to enable a large unrelated group of individuals to live and work cooperatively together without chaos ensuing. It can help us understand that there is more than one strategy to promote our values. Science can also help us understand our moral psychology and how we actually make moral judgements – in the hope that we can become better at making such judgements. But science can’t tell us the fundamental values by itself. That’s Harris’s error. Science and morality are closely linked, but science is but one discipline that will help us better understand morality, it is not the only discipline we need to understand morality. Even in light of Harris’s errors, I applaud his efforts to escape from non-naturalism and pomo relativism. Like him, I’m optimistic about the future of morality, and a closer integration of science with philosophy. But while philosophers have taken centuries to wake up to the need for empirical investigation, it seems scientists are likewise slow to realise the benefits of good old fashioned philosophy. The closer these two streams get, the better we’ll all be.

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Traditional Chinese Medicine perspectives on points used in EFT Acupuncture points are typically along lines of energy called meridians, (AKA channels). Qi energy and blood flow along the meridians. In Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) the meridians are called JING-LOU meaning that the main meridians (JING) are like major highways and LUO are the arterial routes. When you look at an acupuncture point chart only the main meridians are shown but there are many other branches not shown. Imagine the JING-LUO covering the body like a net reaching each area. Gary Craig and others brilliantly came up with an elegant way to use points that have powerful effects not just because of the point used but also because of all the interconnections. For example, “Hou Xi” SI 3 SOH point. According to TCM)the the Small Intestine meridian is paired with the Heart meridian which are both in the element of FIRE. This is why you see indications for treating the SHEN (spirit) which resides in the heart because of the paired relationship. Side Of Hand Point – Small Intestine 3 Houxi : xi Back Stream. The name refers to the intense and vital nature of the channel Qi flow at this point. BACK refers to the point’s influence on on Governing Vessel (GV, A.K.A.DU) that travels along the back. : Benefits the neck and back, activates the meridian, expels exterior Wind and heat, regulates the GV meridian, calms the Shen; treats hysteria and mania. Top Of Head Point – Du 20 BaiHui 百会 Hundred Meetings: The name refers to the point’s location on the top of the head, the Yang pole of the body, and it’s influence on the various channels which meet here. In Indian philosophy this point is known as the the ”Thousand Petal Lotus” (sasharsrara-chakra), the 7th or crown chakra (wheel or circle of energy)Du 20 has direct effect on the cells of the brain and nervous system (Nourishes the Sea of Marrow) e.g., stimulating their growth, or healthy growth, or the development of more branching and connections of the axons—wiring the brain to think/do/know more. Du 20 has effects on the activity of the brain/nervous system; these effects may be either stimulating/increasing activity (Raising the yang, benefit the brain/the head/the sense organs) e.g., increasing awareness or alertness, or reviving after fainting/dizziness, or treating fatigue, raising acuity of hearing, vision, etc. Another aspect f this point’s raising function—it my be used to treat prolapse of organs, sinking symptoms. This point may be used to sedate or calm the nervous system (Pacify wind, subdue Yang, calm the Spirit) e.g., treat stroke, epilepsy, lockjaw, manic episodes, hypertension, etc. 3rd Eye Point – Yin Tang (extra point) 印堂 Hall of Impressions: Seal Hall: “Hall” refers to this point’s area of influence, the inner cranium which stores the mind: “Seal “refers to the location, named after an ancient tradition of placing a red mark between the eyebrows (as seen on temple deities) to represent wisdom and enlightenment. This practice which originated in India, was transmitted to China with Buddhism. Yin Tang is a powerful sedating point and can be used to treat insomnia, anxiety (Calm the Spirit/Shen 神) Yin Tang works along local channels—i.e., the Du Meridian (even though Yin Tang is considered and extra point and not a point of the Du Meridian, although this point lies on that meridian); consequently this point may be used for frontal/forehead headaches Following the channel still farther, Yin Tang can also be used to treat issues of the nose, including stuffy/runny nose, allergies, sinus infection, etc.This point also Pacifies Fright Wind and can treat infantile convulsions Eyebrow Point – UB 2 ZanZhu 攒竹 Gathered Bamboo: Collection of Bamboo: The name refers to the location near the eyebrows, which resembles a collection of bamboo leaves. UB 2 works locally on the eye and sinuses (Clears heat, eliminates wind, benefits the Eye, Clears the Head, alleviates pain) and so may be used for red eyes, sinus infection, nasal congestion, frontal headache, dizziness, epilepsy, infantile convulsion, manic behavior, hysteria with vision loss,loss of consciousness. As the Urinary Bladder meridian traverses over the head and down the posterior side of the body, UB 2 may also treat conditions farther down the meridian, e.g., hemorrhoids. Side of Eye Point – Tai Yang (extra point) 太阳 Supreme Yang (Sun): ): The name refers to this point’s location in an area on the face which was thought to reveal one’s vitality. Traditional diagnosis involved observation of the colour of the skin around this point. Also located on the head, this point has effect on the brain/Central Nervous System, consciousness (Eliminates Wind, reduces swelling, stops pain) e.g., one-sided headache, dizziness, tooth ache, trigeminal neuralgia Under Eye Point- St 2 SiBai 四白 Four Whites: Four Brightness: The name refers to the function of brightening the eyes, enabling one to see into the “4 directions” with renewed clarity. Stomach 2 also Clears Heat, eliminates Wind, & Benefits the Eyes, and so treats local issues like redness, soreness of the eye, blurry vision, eyelid twitch, toothache. Stomach 2 has a distal effect (acting farther down the channel)—treating roundworms in the bile duct Under Nose Point – Du 26 RenZhong 人中 Man’s Middle: Middle of Man: The name refers to the area were the Yin and Yang on the body’s midline (Conception and Governing vessels) meet, and to the point from which they can be regulated. Du 26 works along the channel locally—on the nose/face, treating nosebleed, sinus congestion, loss of sense of smell—and distally on the low back for acute lumbar sprain/pain.Du 26 has a powerful effect on the consciousness/spirit, used as a main point for reviving from unconsciousness, as well as bi-polar disorder, inappropriate laughter or crying, strokes, lockjaw, childhood fright wind (night terrors) Chin Point- Ren 24 ChengQiang Container of Fluids: Receiving Liquid: The name refers to the location on the chin in the depression below the middle of the lower lip where saliva and thick liquids accumulate. Located along the midline, Ren 24 also has effects on the CNS and is used to treat strokes, Bell’s Palsy, epilepsy, etc., and also treats local disorders, face pain, gum or tooth pain… now, however the point lies below the mouth and is on the Ren/Fertility channel, a major Yin conduit, and rather than Du channel/Yang/functional effects, Ren 24 begins to address the Yin/fluids/physical matter/substance, and is used to help treat excessive or ceaseless salivation, or lack of salivation, excessive thirst/Wasting and Thirsting Disorder e.g., Type I diabetes Collar Bone Point- Ki 27 ShuFu Shu [point]/Control Point Mansion: Conveying Palace: The name indicates the important role the point has in gathering, governing and distributing Qi. “Palace” indicates a place of residence or gathering together, where one commands or rules; “conveying” suggests distribution or transportation, “fu” with the (flesh radical) refers to the Yang organs, suggesting a conveyance of Qi from this point to the Yang organs.Kidney 27 transforms Phlegm, unbinds the chest, alleviates cough and wheezing. It treats local conditions including oppression in the chest, cough, chronic cough bringing phlegm, as well as nausea, vomiting, inability to eat or drink. Chest Point (rarely used in EFT today) St 18 RuGen 乳根 Root of Milk: Stomach 18 lies on the chest, below the breast, and acts locally to benefit the breast, reducing swelling, promoting milk, reducing abscesses, etc. It also treats cough, and difficult ingestion. Under Arm Point – Sp 21 DaBao 大包 Great Envelope: From this point Blood and nutritive Qi are distributed and regulated. These substances envelope the body. The original character for Bao meant a fetus in the womb, which supports of image of nurturing and enveloping. The last point on the spleen channel, Sp 21 circulates the spleen energy throughout the chest, spreading nourishment and strengthening sinews and joints, and treats weariness of the four limbs, pain of the whole body.As Spleen is related to the emotion of worry, and SP 21 unbinds the chest, spreading Qi and relieves emotional constraint in the chest, this point can help relieve some emotional suffering as well. Wrist Point – P 6 NeiGuan 内 Inner Border Gate: The pericardium is the wrapping of the Heart which stores the Shen (spirit). Pericardium 6 influences the chest, regulates Qi and unbinds the chest, and is useful for treating chest pain, clearing the brain, angina, anxiety, palpitations, etc. P6 harmonizes the stomach, alleviating nausea Finally, P6 addresses the heart and spirit, helping calm the spirit, helping to treat anxiety, insomnia, mania, apprehension. Thank you to Louise Demorest, Doctor of Traditional Oriental Medicine, who consulted with us on this material www.drdemorest.com

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Suresh P. Sethi | The University of Texas at Dallas Artificial intelligence is rapidly transforming the world we know. Suresh Sethi describes the fascinating career of Herbert A. Simon, a father of artificial intelligence, renaissance man, and true polymath who made pioneering contributions to fields ranging from economics to psychology and from management to the philosophy of science. Herbert Alexander Simon was born on June 15, 1916, in Milwaukee, WI. In 1978 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics1 for his pioneering research into the decision-making process in economic organizations. His interests, however, went far beyond economics. Simon crossed disciplinary borders to influence many fields. His work expanded the information sciences beyond recognition, allowed computers to model the behavior of highly complex systems, and transformed psychology by exploring human information processing. A Royal Academy of Sciences citation described him as follows: “Simon rejects the assumptions made in the classical theory of the firm of an omniscient, rational, profit-maximizing entrepreneur. Instead, he starts from the psychology of learning, with its less complicated rules of choice and its more moderate demands on the memory and the calculating capacity of the decision-maker. He replaces the entrepreneur of the classical school by a number of co-operating decision-makers, whose capacities for rational action are limited by a lack of knowledge of the total consequences of their decisions and by personal and social ties. Since these decision-makers cannot choose a best alternative, as can the classical entrepreneur, they have to be content with a satisfactory alternative. Individual firms, therefore, strive not to maximize profits but to find acceptable solutions to acute problems.”2 Simon believed that scholars, in devising tools and techniques for modeling human behavior, had absurdly unrealistic expectations of the ability of humans to make rational choices. He argued that human rationality was bounded by the limits on available information and by the human mind’s capacity for processing information. As Simon put it, “we need a less God-like, and more rat-like, picture of the chooser,” adding, “decision makers can satisfice either by finding optimum solutions for a simplified world, or by finding satisfactory solutions for a more realistic world. Neither approach, in general, dominates the other, and both have continued to co-exist in the world of management science.” “Decision makers can satisfice either by finding optimum solutions for a simplified world, or by finding satisfactory solutions for a more realistic world.” The tools he developed throughout his career were designed to create just such rat-like models of how people solve problems. Simon earned both his B.A. (1936) and his Ph.D. (1943) in political science from the University of Chicago. From 1942 to 1949, he worked as a professor of political science at Chicago’s Illinois Tech, while transforming his doctoral dissertation into a book titled Administrative Behavior (1947 ). 3 Although Simon had been in his twenties when he wrote the original material, the book challenged, essentially successfully and correctly, much of the received administrative theory of the time and provided a new conceptual framework of decision making. In it, he proposed the concept of bounded rationality to describe the human decision-making process in which, although they intend to be purely rational, people use expedients other than those prescribed by global rationality to make choices – specifically, they tend to choose a merely satisfactory solution, rather than insisting upon the optimal one. And the idea of bounded rationality applies to organizational as well as individual decision making. Simon later coined the term “satisfice,”4 a combination of “satisfy” and “suffice,” to describe this process.5, 6 During this period, Simon was also building his education in economics by participating in weekly seminars, organized by the Cowles Commission,7 in which no fewer than nine future Nobelists participated. In 1949, he moved to what is now Carnegie Mellon University to collaborate with George L. Bach, William W. Cooper, and others in using W. L. Mellon’s gift of $5 million in endowment and $1 million for a building to create a new business school. Their goal was to construct an institution offering a foundation of studies in economics and behavioral science upon which business education could be built. With new management science techniques on the horizon and the emergence of the electronic computer, it was a heady time to launch such a venture. With the Graduate School of Industrial Administration, now the Tepper School of Business, they succeeded brilliantly. Simon still felt the need for a better theory of human problem-solving. Around 1954, he and his doctoral student Allen Newell conceived the idea of writing computer programs to simulate problem-solving so they could better study it. That idea was the beginning. Simon’s research interests turned toward computer simulation of human cognition, a quest that would continue for the rest of his life. Holding that the programs are the theory, he became a fierce advocate of computer programs as the best formalism for psychological theories. “Over the Christmas holiday, Allen Newell and I invented a machine that thinks!” Simon also developed and popularized heuristic programming. In 1955-56, he and Newell devised Logic Theorist (LT), the first successful artificial intelligence (AI) program, which successfully proved the theorems of Russell and Whitehead’s Principia Mathematica.8 Simon was so excited by the work that he famously announced to his January undergraduate class, “Over the Christmas holiday, Allen Newell and I invented a machine that thinks.” By 1958, Simon had created another renowned program, the General Problem Solver (GPS). On the surface, both LT and GPS appeared to solve problems in much the same ways as humans. Simon insisted, however, that computer simulation was not an exercise in elaborating tautologies, but an empirical science that could teach us new and valuable things about ourselves and our world. Beginning in the 1960s, Simon devoted his main research to extending the boundaries of artificial intelligence, particularly toward simulating human information processing, giving AI programs ever broader and less tightly structured tasks that called for increasingly substantial bodies of knowledge. With a series of colleagues, Simon developed programs ranging from those that played chess, to the Elementary Perceiver and Memorizer (EPAM, co-created with Edward Feigenbaum) which simulated human sensory perception and learning, to BACON, which simulated the process of scientific discovery. In 1972, he and Newell published a monumental book titled Human Problem Solving in which they introduced the notion of a program as a set of “production systems” or “if-then” statements. In 1975, they received ACM’s prestigious A.M. Turing Award9 for their basic contributions to artificial intelligence, the psychology of human cognition, and list processing. In light of his hugely influential work, Simon is justly considered one of the fathers of artificial intelligence. Throughout his career, Simon believed that organization and structure were critical. Indeed, what his programs truly simulated was the structure of problem-solving. He concluded that human mental processes are hierarchical and associative. To replicate this hierarchical, associative model of the mind, Simon and Newell worked with J. C. Shaw (a programmer at RAND) to develop the first list processing language, IPL (Information Processing Language). While IPL was, in retrospect, a low-level assembly language for list processing, it was a major influence on the development of later list-processing languages, including Lisp itself.10 Since the days of Simon’s early work, applications of AI have mushroomed. From Apple’s Siri, which uses natural language processing, to Google’s DeepMind, which uses deep learning, the impact of AI is ever increasing. In the business world, AI empowers businesses to work smarter and do far more with significantly less. AI reduces costs, increases efficiency, and boosts productivity while creating avenues for new products, services, and markets. According to IBM’s 2021 Global AI Adoption Index, 31 percent of companies are now using AI while 43 percent are exploring its use. Interviews with business leaders, IT managers, executive advisors, analysts, and AI experts mentioned smarter supply chains, smarter and safer operations, quality control, optimization, targeted marketing, customer service and support, contextual understanding, and more effective learning as just some of AI’s important applications.11 A recent piece in The Economist considered the controversy that would ensue if the Nobel prize in physiology or medicine were awarded to a non-human, in short, to AI.12 Simon was a renaissance man, a true polymath, and a pioneer in artificial intelligence, computer science, decision making, economics, management science, operations research,13 organizational design and behavior, production smoothing, and the philosophy of science. Few people in history have made scholarly contributions of such depth and breadth. His writing was concise and lucid. And although he was an affable man, in professional arguments he would not readily give an inch. While at Carnegie Mellon, I had the good fortune to take Simon’s course in Mathematical Social Sciences. There I discovered that Herb, as I came to know him, took pains to be extremely helpful to his students. One fine day, as I was crossing campus, I happened to encounter Herb. I spontaneously decided to ask him about an optimization problem I’d been working on and found to be unsolvable. He listened attentively, smiled, and said, “well then, make it simple.” His glib response suggested a philosophy of research, that the way to solve some intractable problems is either to simplify them enough so that they become tractable, while retaining their essence, or to change your goal from optimizing to satisficing. Indeed, in his writings, Simon observed that in pure science, if scientists cannot answer their initial question, they “can modify and simplify it until it shows promise of being answerable.” In addressing a real-world problem, however, he pointed out that scientists “cannot substitute a simpler answerable question” if they cannot solve the one presented to them. “To make interesting scientific discoveries, you should acquire as many good friends as possible, who are as energetic, intelligent, and knowledgeable as they can be.” In the coda of his autobiography, Models of My Life,14 he also revealed the one heuristic that was of the first importance to all his work: “To make interesting scientific discoveries, you should acquire as many good friends as possible, who are as energetic, intelligent, and knowledgeable as they can be. Form partnerships with them whenever you can. Then sit back and relax. You will find that all the programs you need are stored in your friends, and will execute productively and creatively as long as you don’t interfere too much. The work I have done with my more than eighty collaborators will testify to the power of that heuristic.” Herbert Simon died on February 9, 2001, having gone on to earn The National Medal of Science (1986),15 The American Psychological Association’s Lifetime Achievement Award (1993), the American Political Science Association’s Dwight Waldo Award (1995), and the Institute for Operations Research and Management Science’s John von Neumann Theory Prize (1988).16 Suresh P. Sethi is Eugene McDermott Chair Professor of Operations Management at The University of Texas at Dallas. He completed his PhD at Carnegie Mellon University under the supervision of Gerald Thompson, learned Mathematical Social Sciences from Herbert Simon while there, and has benefitted greatly from Simon’s comments on his research over the years. He did his post-doctoral work with George Dantzig at Stanford University. In keeping with Simon’s heuristic of having many colleagues to work with, Sethi has coauthored with almost 200 valued colleagues so far. I would like to acknowledge the very helpful suggestions of Herbert Simon’s daughter Katherine Frank and of Kalyan Singhal and Tinglong Dai. 1. Officially “The Alfred Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences” 2. http://werdet.atspace.com/bin/simonntation-speech. html 3. The book was voted the fifth most influential management book of the 20th century in a poll of the fellows of the Academy of Management. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Administrative_Behavior 4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satisficing, see also: https://uk.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/ upm-binaries/25239_Chater~Vol_1~Ch_03.pdf, as well as: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/ summary?doi=10.1.1.545.5116 and: https://doi.apa.org/doi Landing?doi=10.1037%2Fh0042769. 5. In his 1956 article for the APA’s Psychological Review, titled “Rational Choice and the Structure of the Environment,” Simon described satisficing as follows: “Evidently, organisms adapt well enough to ‘satisfice’; they do not, in general, ‘optimize.’” And: “A ‘satisficing’ path, a path that will permit satisfaction at some specified level of all its needs.” 6. Herbert A. Simon: Models of Bounded Rationality. Volume 1: Economic Analysis and Public Policy. Volume 2: Behavioural Economics and Business Organization: 1982 (reprinted 1983), Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 478, 505 pages 9. h tt p s://amturi n g . a c m . o rg/awa rd_wi n n e r s / simon_1031467.cfm 10. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisp_(programming_ language) 12. https://www.economist.com/what-if/2021/07/03/ what-if-an-ai-wins-the-nobel-prize-for-medicine?utm_ campaign=special-edition&utm_medium=newsletter&utm_ source=salesforce-marketing-cloud&utm_term=2021-06- 27&utm_content=article-link-1&etear=nl_special_1 13. Simon’s plenary address at the 1986 TIMS/ORSA Joint National Meeting: Two Heads Are Better than One: The Collaboration between AI and OR 15. https://www.nsf.gov/od/nms/recip_details.jsp?recip_ id=323

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Learning To Read Words When you teach children to read, it can be rather the endeavor, particularly if your youngster is a newbie visitor. Among one of the most crucial reasons that you need to teach kids to read is due to the fact that they have much more possible to prosper in life. Learning To Read Words Children have different factors regarding why they may not like to read. Some just do not recognize just how to read, while others may have a learning impairment. For others, there is just excessive text and also they can not focus on it long enough to choose a sentence. It could also be that their eyes are merely not prepared for such an education and learning and they need some assistance. If you have any type of questions about how you ought to show children to read, then take into consideration employing a tutor to read to them. There are various tutors around that can show kids to read, so take your time to find the ideal tutor for your kid. You can utilize a local library, or even take a look at a web site that uses tutoring services absolutely free. Learning To Read Words You may want to explore working with a tutor that uses CDs with a variety of various lessons that will help your youngster read quickly. A tutor may also request for some sort of comments from your youngster, which is constantly an excellent concept. This will permit you to evaluate whether or not the tutor is listening thoroughly as well as is in fact teaching the child the lessons that he needs to know in order to pass his examinations. As soon as you locate the ideal tutor for your youngster, then you will certainly need to give him the appropriate materials as well as directions. While some tutors are able to make use of audio publications to help your youngster find out to read, others are not. Learning To Read Words You want to make certain that your youngster prepares to read before introducing him to publications. Reading to your youngster at the very same time as he is taking the tests will certainly also make the process much easier. As he begins to understand the letters and also words, he will be more open to attempting them out. If he does not obtain it immediately, then offer him a second reading, or if needed to send him to an additional tutor. It may take a while to find a tutor that you can collaborate with pleasantly, so you may require to go around a number of tutors prior to locating the one that is the best fit for you. The best way to discover a tutor is by asking your child's classmates or close friends if they can suggest any individual that they used or would certainly suggest. Learning To Read Words Below are some reading programs that have actually assisted many youngsters to learn just how to read. ABC Mouse: Learning To Read Words ABC Mouse is a very early learning curriculum designed to educate kids with developmental hold-ups as well as impairments the ABC's (American alphabet, Arabic numbers, French letters, English letters as well as lots of others). Early Learning Academy, Inc. is an online discovering system for youngsters approximately age 8, established by Age of Learning Inc. Subscribers have the ability to access lessons on the internet or via their mobile application. Learning To Read Words This academic curriculum utilizes basic, easy-to-understand ABC pictures to show children abilities that will help them build language abilities as they age. The program helps kids comprehend the ideas of counting, reading, composing and also speaking English. ABC Mouse uses various means to find out the ABC's. As a moms and dad, you can choose from several interactive components based on different age groups. These modules can be quickly downloaded and install onto your computer system and also used with other academic materials, including videos, podcasts, video games, and so on Learning To Read Words . There are additionally audio CDs that feature lessons on exactly how to read, speak and also spell the alphabet using the ABC's. One more choice is a complimentary on the internet test that can be completed with a minimum of 30 inquiries to test your child's understanding. To motivate better reading, a fun video game is used in the ABC Mouse software program. As you full each level of the video game, your youngster will certainly obtain a skill ranking. The higher the score, the much easier it will be for them to comprehend the next degree of the game. Learning To Read Words Parents who are intending to register their youngster in this educational program need to make certain that they have the best academic choices for their child. The ABC Mouse is just one of the most effective alternatives due to the fact that it has actually been created specifically for kids with developing hold-ups or disabilities. This online educational software application is ensured to provide your youngster an advantage when learning and also speaking the alphabet. With the ABC Mouse system, you can expect your child to create and also improve interaction skills, as well as a better understanding of the ABC's. On top of that, you can anticipate your child to have a favorable perspective towards discovering and also speaking the ABC's. Your child will certainly enjoy the games, tests and music-filled interactive lessons that include the program. Learning To Read Words The curriculum included in the ABC Mouse system is based on the exact same raw materials and also approaches utilized in standard public institutions across America. The software program does provide a special curriculum that provides a special knowing experience. The software has been created to help children with finding out handicaps, including Down disorder, master language as well as boost their reading and also mathematics skills. The ABC Mouse is not a replacement for typical public institutions. It is an important addition to any type of residence college. Learning To Read Words Reading Egg: Learning To Read Words The very early reading curriculum for kids can be separated right into 2 significant types-the very first is reading as well as the 2nd is reading games. It is necessary that you understand which one appropriates for your child prior to you decide which one is the far better choice. The bright side is that most of these reading programs have been created by specialists. Reading is a wonderful way to boost the language skills of your youngster as well as these games are ideal for instructing toddlers as well as kids exactly how to read. Learning To Read Words Reading Egg is an on the internet very early discovering curriculum for babies as well as toddlers. Reading Egg is an interactive, on the internet supplement to standard reading programs. It contains fun activities that you can have fun with your child. The activities in this program will certainly assist your youngster create his/her motor skills, eye coordination as well as reading skills. Youngsters will appreciate the easy activities that you can select from and also they will certainly likewise find out a few beneficial realities and vocabulary words. As a moms and dad, it is really crucial for you to see to it that your youngster is obtaining the best possible education for his/her development. You can not forget any kind of part of his or her advancement. If you do so, it may affect your kid's development later on in life. You require to make sure that you have the finest possible sources offered for him or her. The most essential resource is the very early reading curriculum for toddlers. This is since it is one of the most powerful tool that you can use to enhance the language abilities of your kid. By enhancing the language skills of your child, she or he will certainly be able to comprehend what is going on around him or her and also end up being a lot more familiar with the demands of others. Learning To Read Words The 2nd kind of early understanding educational program is for kids. This is because toddlers are still quite developing their speech and body movement. You need to make sure that they obtain the suitable early understanding curriculum. Several of the fundamental points that you can consist of in their early learning educational program consist of tales, rhymes, and also basic tasks. You can additionally teach your kid to utilize finger writing and other such abilities. Reading eggs, on the other hand, is an early learning curriculum that is particularly suggested for young children. The objective of this very early discovering program is to help children improve their reading abilities. Reading Egg is an interactive supplement for children who are discovering to read. because it is an interactive video game that enables your child to communicate with various other children and discover at the same time. Learning To Read Words Reading Egg is an educational program that will help your kid find out to read. while having fun! Your kid will certainly likewise be subjected to several themes which will aid him/her to interact with other kids at home. Learning to read is crucial for your youngster's future. An excellent begin in the best instructions will boost their vocabulary, spelling and also also their grammar. Consequently, the most optimal option is to go in for an early discovering educational program that has been shown to work. All About Reading: Learning To Read Words The All About Reading Program is a wonderful way to present your child to reading and also to uncover more about the globe in which they live. From history to location as well as from the arts to scientific research, curriculum created by specialists in the reading industry will certainly assist your youngster end up being the great world-changer that they have constantly wished for! The program also gives a thorough look at what it implies to be reading – just how to find your way with the message, to recognize various kinds of literary expression and exactly how to create significant sentences, all the while developing the reading abilities that are necessary to you and your whole family members. A highly successful early discovering curriculum that is additionally geared towards creating a sense of self-worth, this program can have an extensive influence on your child's capability to read, understand and appreciate their society and to connect in English. Learning To Read Words Reading to children is an important part of their growth, so why not begin the All About Reading program in pre-school? When a child is first introduced to reading, their eyes are opened to an universe of possibilities; this makes reading a vital developmental milestone. Once they have the ability to start to continue reading their very own, they will certainly locate that they appreciate this procedure and are normally attracted to it. This is where the All About Learning Program can be found in. Your youngster will like reading publications, but they will certainly likewise appreciate reading to a team of kids or learning to write, since this helps them establish their own specific design and taste. The early learning program that you choose will supply an interactive atmosphere where the child can engage with others. This will certainly include children of various ages, from pre-school to primary school. The program can also be customized to suit your house – whether you want to include a book club for a collection of youngsters or just one or two kids at once. Numerous parents today realize that kids require a very early introduction to proficiency and also the All About Reading program has the material to aid your kid to establish a love of reading. Not just will they enjoy it, they'll find out exactly how to enhance their reading abilities as well as create their very own style of reading. Learning To Read Words By including reading into your youngster's very early understanding curriculum, you are providing the opportunity to discover various forms of reading. They will be introduced to the happiness of language as well as the marvels of the written word in their native tongue – something they might not have experienced before. As getting the basics right, they will also receive support to help them establish their own feeling of identification and self-regard – something numerous youngsters are battling with in this area. The All About Learning Program aims to assist children develop a love of reading as well as encourage their minds with the procedure of discovery as well as expedition. By allowing your child a higher degree of liberty in choosing the based on read, you will be giving them a better degree of control as well as independence. The curriculum consists of a wide array of topics that range from history and location, to mathematics and even the most recent Hollywood blockbusters. Kids are able to make their very own options in the educational program – as well as you can seize the day to develop the skills needed to write in the language in which they were educated. This is beneficial to both the kid as well as their advancement as a person, so do not forget to obtain included! Learning To Read Words All About Reading supplies some of the most interesting as well as cutting-edge methods to reading that are available today. If your son or daughter has actually always wished to read, but can not locate the time to do so, after that this is the program for them. Do not let your kids slide via the splits. See to it they are introduced early in their lives, and you'll discover that they will certainly like discovering. and delight in the experience! Hooked On Phonics: Learning To Read Words Hooked On Phonics is a cutting-edge, multi-generational teaching business as well as manufacturer of very early discovering educational program for children from preschool through fifth quality. Hooked On Phonics was begun in 1987 by a single mommy whose three teenage children were struggling to learn to read. Hooked On Phonics has actually ended up being a leading carrier of mentor materials for children and remains to establish brand-new and also ingenious items for young understanding. Learning To Read Words Hooked On Phonics makes a number of different products, however their most prominent item is their early learning curriculum for preschool via fifth grade. Their early learning educational program is available in several degrees of trouble, so parents and also teachers can produce an easy understanding educational program for young kids or a much more difficult one for older children. Hooked On Phonics additionally supplies publications in addition to their early understanding educational program. These publications are geared toward young kids and also function images as well as storybooks concerning the alphabet, reading, phonics, and language skills. Hooked On Phonics also provides the Hooked On Phonics Early Learning Curriculum System. This educational program system is made to aid children from the moment they are infants to the age of five beginnings reading to find out the ABC's and various other words, phrases and words. This early knowing curriculum includes a number of books, CD's and online knowing software. It likewise includes videos as well as audio CDs with storybooks for young children to pick up from. One of the most amazing facets of this curriculum system is that children can publish out the storybooks they have picked for their own individual usage. Hooked On Phonics additionally has a very early knowing program for preschool through 5th quality that is available at the web site. Learning To Read Words On the internet education is also supplied at the website. Hooked On Phonics provides free online courses and various other tasks. They likewise use a range of teaching tools for moms and dads, teachers, as well as kids thinking about finding out to read. They likewise supply books, songs sheets, interactive flash cards, interactive white boards, and other interactive devices that make discovering to read fun and also interesting for children. Hooked On Phonics also offers complimentary online conversation online forums for moms and dads and educators who intend to talk with one another. The firm is dedicated to creating the most effective learning resources offered. and to making learning for children's enjoyable for both parents and also youngsters. They strive to meet the demands of moms and dads and also instructors with cutting-edge products and also a parent can use. to be reliable in their understanding process. Hooked On Phonics believes that children will certainly learn more when discovering is fun as well as not demanding. Learning To Read Words With the help of these ingenious discovering devices, parents and educators can achieve a solid foundation for a child's advancement. The items are not only instructional, however they are enjoyable too! Great Things from Teaching Your Child How To Read: Learning To Read Words Educating your youngster exactly how to read effectively, will certainly allow them to develop their writing as well as punctuation skills to ensure that when they start to write down things, they know that the spelling of the word will not be a problem. which they will have the proper enunciation. when they are ready. After they have actually developed a great understanding of the alphabet, they will have the ability to discover the meaning behind each letter and also where each letter goes. Learning To Read Words

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Brazilian ornithology has not witnessed such a significant contribution to the expansion of our knowledge of biodiversity since the second half of the 19th century: 15 new species of birds of the Brazilian Amazon region will be formally described for the first time in a series of scientific articles expected to be published in July in a special volume of the Handbook of the Birds of the World from by the Spanish publishing house Lynx Edicions. The volume is the latest in an encyclopedic and educational 17-book collection that is used as a reference source by amateur and professional ornithologists alike. The descriptions are authored by individuals from three Brazilian research institutions: the Zoology Museum of the University of São Paulo (MZ-USP), the National Institute for Amazonian Research (Inpa) in Manaus, the Emílio Goeldi Museum of Pará (MPEG), in Belém, as well as the Louisiana State University Museum of Natural Science (LSUMNS) in the United States. Such a large collection of new Brazilian birds has not been presented to the world in a single work since the 1871 publication of Zur Ornithologie Brasiliens by Austrian ornithologist August von Pelzeln (1825-1891), which described 40 species of birds collected by naturalist Johann Natterer (1787-1843), also Austrian, on his trips through the Brazilian Amazon. Eleven of the new species are endemic to Brazil, and four can also be found in Peru and Bolivia. Eight occur west of the Madeira River in western Amazonia; five only inhabit areas located between the Madeira and Tapajós rivers in the heart of the northern region; and two are found only in habitats east of the Tapajós in the state of Pará, in the easternmost region of the tropical forest. In the special volume of the Handbook, the authors describe the morphology (forms and structures), genetics and vocalization (song and other sounds) of the new species. Specific maps for each species also show their locations of occurrence. Until the book is officially published, however, the scientific names and some details of the anatomy and lifestyle of the new species cannot be revealed. The largest and most spectacular of these birds—all of which are previously unknown and undocumented in the scientific literature—is a jay of the genus Cyanocorax that is approximately 35 centimeters in length. It lives only on the edges of natural prairies amidst the forest between the Madeira and Purus rivers in the state of Amazonas. “This jay is threatened with extinction,” says Mario Cohn-Haft, curator of Inpa’s ornithology department and principal discoverer of the cancão-da-campina, the popular name for the bird. “Its habitat is in jeopardy, and we could lose the species before we have time to do an indepth study.” Its principal region of occurrence is a prairie complex 150 kilometers south of Manaus in an area near Highway BR-319, which connects that Amazonas State capital to the city of Porto Velho. The highway is being repaved, and the researchers fear that the access it will provide to the area will put the species’ habitat at risk. “The new jay also occurs in an area of natural prairies in southern Amazonas near Porto Velho where there are many settlers from southern Brazil who confuse it with the gralha-azul or Azure Jay [the state bird of Paraná],” Cohn-Haft notes. With the exception of a bird of the order Piciformes, which includes toucans and woodpeckers, the other Amazonian species here described belong to the order Passeriformes. Popularly known as passerines, the members of this group account for approximately 55% of known bird species and include sparrows, canaries, tyrant flycatchers, etc. In addition to the jay and a distant relative of the toucan, the book will describe five species of the family Thamnophilidae (which includes antbirds), four from the family Dendrocolaptidae (all new types of woodcreeper), three from the huge family Tyrannidae (which includes 400 species found from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego) and one from the small family Polioptilidae (which has at least 10 species that are commonly known as gnatcatchers). In numerical terms, the new Amazonian species represent an increase of nearly 1% in Brazil’s avian biodiversity. “We have the second highest number of known bird species in the world, about 1,840,” says Luís Fábio Silveira, curator of the ornithology department at the USP Zoology Museum, one of the coordinators of the initiative. “Only Colombia has more species than we do—approximately 1,900. But a decade from now, we’ll probably reach 2,000 known bird species in Brazil. The country’s museums contain a number of specimens of unknown birds native to various biomes, and these will be described in the next few years.” Birds are the most extensively studied vertebrate group in biology, yet it appears that much remains to be learned, especially in the Amazon, despite the fact that this region has been the focus of a great deal of research over recent decades. “Biodiversity in general, even in regard to the birds of this biome, is far from fully evidenced,” says ornithologist Bret Whitney, a researcher with LSUMNS and principal coordinator of the endeavor. “There is still a long way to go for Amazonia to be considered sufficiently well known to enable us to plan and sustain the existing and future biodiversity reserves.” Outside his academic life, Whitney is a partner in Field Guides, an ecotourism company that takes people on birdwatching tours in various parts of the world, including the Amazon. Several of the dozens of Amazon expeditions over the last 10 years that have led to the discovery of new species were partially or fully paid for by a FAPESP-financed project that Silveira headed. Other expeditions received support from Brazil’s National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), the Ministry of the Environment, the Biodiversity Research Program of the Ministry of Science and Technology, state-level ministers, and even the National Geographic Society in the US. On one such expedition through the tropical forest last year, approximately twenty researchers and post-graduate students from institutions participating in the project rented a boat for a month (for R$75,000) to look for new bird species as they cruised along the Sucunduri River, a tributary of the Madeira. On other occasions, the scientists have even needed armed protection to go into areas that could be home to new types of birds. A common locale of one of the new species, a scythebill called the arapaçu-de-bico-torto, is the Altamira National Forest near Highway BR-163 in Brazil’s southern Pará State. The area is a conservation unit managed by the Brazilian Institute of the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (IBAMA). “But to be able to work safely in the reserve, we had to be escorted by soldiers from the Brazilian army. There was an illegal gold mine operating inside the unit,” says Dr. Alexandre Aleixo of the MPEG ornithology department. “The stress of working in that kind of place is considerable and, if it weren’t for the Army’s presence, we wouldn’t have been able to do it.” In modern times, the process of describing recently discovered species takes place on the pages of scientific journals rather than in books. However, because of the importance and singularity of this group of new Amazonian bird species, the encyclopedia’s publishers and the authors of the papers chose an alternate route. Each new species was the focus of a separate paper (a scientific article) written along the lines of what would be prepared for an academic journal. The Handbook team hired the services of a group of specialists to handle the peer review process and approve the texts containing the formal descriptions of each species. In science, a text that describes a new life form and labels it with a Latin name consisting of two terms, genus and species, is the equivalent of a birth certificate for that species. It also serves as basic documentation of a region’s biodiversity—in this case, birds of the Amazon—and as a basis for formulating public policy on the environment. The initiative to publish all of the new species at once took shape last year under the leadership of Whitney, Silveira, Cohn-Haft and Aleixo, with the ongoing participation of post-graduate students from their respective institutions. The group was producing texts for the 17th volume of the Handbook, which will purportedly contain information on bird species recently discovered throughout the world from 1992 to 2011. The species formally described by scientists during that period were not covered in the other 16 books in the series, which summarized and organized data on each member of the known bird families. This special volume is expected to cover 68 species initially, all of which have been formally described in papers published in scientific journals over the past two decades, yielding an average of fewer than four new species discovered each year. The extra book will ultimately cover 83 species including the 15 Amazonian species, the scientific descriptions of which will appear in the book on an exceptional basis. The group’s thinking in choosing to reveal the nine species in a single work was to call attention to the importance of preserving the biodiversity of the Amazon region where two-thirds of the bird species in Brazil are found. “If we published each paper separately in different journals, it wouldn’t have the same impact,” Silveira says. The act of looking for birds in nature calls to mind an image of an ornithologist wearing Bermuda shorts, a t-shirt and a hat, carrying binoculars and perhaps a camera. One item not mentioned, however, is absolutely mandatory for an ornithologist: a recording device. Most of the 15 new species were initially identified by their song, which to a specialist’s ear has a different or unfamiliar sound. “You don’t need to be highly gifted to recognize a different song. It’s a matter of training”, Whitney says. “It’s like recognizing a new song by your favorite band when you hear the first chord.” Only two decades ago, the description of a new bird species, as was true for most living creatures, was based only on the uniqueness of its anatomy and outward appearance. If the plumage and bone structure of a specimen significantly differed from the features found in already known species, the animal could be labeled as a member of a new species. Today, in addition to morphology, two additional basic criteria are used to propose the existence of a new bird species: analysis of its vocalizations and its genetic material. “Some researchers now propose a new bird species even when only one of those three parameters is shown to be different from that of other known species,” Silveira notes. “We are conservative in our work, and we have proposed a new species only when we found differences in at least two of the three criteria.” Aided by special software, the recorded song of each candidate for a new bird species was compared with homologous vocalizations of similar species. At times, only a few seconds of comparison were enough to confirm the first impression perceived by the trained ears of the ornithologists: the sound frequencies emitted by the new species differed from the songs produced by related birds, even for some species that were physically very similar. For each new discovery, the researchers also sequenced a few thousand pairs of gene bases present in nuclear DNA and in mitochondria, which are cell organelles that are responsible for energy production and have their own independent genome that is frequently used for studies of phylogeny. This genetic material was compared with the DNA of already-known species to verify their uniqueness and, whenever possible, to establish kinship relations or a phylogenetic tree for the new species. “For many of the new birds we are describing, the confirmation that it was a different species was actually obtained from the genetic component of the analysis,” Aleixo comments. “This reinforces the importance of obtaining genetic material as part of scientific specimen collection—a process that unfortunately is not yet in practice at a number of museums and collections across Brazil.” Genetic studies can provide valuable information about species origins. The evolutionary history of two of these newly described birds—two antwrens (chorozinhos) of the genus Herpsilochmus—is a good illustration of the inroads possible with this approach. The two species are nearly identical morphologically, but their vocalizations are clearly distinct. One of the birds inhabits a stretch along the right-hand side of the Madeira River, and the other lives only on the left bank. In this case, the Madeira, the banks of which can be as much as 10 kilometers apart at some points, functions as a natural barrier between the two bird populations, which have no contact with one another. The long-term separation of the two groups of chorozinhos has led to an evolutionary process that biologists have termed speciation: the emergence of a new species—in this case, two—created by the fragmentation of a common ancestral population that now occurs in environments that have no communication (vicarious effect). Despite enormous morphological similarities among the two populations of chorozinhos, genetic studies have revealed—shockingly—that they were separated by the Madeira two million years ago. The role played by the major rivers of the Amazon in the emergence of new life forms through the creation of geographic barriers insurmountable to many species is well known to science. What is new, ornithologists say, is that even waterways that are not as immense can play the same role in certain cases. At least three new species were discovered, for example, in the region between the Aripuanã and Machado rivers in the southern Amazonas State and northern Rondônia State: one of the chorozinhos mentioned above, the choquinha-do-rio-roosevelt and the cantador-de-rondon (these are the popular names for the birds). That area, which is also traversed by the Roosevelt River, served as a refuge for minor bird species that became “captive” and, over the years, developed their own features within the territory between the river banks. “Some rivers in Amazonia have changed their course through evolutionary history,” Silveira notes. “Sometimes this process of riverbed accommodation separates populations of birds that once lived in the same environment.” The many rivers that wind through the greater tropical forest are an abundant source of biodiversity within and around their waters. Systematics, taxonomy and biogeography of Neotropical birds: The Cracidae as model (2007/56378-0); Grant mechanism Regular Line of Research Project Award. Coord. Luís Fábio Silveira (MZ-USP); Investment R$86,928.28 (FAPESP).

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In times where we must spend more time at home than usual, we journey through art inspired by domestic life over the centuries. As the lockdown lifestyle continues to prevail for many of us, it is easy to feel frustrated, bored, and entrapped by our homes. However, throughout art history, domestic life has been a fundamental source of inspiration for artists. Whether it be lavish interiors or simplistic homely acts, artworks have repeatedly visualized domesticity as a worthy subject. While most European art was historically centered around religion, the 17th century saw artists begin to move towards domestic scenes that were absent of Christian idols. As genre painting, which depicted everyday life, activities, and people, became an esteemed art form, various other movements would go on to champion scenes of the everyday. Whether it is the beauty, drama, or relatability of home, we highlight works that prove home is where the art is. Nicolaes Maes is a fitting example of a 17th century artist who moved away from depicting biblical imagery in favor of genre painting. Taught by Rembrandt, Maes would later go on to develop his own individual style and subject matter. In turn, the likes of Vermeer and other contemporaries would go on to further refine these techniques that have now become synonymous with the genre. Maes relished in the ordinary Dutch households of the time, portraying them with physical depth as well as plenty of room for drama. In his well-known series of Eavesdropper paintings, he creates scenes which invite viewer participation. With a mischievous woman looking directly at them, they join the game of eavesdropping on a private conversation in the next room. Listening to a tense exchange, the woman raises her index finger to her lips, urging the viewer to remain quiet. Meanwhile, other members of the household continue to dine upstairs. Left to consider what the secret conversation was about, the domestic setting becomes a place full of intrigue. Marie Spartali Stillman Marie Spartali Stillman was a Pre-Raphaelite artist and muse. She was also a successful model for the likes of Rossetti and Burne-Jones. Despite being most renowned as the subject of many iconic works, Spartali Stillman was a successful artist in her own right. A pupil of Ford Madox Brown, she often re-imagined the classics and Italian landscapes in her watercolor paintings. “I stayed at Kelmscott for ten days and felt quite shut out of the busy world in that beautiful walled garden. I made two watercolors of the house and garden. One cannot imagine any place as quiet. Nothing ever seems to happen [-] things have been at a standstill for 300 years probably. It does one so much good to have this complete rest.”Marie Spartali Stillman, as quoted in Delaware Art Museum's curatorial text for Poetry in Beauty: The Pre-Raphaelite Art of Marie Spartali Stillman. With a Pre-Raphaelite closeness to nature, Spartali Stillman would often visit Kelmscott Manor (William and Jane Morris's home in the English countryside) and seize inspiration to paint. Hence Spartali Stillman depicted Kelmscott Manor multiple times throughout her life. Valuing the comfort of the manor and its beautiful landscape, she would appreciate the slowness of life in comparison to London. French artist Berthe Morisot favored the private moments that few get to see. Morisot sat among her Impressionist peers as a key artist in the movement and similarly created from daily experiences. Capturing the fleeting moments of her family and friends, she painted with rapid brushstrokes. Interested in what is transitory, Morisot illuminates domestic life in many of her works. “My ambition is limited to capturing something transient.''Berthe Morisot Often using her daughter Julie as a model, Morisot was also a passionate and devoted mother. In Cottage Interior, Julie appears to have risen from the dining table in preoccupation with her doll. With the outside world revealed from a peeled back curtain, Morisot experiments with the relationship between interior and exterior; the boats floating on the ocean and flowers blooming echo the child's imagination against the fixed domestic scene. As a member of Les Nabis, Pierre Bonnard was highly influential in the French and Post-Impressionist art scene. Much like his fellow Nabi, Bonnard viewed color as a fundamental aspect of painting, regularly creating from memory and flavoring his work with the hues it emphasized. Seeking to capture a moment, he was continuously inspired by domestic life and the intimate scenes it provided. “Painting has to get back to its original goal, examining the inner lives of human beings.''Pierre Bonnard As an ongoing motif throughout his work, Bonnard repeatedly depicted his wife Marthe de Méligny in the bath tub. Suffering with her health, Marthe believed in hydrotherapy to ease her illnesses. However, Bonnard's bathroom depictions capture real life while simultaneously warping it. Bonnard commonly depicted his wife as a young woman, despite being in her fifties in the first of his bathing works. Perhaps reflecting Marthe's hope in rejuvenation, although represented in an unsettling tomb-shaped bath, he blends idealism with everyday subjects. Regardless, Bonnard continuously places accents on the private moments that home brings. Moving from his native Lausanne to Paris, Félix Vallotton then became a life-long friend of Bonnard's. Vallotton remains closely associated with Les Nabis, after joining the group in 1892 and being dubbed 'the Foreign Nabi'. Similarly inspired by daily life, Vallotton was particularly interested in capturing private, dramatic scenes. Such scenes included nudes, still life and domesticity, stylistically influenced by Japanese woodblock to create his hard-edged works. After marrying the wealthy Gabrielle Rodrigues-Henriques, Vallotton was both intrigued and yet alienated by bourgeois society; this theme is most apparent in his lavish interiors. Often depicting the mysteriously illicit life of the upper-class, he creates melodramatic domestic scenes with the strong juxtaposition of color and complex characters. The viewer is left to question the legitimacy of the relationships between the subjects and what situation they may be witnessing. In Interior with Woman in Red Seen from Behind, three doorways invite the viewer's eye to contemplate the scene. What does the woman in red appear to be gazing at in the bedroom? Why did it capture her attention in the midst of dressing? Left to speculate the woman in red, who was actually his wife Gabrielle, Vallotton's interior scene remains quietly tense like that of a soap opera. Walter Richard Sickert In contrast to Vallotton's bourgeois Parisian interiors, Walter Sickert was compelled by the everyday of Britain's working class. Seeking to depict the lives of ordinary people, Sickert was much inspired by Camden (an inner-London suburb with a mixture of middle and working-class occupants). As leader of the Camden Town Group, he strove to create an unromanticized impression of urban life. Using an urban realist style, Sickert thus conveyed the inner lives of his subjects and their typical surroundings. One of Sickert's most praised works is Ennui, which depicts a couple in their home. Sickert creates a potent atmosphere in the work, signifying the emotional estrangement between the couple through telling body language and objects. While the male figure gazes into the distance, the female leans on a cabinet with a bell jar on it. Stuffed birds are in the jar, entrapped much like the marital couple, also the glass of water on the table is half empty. As a result Sickert powerfully captures the unspoken tensions of married life and the home, finding inspiration in what goes unsaid on a daily basis. Richard Hamilton also represented the home in many of his works, although through a seemingly more satirical lens than Sickert. Recognized by many as the 'father of Pop art', Hamilton's practice included both painting and collage. Seeking to explore the post-war consciousness, he formed many interiors throughout his career, using various cuttings to represent the fast rise of consumerism. “Any interior is a set of anachronisms, a museum with the lingering residues of decorative styles that an inhabited space collects. Banal or beautiful, exquisite or sordid, each says a lot about its owner and something about humanity in general.''Richard Hamilton Just what is it that makes today's homes so different, so appealing? is one of the most iconic examples of Hamilton's interiors. Using material from advertisements in American magazines, Hamilton forms some of the key motifs associated with Pop art: starlets, glamour, hi-tech innovations, and even the term 'Pop' itself. Hamilton's domestic scene is bold, alluring, and chaotic as a result. It is also a powerful allegory of what society would accelerate to become. Columbian artist Alejandra Hernández also shapes meaning through interiors, using them to reflect her inner-subjects. Interested in how we interact with our surroundings, she creates both real and fictional portraits. Previously, Hernández has created a series of works based around domestic narratives; set in familiar environments, the scenes are peppered with various household items to signify personality. In Las Tres Gracias she subverts the art historical Three Graces into a modern interpretation. Depicting three young women (socks-and-all) lounging on the sofa, surrounded by various fruit, instruments, plants, fairy lights and other objects, Hernández's Three Graces are taken from mythology and put into the context of contemporary domesticity. As the idealized figures merge with recognizable postures, garments, and home attributes, she provides a fresh twist on the classics. While Hernández depicts both real and imagined people, Aliza Nisenbaum predominantly grounds her work in the existing Mexican and Latin American community. Creating portraits of undocumented immigrant families in New York, Nisenbaum often paints her subjects in their homes. The conversations that arise continuously supplement her artistic process: “I see these compositions as private places for dreaming, where figures become embraced by the spaces surrounding them.''Aliza Nisenbaum in a statement for Mousse Magazine Using designs from textiles found in the homes of her subjects, Nisenbaum surrounds her sitters in specific patterns as well as recognizable settings. In Las Talaveritas, Sunday Morning NY Times, Nisenbaum's subjects relax whilst reading the New York Times. Painting from observation, this and many of Nisenbaum's works are both intimate and social, based on human interaction in a natural setting. With each of the above works representing domestic life through a unique lens, we are propelled into both familiar and unfamiliar private spaces. Whether we are eavesdropping in Maes' Dutch household, taking a Bonnard-style soak in the tub, or enjoying the smaller pleasures like reading the newspaper, these artworks help us to escape or relate to the walls around us. If you enjoyed the art inspired by the home, read:

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When COVID-19 appeared on a poorly prepared world stage, healthcare professionals (HCPs) focused on saving lives and preventing infection. But COVID-19’s direct and indirect clinical effects will probably persist long after the curtain falls on this pandemic. It’s already clear that COVID-19’s effects can linger long after the acute symptoms resolve. A study of 143 patients reported that only 13% were symptom-free a mean of 60.3 days after the onset of COVID-19. Thirty-two per cent had oneto two symptoms, 55% at least three symptoms and 44% reported a worse quality of life. None of the patients still had fever or other symptoms of acute infection. The most common persistent symptoms were fatigue (53%), dyspnoea (43%), joint pain, (27%) and chest pain (22%).1 In some cases, chest pain may raise a suspicion of COVID-19–related heart damage. Between 20% and 30% of patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19 showed raised levels of troponin, a group of proteins that help cardiac and skeletal muscle contract. An injury, such as a heart attack, to the myocardium releases troponin into the blood.2 Moreover, in a study of 100 patients who recovered from COVID-19, magnetic resonance imaging revealed persistent cardiac involvement in 78% and on-going myocardial inflammation in 60%. These changes were independent of pre-existing conditions, the severity of COVID-19, the overall course of the acute illness and the time from the original diagnosis. Most patients recovered at home. But the extent and severity of the cardiac inflammation was similar to that among hospitalised patients.3 Cardiologists are concerned that the heart damage could increase the risk of long-term cardiovascular complications, such as atrial fibrillation and other arrythmias, coronary artery disease and death.2 So, on-going investigations of the long-term cardiovascular consequences of COVID-19 are essential.2,3 On the other hand, some outcomes may improve. A study of controller inhalers used by 7578 patients (77% asthma) reported that mean daily adherence rose by 14.5% (from 53.7% to 61.5%) between the first seven days of January 2020 to the last seven days of March 2020. During the last week of March, about 53% of patients showed at least 75% adherence, a 14.9% increase from the first week of January.4 In theory at least, this improved compliance should enhance outcomes in people with asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Whether adherence will remain higher after the initial fears around COVID-19 subside remains one of the many moot points around the pandemic’s clinical legacy. The effect on the brain The COVID-19 pandemic and the social isolation seems to have triggered mental health problems, such as increased stress, anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder among the public and, not surprisingly, patients, family members and healthcare professionals.5,6 If previous pandemics and epidemics are anything to go by, some of the distress from the pandemic may herald longer-term mental health problems for some people.5 Moreover, in about 36% of patients, COVID-19 causes neurological symptoms, such as dizziness, headache, impaired consciousness and seizures. In about 25% of these patients, SARS-CoV-2 directly involved the central nervous system. At discharge, about a third of people show cognitive impairment or motor deficits.7 A recent paper raises concerns about COVID-19’s long-term neurological consequences.7 People with severe COVID-19 show high levels of proinflammatory cytokines (chemicals that carry messages between cells). This ‘cytokine storm’ can cause acute respiratory dysfunction and may accelerate or exacerbate cognitive decline. In theory, the changes may, the paper warns, increase the risk of developing neurological conditions, particularly Alzheimer’s disease.7 It’s worth remembering that many people who develop severe COVID-19 are older and may, therefore, be particularly susceptible to the virus’s cognitive effects. But, once again, only time will tell. COVID-19 has left parts of the economy reeling. Based on previous experience – such as the Asian Financial crisis, the ‘Great Recession’ that began in 2007, the economic problems following the collapse of the Soviet Union and the Great Depression of the 1930s – suicide rates may rise unless the economy recovers rapidly. A review found that 31 of the 38 studies examined confirmed an association between economic recessions and increased suicide rates. Two reports found the opposite. The remainder either failed to find an association or were inconclusive.8 The indirect effects COVID-19’s impact on health as well as medical and social services will almost certainly increase mortality and mortality from other conditions. For instance, at the time of writing the number of COVID-19 cases is rising in sub-Saharan Africa, which could easily overwhelm local health services, force social isolation and hinder attempts to tackle malaria.9 Some 3.2 billion people live in areas – mainly in Africa, South America and South-East Asia – where malaria is endemic. During 2018, 228 million cases of malaria occurred worldwide, which killed 405,000 people.10 Severe disruption to malaria prevention activities could more than double deaths from the parasite in 2020 compared with 2019, a recent paper warns. For example, not deploying long-lasting insecticidal nets and halving case management for 6 months could mean mortality from malaria rise to 779,000 deaths over 12 months in sub-Saharan Africa alone. Increased poverty, malnutrition and social insecurity means that this may underestimate the full impact.9 Again, the effects of an increase in malaria in the wake of COVID-19 could persist for years. Many people who survive cerebral malaria experience, for example, cognitive impairment, behavioural disorders and neurological deficits.11 Following cerebral malaria, children can endure developmental and chronic impairments in cognition and executive functioning affecting, for example, speech, language, memory and learning.12 Even mild malaria can cause psychiatric symptoms – such as confusion, intermittent psychosis, delirium, anxiety and depression – which can linger long after the acute symptoms resolve.12 Meanwhile, diagnostic delays because of the pandemic could translate into ‘substantial increases in the number of avoidable cancer deaths in England’.13,14 During lockdown, fewer people sought health care and diagnostic services were suspended or operated at reduced capacity. In April 2020, for example, the NHS performed 90% fewer endoscopies than in each of the first three months of 2020.13 Cancer Research UK suggested in July that compared with 2019, 51% more people are waiting for colonoscopies, 46% more for flexi-sigmoidoscopies (both detect bowel malignancies), 44% more for gastroscopies (oesophageal and stomach cancer) and 23% more for cystoscopies (bladder cancer).15 Diagnostic delays mean that, depending on the model’s assumptions, breast cancer deaths could increase by 7.9% to 9.6% within 5 years of diagnosis compared with pre-pandemic mortality (281–344 additional deaths). Deaths from lung cancer could increase by an estimated 4.8–5.3% (1235–1372 additional deaths), colorectal cancer by 15.3–16.6% (1445–1563 additional deaths) and oesophageal cancer by 5.8–6.0% (330-342 additional deaths). So, COVID-19 could result in 3291–3621 additional deaths within 5 years from these cancers alone.13 Another model examined the impact of delayed treatment on excess mortality from 20 common cancers. In England, the 2-week-wait pathway diagnosed, on average, 6281 patients with stage I–III cancer each month between 2013 and 2016. An estimated 27% of these patients would die within 10 years from cancer. A 3-month lockdown during which 25% and 75% of symptomatic patients delayed their presentation will translate into an estimated 181 and 542 additional deaths respectively. The ‘estimates suggest that, for many cancers, delays to treatment of 2–6 months will lead to a substantial proportion of patients with early stage tumours progressing from having curable to incurable disease’.16 Cancer Research UK told IN that nurses should ‘urge people with any persistent, worsening or unexplained symptoms to get them checked out by their doctor’. We won’t know lockdown’s impact on cancer deaths and morbidity for many years. For example, a delayed breast cancer diagnosis may mean that cure needs mastectomy rather than lumpectomy. In general, 10-year survival is synonymous with cure, which reflects the ability of surgery or radical radiotherapy to restore normal or near-normal life expectancy.16 So, the excess deaths caused by the disruption to cancer pathways will not be fully clear for at least a decade.16 Indeed, we’re still in the early acts of the pandemic and much of the future course remains unknown or at least uncertain. But one thing’s clear: it will be many years before we fully appreciate the pandemic’s full impact on the world’s health. Mark Greener is a freelance medical writer and journalist 1. Carfì A, Bernabei R, Landi F, Group ftGAC-P-ACS. (2020) Persistent symptoms in patients after acute COVID-19. JAMA. 324(6):603-5. https://doi.org.10.1001/jama.2020.12603 2. Mitrani RD, Dabas N, Goldberger JJ. (2020) COVID-19 cardiac injury: Implications for long-term surveillance and outcomes in survivors. Heart Rhythm. https://doi.org.10.1016/j.hrthm.2020.06.026 3. Puntmann VO, Carerj ML, Wieters I, et al. (2020) Outcomes of cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging in patients recently recovered from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). JAMA Cardiology. https://doi.org.10.1001/jamacardio.2020.3557 4. Kaye L, Theye B, Smeenk I, Gondalia R, Barrett MA, Stempel DA. (2020) Changes in medication adherence among patients with asthma and COPD during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology: In Practice. 8(7):2384-5. https://doi.org.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.202... 5. Xiao S, Luo D, Xiao Y. (2020) Survivors of COVID-19 are at high risk of posttraumatic stress disorder. Global Health Research and Policy. 5:29. https://doi.org.10.1186/s41256-020-00155-2 6. Serafini G, Parmigiani B, Amerio A, Aguglia A, Sher L, Amore M. (2020) The psychological impact of COVID-19 on the mental health in the general population. QJM. https://doi.org.10.1093/qjmed/hcaa201 7. Heneka MT, Golenbock D, Latz E, Morgan D, Brown R. (2020) Immediate and long-term consequences of COVID-19 infections for the development of neurological disease. Alzheimer’s Research & Therapy. 12(1):69. https://doi.org.10.1186/s13195-020-00640-3 8. Oyesanya M, Lopez-Morinigo J, Dutta R. (2015) Systematic review of suicide in economic recession. World Journal of Psychiatry. 5(2):243-54. https://doi.org.10.5498/wjp.v5.i2.243 9. Sherrard-Smith E, Hogan AB, Hamlet A, et al. (2020) The potential public health consequences of COVID-19 on malaria in Africa. Nature Medicine. https://doi.org.10.1038/s41591-020-1025-y 10. Greener M. (2020) Defeating malaria: new weapons against one of our deadliest foes. Prescriber. 31(July/ August):18-22. 11. Carpio A, Romo ML, Parkhouse RME, Short B, Dua T. (2016) Parasitic diseases of the central nervous system: Lessons for clinicians and policy makers. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 16(4):401-14. https://doi.org.10.1586/14737175.2016.1155454 12. Nevin RL, Croft AM. (2016) Psychiatric effects of malaria and anti-malarial drugs: Historical and modern perspectives. Malaria Journal. 15(1):332. https://doi.org.10.1186/s12936-016-1391-6 13. Maringe C, Spicer J, Morris M, et al. (2020) The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cancer deaths due to delays in diagnosis in England, UK: A national, population-based, modelling study. The Lancet Oncology. 21(8):1023-34. https://doi.org.10.1016/S1470-2045(20)30388-0 14. Hamilton W. (2020) Cancer diagnostic delay in the COVID-19 era: What happens next? The Lancet Oncology. 21(8):1000-2. https://doi.org.10.1016/S1470-2045(20)30391-0 15. Cancer Research UK. (2020) 44% rise in patients waiting for tests to diagnose bowel, stomach, bladder and oesophageal cancer Available at www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-us/cancer-news/press-release/2020-07-20-44-rise-in-patients-waiting-for-tests-to-diagnose-bowel-stomach-bladder-and-oesophageal-cancer-0. 16. Sud A, Torr B, Jones ME, et al. (2020) Effect of delays in the 2-week-wait cancer referral pathway during the COVID-19 pandemic on cancer survival in the UK: A modelling study. The Lancet Oncology. 21(8):1035-44. https://doi.org.10.1016/S1470-2045(20)30392-2

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Colourful autumn flowering perennials emerge after the summer blooms have faded and feed insects preparing for winter. Discover some of the most beautiful autumn flowering plants. Autumn perennials are characterised by late flowering or autumn colouring in bright, cheery hues. The following are some particularly attractive autumn flowering perennials, along with their soil and care requirements. Hardy blue-flowered leadwort Hardy blue-flowered leadwort (Ceratostigma plumbaginoides), sometimes called plumbago, brings a special dash of colour to the garden. In autumn, the foliage of this hardy perennial turns wine red. The flowers of Ceratostigma plumbaginoides, on the other hand, form a colourful contrast in azure. The plants, which grow to a height of 30 cm, flower between August and October and spread by runners, forming pretty carpets of flowers. Hardy blue-flowered leadwort is best suited to well-draining, poor, chalky and dry soils in full sun. It is suitable for rock gardens, under tall shrubs or along sunny, dry, stone walls. Young plants are somewhat sensitive to frost in the first few years, which is why the plumbago should be planted in spring and given some protection in harsh winters. Perennial chrysanthemums (Chrysanthemum) are particularly colourful in autumn, rivalling even the most colourful autumn leaves. The Marguerite daisy (Chrysanthemum frutescens) is especially popular as a balcony plant. But it also brings colour to the garden in sunny and warm locations. For chrysanthemums to unfurl their full splendour, they need to be cared for properly. Water the plants daily during warm weather, otherwise their large leaves will soon be droopy. After chrysanthemums flower in autumn, prune the plants back and protect the root balls from frost with leaves or fir branches. Keep chrysanthemums in pots in frost-free and cool in winter quarters, such as in a garden shed. In early summer, chrysanthemum appreciate a little fertiliser and will reward you again in autumn with its beautiful flowers. The name stonecrop (Sedum) sounds anything but elegant and beautiful, but in reality, stonecrop is stunning and quite the survival artist. Though their flowers are miniscule, stonecrops steal the spotlight when their large saucer-shaped inflorescences bloom in autumn. But that is not the only thing that makes the stonecrop perfect for creating an autumnal sea of flowers. Thanks to its ability to store water, stonecrop is also very robust, heat tolerant and low-maintenance. In addition, many varieties are perennial and hardy, embellishing our flower beds for many years. Stonecrop thrives in dry, well-drained and somewhat nutrient-deficient soil that receives full sun. Heather plants (Ericaceae) are robust long-lasting flowering shrubs, whether winter-, summer- or autumn-blooming. The various species and varieties of the evergreen heather produce tiny flowers, some of which are bell-shaped or remain as buds, in various shades of white and pink. Common heather (Calluna vulgaris) blooms from August until November, when the temperatures drop and many summer flowers are already hitting the hay. Flowers that remain in the bud stage do not fade, and their splashes of colour shine a ray of joy even on gloomy days. Heather plants need an acidic soil, as they originate from bog and peat regions. Many garden soils are too calcareous – these must be improved with an acidic substrate so that bog plants can thrive. Rhododendrons (Rhododendron) and blueberries (Vaccinium) also thrive in acidic soil. The graceful Chinese anemone (Anemone hupehensis) is simply a must among hardy autumn perennials. Its large, eye-catching flowers shine in white, pink or red from July to October. The downy, white fruit clusters that many varieties produce in autumn are also highly decorative. Chinese anemones, unlike many other autumn-flowering plants, prefer a semi-shady location but can also thrive in full sun. The most important thing for them is a steady supply of water and humus-rich soil. Avoid waterlogging at all costs. With these care measures, Chinese anemones are quite robust. Chinese anemones grow quite slowly at first, taking almost two years to fully establish themselves. Following that, the Chinese anemone forms runners and can spread over a relatively large area. Whether in classic white, vibrant red or elegant purple: autumn asters (Symphyotrichum) are the autumn flowers par excellence. Their flowers vary considerably in colour, shape, and size and, they can bloom until November depending on the variety. With the right varieties, you can have these beautiful flowers blooming along your garden border almost all year round. The alpine aster (Aster alpinus), for example, starts to flower as early as May, followed by the Italian aster (Aster amellus) in summer. Even so, autumn is and always will be the season of the aster: heath, bushy starwort and New England asters (Symphyotrichum ericoides, Aster dumosus and Symphyotrichum novae-angliae) all provide colourful beds and one of the last food sources for insects before winter. They prefer to grow in sunny, nutrient-rich and well-drained locations. Overall, asters are extremely easy to care for. After flowering, simply prune them back to a hand’s width above the ground. The globe thistle (Echinops) is an autumn-flowering perennial that is especially beneficial to bees and bumblebees. The upright plant can reach a height of 150 cm and displays its spherical flower heads between July and September. They can be white, pale violet or steel blue and offer large quantities of nectar and pollen in the numerous tiny flowers that make up the globe. This robust and undemanding perennial prefers dry, nutrient-rich sites with good water drainage and full sun. The globe thistle is suitable for planting in natural gardens and along the edge of woodlands. In particularly suitable locations, it can become overgrown. Globe thistles can be kept in check by dividing them on a regular basis. The Chinese lantern (Physalis alkekengi) is related to the Cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana) and likewise forms the typical papery lantern covers around its bright orange berry fruits. This perennial does not flower in autumn, but it does display its magical fruits then. In autumn, the lanterns turn deep orange, making an eye-catching display. As a member of the Solanaceae family, it prefers sandy-humus, slightly calcareous and nutrient-rich soil that bears water evenly. As for location, a sunny to semi-shady spot is ideal. In suitable conditions, Chinese lanterns can grow rampant and spread considerably, so put a root barrier in the hole before planting. The plant itself is considered slightly poisonous. The fruits, on the other hand, are edible, even if their bitter taste win them few admirers. The orange lanterns are much more popular in autumnal arrangements and wreaths. Another head turner with a less-than-elegant name, bugbane (Cimicifuga simplex) belongs to the Ranunculaceae family and is, therefore, a poisonous garden perennial. Despite this, bugbane is a well-loved perennial with its white, pink, or red filigree flowers on long, thin stems. Bugbane reaches a height of 150 to 180 cm and flowers between September and October. Depending on the variety, not only the flower colours vary, but also the foliage can be red to dark purple or brown. Caring for this delicately flowering autumn perennial is quite uncomplicated. Bugbane is fully hardy as well as resilient, needing little attention as long as the location is suitable – it prefers moist soil with good water retention in partial shade or sun. Black-eyed Susans (Rudbeckia), also called coneflower, can be found in any cottage garden, as it is a particularly attractive flowering autumn perennial. The numerous, sunflower-like blooms appear between July and October. Black-eyed Susans provide food for numerous pollinating insects from late summer onwards and make lovely cut flowers. These robust and easy-care perennials can grow from 50 to over 300 cm tall, depending on the species. They grow in dense clumps and prefer fresh to moist, nutrient-rich and well-drained soil in full sun. Echinacea, a medicinal plant, is also commonly called coneflower, but it is only distantly related to the rudbeckia. Talk about a moisture-loving perennial, Eupatorium is particularly suitable for growing along a pond or garden border. The numerous varieties differ in height between 80 and 300 cm. The huge, fragrant flower umbels can be pale pink, pure white or a strong blue. The Eupatorium flowers between July and October, offering large quantities of nectar and pollen to numerous pollinators, especially bees and butterflies. Not only is it a pretty autumn-flowering perennial, but it also helps our tiny buzzing neighbours replenish their winter stocks. Eupatorium prefers sunny to semi-shady locations with fresh to moist, nutrient-rich and calcareous soils. In spring, prune this autumn-flowering perennial back to a hand’s width above the ground before new shoots appear. In addition to the colourful autumn perennials, many annuals also flower until the first frost. Check out our article on the 10 most beautiful autumn flowers and their location and care requirements.

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Public safety on New York State roads increased as drivers provided more information about their vehicles and their ability to operate it. If we and our cars were both on Facebook, our relationship status would be “It’s complicated.” Like all relationships, it involves compromises and trade-offs. But we are still together—humans and automobiles—after more than 100 years. How did we do it? To make this relationship last so long, we have shared a lot of personal information to gain more public safety and greater personal convenience on our roads. Looking back on how this happened can help us forecast what needs to come next. Can we continue this relationship based on sharing information for more safety and convenience as we share the road with connected and autonomous vehicles? In the beginning Beginning in 1901, New York State required vehicle license plates. Initially they were to be the owner’s initials and a number, homemade, and affixed to the rear of the vehicle. This original vanity plate did not last long. Owners did not always use their initials, or anyone’s. What the state expected to be personal information ended up being random information. In 1910, the state began manufacturing license plates for auto owners to place on their vehicles to eliminate any nonsense from owners trying to disguise their ownership. This formalized the exchange of personal information for the license plate and permission to use their vehicle on public roads. Also in 1910, New York required chauffeurs to be licensed. Prior to then, they had to wear badges identifying themselves. That was not sufficient for the safety of their passengers and others. A more detailed system for greater accountability was developed for these professional drivers. They had to provide a lot of information about their appearance, and their photo had to be included on the license so their identities could be confirmed. This must have been received as a good idea, because beginning in 1917 vehicle operator licenses were required for all New York State drivers. No photo or descriptive information was then required for people driving themselves, just their name and address. From then, another 17 years would pass until the state took the next obvious step to test drivers prior to issuing them a license to operate a passenger vehicle. This “intrusive” requirement began a practice continued today. Potential drivers must demonstrate a minimum level of competency before acquiring New York State’s permission to drive on public roads. In New York State there were not many changes to passenger car driver licenses for a long time. Over the years, drivers provided only a little more identifying information about their height, eye color and need to wear glasses. In 1984, the state significantly increased its requirement for information on its driver’s license. It added a color photo and fraud protection features in the license itself. Both of these measures made the license more difficult to counterfeit. It provided more assurance that only documented and tested drivers were operating vehicles. It also supported the state’s increase in its alcoholic beverage drinking age to 21, which may have been a significant justification for the change. Similar activities occurred at similar times in other states. They improved public safety on their roads each time vehicle owners and drivers provided more information about their vehicles, about themselves, and even about their skill to proficiently operate a motor vehicle. They had a basis to create and enforce standards about the safe operation of vehicles on public roads. The compliance of the vehicle owners and drivers demonstrates their investment in the evolving shared information system to manage the use of public roads. It also demonstrated that sharing this information was a reasonable intrusion for the resulting safety benefits. The E-ZPass toll tag allowed the system to log drivers’ locations with the time of day every time the tag was used. As a result, E-ZPass increased public safety. In 1993 the Thruway Authority of New York State introduced E-ZPass. Drivers who joined shared their financial information in addition to their personal data to pay their tolls in advance for more convenience while driving. They did not have to worry about having cash or exact change while driving. A further advantage, the E-ZPass lanes had shorter lines than the cash paying lanes while adoption grew. In addition to drivers gaining greater convenience, authorized law enforcement agencies could access the system’s information as well. The toll tag allowed the E-ZPass system to log drivers’ locations with the time of day every time the tag was used. As a result, E-ZPass also increased public safety, as did the measures previously implemented. For years, E-ZPass’ location-logging scared away many people who refused the convenience to maintain more privacy and avoid questions from nosy family members examining paper E-ZPass bills sent to their homes. That may be another reason why cash toll lanes had long lines for many years. That has been eliminated in New York State with the recently completed replacement of toll booths. License plate scanners at toll locations now capture personal and travel information even when cars do not have toll tags. Credit cards were introduced in 2000 as a payment option in some New York City taxi cabs. Using credit cards in cabs also allows passengers to share their financial and personal information for greater convenience. Previously, passengers traveled anonymously by paying cash. (Those nosy family members would now have credit card bills to examine for travel information, too.) The pace of change in the 21st century has moved more quickly than it had for most of the 20th century. In 2010 Uber launched in San Francisco. In 2011 Uber began operations in New York City. In 2013 the city officially recognized Uber, Lyft and other ride-hailing app services. Their use requires customers to share more personal information for greater convenience and safety. In the ride-hailing app model, customers share their personal and financial info, and they also share their origin and destination info, to hire a car with their smartphones. They gain the convenience of quickly requesting a ride without planning and without having to attract the attention of taxi cabs that may pass by their location. Customers also receive increased safety and reliability. Ride-hail app customers and the company know the driver in advance. This increases accountability and equity. It makes it less likely drivers will refuse to drive particular customers based on personally profiling them or their origins and destinations. The ride-hail app model also provides more safety for drivers. They have more information in advance, and they know who they are picking up. Whether customers have been exercising their over-21 party privileges, drivers only learn when they pick them up. The companies have rating systems for both sides so that drivers and passengers can avoid future problems. Ride-hail app customers and drivers have a surer and safer ride with the increased accountability offered by exchanging their identifying info in advance. Drivers who joined E-ZPass shared their financial information and personal data for more convenience while driving in New York State. How will this look in the future? How will important information sharing to achieve more public safety be achieved in the anticipated future world of shared, autonomous vehicles? We do not know exactly when the robot cars will arrive for retail purchase and public customer use, though those with vested interest wish to assure us it will only be a matter of a few years’ time. Yet, many well-regarded researchers, including those at the auto manufacturers, believe fully automated cars will not be ready soon, if ever. This makes the fully automated vehicle future uncertain. We are pretty sure that except for the very wealthy, we will share and not personally own autonomous cars. We can reasonably predict that all of their onboard technology will make them rather expensive, putting their purchase out of reach for most people. They are likely to be owned mostly by for-hire vehicle fleets. We also can reasonably predict that the fleets will require that customers share all of the personal, financial, and travel information they have provided over the past 100 years to drive and own vehicles, in order to ride in for-hire vehicles. The automated vehicle fleet companies will not allow us to ride in their robot cars anonymously. For over 100 years, we have sacrificed our privacy. We have made ourselves more transparent and even risked that our data might be used in unauthorized ways, all to improve safety and for our own convenience. How about the autonomous vehicles? What information should they share to make us safer? Should the autonomous vehicle companies share some of their data? Should they share their safety data to allow us to evaluate their readiness for operation on public roads? So far, they have not shared much. There are many important questions that should be answered before welcoming them on public roads, such as: - How will we know that their robot cars operate safely among people-driven cars? - How will we know that their robot cars operate more safely than the people-driven cars, as they claim? - How will we know that their security systems will keep our data private and their systems safe from imposters and hackers? We have learned a lot lately that many of our leading tech firms and financial companies have been hacked and have exposed our private data with little consequence. We also have learned that imposters have infiltrated these companies’ systems and may have influenced the last presidential election, also with little consequence. We also know that in the U.S. some of the same companies that want to put their driverless cars on our public roads have been recalling more vehicles each year than they have sold. Industry’s past record on security and vehicle safety has been, at best, mixed. We need the autonomous vehicle companies to share information. We need them to share testing, performance and security information—now, not when they are good and ready. We need a large community of engineering, safety, and security experts to confirm the claims of the autonomous vehicle companies that their products are safe and secure, and that they are, in fact, doing what the companies are claiming they are able to do. That will allow us to confirm that our data sharing will be traded, as before, for increased safety as well as additional convenience. Sharing for safety, that has been the deal for over a century. And the robot car companies need to get on board.

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The cryptoporticus of the U.S. Tri-Mission Rome, Italy Throughout Rome’s long and colorful history, many buildings have occupied the site where the US Tri-Mission now stands; this has been one of the historically and archaeologically most significant areas of Rome. First chosen by Julius Caesar, then by the Roman historian G. Sallustius Crispus, as their place of residence in the 1st century B.C., the so-called horti Sallustiani (Sallustian Gardens) became an Imperial estate under Emperor Tiberius, and were particularly noteworthy for their lush gardens and rich monuments. The gardens of this imperial residence were richly embellished with Greek and Roman statues. Indeed, numerous masterpieces such as the Dying Gaul in the Capitoline Museums and the famous Ludovisi Throne (now on view in Palazzo Altemps of the Museo Nazionale Romano) were rediscovered on these grounds. Even the obelisk now standing at the top of the famous Spanish Steps was unearthed from the Sallustian Gardens.The cryptoporticus is one of the buildings constructed in this area during the centuries of the Empire; dated to the 1st century B.C., it was embellished with late 2nd-early 3rd century, partly preserved frescoes, and served as an underground passageway connecting various parts of the imperial palace in the Sallustian Gardens. The period of splendor of the gardens of Sallust was abruptly terminated by the invasion of the Visigoths in 410 A.D. During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the grounds where the Imperial summer residence had once stood became an area of transition between the town and the countryside. The presence of graffiti from these periods suggests that the cryptoporticus was known and frequented by occasional visitors. After the creation of the wonderful Villa Ludovisi in the 17th century, the cryptoporticus was reused as the underground storage space of the Museum of Statues. This building was a relatively small one, visible on several ancient maps and mentioned in written documents, and housed the most beautiful pieces of the world-renowned Ludovisi collection of statuary, now for the most part in Palazzo Altemps. The museum and its underground rooms remained in use until the end of the 19th century, when the entire area was altered and changed its topographical and urbanistic appearance. The cryptoporticus, a Roman underground vaulted passageway decorated by frescoes, is certainly the oldest place in the United States Tri-Mission in Rome. The corridor was one of the monuments within the summer Imperial residence of the horti Sallustiani and is dated to mid-1st century A.D. The known section of the cryptoporticus, interrupted at one end by a modern foundation wall and at the other by the Embassy motor-pool garage, is northeast-southwest oriented and lies about 2.5 meters below the street level. The monument was accidentally rediscovered in 1949–50 during the construction of the Embassy’s garage. At that time it was restored and published on the bulletin of the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei[i]. Between 1996 and 1998 an archaeological excavation and the restoration of the frescoes were performed in cooperation with the Superintendent’s Office of Archeology of Rome and a group of renowned Italian experts and professionals[ii]. The project was funded by the Department of State and thanks to the essential contributions of the World Monument’s Fund and the Samuel H. Kress Foundation. Because of the complex conservation of the frescoes that requires a strict control of the microclimate, the cryptoporticus is not open to the public. The construction of the cryptoporticus was carried out at the time when Sallust’s gardens were included in the Imperial domain, whereas the frescoes, possibly a second phase of decoration, date to the early Severan period, between 195 and 205 A.D. The original set-up of the monument is unknown. This type of underground structure was built to connect different areas of the gardens, as well as to retain slopes and create terracing. It may have consisted of a simple gallery or could be composed of a series of parallel corridors connected to each other, or even of tri-or quadrilateral systems. On the walls of the central room, the frescoes present an elaboration of the second and fourth Pompeian styles that combines the creation of an architectural setting with the decoration in square areas, organizing the surface in groups of three panels in which allegorical figures are depicted. Some of these are still visible: a Pegasus, a male cloaked figure, possibly a Season’s genius and a greeting figure. The decoration of the vault represents geometric elements and flowering decoration. The marble panels covering the walls below the frescoes have disappeared throughout the course of time. The tapered windows in the shape called “a gola di lupo” opened on an exterior space, today’s Via Friuli, an ancient road indicated on old maps with the name “Via di Porta Salaria” or “Salara antica”. Excavations carried out in 1996-1997 brought to light two partially frescoed rooms situated opposite one another at the western end of the cryptoporticus. The access to the left room, originally a lateral branch of the cryptoporticus interrupted today by a modern wall, was blocked before the frescoed decoration was carried out and was reopened in the Renaissance period through a small door, surmounted by a fragment of a medieval sculpture in white marble (a transenna), re-used as lintel. The frescoes in this room, depicting a shrine and various decorative elements, predate those in the main passageway (end of the 1st century A.D.). A stamped brick, reconfirming the date of the cryptoporticus, was discovered in a Roman sewer in this area. An interesting partially preserved charcoal sketch from the Renaissance period, representing a Bacchic thiasos, is preserved on the higher portion of the plaster[iii]. This scenario, together with several structural modifications carried out in the cryptoporticus (the construction of a sewer system and the raising of the floor level), reflects a new vitality of this monument during the Renaissance period. The remnants of frescoes in the room to the right of the main corridor are of the same period as those in the main corridor. THE GRAFFITI IN THE CRYPTOPORTICUS The walls reveal a great amount of extremely interesting graffiti spanning many centuries. A research project, published in 2008 and performed by the Swedish Institute for Classical Studies in Rome in collaboration with the USA Embassy, suggests previously unknown aspects regarding the use of the cryptoporticus during various centuries and the persons who worked and lived in this vicinity[iv]. The graffiti were divided into three different periods[v]. The first period has its terminus post quem at the date of the frescoes (beginning of the 3rd century.) A monogrammic cross, the name ‘Aureus’ and a Jewish menorah, already published by the Swedish Institute for Classical Studies, belong to this first period. These graffiti date to approximately the 4th century, when the horti Sallustiani were still in existence and in use. At that time, people of different religions used the cryptoporticus as an underground passageway and left marks expressing their religious beliefs on its walls. The second period corresponds to the Medieval and early Renaissance, when the area was accessible to the city population. At that time, the cryptoporticus was probably used for storage in connection with farmlands in the disabitato, the unpopulated area inside the walls of the city used mainly for cultivation during the middle ages. Individuals have left signs and drawings on the walls as was common in many abandoned Roman monuments. Graffiti dating to this phase includes the representation of a ship with armed figures, dating to the 12th-13th century. The simplified copy of the female figure painted in the Roman fresco on the left wall, which was incised on the plaster next to the latter, can be ascribed to the same period. The latest group of graffiti consists mainly of signatures of visitors, dating to approximately the 16th and 17th centuries, often accompanied by the date of the visit, introduced using the typical formula ‘A di’ (‘on the day of’). This evidence corresponds to the transformation of the cryptoporticus into a storage room for broken statuary and bas-reliefs from the collection of the Ludovisi family, who owned the property from 1621on. In fact, the monument was located underneath the small building, visible in several 17th and 18th century maps, which was used as a museum of statues by Cardinal Ludovisi. In this period only a few visitors were admitted to visit the museum, where the most remarkable pieces from the collection were displayed, and its underground storage room, probably experienced as an attractive grotto with Roman frescoes. Most likely, on these occasions, the frescoed plaster was used by the visitors as a board for signatures and dates, as a testimony of their visit. [i] D. Faccenna, ‘Roma (Via Lucullo). – Criptoportico decorato con pitture nel giardino della Villa Boncompagni-Ludovisi’, NSc 1951, pp. 107-114.M; M. Cagiano de Azevedo, ‘Roma. – Criptoportico in Via Lucullo: iscrizioni dipinte e graffiti cristiani’ NSc 1951, pp. 253-256. [ii] B. Ferrini, S. Festuccia, ‘Quirinale – Horti Sallustiani. Il criptoportico di Via Friuli, Campagna di scavo 1996-1997’, in Bollettino di Archeologia 28-30, 1999, 85-108. The archaeological excavation was performed by Silvia Festuccia with the scientific direction of Claudio Mocchegiani Carpano from the Soprintendenza Archeologica di Roma, whereas the restoration of the frescoes was performed by Cristina Vazio and Adriano Luzi with the consultancy of Paolo and Laura Mora. The art-historic research on the frescoes was performed by Barbara Ferrini. Engineer Ippolito Massari designed the climate control system. [iii] V. Brunori, ‘An unpublished charcoal sketch’, in Unexpected voices. The graffiti in the cryptoporticus of the Horti Sallustiani, and papers from a conference on graffiti at the Swedish Institute in Rome, March 7, 2003, edited by Olof Brandt, Stockholm 2008, pp. 87-93. [iv] Unexpected voices. The graffiti in the cryptoporticus of the Horti Sallustiani, and papers from a conference on graffiti at the Swedish Institute in Rome, March 7, 2003, edited by Olof Brandt, Stockholm 2008 [v] The research on the graffiti was performed by Anna Blennow, University of Gothenburg: A. Blennow, ‘The graffiti in the cryptoporticus’, in Unexpected voices. The graffiti in the cryptoporticus of the Horti Sallustiani, and papers from a conference on graffiti at the Swedish Institute in Rome, March 7, 2003, edited by Olof Brandt, Stockholm 2008, pp. 55-86.

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Gautama Vajra Vajracharya is an eminent Sanskritist and a renowned scholar of the art and culture of the Indian sub-continent. He retired a couple of years ago after teaching History of South Asian Art at the University of Wisconsin for twenty-three years. He has authored numerous books and published over fifty articles on the history and culture of Nepal. However, it is a unique approach to the region’s history, art and culture that has set him apart from other scholars. Zeroing in on the phenomenon of the monsoon and using his mastery of Sanskrit to decipher ancient texts, Vajracharya has brought to light some ground-breaking pieces of evidence. The eminent art historian Pratapaditya Pal has said of Vajracharya’s book Frog Hymns and Rain Babies: “[it is an unprecedented attempt to give] serious consideration to the impact or influence of [the monsoon] on the Indian mind…in the light of Sanskrit and ancient Indic art.” Vajracharya talked to Kapil Bisht about being schooled in Sanskrit, clues embedded in the Frog Hymn, the importance of the monsoon in the art history of the Indian Sub-continent and links between Newar culture and the culture or pre-Vedic India. Tell us about your beginnings as a scholar. I was born into a Newar family in Kathmandu in 1940. In the 1950s, the Western schooling system was becoming popular in Kathmandu. My father abhorred that system. He was against written examinations. He decided to school us in the traditional way. There wasn’t a school like that then, so he set one up in the attic of our house. It was called Samshodhana Mandala. Our teacher was Nayaraj Pant, a Sanskritist. He made us memorize entire books. Fortunately, he had tremendous foresight. He knew speaking and writing Sanskrit alone would amount to nothing. To give us a chance in life he taught us to study ancient inscriptions and iconography. Our school used to publish a journal called Poornima. The late Mary Slusser, the author of Nepal Mandala, was one of the subscribers. Whenever I went to deliver her copy, she used to chat with me for hours about Nepali history and culture. Later, when she returned to the States, she referred me to her scholar friends, many of whom came to do research in Nepal. In 1974, the famous art historian Dr. Pratapaditya Pal, who at the time was Senior Curator of Indian and Southeast Asian Art at The Los Angeles County Museum of Art, came to Kathmandu. I assisted him in his research. Before leaving he asked me casually if I would want to come to the States. My response was: “When?” I thought he was joking. He wasn’t; six months later, I got a letter of appointment to The Los Angeles County Museum of Art. I went and thus began my life as a scholar in the West. A text that you have deeply studied over the course of your career is the Rigveda. When was it written? The Vedic texts including Rigveda were memorised generation after generation for many centuries. Eventually, they were written down only in the late classical period. However, dating Vedic texts is complex for a different reason. All these texts are composed within an extended period of time rather than at a particular point in time. Very likely, the bulk of the earliest Vedic text, the Rigveda, was composed around 1500 BC. After this came Atharvaveda, some parts of which seem to have been composed around 1200 BC, and Satapatha Brahmana, written around 800 BC. The later Vedic texts have much more information on monsoon culture as the Vedic people became more and more familiar with the geographical and seasonal phenomena of the Sub-continent. The Rigveda is believed to be written by Indo-Iranians who arrived in India by crossing the Hindu Kush. Do scholars of Indian Sub-continental history agree on this fact? Previous scholars were involved in finding the linguistic similarity between Zen Avesta and Rigveda, and have convincingly demonstrated that these two texts are composed by the same group of people who spoke an earlier version of Sanskrit and migrated from Afghanistan to India. Although scholars knew that the Avesta was composed in their original homeland and the Rigveda after they settled down around Punjab, they never tried to determine if there was a significant difference between the texts. In a sense, I was the first person to look for differences in those texts. Lack of any reference to monsoonal phenomena in the Avesta and the growing popularity of monsoon culture in Vedic literature helped me to pinpoint the significant difference between these two works and to present my view that the aspects of the monsoon culture we find in Vedic literature has to be pre-Vedic. Are there texts written in the Sub-continent that precede the Rigveda? If there are any documents written before the time of the Rigveda they are the short inscriptions carved on the tiny steatite seals of the Indus Valley civilisation. But those inscriptions have not been deciphered yet and the subject matter of the inscriptions has remained unknown. You are of the belief that the migrants from Afghanistan learned the monsoonal rituals and the praise of frogs from the natives of the Indian sub-continent. Who were these natives? What do we know about their culture and religion? Despite the fact that we don’t have any text written or composed by the pre-Vedic natives of South Asia, the monsoon culture described in Vedic literature shows that the daily life of the natives was closely associated with monsoon-based agriculture. Hence, we can safely call them the people of the monsoon culture. The Newars of the Kathmandu Valley certainly belong to this culture. You have spent a lifetime studying the Frog Hymn contained in the Rigveda. Why is it important or special? The Frog Hymns are found in two different texts, the Rigveda and the Atharvaveda. In most parts of South Asia, frogs aestivate for many months, then emerge from the ground and start croaking with the arrival of the monsoon rains. This phenomenon is described clearly in the Frog Hymns. Significantly, however, in other parts of the world, including Afghanistan, the original home of the Vedic Aryans, frogs hibernate and become active only after snowmelt. Thus, the Frog Hymns contain solid evidence to prove that Vedic literature does contain aspects of monsoon culture of South Asia. You wrote in a paper once that the Frog Hymn “provides us with a clue to developing a new methodology for the analytical study of Rigvedic culture in the light of ecclesiastical meteorology.” Can you briefly explain some of the most important clues to Rigvedic culture contained in the Frog Hymn? Earlier art historians realised that the Vedic literature is useful for understanding the conceptual significance of South Asian art. But there is a huge time difference between them. So the question is: What is the link between Vedic literature and art? I have demonstrated that monsoon culture is the link. For instance, according to Vedic literature, cloud mothers conceive for ten lunar months and give birth to a rain-child. It was believed that the appearance of the mythical creatures such as makaras and turtles in the formation of rain cloud indicates the gestation of the rain clouds. This belief is expressed in South Asian art by depicting the creatures not only on ceilings but also around temple entrances, symbolising the cloud-gates of heaven. The bulk of your fieldwork, certainly the one for your book Frog Hymns and Rain Babies, was done in the Kathmandu Valley, and you ceaselessly emphasize the importance of the Valley. What makes it so important in the study and understanding of Sub-continental art history? In recent years I have dug deep into Newar culture. It is ancient. I have posited it is pre-Vedic. It’s an unprecedented claim. The Vedic texts were written around 1500 BC, while the earliest traces of Newar culture go back only as far as the fifth century AD. The obvious question is: How can there be a link between these two cultures across such a huge time gap? Like I have said before, the Rigveda doesn’t only contain references to Indo-Iranian people and lifestyles but has a considerable chunk of the local people and inhabitants of the Himalayan region. However, scholars have always overlooked this aspect; they only studied the Rigveda to find things that showed a connection with the Greek civilisation. There have even been some who claim that the Rigveda was written outside the Sub-continent. When I read the Frog Hymn I realised that it was definitely written in India and that the writings recorded the culture that was prevalent in India before the arrival of the Indo-Iranians. How do I know this? The monsoon is a phenomenon of the Sub-continent. The Indo-Iranians couldn’t have written a book about the monsoon in their country because there is no such thing as monsoon there. A quarter of the Rigveda is about the monsoon. That chunk of Rigveda matches almost exactly the foundations of Newar culture, meaning the rituals of the Newars date back to before the arrival of the authors of the Rigveda. This doesn’t mean that the Vedic people learned their culture from the Newars. It only means that although that ancient culture waned in India some of its features continued to survive in Newar culture. Worship of frogs, artistic rendition of the belief that creatures descend from heaven together with the monsoon showers and the custom of Maharjan farmers having intensive educational sessions during the rainy season are all aspects of that pre-Vedic culture. You studied Indian art history, lived and taught in the U.S., which could be seen as steering away from Nepali art history, even though you did continually return to research and corroborated so much of your theses on evidence drawn from ancient Nepali art. Did you ever feel like you overlooked Nepal? We think that being a Nepali we must study all things Nepali. Our ideas are parochial. We can’t do a comparative study. One of the first things I learned after going to the U.S. was that there are two cultures: aestivation and hibernation. I have been a scholar of the art and iconography of the Indian Sub-continent for over three decades. One of the biggest lessons I learned in this period is that comparative study is the best way to learn more about one’s culture. The reason I chose to study Indian culture was that Nepali culture is not that dissimilar from India’s. We are both nations with a monsoon culture. Monsoon has no political boundaries. If rains fail, India and Nepal both suffer. I think the monsoon culture needs to be studied deeply. Only then can we understand the culture of the Sub-continent. To squabble over whether Buddha was born in Nepal or if a particular god is Indian or Nepali, Hindu or Buddhist, only takes us away from the central question. It is believed that Vishnu sleeps for four months during the monsoon [June-September]. We worship him as Jalasayan Narayan. Then we celebrate his waking up again in Kartik [October]. This is not an act of worshipping an Indian god or a Nepali god. It’s worshipping a rain god. Why do you think monsoon is so important to understanding the history of the Sub-continent? Ours is an aestivation culture. Everything begins with the arrival of the rains. Monsoon is in our psyche. Who is God? God is someone who can bring rain. If he can’t, he is not God. Art in the Sub-continent is closely related to rain. Drought and famine are never shown in art in India and Nepal. Skinny figures, disease-stricken people and famine are not shown anywhere in India or Nepal, even though it is said that the Buddha ate only a grain of rice every day for months when he was meditating. The first instance of showing the Buddha with an emaciated body is found in Gandhar art, which was done was Greco-Roman artists, strangers to the monsoon culture of the Sub-continent. But even after that mainstream Indian and Nepali art continued its policy of not depicting an emaciated Buddha. We need to remember that in our part of the world we believe strongly in the philosophy of darshan: what we see affects what will happen. A skinny figure is inauspicious. The Viṣṇudharmottara Purāṇa (38. 24-25) states that “an auspicious painting… promotes long life, leads to glory or distinction, brings prosperity and increases the harvest.” Similarly, another text, Pratimālakṣaṇa: “If the image is made with a sunken belly, then there will always be a destruction of crops.” We in India and Nepal believe that a work of art is nimitta, or cause. So an inauspicious art will ruin harvests. Showing well-fed people or animals emerging from a water source, like on the ancient stone conduits in Kathmandu, is an ode to the monsoon rains. Everything related to rain is auspicious. Famine is a nightmare. Representation of monsoon is a beautiful dream. The depiction of people having sex on temples is also an example of this belief in agrarian prosperity resulting from a successful monsoon. Ancient texts explicitly mention people losing interest in sex as one of the first results of drought and famine. Hungry and emaciated people hardly want to engage in sex. What about the belief that depicting sex on temples was a form of sex education? If that was the case, why would the ancient artists show a man having sex with multiple women at a time? That is definitely not something that seems like sex education to me. Why would the artists depict sex between multiple partners then? Art is like language. There is grammar in language, but not everyone follows it. With time, more and more exceptions to grammatical rules are added. That is the same with art. It starts with a rule, which is original. But then exceptions crop up and are assimilated into the rulebook. Besides, a single rule can never be applied everywhere. People get bored, they seek to change. There is also the re-interpretation of the old by scholars and experts. There are two types of symbolism. In the first one, there is an idea, and art is the imitation or representation of that idea. The second type comes from analysing the art and then presenting it again in light of the analysis. Basically what this means is that there is art that is made following an idea and there is idea arrived at by following art. So, only when we understand the original idea can we accurately trace the development of art in a place. Art history is like finding the etymology of a word. If you look up the etymology of a word in the dictionary, you see that how a word has changed meanings over time. That is how it is with art history. I think that is why art history is interesting. As an art historian, it must be especially painful for you to see the destruction wrought by the earthquake in 2015. My heart aches. I can’t look at the destroyed buildings. I can’t help thinking whether we will be able to recreate those buildings. I don’t think it will ever be the same again. The Kathmandu Valley of yore is gone, finished. That is how I feel when I’m saddened by the sight of the collapsed monuments, our heritage, our wealth. What message do you have for scholars of Nepali history and art in the light of the devastation wrought by the 2015 earthquake? The same thing that I remind myself: There is still enough to be positive about. Many places survived the quake. The oldest wooden torana (tympanum) in Yetkha Bahal is still there. Uku Bahal has also survived unscathed. These are miraculous survivals! I also keep telling people working to preserve the Newar culture that they need to keep festivals and rituals – intangible heritages – alive. If they disappear, we lose our culture.

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In a short period of two months, the novel influenza A/H1N1 virus has circumnavigated the entire planet leaving behind in its wake approximately 3000 reported deaths worldwide. Fortunately, in many areas around the world, September 2009 brought a lull in the number of new H1N1 infections. This brought welcomed relief in many countries that had earlier experienced high respiratory disease activity in their communities. However, based on previous influenza pandemics, this reprieve may well be short-lived. As the Northern hemisphere approaches its winter months, many experts are now predicting a second wave of influenza A/H1N1 infections. This prediction maybe well placed as all 3 influenza pandemics in the last century reported second or even subsequent waves of new infections, all of which appeared to be more severe than the primary event (ref). The timing of these second waves have varied from 6 months to 3 years and invariably seemed to be linked to the winter months. It is unclear precisely what changes caused the increased severity seen during the second waves; one possibility is the progressive adaptation of the novel influenza virus to its new human host . Molecular analysis, for example, suggests that the 1918 Spanish influenza virus that emerged during the second wave had undergone changes in the hemagglutinin binding site that increased the binding specificity for human receptors. This is thought to have increased the replicative capacity and hence, the pathogenicity of the virus. It is also evident that as the H1N1 2009 pandemic virus continues to spread, opportunities for adaptation that increases virulence will also increase. Nonetheless, the changes needed for such adaptation and for increased virulence are unpredictable and by no means inevitable In 1985, when HIV testing first became available, the main goal of such testing was to ensure blood safety. Hemophiliacs and other patients who were transfusion-dependent were the initial patients that needed to be protected as they were exposed to iatrogenic risk. It dawned very quickly to health authorities even then that alternative testing sites had to be quickly established to deter persons from using blood bank facilities for HIV testing purposes. At that time, professional opinion was divided regarding the value of HIV testing and whether HIV testing should be encouraged because no consensus existed regarding whether a positive test predicted transmission to sex partners or from mother to infant. No effective treatment existed then and stigma and discrimination faced by those who were found positive was rampant in many parts of the world. Counseling was designed, in part, to ensure that persons tested were aware of the implications of a positive result and in part, to address the person’s risk behavior to reduce transmission to others. Thromboembolic complications are common amongst cases of COVID-19 infections. This occurrence has seen a key role of endovascular treatment in the management of this potentially fatal complication. Endovascular thrombectomy or catheter directed thrombolysis is a fast and effective method for treatment of pulmonary embolisms, especially in a pandemic. We describe a case of COVD-19 complicated with massive pulmonary embolism treated with catheter directed thrombolysis- discussing case management, patient workflow and safety measures that should be strictly adhered to ensure a favorable outcome and ensure safety of treating personnel. BACKGROUND: Adverse drug reactions are most commonly cutaneous in nature. Patterns of cutaneous adverse drug reactions (ADRs) and their causative drugs vary among the different populations previously studied. OBJECTIVE: Our aim is to determine the clinical pattern of drug eruptions and the common drugs implicated, particularly in severe cutaneous ADRs in our population. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study was done by analyzing the database established for all adverse cutaneous drug reactions seen from January 2001 until December 2008. RESULTS: A total of 281 cutaneous ADRs were seen in 280 patients. The most common reaction pattern was maculopapular eruption (111 cases, 39.5%) followed by Stevens-Johnson Syndrome (SJS: 79 cases, 28.1%), drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS: 19 cases, 6.8%), toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN: 16 cases, 5.7 %), urticaria/angioedema (15 cases, 5.3%) and fixed drug eruptions (15 cases, 5.3%). Antibiotics (38.8%) and anticonvulsants (23.8%) accounted for 62.6% of the 281 cutaneous ADRs seen. Allopurinol was implicated in 39 (13.9%), carbamazepine in 29 (10.3%), phenytoin in 27 (9.6%) and cotrimoxazole in 26 (9.3%) cases. Carbamazepine, allopurinol and cotrimoxazole were the three main causative drugs of SJS/TEN accounting for 24.0%, 18.8% and 12.5% respectively of the 96 cases seen whereas DRESS was mainly caused by allopurinol (10 cases, 52.6%) and phenytoin (3 cases, 15.8%). DISCUSSION: The reaction patterns and drugs causing cutaneous ADRs in our population are similar to those seen in other countries although we have a much higher proportion of severe cutaneous ADRs probably due to referral bias, different prescribing habit and a higher prevalence of HLA-B*1502 and HLA-B*5801 which are genetic markers for carbamazepine-induced SJS/TEN and allopurinol-induced SJS/TEN/DRESS respectively. CONCLUSION: The most common reaction pattern seen in our study population was maculopapular eruptions. Antibiotics, anticonvulsants and NSAIDs were the most frequently implicated drug groups. Carbamazepine and allopurinol were the two main causative drugs of severe ADRs in our population. Novel design solid state bioreactor, FERMSOSTAT, had been evaluated in cellulase production studies using local isolate Aspergillus niger USM AI 1 grown on sugarcane bagasse and palm kernel cake at 1 : 1 (w/w) ratio. Under optimised SSF conditions of 0.5 kg substrate; 70% (w/w) moisture content; 30°C; aeration at 4 L/h · g fermented substrate for 5 min and mixing at 0.5 rpm for 5 min, about 3.4 U/g of Filter paper activity (FPase) was obtained. At the same time, comparative studies of the enzymes production under the same SSF conditions indicated that FPase produced by A. niger USM AI 1 was about 35.3% higher compared to Trichoderma reesei. This shows that the performance of this newly designed SSF bioreactor is acceptable and potentially used as prototype for larger-scale bioreactor design. The protocol for the enzymatic deinking of laser printed waste papers on a laboratory scale using cellulase (C) and hemicellulase (H) of Aspergillus niger (Amano) was developed as an effective method for paper recycling. A maximum deinking efficiency of almost 73% by the enzyme combination of C:H was obtained using the deinking conditions of pulping consistency of 1.0% (w/v) with the pulping time of 1.0min, temperature of 50 degrees C, pH=3.5, agitation rate of 60rpm, pulp concentration of 4% (w/v), concentration of each enzyme of 2.5U/g air dried pulp and the enzyme ratio of 1:1. The deinking efficiency was further enhanced to 95% using the optimized flotation system consisting of pH=6.0, Tween 80 of concentration 0.5% (w/w), working air flow rate of 10.0L/min and temperature of 45 degrees C. The deinked papers were found to exhibit properties comparable to the commercial papers suggesting the effectiveness of the enzymatic process developed. Wastewaters from textile industries may contain a variety of dyes that have to be removed before their discharge into waterways. Rice hull, an agricultural by-product, was modified using ethylenediamine to introduce active sites on its surface to enable it to function as a sorbent for both basic and reactive dyes. The sorption characteristics of Basic Blue 3 (BB3) and Reactive Orange 16 (RO16) by ethylenediamine modified rice hull (MRH) were studied under various experimental conditions. Sorption was pH and concentration dependent. Simultaneous removal of BB3 and RO16 occurred at pH greater than 4. The kinetics of dye sorption fitted a pseudo-second order rate expression. Increase in agitation rate had no effect on the sorption of BB3 but increased uptake of RO16 on MRH. Decreasing particle size increased the uptake of dyes in binary dye solutions. Equilibrium data could be fitted into both the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms. Maximum sorption capacities calculated from the Langmuir model are 14.68 and 60.24 mg/g for BB3 and RO16, respectively in binary dye solutions. This corresponds to an enhancement of 4.5 and 2.4 fold, respectively, compared to single dye solutions. MRH therefore has the potential of being used as an efficient sorbent for the removal of both dyes in textile wastewaters. We retrospectively reviewed 205 HIV-infected patients, who came at first entry from January 2001 to December 2002 to the Hospital Kuala Lumpur, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The aged range was 21-69 years [mean 37.25 years (+/- SD) 8.1]. Subjects were mainly in the age group 35-44 years. The majority of patients were male (82%), Chinese (55.1%), single (55.6%), resided in Kuala Lumpur (55.1%), and were unemployed (57.1%). The most frequent routes of transmission were sexual contact (78.5%), followed by IDUs (30%), blood transfusion (5%), and unknown (0.5%). Oral candidiasis was the most common mucocutaneous disease and significant co-existence was found with the main opportunistic systemic diseases, such as TB, PCP, toxoplasmic encephalitis, penicillosis, and CMV retinitis (p < 0.05). In this study, the range of CD4 counts was 0-910, with a median of 35 cells/mm3. Significant associations between a CD4 level less than 100 cells/mm3 at the time of diagnosis, and the occurrence of major opportunistic diseases, such as candidiasis, TB, PCP, TE, herpes simplex infection, CMV retinitis, penicillosis, and histoplasmosis were found (p < 0.05) in this study. The potential of quaternized wood (QW) chips in removing hexavalent chromium from synthetic solution and chrome waste under both batch and continuous-flow conditions was investigated. Sorption was found to be dependent on pH, metal concentration, and temperature. QW chips provide higher sorption capacity and wider pH range compared with untreated wood chips. The equilibrium data could be fitted into the Langmuir isotherm model, and maximum sorption capacities were calculated to be 27.03 and 25.77 mg/g in synthetic chromate solution and chrome waste, respectively. The presence of sulfate in high concentration appeared to suppress the uptake of chromium by QW chips. Column studies showed that bed depth influenced the breakthrough time greatly whereas flow rate of influent had little effect on its sorption on the column. Spent bleaching earth, an industrial waste produced after the bleaching of crude palm oil, was investigated for its potential in removing Cr(VI) from aqueous solution. The earth was treated with different amounts of sulfuric acid and under different activation temperatures. Results show that the optimum treatment process involved 10% sulfuric acid at 350 degrees C. The effects of contact time, pH, initial concentration, sorbent dosage, temperature, sorption isotherms and the presence of other anions on its sorption capacity were studied. Isotherm data could be fitted into a modified Langmuir isotherm model implying monolayer coverage of Cr(VI) on acid activated spent bleaching earth. The maximum sorption capacity derived from the Langmuir isotherm was 21.2 mg g(-1). This value was compared with those of some other low cost sorbents. Studies of anion effect on the uptake of Cr(VI) on acid activated spent bleaching earth provided the following order of suppression: EDTA >PO4(3-)>SO4(2-)>NO3(-)>Cl(-). Four hundred and six AIDS patients were recruited in this retrospective study. The seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis among 406 AIDS patients was 208 (51.2%). Their age ranged from 17 to 74 years with a median of 35 years. The majority of patients were males 172 (82.6%), Malays 99 (47.5%), single 109 (52.4%), unemployed 99 (47.6%) and heterosexual with commercial sex workers (CSW) 97 (46.6%) as the risk marker to HIV infection. Thirty-one (14.9%) of 208 AIDS-related toxoplasmosis were diagnosed as active toxoplasmic encephalitis. The most common clinical manifestation was headache (67.7%). The CT scan findings showed most lesions to be multiple (87.5%), hypodense (66.7%), and in frontal region (41.7%). Twenty-two (71%) patients had chronic (latent) Toxoplasma infection as evidenced by seropositivity for anti-Toxoplasma (IgG) antibody. They were statistically significant in the association between CD4 count and toxoplasmic encephalitis (P = 0.019; OR = 2.6; 95% CI = 1.14-6.02). After the initial six weeks of anti-TE therapy, relapsing toxoplasmic encephalitis was detected in 9.7% in this study. Various species of local wood modified with N-(3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyl)-trimethylammonium chloride showed sorption enhancement for hydrolyzed Reactive Blue 2 (HRB) compared to the untreated samples. The enthalpy of sorption of HRB on Simpoh (Dillenia suffruticosa) was found to be endothermic. Maximum sorption capacity calculated from the Langmuir isotherm was 250.0 mg/g. Under continuous flow conditions HRB could be successfully removed. Dye removal was a function of bed depth and flow rate. However, the bed depth service time model of Bohart and Adams was not applicable in the HRB-quaternized wood system. The modified wood was applied to a sample of industrial textile effluent, and it was found to be able to remove the color successfully under batch conditions. A study on the kinetics of accumulation and depuration of Zn, Cu, Pb and Cd by the oysters (Crassostrea iredalei and Crassostrea belcheri) cultured at two locations in the Merbok Estuary, Malaysia was conducted. A first-order kinetic model was employed to fit the experimental data in order to estimate the rate constants for uptake and elimination processes and to predict the bioconcentration factors (BCF). Among the four metals studied, only the Zn accumulation process could not be modelled using first-order kinetics. The elimination rate constants estimated from depuration data for C. iredalei are found to be much greater than those from accumulation data. The results suggest that the values of kinetic parameters and BCFs derived under conditions of both aqueous and dietary exposure are probably more site- than species-specific. Present study aims to optimize the production of starch and total carbohydrates from Arthrospira platensis. Growing concerns toward unprecedented environmental issues associated with plastic pollution has created a tremendous impetus to develop new biomaterials for the production of bioplastic. Starch-based biopolymers from algae serve as sustainable feedstock for thermoplastic starch production due to their abundant availability and low cost. A. platensis was cultivated in Zarrouk's medium at 32 ± 1°C and exposed to red light with a photoperiod of 12:12 hr light/dark. Growth kinetics studies showed that the maximum specific growth rate (μmax ) obtained was 0.059 day-1 with the doubling time (td ) of 11.748 days. Subsequently, Zarrouk's medium with different concentrations of sulfur, phosphorus and nitrogen was prepared to establish the nutrient-limiting conditions to enhance the accumulation of starch and total carbohydrates. In this study, the highest starch accumulated was 6.406 ± 0.622 mg L-1 under optimized phosphorus limitation (0.025 g L-1 ) conditions. Nitrogen limitation (0.250 g L-1 ) results demonstrated significant influenced (p Pin site infection is a common problem in external fixation. Plain gauze wetted with normal saline is commonly used for a pin site dressing owing to the simplicity and low cost. Evidence to support adding an antimicrobial agent in the dressing material is lacking. Managing multiple level spinal metastases is challenging. We report the case of a 58-year-old female with advanced lung cancer who presented with multiple pathological fractures of the thoracic spine (T5, T6, T7, and T8 vertebrae). She was treated with palliative radiotherapy. Her resting pain improved, but the instability pain persisted. One month later, she had a trivial fall leading to a pathological fracture of the L2 vertebra with cauda equine syndrome. The patient was treated surgically with minimally invasive decompression of the L2 and with percutaneous instrumented stabilization using an ultra-long construct from T3 to L5 (15 spinal levels), spanning the previously radiated zone and the decompression site. Postoperatively, she had significant improvements in pain and neurology. There were no surgical complications. Ultra long construct minimally invasive spinal stabilization is the ideal approach for symptomatic multicentric spinal metastasis with poor prognostic scores. Using this technique, the goals of spinal stabilization and direct neural decompression can be achieved with minimal morbidity.

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Equality in career development. Have you ever heard of a leaky pipeline? That signals a loss of talented employees from one level to another. Employees fail to progress past a certain level. They either do not get promoted to the next level or exit the organization before receiving the opportunity to advance. Therefore, your investment in that employee, by training and mentoring them, does not yield benefits for your organization. A leaky pipeline is most common for underrepresented or minority group employees. The solution is to invest in equal career development opportunities and provide adequate support for all employees. Action 1: Bias-free performance reviews. Performance reviews are processes in which a manager assesses and evaluates an employee’s performance at work. The goal is to give feedback on employees’ strengths, point out areas of improvement, and discuss future career goals and expectations. A big responsibility lies in the manager or team leader taking the initiative, making time to conduct the assessment, and communicating their observations to the employee. A downside of performance reviews is that they are human assessments, judgments made of others, which means unconscious biases significantly impact the outcome. Common biases in performance reviews are: - Recency bias: When the manager focuses on someone’s performance in the most recent period. - Halo effect: When the manager lets their positive first impression affect their overall performance assessment. - Horn effect: When a manager lets one negative quality or event impact their overall performance assessment. - Centrality bias: A manager’s tendency to rate employees in the middle of a rating scale for most items. - Affinity bias: When a manager assesses employees who are like them more favorably. - Idiosyncratic rater bias: When a manager gives a more positive assessment of skills, they are not good at and is more critical of skills they are great at. - Contrast bias: When a manager unconsciously compares an employee’s performance with that of other employees instead of the company performance standard. - Identity biases: When a manager lets stereotypes about gender, ethnicity, age, and other identity traits positively or negatively impact their performance review. - Examine current practices: Know where you start. Your current assessment practices might already have outstanding elements or serious pitfalls you need to avoid in your reworked evaluation standards. - Develop an evaluation structure: Set requirements about frequency and create clear guidelines for managers to ensure a qualitative review. Such a standard can be a template with specific items to review, a scorecard, requirements for written motivations, and instructions to communicate feedback to employees. - Train managers: Teach your managers skills to conduct a good and equal review. Train them to avoid unconscious bias while reviewing and to give structured, specific, well-motivated, and constructive feedback. - Use data: Save employee performance data. That allows your HR department to detect and compare trends in performance management against your population’s demographic information. In the long term, this helps define barriers and continuous unequal development of specific employee groups. - Define success: Define what successful job performance looks like for every employee. Do this in collaboration with each employee. Be specific in your definitions and always work towards a clear intended outcome. - Use performance snapshots: Collect feedback from multiple points in time to avoid recency bias and the halo effect. Take structured and skills-based notes or use your organization’s evaluation template. That will help save all the information if you need to recall your judgment later. An alternative to the annual performance review can be to use more regular check-ins. - Be specific: Avoid judging an employee on generic qualities. Instead, be detailed in the tasks, skills, and behaviors you assess and always motivate why you give a specific score. - Evaluate skills and competencies: use performance methods focusing on skills and behaviors rather than general traits. For example, creating BARS (Behaviorally Anchored Ratings Scales) for the essential skills for a job allow you to evaluate performance in a specific and skill-based way. - Plan: Treat each employee equally. Plan the same time to review everyone and stick to your planning. Moving evaluations to the bottom of your to-do list is easy when something urgent comes up. However, keep in mind that postponing feedback could negatively impact employees’ performance. Personalities play a significant role in performance reviews. To make sure these do not impact your performance review, we are including two extra tips for managers: - Separate personality issues from skill sets for each team member. Appraise personal style separately from skills. Be mindful that fewer behavior trends are accepted from employees from underrepresented groups. - Level the playing field concerning self-promotion. Some people may be reluctant to self-promote, while others use it vigorously. Stick to your evaluation criteria to limit the impact. Action 2: DEI-focused succession planning. Succession planning allows you to have the right people in the right place. It ensures the continuity of the business and helps you quickly define who to turn to when urgently looking for a leader with a specific set of skills. With DEI high on the agenda, it makes sense to approach your leadership pipeline with a DEI focus. In addition, use succession planning to ensure you always have the necessary diversity at all levels of leadership. When discussing diversity in the organization, specifically in leadership, diversity of gender and ethnicity are the first ones that come to mind. That is if diversity is discussed at all. Have you ever heard someone say “Our leadership is plenty diverse. We have a woman and five different nationalities on the team. It is impossible to ignore the diversity of thought that brings.”? That is still a common approach to diversity, but it is not sufficient. We challenge you to go further. Consider less visible types of diversity like sexual orientation, neurodiversity, or even age, and question the societal position of your leadership. Use the following questions to reflect on your current leadership and your succession planning: - How many leaders belong to the majority group in society and the organization? - Are they in a privileged position in society? - Do they know how to understand the challenges for underrepresented employees in this organization? - How can we provide them with insights into the experiences of minority employees? Going through these will shed new light on what diversity and diversity of thought mean for your leadership team. - Measure & map. Know where your leadership talent pipeline leaks. Check which employee groups do not advance into certain levels and which groups are entirely missing in leadership roles. Attracting diverse senior leaders might be one of your strategic goals. - Create your list. Set diversity targets or criteria for your succession planning. Are you looking for more women in leadership positions, more ethnic diversity, or leaders with a specific background? The targets should align with your DEI Strategic Plan based on identified gaps in your organization’s DEI scan. Leadership decisions are influenced by personal biases when selecting their list. Find tips on how to avoid bias in the Action above. Speed up the formation and training of future leaders from underrepresented groups. When an employee is on your succession planning radar, provide them with the necessary opportunities to develop their skills quickly. For example, consider job sharing (i.e., a flexible work arrangement in which two people work part-time schedules to complete the work one person would do in a single full-time job). And executive prep rotations to develop specific skills and gain insights most relevant to your organization. That can be a more efficient way of learning compared to generic leadership development courses. These actions to accelerate your DEI-focused succession planning set you up for guaranteed diversity in your future leadership. And most importantly, for those employees who experienced developmental and promotional barriers in the past, this can be the kick-off to a career-changing leadership position. Include an accountability check that stimulates leaders to hold each other accountable for the lack of diversity in their leadership pipeline. Always ask them to motivate why there is no diversity and ask them to review their list if they cannot give a valid reason. Action 3: Inclusive coaching. It is a challenge for leaders to treat each team member equally, especially when supporting them in their development and coaching them to advance their careers. As a leader and coach, be aware of your position. Power: Most hierarchical organizations have a power imbalance between leaders and team members. However natural, be conscious of how hierarchy creates barriers. For example, is it more difficult for team members to approach you or for you to observe their work and coach them? Privilege: Reflect on your privilege; the benefits or advantages linked to your identity and position in society and at work. When you belong to a majority group, your privilege can be a blind spot. Are you aware of the different experiences of minority team members? Do you challenge your privilege and actively support employees who experience exclusion or discrimination? Personal norms and biases: Investigate your norms and possible biases rooted in your past experiences. They influence your expectations and the way you judge behaviors. For example, what does the ideal employee look like? How should they behave? With how much support should they be able to thrive? List your possible blind spots and remind yourself of them regularly. That will help you to be more open-minded when coaching others. - Take a holistic approach: Avoid a singular focus on the result (rational targets, numbers). Instead, focus equally on human aspects that surface in reaching goals (meaning, inspiration, creativity, emotions). As a result, you will notice the diversity in your team and discover its richness. - Provide constructive feedback: When there is little time for feedback, leaders unconsciously focus on what goes wrong. Make sure you discuss strengths and development points equally with all team members. - Always work towards solutions: Look for ways in which you can guarantee the necessary individual support for each team member. If you struggle to provide that support, discuss the barriers you experience together and think about how you can turn these around. It can be necessary to find them an additional mentor or coach that can relate to them more. - Make time for underrepresented team members: Coaching high potentials or employees who perform below standard is a given. The gains of doing so are clear. What about employees who stand out less? Employees from underrepresented groups that perform well might and therefore get less attention. They miss out on valuable coaching that could help them tackle barriers and subtle discriminations at work. Define individual coaching needs and act accordingly. Become a DEI expert. 10 performance review biases and how to avoid them | Culture Amp Be confident during your next performance review. Learn what the most common biases that affect performance reviews are, and how to overcome them. #142 – The Inclusive Life Coaching Method: Welke ‘Full Human Principle’ vorm van Life Coaching is dit precies? – GuidoFox Why succession planning with a D&I focus supports business continuity Leadership exits amid the pandemic show why succession plans are essential, experts say. Why Most Performance Evaluations Are Biased, and How to Fix Them Most performance evaluations follow a predictable pattern: They invite employees to write about their accomplishments and what they need to improve, and then managers write assessments of their employees’ performance. But while managers may strive to be as meritocratic as possible, our assessments a…

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Scripture: The prophets words, "Tell the daughter of Zion, ‘Look, your king is coming to you, humble, and mounted on a donkey, and on a colt, the foal of a donkey’" were fulfilled in Jesus (Matthew 21:5, NRSV). Observe the Context: Today’s lesson lies in the middle of Jesus’ celebratory entrance into Jerusalem. Suddenly the once hostile crowds seem to be supportive of Jesus. The people are excited about his presence and strip palm leaves to lay at Jesus’ path and stretch their garments across the road. Their shouts while emphatic and boisterous still reveal a misconception about the identity of the promised Messiah. Jesus is called "Son of David," "the one who comes in the name of the Lord," and "prophet." By citing the prophesy of Zechariah 9:9, Matthew brings the people’s Messianic expectations into this dramatic scene. Against the backdrop of shouted hosannas, Matthew emphasizes a discordant note in the triumphant entry. Jesus instructs two disciples to find a very particular mount, a donkey, at a particular location, with a particular partner … her young colt. Matthew seems to tells us that Jesus rides into Jerusalem on collective back of both the donkey and the colt. Matthew does not allow us to misread the identity of either mount … they are not a handsome high-spirited horse or a noble steed. No, Matthew wants readers to be perfectly aware of the incongruity between the crowd’s shouts, the royal processional, and the humble, simple beast of burden upon which Jesus Applying the Text to Our Lives: Donkeys are work horses. Donkeys are used as common pack animals by hard -working laborers, landowners, and merchants alike. The donkey is a simple unimpressive worker that accomplishes many daily tasks the one million villages, towns, and even cities of this planet. They were a necessity for first-century life, but hardly anyone spent time celebrating their existence. Unlike the horse, no young child grows up wishing for the moment they can finally ride an … a donkey. But horses, remember the nursery rhymes: Ride a cock horse to Banbury cross to see a fine lady upon a white horse. With rings on her fingers and bells on her toes, she will have music wherever she goes. Or, this is the way the ladies ride … This is the way the gentleman ride … This is the way the farmer rides … Or, ride a little horsey all around town. Ride a little horsey, but don’t fall down. It was really no different in Jesus’ day. They did not need the barns of nearby "Horse Country" to know that Alexander the Great was known for his horsemanship as well as conquering the world. To a world that celebrated the power of Alexander, the prophet Zechariah promised God’s children that the Messiah would come humbly riding a donkey, not a marvelous and noble steed. Jesus knew the prophecy, but more importantly he knew himself. The donkey is Jesus’ choice of mount for his entrance into Jerusalem. By riding the humble donkey, Jesus reminded us of two things: - He was King of Kings and Lord of Lords. - He was also servant of servants, a work horse, helper of helpers. When he realized what was unfolding before as he descended through the Kidron Valley, Jesus chose not to "pimp his ride" in the words of a popular TV show. He rode in on the "ride" of the simplest peasant. A donkey’s back doesn’t put you above the heads of others. In fact, riding this short-legged beasts put Jesus face-to-face level with the crowd. The crowds did not part as Jesus’ ride came into view, rather the mob moved with Jesus and Jesus moved with the mob as they shouted, "Hosanna! Blessed is the One who comes in the Name of the Lord. Hosanna!" It’s as if Jesus rewrote the nursery rhyme to sing like this: This is the way the Messiah rides; This is the way the Messiah comes … riding on a donkey. Church tradition long ago suggested that in honor of the donkey’s humble service to Jesus, the animal was rewarded with a permanent "sign of the cross" – many donkeys do show a distinctive black cross pattern across their shoulders. But let’s not kid ourselves. Few people given a choice between a donkey and a horse will choose to throw their leg casually over a donkey’s back. One of the classic themes of a Western is that of a miner trudging through creek-beds, along canyon beds, and over mountain passes with his trusty donkey by his side. Miners didn’t use horses because they were not sure footed enough to traverse the rough terrain, the winding trails, the slippery stones of the creek bed. A miner entrusted his most precious cargo of gold to a steady donkey. We can relive this experience if sign up to take the trail ride down into the base of the Grand Canyon. One might think some innate intelligence makes these creatures capable of picking out the best track to follow. In fact, the opposite is the case. Far from being cautious, the Grand Canyon donkeys often horrify their passengers by walking as close to the edge as possible. Often the donkeys move down the canyon paths at the very edge of the trail with fearful passengers teetering on their backs. Its as if the donkeys feel most secure when they can clearly see the edge, where the greatest danger lies. It may be that what unnerves a donkey is not being able to see the edge. Today I invite us to aspire to being a donkey rather than a millionaire. I know this is an unpleasant request to hear. Give me a million and I’ll tithe it to the church, or better yet I’ll invest it and tithe the earning to the church. But the mission of the church is to carry Christ into the world. If this is true, then it may be that our work looks like being called to be a donkey. I confess up front, there’s no glory in being a donkey. A donkey gets not glamor, only long trails, steep roads, heavy loads, and little recognition for a completed job. If you and I are donkeys its because of our strong backs and sure feet in a difficult time. We carry burdens for others along treacherous trails. But look at what we’re carrying. We’re carrying the good news of the Jesus Christ … the King of Kings. The Prince of Peace. The Lion of the Tribe of Judah, and the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the I have seen folks in our congregation working on roofs at a Moore Housing project, visiting in nursing homes among the feeble, preparing meals for a Lenten lunch, putting mailing labels on a post card to church friends, shepherding high-schoolers along a ski slope, or corralling children in our choirs or in children’s church. I hesitate to call such folk donkeys … surely the work is more exciting than that. Or, is it a job that they willingly do for the sake of the Master who has need of their time, talent, and treasure. I introduced some members of our church this week as "unpaid servants" and they "thanked" me for the promotion and raise from the status of volunteer. But may be the language is right … this donkey and her colt responded to a call from Jesus. I cannot see any evidence that they "volunteered" for duty. Here’s how famed twentieth-century theologian Karl Barth put it at his 80th birthday party: "In the Bible there’s talk of a donkey, or to be quite correct, an ass. It was allowed to carry Jesus to Jerusalem. If I have achieved anything in this life, then I did so as a relative of the ass who at that time was going his way carrying an important burden. The disciples had said to its owner: ‘The Master has need of it.’ And so it seems to have pleased God to have used me at this time. Apparently I was permitted to be the ass which was allowed to carry as best I could a better theology a little piece" (as quoted by John Robert McFarland’s Preacher’s Workshop called "The Illustration is the Point," The Christian Ministry, January-February, 1988, 21). So I end this morning with a question: - Will you be a donkey? Will you carry Christ? Wherever he goes? However he goes? - Will you be a donkey? Will you walk cliffs? Will you be unafraid of the edges? Will you journey the edges between this world and the next, between hate and love, between war and peace? - Will you be a donkey? Will you be humble enough to be a beast of burden? To carry the burdens of others? To carry your cross? will you be a donkey? Will you shout with joy and praise God, welcoming the savior’s presence with "Hosanna! Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord." Will you be a donkey this Palm Sunday? Prayer: Lord Jesus Christ, do you have need of us? Do you have a task to do this week? Do you have a trail we need to negotiate? Do you have a burden we need to bear? Free us to follow in your Way, your Truth, so that we might find your Abundant Life. Amen. Conclusion: Some folks will always show forth the other attributes of a donkey – they will be stubborn and obstinate. From the days of the Hebrew children in the wilderness, God’s people themselves have often been stiff-necked (Exodus 32:9; 34:9). I want us to listen now to some stiff-necked witnesses to Jesus’ triumphant entry who said only, "Jesus, you had it coming to you." "Stages on the Way" is now read. (From IONA Community: The Wild Goose Worship Group, Stages on the Way: Worship Resources for Lent, Holy Week & Easter, copyright 2000, pp. 42-47). Then the choir concludes by singing "When I Survey the Wondrous Cross." - "Onos" in Matthew 21:2, 21:5, and 21:7. Donkey in the NRSV and NAS, ass in the KJV (G3688 in Strong’s Concordance). Donkey = animal resembling a small horse: a small domesticated member of the horse family with a gray or brown coat, long ears, and a large head. Latin name Equus asinus. - "Polos" in Matthew 21:2, 21:5, and 21:7. Colt in the NRSV, KJV, and NAS. Colt = 1. the young of a horse; 2. a young creature: (a) of a young ass, or (B) an ass’s colt (G4454 in Strong’s Concordance). Colt = young male horse: a young uncastrated male horse, usually under four years of age. SOAP = Scripture, Observation, Application, and Prayer.

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« PoprzedniaDalej » of that word, but must go a little farther, and inquire into the nature and properties of the things themselves, and thereby perfect, as much as we can, our ideas of their distinct species ; or else learn them from such as are used to that sort of things, and are experienced in them. For since it is intended their names should stand for such collections of simple ideas as do really exist in things themselves, as well as for the complex idea in other men's minds, which in their ordinary acceptation they stand for: therefore to define their names right, natural history is to be inquired into; and their properties are, with care and examination, to be found out. For it is not enough, for the avoiding inconveniencies in discourse and arguings about natural bodies and substantial things, to have learned, from the propriety of the language, the common, but confused, or very imperfect idea, to which each word is applied, and to keep them to that idea in our use of them: but we must, by acquainting ourselves with the history of that sort of things, rectity and settle our complex idea belonging to each specific name; and in discourse with others, (if we find them mistake us) we ought to tell what the complex idea is, that we make such a name stand for. This is the more necessary to be done by all those who search after knowledge and philosophical verity, in that children, being taught words whilst they have but imperfect notions of things, apply them at random, and without much thinking, and seldom frame determined ideas to be signified by them. Which custom (it being easy, and serving well enough for the ordinary affairs of life and conversation) they are apt to continue when they are men: and so begin at the wrong end, learning words first and perfectly, but make the notions to which they apply those words afterwards very overtly. By this means it comes to pass, that men speaking the proper language of their country, i. e. according to grammar rules of that language, do yet speak very improperly of things themselves; and, by their arguing one with another, make but small progress in the discoveries of useful truths, and the knowledge of things, as they are to be found in themselves, and not in our imaginations; and it matters not much, for the improvement of our knowledge, how they are called. Not easy to S. 25. It were therefore to be wished, be made so. that men, versed in physical inquiries, and acquainted with the several sorts of natural bodies, would set down those simple ideas, wherein they observe the individuals of each sort constantly to agree. This would remedy a great deal of that confusion which comes from several persons applying the same name to a collection of a smaller or greater number of sensible qualities, proportionably as they have been more or less acquainted with, or accurate in examining the qualities of any sort of things which come under one denomination. But a dictionary of this sort containing, as it were, a natural history, requires too many hands, as well as too much time, cost, pains, and sagacity, ever to be hoped for; and till that be done, we must content ourselves with such definitions of the names of substances as explain the sense men use them in. And it would be well, where there is occasion, if they would afford us so much. This yet is not usually done; but men talk to one another, and dispute in words, whose meaning is not agreed between them, out of a mistake, that the significations of common words are certainly established, and the precise ideas they stand for perfectly known; and that it is a shame to be ignorant of them. Both which suppositions are false: no names of complex ideas having so settled determined significations, that they are constantly used for the same precise ideas. Nor is it a shame for a man not to have a certain knowledge of any thing, but by the necessary ways of attaining it; and so it is no discredit not to know what precise idea any sound stands for in another man's mind, without he declare it to me by some other way than barely using that sound; there being no other way, without such a declaration, certainly to know it. Indeed the necessity of communication by language brings men to an agreement in the signification of common words, within some tolerable latitude, that may serve for ordinary conversation : and so a man cannot be supposed wholly ignorant of the ideas which are annexed to words by com mon use, in a language familiar to him: "But common use, being but a very uncertain rule, which reduces itself at last to the ideas of particular men, proves often but a very variable standard. But though such a dictionary, as I have above-mentioned, will require too much time, cost, and pains, to be lioped for in this age; yet methinks it is not unreaso able to propose, that words standing for things, which are known and distinguished by their outward shapes, should be expressed by little draughts and prints made of them. A vocabulary made after this fashion would perhaps, with more ease, and in less time, teach the true signification of many terms, especially in languages of remote countries or ages, and settle truer ideas in men's minds of several things, whereof we read the names in antient authors, than all the large and laborious comments of learned criticks. Naturalists, that treat of plants and animals, have found the benefit of this way: and he that has had occasion to consult them, will have reason to confess, that he has a clearer idea of apium or ibex, from a little print of that herb or beast, than he could have from a long definition of the names of either of them. And so no doubt he would have of strigil and sistrum, if in stead of curry-comb and cymbal, which are the English names dictionaries render them by, he could see stamped in the margin small pictures of these instruments, as they were in use amongst the ancients. “Toga, tunica, pallium,” are words easily translated by gown, coat, and cloak; but we have thereby no more true ideas of the fashion of those habits amongst the Romans, than we have of the faces of the taylors who made them. Such things as these, which the eye distinguishes by their shapes, would be best let into the mind by draughts made of them, and more determine the signification of such words than any other words set for them, or made use of to define them. But this only by the by. §. 26. Fifthly, if men will not be at the 5. By con pains to declare the meaning of their words, and definitions of their terms' are not to be their signifi. lad; yet this is the least that can be ex cation. pected, that in all discourses, wherein one man pretends to instruct or convince another, he should use the same word constantly in the same sense: if this were done (which no body can refuse without great disingenuity) many of the books extant might be spared; many of the controversies in dispute would be at an end; several of those great volumes, swoln with ambiguous words, now used in one sense, aud by and by in another, would shrink into a very narrow compass; and many of the philosophers (to mention no other) as well as poets works, might be contained in a nutshell. When the §. 27. But after all, the provision of variation is words is so scanty in respect of that infinite to be ex- variety of thoughts, that men, wanting plained. terms to suit their precise notions, will, notwithstanding their utmost caution, be forced often to use the same word in somewhat different senses. And though in the continuation of a discourse, or the pursuit of an argument, there can be hardly room to digress into a particular definition, as often as a man varies the signification of any term; yet the import of the discourse will, for the most part, if there be no designed fallacy, sufficiently lead candid and intelligent readers into the true meaning of it: but where there is not sufficient to guide the reader, there it concerns the writer to explain his meaning, and show in what sense he there uses that term. Our know. $. 1. SINCE the mind, in all its thoughts ledgeconver. sånt about mediate object but its owns ideas, which it our ideas. alone does or can contemplate; it is evident, that our knowledge is only conversant about them. §. 2. Knowledge then seems to me to be Knowledge nothing but the perception of the connexion is the perand agreement, or disagreement and repug- ception of the nancy, of any of our ideas. of our ideas. In this alone agreement or it consists. Where this perception is, there disagreement of two ideas. is knowledge; and where it is not, there, though we may fancy, guess, or believe, yet we always come short of knowledge. For when we know that white is not black, what do we else but perceive that these two ideas do not agree? When we possess ourselves with the utmost security of the demonstration, that the three angles of a triangle are equal to two right ones, what do we more but perceive, that equality to two right ones does necessarily agree to, and is inseparable from the three angles of a triangle * ? * The placing of certainty, as Mr. Locke does, in the perception of the agreement or disagreement of our ideas the bishop of Worcester suspects may be of dangerous consequence to that article of faith which he has endeavoured to defend ; to which Mr. Locke answers, + since your lordship hath not, as I remember shown, or gone about to show, how this proposition, viz. that certainty consists in the perception of the agreement or disagreement of two ideas is opposite or inconsistent with that article of faith which your lordship has endeavoured to defend; it is plain, it is but your lordship’s fear, that it may be of dangerous consequence to it, which, as I humbly conceive, is no proof that it is any way inconsistent with that article. No body, I think, can blame your lordship, or any one else, for being concerned for any article of the christian faith; but if that concern (as it may, and as we know it has done) makes any one apprehend danger, where no danger is, are we, therefore, to give up and condemn any pro.. position, because any one, though of the first rank and magnitude, fears it may be of dangerous consequence to any truth of religion, without showing that it is so ? If such fears þe the measures whereby to judge of truth and falshood, the affirming that there are antipodes would be still a heresy; and the doctrine of the motion of the earth must be rejected, as overthrowing the truth of the scripture ; for of that dangerous consequence it has been apprehended to be, by many learned and pious divinés, out of their great concern for religion. And yet, notwithstanding those great apprehensions of what dangerous consequence it might be, it is now uni. versally received by learned men, as an undoubted truth; and writ for by some, whose belief of the scripture is not at all questioned; and particu, larly, very lately, by a divine of the church of England, with great strength of reason, in his wonderfully ingenious New Theory of the Earth, + In his ad letter to the bishop of Worcester,

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#COP26 – SCHOOLS’ NEW RESOURCE GIVES INSIGHTS INTO FUTURE CAREERS IN CLIMATE FINANCE When we think about jobs that save the planet, we rarely think about the financial sector as leading the way. However, a new schools’ initiative from the University of Glasgow Adam Smith Business School is seeking to change perceptions and introduce the world of Green Finance to school students across Scotland and the UK. The resource was developed at Adam Smith Business School in partnership with The Bank of England and Skills Development Scotland. It emerged through conversations with prospective students and their parents who had heard about terms such as ‘green banking’ but were not sure what it meant or what kinds of jobs it might involve. Over the course of three lessons, students, teachers and parents are introduced to a range of key terms, practices and jobs that support climate finance and green banking. The lessons also include a range of video explainers from representatives from the United Nations, Scottish Government, independent think tanks and professional bodies such as the Overseas Development Institute (ODI) and a variety of businesses, that can be downloaded and incorporated into other lesson plans within schools. To support teachers and students, the University will also host a virtual Q&A at 10-11am on Thursday 11 October where a panel of experts of green finance and careers from Skills Development Scotland, the Scottish Government and Bank of England will be on hand to answer any questions. George Boag, Director of Digital Services at Skills Development Scotland: ‘This resource is helping to make sure young people are thinking about the growing opportunities for ‘green jobs’ and how their future careers and financial practices can positively impact the planet.’ Omar Sheikh, Managing Director at The Global Ethical Finance Institute (GEFI), who contributed to the resource, said: ‘There has never been a greater time for the possibility of financial services to make such a seismic and positive difference to the environment. Ensuring young people know that the financial services sector offers them the opportunity to change the world for the better is vital for both the economy and the planet. Louise Agius, MSc Environment and Sustainable Development and student intern who helped to lead the project said: ‘Sometimes when you’re at school, you assume that a career in economics or finance is just about making money. I hope that this resource will allow students across Scotland and the UK to see how they can help to address the climate emergency beyond the usual jobs we associate with addressing climate change’. Rory Selvey, MSc Economics, Finance and Banking and student intern who helped to lead the project said: ‘With COP26 coming to Glasgow, I’m proud to be part of an initiative that shows the University is not just about educating and supporting university students but is passionate about helping the whole of Scotland think about how they might become world changers surrounding climate change.’ UK will be the world’s first net zero financial centre 3rd Nov 2021: The Chancellor will set out the UK’s plans to become the world’s first net zero aligned financial centre and welcome “historic” climate commitments from private companies covering $130 trillion of financial assets as he hosts Finance Day at #COP26 today (3 November 2021). These commitments will help to create a huge pool of cash that could fund our net zero transition, including the move away from coal, the shift to electric cars, and the planting of more trees. Convening the largest ever meeting of finance leaders on climate change, Rishi Sunak will set out the UK’s “responsibility to lead the way” and unveil a fresh push to decarbonise our world-leading financial centre. Under the proposals, there will be new requirements for UK financial institutions and listed companies to publish net zero transition plans that detail how they will adapt and decarbonise as the UK moves towards to a net zero economy by 2050. To guard against greenwashing, a science-based ‘gold standard’ for transition plans will be drawn up by a new Transition Plan Taskforce, composed of industry and academic leaders, regulators, and civil society groups. In his opening keynote at Finance Day, Mr Sunak will hail the progress made to “rewire the entire global financial system for net zero” under the UK’s leadership of COP and reveal that over $130 trillion – around 40% of the world’s financial assets – is now being aligned with the climate goals in the Paris Agreement, including limiting global warming to 1.5C. These commitments come from over 450 firms from all parts of the financial industry, based in 45 countries across six continents, and have been delivered through the Glasgow Financial Alliance for Net Zero (GFANZ), which was launched by the UK to harness the power of the financial sector in the transition to net zero. The UK has also worked as chair of the G7, and in partnership with other G20 countries, to ensure all economic and financial decisions take the risks of climate change into account. The UK has convened over 30 advanced and developing countries from across 6 continents and representing over 70% of global GDP to back the creation of a new global climate reporting standards by the IFRS Foundation to give investors the information they need to fund net zero. Celebrating this progress, the Chancellor will urge financial firms to “mobilise private finance quickly and at scale” and call on governments to enact bold climate policies to take advantage of these enormous financial resources. Reiterating the importance the UK COP Presidency has placed on getting finance to the most vulnerable countries, Mr Sunak will also highlight that the $100 billion climate finance target will be met by 2023 and urge developed countries to boost their support to developing countries – including by helping them tap into the trillions of dollars committed to net zero by the private sector. The UK will seek to address barriers to finance faced by developing countries with a series of new green initiatives funded from its international climate finance (ICF) commitment, including £100 million to respond to recommendations from the UK co-chaired Taskforce on Access to Climate Finance to make it faster and easier for developing countries to access finance for their climate plans. In total, the UK will spend £576 million on a package of initiatives to mobilise finance into emerging markets and developing economies, including £66 million to expand the UK’s MOBILIST programme, which helps to develop new investment products which can be listed on public markets and attract different types of investors. And in a further advance towards the $100 billion goal, the Chancellor will announce the launch of an innovative new financing mechanism – the Climate Investment Funds’ Capital Markets Mechanism (CCMM) – that will boost investment into clean energy like solar and wind power in developing countries. The UK is already the biggest donor to the multilateral Climate Investment Funds, having contributed £2.5 billion, and will now give the returns from its investments (known as reflows) to CCMM. This new fund will use reflows to help it issue green bonds worth billions of pounds in the City of London – the world’s leading green finance centre – and could leverage an extra $30-70 billion from other sources for specific clean energy projects. Janine Hirt, Chief Executive Officer, Innovate Finance said: “As the voice of UK FinTech, we passionately support the development of the UK as the first net zero aligned financial centre. Net Zero transition will be driven by finance and capital markets and it will be enabled by technology and data. As a leading global centre for financial services and for financial technology and innovation, the UK can and should lead the way in rewiring the entire global financial system for net zero.” Dr Ben Caldecott, Director, UK Centre for Greening Finance and Investment (CGFI) Chief said: “This is huge. The world’s largest international financial centre will become the world’s first net zero-aligned financial centre. This is underpinned by world-leading regulation and the economy-wide adoption of net zero transition plans. This will spur demand for green finance and accelerate decarbonisation, not just in the UK but wherever UK firms do business. This will make a real difference and means the UK financial services sector will play an even larger role in providing the capital and financial services required to deliver net zero globally.” “The UK Centre for Greening Finance and Investment is excited to act as the secretariat, together with E3G, for the new Transition Plan Taskforce to develop a ‘gold standard’ for transition plans and associated cutting edge metrics. We are the UK’s national centre established to accelerate the adoption and use of climate and environmental data and analytics by financial institutions internationally.” Julie Page, Chief Executive Officer, AON said: “We welcome and support the Chancellor’s plans for the UK to be the world’s first net zero aligned financial centre. All industries have an important role in helping to achieve this goal and through Aon’s own 2030 net-zero commitment, we will contribute to this historical commitment and help lead the way towards a net zero economy.” Dr Rhian-Mari Thomas OBE, Chief Executive, Green Finance Institute said: “Today marks the day that green finance has reached a point of critical momentum. The amount of capital committed to the transition to net zero has reached unprecedented levels. The task before us now is to come together in radical collaboration to unlock investment opportunities at speed and scale so we can channel this wall of capital into real economy outcomes that not only positions the UK as the world’s first net zero financial centre but also delivers a just and resilient net-zero global economy” Kay Swinburne, Vice Chair of Financial Services, KPMG UK said: “This announcement will provide the financial services industry with a valuable set of unified metrics to measure progress towards decarbonisation and it is brave to put a gold standard in place for all companies raising funding. We’re pleased to see the UK lead by example by not only establishing the GFANZ initiative, but also expanding private sector commitments and supporting a science based approach to reporting standards.” James Alexander, Chief Executive, UK Sustainable Investment and Finance Association (UKSIF) said: “We warmly welcome the Chancellor’s ambition to make the UK the world’s first net-zero aligned financial services centre. As the first major economy to legislate to cut emissions to net zero by 2050, this is a natural step in the UK’s climate leadership journey and recognises the central role of the sustainable finance sector in addressing the climate crisis.” “UKSIF and our members look forward to actively engaging in these next steps, particularly helping to build a shared definition of a good quality transition plan and more broadly a net-zero finance sector. Government and regulators should work closely with the financial services industry to identify the policies and actions required to progress our sector towards this world-leading ambition.”Recommend0 recommendationsPublished in

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Popular Science Monthly/Volume 39/September 1891/The Limits of State-Duties |THE LIMITS OF STATE-DUTIES.| By HERBERT SPENCER. OF the many reasons for restricting the range of governmental actions, the strongest remains to be named. The end which the statesman should keep in view as higher than all other ends, is the formation of character. And if there is entertained a right conception of the character which should be formed, and of the means by which it may be formed, the exclusion of multiplied State-agencies is necessarily implied. "How so?" will doubtless be the exclamation of many. "Is not the formation of character the end to which much of the legislation we advocate is directed? Do we not contend that an all-important part of the State's business is the making of good citizens? and are not our school-systems, our free libraries, our sanitary arrangements, our gymnasia, etc., devised with the view of improving their natures?" To this interrogative reply, uttered with an air of astonishment and an implied conviction that nothing remains to be said, the answer is that everything depends on the goodness of the ideal entertained and the appropriateness of the appliances for realizing it; and that both of them are radically wrong. These paragraphs sufficiently indicate the antagonist views to be here discussed. Let us now enter on the discussion of them systematically Upward from hordes of savages to civilized nations, countless examples show that to make an efficient warrior preparation is needed. Practice in the use of weapons begins in boyhood; and throughout youth the ambition is to be a good marksman with the bow and arrow, to throw the javelin or the boomerang with force and precision, and to become an adept in defense as well as in attack. At the same time speed and agility are effectually cultivated, and there are trials of strength. More relevant still to the end in view comes the discipline in endurance; sometimes going to the extent of submission to torture. In brief, each male of the tribe is so educated as to fit him for the purposes of the tribe—to fit him for helping it in maintaining its existence, or subjugating its neighbors, or both. Though not a State-education in the modern sense, the education is one prescribed by custom and enforced by public opinion. That it is the business of the society to mold the individual is asserted tacitly if not openly. With that social progress which forms larger communities regularly governed, there goes a further development of State education. Not only are there now deliberately cultivated the needful strength, skill, and endurance, but there is cultivated that subordination which is required for the performance of military evolutions, and that further subordination to leaders and to rulers without which the combined forces can not be used in the desired ways. It is needless to do more than name Greece, and especially Sparta, as exemplifying this phase. With this practice went an appropriate theory. From the belief that the individual belonged neither to himself nor to his family but to his city, there naturally grew up the doctrine that it was the business of his city to mold him into fitness for its purposes. Alike in Plato and in Aristotle we have elaborate methods proposed for the due preparation of children and youths for citizenship, and an unhesitating assumption that in a good State, education must be a public business. Evidently, then, while war is the chief business of life, the training of individuals by governmental agency after a pattern adapted to successful fighting, is a normal accompaniment. In this case experience furnishes a tolerably correct ideal to be aimed at, and guidance in the choice of methods productive of the ideal. All free men have to be made as much as may be into military machines, automatically obedient to orders; and a unifying discipline is required to form them. Moreover, just as in the militant type the coercive system of rule which regimentation involves, spreads from the fighting part throughout the whole of the ancillary parts which support it; so, there naturally establishes itself the theory that not soldiers only, but all other members of the community, should be molded by the government into fitness for their* functions. Not recognizing the fundamental distinction between a society which, having fighting for its chief business, makes sustentation subordinate, and a society which, having sustentation for its chief business, makes fighting subordinate, there are many who assume that a disciplinary policy appropriate to the first is appropriate to the last also. But the relations of the individual to the State are in the two cases entirely different. Unlike the Greek, who, not owning himself was owned by his city, the Englishman is not in any appreciable degree owned by his nation, but in a very positive way owns himself. Though, if of fit age, he may on great emergency be taken possession of and made to help in defending his country; yet this contingency qualifies to but small extent the private possession of his body and the self-directing of his actions. Throughout a series of chapters we saw that the progressive establishment by law of those rights which are deduced by ethics, made good the free use of himself by each individual, not only against other individuals but, in many respects, against the State: the State, while defending him against the aggressions of others, has in various directions ceased to aggress upon him itself. And it is an obvious corollary that in a state of permanent peace this change of relation would be complete. How does this conclusion bear on the question at issue? The implication is that whereas the individual had to be molded by the society to suit its purposes, the society has now to be molded by the individual to suit his purposes. Instead of a solidified body-politic, wielding masses of its units in combined action, the society, losing its coercive organization, and holding together its units with no other bonds than are needed for peaceful co-operation, becomes simply a medium for their activities. Once more let me emphasize the truth that since a society in its corporate capacity is not sentient, and since the sentiency dwells exclusively in its units, the sole reason for subordinating the sentient lives of its units to the unsentient life of the society, is that while militancy continues the sentient lives of its units are thus best preserved; and this reason lapses partially as militancy declines, and wholly as industrialism becomes complete. The claim of the society to discipline its citizens disappears. There remains no power which may properly prescribe the form which individual life shall assume. "But surely the society in its corporate capacity, guided by the combined intelligences of its best members, may with advantage frame a conception of an individual nature best fitted for harmonious industrial life, and of the discipline calculated to produce such a nature?" In this plea there is tacitly assumed the right of the community through its agents to impose its scheme an assumed right quite inconsistent with the conclusions drawn in foregoing chapters. But not here dwelling on this, let us ask what fitness the community has for deciding on the character to be desired, and for devising means likely to create it. Whether the chosen ideal of a citizen, and the chosen process for producing him, be good or bad, the choice inevitably has three implications, any one of which condemns it. The system must work toward uniformity. If the measures taken have any effect at all, the effect must in part be that of causing some likeness among the individuals: to deny this is to deny that the process of molding is operative. But in so far as uniformity results advance is retarded. Every one who has studied the order of nature knows that without variety there can be no progress—knows that, in the absence of variety, life would never have evolved at all. The inevitable implication is that further progress must be hindered if the genesis of variety is checked. Another concomitant must be the production of a passive receptivity of whatever form the State decides to impress. Whether submissiveness be or be not part of the nature which the incorporated society proposes to give its units, it can not enforce its plans without either finding or creating submissiveness. Whether avowedly or not, part of the desired character must be readiness in each citizen to submit, or make his children submit, to a discipline which some or many citizens determine to impose. There may be men who think it a trait of high humanity thus to deliver over the formation of its nature to the will of an aggregate mostly formed of inferior units. But with such we will not argue. One further necessary implication is that either there exists no natural process by which citizens are in course of being molded, or else that this natural process should be superseded by an artificial one. To assert that there is no natural process is to assert that, unlike all other beings, which tend ever to become adapted to their environments, the human being does not tend to become adapted to his environment—does not tend to undergo such changes as fit him for carrying on the life which circumstances require him to lead. Any one who says this must say that the varieties of mankind have arisen without cause; or else have been caused by governmental action. Any one who does not say this must admit that men are in course of being naturally adjusted to the requirements of a developed social state; and if he admits this, he will hesitate before he asserts that they may be better adjusted artificially. Let us pass now from these most abstract aspects of the matter to more concrete aspects. It is decided to create citizens having forms fit for the life of their society. Whence must the conception of a fit form be derived? Men inherit not only the physical and mental constitutions of their ancestors, but also, in the main, their ideas and beliefs. The current conception of a desirable citizen must therefore be a product of the past, slightly modified by the present; and the proposal is that past and present shall impose their conception on the future. Any one who takes an impersonal view of the matter can scarcely fail to see in this a repetition, in another sphere, of follies committed in every age by every people in respect of religious beliefs. In all places and in all times, the average man holds that the creed in which he has been brought is the only true creed. Though it must be manifest to him that necessarily in all cases but one, such beliefs, held with confidence equal to that which he feels, are false; yet, like each of the others, he is certain that his belief is the exception. A confidence no less absurd, is shown by those who would impose on the future their ideal citizen. That conceived type which the needs of past and present times have generated, they do not doubt would be a type appropriate for times to come. Yet it needs but to go back to the remote past, when industrial life was held contemptible and virtue meant fortitude, valor, bravery; or to the less remote past when noble meant high-born while laborer and villein were equivalents; or to the time when abject submission of each grade to the grade above was thought the primary duty; or to the time when the good citizen of every rank was held bound to accept humbly the appointed creed; to see that the characters supposed to be proper for men were unlike the characters we now suppose proper for them. Nevertheless, the not-very-wise representatives of electors who are mostly ignorant, are prepared, with papal assumption, to settle the form of a desirable human nature, and to shape the coming generation into that form. While they are thus confident about the thing to be done, they are no less confident about the way to do it; though in the last case as in the first, the past proves to them how utter has been the failure of the methods century after century pursued. Throughout afull of churches and priests, full of pious books, full of observances directed to fostering the religion of love, encouraging mercy and insisting on forgiveness, we have an aggressiveness and a revengefulness such as savages have everywhere shown. And from people who daily read their bibles, attend early services, and appoint weeks of prayer, there are sent out messengers of peace to inferior races, who are forthwith ousted from their lands by filibustering expeditions authorized in Downing Street; while those who resist are treated as "rebels," the deaths they inflict in retaliation are called "murders," and the process of subduing them is named "pacification." At the same time that we thus find good reason to reject the artificial method of molding citizens as wrong in respect alike of end and means, we have good reason to put faith in the natural method—the spontaneous adaptation of citizens to social life. The organic world at large is made up of illustrations, infinite in number and variety, of the truth that by direct or indirect processes the faculties of each kind of creature become adjusted to the needs of its life; and further, that the exercise of each adjusted faculty becomes a source of gratification. In the normal order not only does there arise an agent for each duty, but consciousness is made up of the more or less pleasurable feelings which accompany the exercise of these agents. Further, the implication is that where the harmony has been deranged, it gradually re-establishes itself—that where change of circumstances has put the powers and requirements out of agreement, they slowly, either by survival of the fittest or by the inherited effects of use and disuse, or by both, come into agreement again. This law, holding of human beings among others, implies that the nature which we inherit from an uncivilized past, and which is still very imperfectly fitted to the partially civilized present, will, if allowed to do so, slowly adjust itself to the requirements of a fully civilized future. And a further implication is that the various faculties, tastes, abilities, gradually established, will have for their concomitants the satisfactions felt in discharging the various duties social life entails. Already there has been gained a considerable amount of the needful capacity for work, which savages have not; already the power of orderly co-operation under voluntary agreement has been developed; already such amounts of self-restraints have been acquired that most men carry on their lives without much impeding one another; already the altruistic interests felt by citizens in social affairs at large, are such as prompt efforts, individual and spontaneously combined, to achieve public ends; and already men's sympathies have become active enough to generate multitudinous philanthropic agencies—too multitudinous in fact. And if, in the course of these few thousand years, the discipline of social life has done so much, it is folly to suppose that it can not do more—folly to suppose that it will not in course of time do all that has to be done. A further truth remains. It is impossible for artificial molding to do that which natural molding does. For the very essence of the process as spontaneously carried on, is that each faculty acquires fitness for its function by performing its function; and if its function is performed for it by a substituted agency, none of the required adjustment of nature takes place; but the nature becomes deformed to fit the artificial arrangements instead of the natural arrangements. More than this: it has to be depleted and dwarfed, for the support of the substituted agencies. Not only does there result the incapable nature, the distorted nature, and the nature which misses the gratifications of desired achievement; but that the superintending instrumentalities may be sustained, the sustentation of those who are superintended is diminished: their lives are undermined and their adaptation in another way impeded. Again, then, let me emphasize the fundamental distinction. While war is the business of life, the entailed compulsory co-operation implies molding of the units by the aggregate to serve its purposes; but when there comes to predominate the voluntary co-operation characterizing industrialism, the molding has to be spontaneously achieved by self-adjustment to the life of voluntary co-operation. The adjustment can not possibly be otherwise produced. And now we come round again at last to the general principle enunciated at first. All reasons for going counter to the primary law of social life prove invalid; and there is no safety but in conformity to that law. If the political meddler could be induced to contemplate the essential meaning of his plan, he would be paralyzed by the sense of his own temerity. He proposes to suspend, in some way or degree, that process by which all life has been evolved—to divorce conduct from consequence. While the law of life at large is to be partially broken by him, he would more especially break that form of it which results from the associated state. Traversing by his interference that principle of justice common to all living things, he would traverse more especially the principle of human justice, which requires that each shall enjoy the benefits achieved within the needful limits of action: he would redistribute the benefits. Those results of accumulated experiences in each civilized society which, registered in laws, have, age after age, established men's rights with increasing clearness, he proposes here or there to ignore, and to trespass on the rights. And, whereas in the course of centuries, the ruling powers of societies, while maintaining men's rights against one another more effectually, have also themselves receded from aggressions on those rights, the legislative schemer would invert this course, and decrease that freedom of action which has been increasing. Thus his policy, setting at naught the first principle of life at large and the first principle of social life in particular, ignores also the generalized results of observations and experiments gathered during thousands of years. And all with what warrant? All for certain reasons of apparent policy, every one of which we have found to be untrustworthy. But why needs there any detailed refutation? What can be a more extreme absurdity than that of proposing to improve social life by breaking the fundamental law of social life? - From Justice, being Part IV of the Principles of Ethics, now in press of D. Appleton & Co.

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Korean War Facts, Costs, and Timeline The History of the War and How Much Money Was Spent The Korean War was a military campaign launched by the Truman administration in response to North Korea's invasion of South Korea. It lasted from June 25, 1950, to July 27, 1953. It cost $30 billion, or $276 billion in today's dollars. The war killed 36,000 American soldiers and wounded 100,000 more. The North and South Koreans lost 620,000 soldiers and 1.6 million civilians. The war is the root cause behind ongoing crises between its participants today. The 38th parallel split the Korean peninsula in half. The 38th parallel is the circle of latitude that's 38 degrees north of the equator. The Soviet Union took the northern territory. The United States took the southern territory, making sure it had Seoul, Korea's capital. As a result, North Korea became communist and South Korea based its economy on capitalism. But dividing the country had economic consequences. Japanese occupation had left the north with most of the country's infrastructure. The Japanese had located their railroads, dams, and industry where they needed them. The south produced most of the food, particularly rice. As a result, the north needed the south for its food production. 1945: The roots of the Korean War began when the country was divided. 1949: On October 1, 1949, communist Mao Zedong took over China. 1950: In January, U.S. intelligence analysts warned that troops were massing at the border. In June 1950, North Korean and Chinese troops, armed with Soviet military equipment, invaded South Korea. On July 9, General MacArthur requested President Truman use nuclear bombs to shorten the war. Truman decided to threaten the north instead. He sent 20 B-29s, the only aircraft large enough to carry the behemoths, to Guam. The aircraft had assembled Mark 4 nuclear bombs, although without their plutonium cores. By August, the north had chased South Korean and United Nations troops south to Pusan. It seemed the north would win. In September, United Nations forces made an amphibious attack on Inchon. They retook Seoul and cut off the North Koreans' supplies. In October, UN troops invaded north of the 38th parallel. They bombed almost all military and industrial targets in North Korea. General Douglas MacArthur wanted to take over the entire country, eliminating the North Korean threat for good. But President Truman did not want to provoke China or Russia into direct conflict. His administration wanted to "keep the war little." The North Koreans fought back, with fresh reinforcements from China. The force of 200,000 troops reestablished the 38th parallel as the boundary. Truman's ploy of staging the B-29's in Guam did not deter China. Truman upped the nuclear ante by allowing nine fully operational atomic bombs to be transported to the military base in Okinawa. But they were never used. On November 30, Truman publicly declared he would use "whatever steps were necessary" to deter the communists. When asked if that included atomic weapons, he said, "That includes every weapon we have." Armistice negotiations began after a few months. But for the next two years, the two sides fought in a bitter stalemate. 1951: General Ridgeway replaced MacArthur. He initiated Operation Hudson Harbor. It used B-29s to simulate nuclear bombing runs over North Korea. 1952: Ground warfare had stalemated. Conventional bombing had destroyed almost all cities and towns in North Korea. That included 650,000 tons of bombs, including 43,000 tons of napalm bombs. Twenty percent of its population was killed. Civilians were reduced to living in caves or temporary villages hidden in canyons. 1953: On May 20, President Eisenhower and the U.S. National Security Council approved the use of nuclear bombs if China and North Korea did not agree to the Armistice. They did so on July 27, 1953. But that wasn't because of a nuclear threat from Eisenhower, as is commonly thought. It was because Soviet leader Joseph Stalin had died in March. His successors wanted to end the war. Mao Zedong and Kim Il Sung agreed. Technically, the Korean War is not over. A formal peace treaty was never signed. On October 3, the United States and South Korea signed a mutual defense treaty. South Korea granted free military bases to the United States. In return, the United States would automatically defend its ally against any attack. It wouldn't need Congressional approval. As a result, the 38th parallel became a demilitarized zone. Troops from both sides patrol it constantly. The United States has 29,000 troops in South Korea. It continues exercises in the area to remind the North it is still involved. The Korean War cost $30 billion in 1953 or 5.2 percent of the gross domestic product. Compensation benefits for Korean War veterans and families still cost $2.8 billion a year. Surviving spouses qualify for lifetime benefits if the veteran died from war wounds. Veterans' children receive benefits until age 18. If the children are disabled, they receive lifetime benefits. How the War Created the Nuclear Crisis U.S. GDP by year reveals that the war boosted the economy out of a recession caused by the end of World War II. But after the Korean War ended in 1953, it caused a mild recession. The economy contracted 0.6 percent in 1954. The U.S. threat of using nuclear weapons on North Korea helped create that country's obsession with building its own atomic bomb. After the war, the U.S. stationed nuclear missiles in South Korea, in violation of the armistice. On January 21, 1968, North Korea soldiers came within 100 meters of assassinating South Korean President Park Chung-hee. On January 23, 1968, North Koreans seized the USS Pueblo, killing one member and taking the rest hostage. They were freed 11 months later. On August 18, 1976, North Korean soldiers hacked to death two U.S. Army officers in the DMZ. The officers were cutting down a tree that blocked the view of United Nations observers. On November 29, 1987, North Korea detonated a bomb hidden on Korean Airlines Flight 858, killing 115 passengers. It was trying to upend the South Korean government and frighten participants away from the Olympics. The United States designated North Korea a state sponsor of terrorism. In 2008, President Bush lifted the designation to persuade North Korea to give up its nuclear weapons program. On November 20, 2017, President Trump reinstated the state sponsor of terrorism designation. The designation allows civil liability claims against North Korea for acts of terrorism against Americans. It also imposes more disclosure requirements on banks. The designation restricts U.S. foreign assistance and bans exports of military-related products. On November 28, North Korea launched a missile capable of reaching Washington D.C. Since it was shot straight up, it fell harmlessly off the cost of Japan. A South Korean official said North Korea could complete its nuclear weapons program in 2018, earlier than expected. What the United States Wants U.S. leaders want North Korea to halt and dismantle its nuclear weapons program. It uses economic sanctions to pressure the "Supreme Leader," Kim Jung Un, to negotiate. It wants denuclearization before agreeing to sign a peace treaty. North Korea must release a list of its atomic weapons stockpiles, production facilities, and missiles. What China Wants China wants to keep a friendly Communist country on its border. It does not want a U.S.-backed South Korea to expand north. A stable North Korea is in its best interests. China wants to avoid an implosion of North Korean refugees flooding its border. Estimates are that between 40,000 to 200,000 refugees already live in China. For that reason, it supports the regime to prevent mass starvation or revolution. That's why it continues trade despite UN sanctions. China provides 90 percent of North Korea's trade, including its food and energy. Trade between China and North Korea increased 10 times between 2000 and 2015. It peaked at $6.86 billion in 2014. In 2017, China reacted to North Korea's nuclear tests. It temporarily suspended coal imports and fuel sales. Trade in the first six months of 2017 was only $2.6 billion. China is also South Korea's top trading partner, taking in one-fourth of South Korea's exports. Conversely, South Korea is China's fourth largest trade partner. It would like to resume the Six-Party Talks to denuclearize North Korea. The talks collapsed in 2009. Before that, Japan, South Korea, and the United States joined China in supplying aid to North Korea. What North Korea Wants North Korea wants a formal peace treaty before it ends its nuclear program. The people want assurances they won't be attacked by the United States or anyone else. Kim Jung Un wants formal recognition that North Korea is a legitimate country. Kim wants a guarantee U.S. forces won't depose him like Muammar el-Qaddafi of Libya. He wants assurances he won't be eliminated like Iraq's leader Saddam Hussein. North Korean hackers found evidence of U.S. plans to do just that. Summit Between President Trump and Chairman Kim Jung Un On March 6, 2018, Kim said he was willing to hold talks with the United States about giving up its nuclear weapons program. In return, he wants a U.S. guarantee to safeguard his regime. He would also be willing to meet with South Korean President Moon Jae-in in April. It would be the third-ever summit between top leaders of the two countries. On March 8, Kim invited President Trump to a summit. Trump accepted a meeting to occur possibly in May. Trump will insist on denuclearization. Kim may only be willing to offer a freeze on further development. On April 27, Kim met with South Korean President Moon Jae-in. They agreed to work toward a peace agreement to formally end the Korean War. North Korea is shutting down its nuclear test site in May. Kim agreed to give up nuclear weapons in exchange for a U.S. security guarantee. On June 12, 2018, Chairman Kim met with President Trump at a historic summit in Singapore. The two leaders signed an agreement. In it, Trump “committed to providing security guarantees..." He also promised to suspend joint war games with South Korean forces. Kim “reaffirmed his firm and unwavering commitment to complete denuclearization..." Sanctions against North Korea remain in place. The negotiations could lead to a formal peace treaty 65 years after the war's end. On July 7, 2018, Trump administration officials met with their North Korean counterparts in Pyongyang. The U.S. goal was for North Korea to dismantle the bulk of its nuclear assets within a year. But satellite imagery taken a week earlier revealed North Korea was expanding a weapons-manufacturing plant that produced solid fuel missiles and upgraded its main nuclear research facilities. In return for denuclearization, the Trump administration promised an end to sanctions and a boost in foreign direct investment. The administration also asked for security assurances and the repatriation of the remains of U.S. soldiers killed in the Korean War. On August 10, 2018, North Korea insisted the United States declare that the Korean War is over before taking its first steps toward denuclearization. What a War With North Korea Would Look Like Today North Korea has conventional weapons near the DMZ targeted at Seoul. South Korea's capital is only 24 miles away and contains 24 million people. North Korea could also launch a chemical weapon attack. Its troops could sabotage infrastructure. The U.S. and South Korean air force would quickly end any threat from North Korea's 800 military aircraft. The allies' navy could also quickly take out the North's submarines. But North Korea has the skill in cyber-warfare to disrupt South Korea's financial and communications systems. The war would look very different if China got involved. The 1961 Sino-North Korean Treaty obligates China to intervene against unprovoked aggression. China wouldn't get involved if North Korea initiated the conflict. China doesn't really want to get into a war with the United States, its best customer. China advocates a "freeze for freeze" approach. The United States and South Korea would freeze its military exercises in exchange for a freeze in North Korea's nuclear and missile testing. China sees the 2017 U.S. Terminal High Altitude Area Defense against North Korea as a threat to its own security.

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Adansonia digitata A L. Common names: baobab, Cream of Tartar tree, monkey-bread tree, lemonade tree (Eng.); kremetartboom(Afr.); isimuku, umShimulu, isiMuhu (Zulu); ximuwu (Tsonga); mowana (Tswana); muvhuyu (Venda) SA Tree No: 467 Regarded as the largest succulent plant in the world, the baobab tree is steeped in a wealth of mystique, legend and superstition wherever it occurs in Africa. It is a tree that can provide, food, water, shelter and relief from sickness. Often referred to as 'grotesque' by some authors, the main stem of larger baobab trees may reach enormous proportions of up to 28 m in girth. Although baobab trees seldom exceed a height of 25 m. The massive, usually squat cylindrical trunk gives rise to thick tapering branches resembling a root-system, which is why it has often been referred to as the upside-down tree. There is a tale which tells of how God planted them upside-down. Many traditional Africans believe that the baobab actually grows upside-down. The stem is covered with a bark layer, which may be 50-100 mm thick. The bark is greyish brown and normally smooth but can often be variously folded and seamed from years of growth. The leaves are hand-sized and divided into 5-7 finger-like leaflets. Being deciduous, the leaves are dropped during the winter months and appear again in late spring or early summer. The large, pendulous flowers (up to 200 mm in diameter) are white and sweetly scented. They emerge in the late afternoon from large round buds on long drooping stalks, in early summer, from October to December. The flowers fall within 24 hours, turning brown and smelling quite unpleasant. Pollination by fruit bats takes place at night. The fruit is a large, egg-shaped capsule (often >120 mm), covered with a yellowish brown hairs. The fruit consists of a hard, woody outer shell with a dry, powdery substance inside that covers the hard, black, kidney-shaped seeds. The off-white, powdery substance is apparently rich in ascorbic acid. It is this white powdery substance which is soaked in water to provide a refreshing drink somewhat reminiscent of lemonade. This drink is also used to treat fevers and other complaints. This tree is slow growing, mainly due to the low rainfall it receives. Least Concern (LC), Adansonia digitata is not threatened. Distribution and habitat The baobab tree is found in areas of South Africa, Botswana, Namibia, Mozambique and other tropical African countries where suitable habitat occurs. It is restricted to hot, dry woodland on stoney, well drained soils, in frost-free areas that receive low rainfall. In South Africa it is found only in the warm parts of the Limpopo Province. It may however be cultivated in areas of higher rainfall provided they are frost free and don't experience cold winters. Derivation of name and historical aspects The name Adansonia was given to this tree to commemorate the French surgeon Michel Adanson (1727-1806); the species name digitata meaning hand-like, is in reference to the shape of the leaves. The baobab used to belong to the family, Bombacaceae, but this is now generally regarded as a subfamily of Malvaceae. Bombacaceae is tropical with about 21 genera and 150 species. It is host to some very interesting species. The balsa tree, Ochroma pyramidale from South America, is well known for its exceptionally light wood of 160kg/m2. The durian, Durio zibenthinus, is a popular and apparently delicious fruit from the east, which although being so tasty, has such a terrible odour that it is banned from hotels. The silk floss tree (Chorisia speciosa or Ceiba insignis) is a very widely planted ornamental tree in South Africa and is a sight to behold when it is in full bloom with its large, usually pink flowers. The family has a number of different baobab-type trees, also of the genus Adansonia. With one species in Australia and four species native to Madagascar, the most spectacular, A. grandidieri, reaches a staggering 40 m in height, only bearing branches at the very top of the tall, thick trunk. The family is also well known for the kapok tree, Ceiba pentandra, which is native to the equatorial rain forests of South America, Africa and India. The kapok tree has been widely cultivated in the tropics, for the prized kapok fibre produced by the seed pods, which was used to stuff pillows among other uses. A number of significantly large, historical baobab trees can be seen in the Limpopo Province: The Sagole Baobab is recorded as being the biggest tree in South Africa with a stem diameter of 10.47 m, a height of 22 m and a crown spread of 38.2 m. It grows east of Tshipise. The Glencoe Baobab near Hoedspruit is probably the second largest and bears several trunks. It has a stem diameter of 15.9 m, a height of 17 m and a crown spread of 37.05 m. This tree has dates carved on the stem from 1893 and 1896. The Platland Baobab that grows near Duiwelskloof, today houses a pub. It has a stem diameter of 10.64 m, a height of 19 m, and a crown spread of 30.2 m. The Buffesldrift Baobab which is in the Makopane District, has a distinct trunk with a diameter of 7.71 m, a height of 22 m and a crown spread of 30.2 m. The Sunland Baobab in Modjadjiskloof was 22 m high, and some 47 m in circumference, but a third of it fell down in August 2016 and the rest in April 2017. Bats primarily pollinate the large white flowers with their ruffled petals at night, although many different insects and other creatures such as birds will visit the sweetly scented flowers. The flowers, being white, are more visible at night and being sweetly scented also help to attract a wide variety of potential pollinators. The seed capsule does not split open, instead it hangs on the tree until it gets blown off by wind or gets collected by monkeys, baboons or people who all enjoy the soft powdery substance that covers the seeds. The seeds are not generally eaten by animals and are discarded, thus effecting dispersal. Large baobab trees with hollow stems have been used by people for centuries for various purposes including houses, prisons, pubs, storage barns, and even as bus stops! A big tree in the old Transvaal region is recorded as once being used as a dairy. Another tree near Leydsdorp was used as a bar (known as the Murchison Club) and utilized by prospectors and miners during the gold rush of the late 19th century. One such tree in the Caprivi Strip was converted into a toilet, complete with a flushing system. Rainwater often collects in the clefts of the large branches, and travelers and local people often use this valuable source of water. It has been recorded that in some cases the centre of the tree is purposely hollowed out to serve as a reservoir for water during the rainy season. One such reservoir was recorded as holding 4 546 litres of water. A hole is drilled in the trunk and a plug inserted so that water can be easily retrieved by removing the plug. The roots of the baobab can also be tapped for water. African honey bees (Apis mellifera) often utilize hollows in the baobab to make their hives. One can often see a 'ladder' of pegs hammered into the trunk which is used by seasonal honey harvesters to gain access to the hives. The leaves are said to be rich in vitamin C, sugars, potassium tartrate, and calcium. They are cooked fresh as a vegetable or dried and crushed for later use by local people. The sprout of a young tree can be eaten like asparagus. The root of very young trees is also reputed to be edible. The seeds are also edible and can also be roasted for use as a coffee substitute. Caterpillars, which feed on the leaves, are collected and eaten by African people as an important source of protein. Wild animals eat the fallen leaves and fresh leaves are said to be good fodder for domestic animals. The fallen flowers are relished by wild animals and cattle alike. When the wood is chewed, it provides vital moisture to relieve thirst. Humans as well as certain animals eat it in times of drought. There are many legends and superstitions surrounding the baobab tree. For example, it is believed that an elephant frightened the maternal ancestor of the baobab. In some parts the baobab is worshipped as a symbol of fertility. It is a belief among certain people that spirits inhabit the flowers of the baobab and that any person who picks a flower will be eaten by a lion. It is also believed that water in which the seeds have been soaked will offer protection against attack by crocodile, while sucking or eating the seeds may attract crocodiles. It is also believed that a man who drinks an infusion of the bark will become strong. In some areas a baby boy should be bathed in such a bark infusion, as this will make him strong; however, he should not be bathed for too long or he may become obese. It is also important that this water does not touch his head for this could cause it to swell. When inhabitants move from one area to another they often take seeds of the baobab with them, which they plant at their new homestead. The bark on the lower part of the trunk often bears scars caused by local people who harvest and pound it to retrieve the strong fibre. The fibrous bark is used to make various useful items such as mats and ropes, fishing nets, fishing lines, sacks as well as clothing. Although the bark is often heavily stripped by people and elephants, these trees do not suffer as a normal tree would from ringbarking. Baobabs have the ability to simply continue growing and produce a new layer of bark. The wood of the baobab is soft, light yellow and spongy, and although it has been recorded as being used for making boxes, this does not seem to be a widely used practice. Many references have made mention of the exceptional vitality of this tree, noting that even after the entire tree is cut down it simply resprouts from the root and continues to grow; the same is noted of trees which have been blown over in storms. Despite this remarkable vitality, when a tree dies it collapses into a heap of soggy, fibrous pulp. Stories exist of how such quickly decomposing trees spontaneously combust and get completely burnt up. More than 260 years ago baobabs were apparently successfully grown in England and had reached heights of 5-6 m, but were all destroyed in the heavy frosts of 1740. Surprisingly few baobabs have found their way into cultivation, possibly due to their reputation of being exceptionally slow growing. The baobab was declared a protected tree under the Forest Act in South Africa in 1941. Determining the age of baobabs: Much speculation in literature over many years have made certain estimates of the age of certain large trees and their rate of growth. More recent work using carbon-dating techniques as well as the study of core samples showing growth rings, suggest that a tree with a diameter of 10 m may be as old as 2000 years. Growing Adansonia digitata Baobabs are quite easily grown from seed although they are seldom available in nurseries. Seed can be collected from dry fruits by cracking the fruit open and washing away the dry, powdery coating. The dark brown to black, kidney-shaped seeds should be soaked in a container of hot water and allowed to cool, they may then be sown after soaking for 24 hrs. Seeds are best sown in spring and summer in a well-drained seedling mixture containing one-third sand. Cover the seed with sand to a depth of 4-6 mm, place the trays in a warm semi-shaded position and water regularly until the seeds have all germinated. Germination may take from two to six weeks. Seedlings should be carefully monitored for damping off fungus, which can be treated with a fungicidal drench. Transplant the seedlings once they are 50 mm high into individual containers, preferably in a sandy soil with some well-rotted compost and bone meal. Baobabs grow reasonably quickly when they are young. They will make a handsome addition to a large garden, estate, or large parkland providing the soil is not waterlogged. Baobabs cannot tolerate even mild frost. When they are young, baobabs do not resemble their adult counterparts, the stems are thin and inconspicuous, and their leaves are simple and not divided into the five to seven lobes of the adult trees. Saplings can be effectively grown in containers or tubs for many years before becoming too large and requiring to be planted into the ground. In this manner one can move them out of the cold into a warm position in a glasshouse or indoors behind a sunny window to prevent frost damage. - Coates Palgrave, K.; P. & M. 1985. Everyone's guide to trees of South Africa. Struik, Cape Town. - Esterhuyse, N., Von Breitenbach, J. & Söhnge, H. 2001. Remarkable trees of South Africa. Briza Publications, Pretoria. - Germishuizen, G. & Meyer, N.L. (eds) 2003. Plants of southern Africa: an annotated checklist. Strelitzia 14. National Botanical Institute, Pretoria. - Kubitzki, K & Bayer, C. 2003. The families and genera of vascular plants, vol. 5. Springer, Heidelberg. - Palmer, E. & Pitman, N. 1972. Trees of southern Africa, vol. 2. Balkema, Cape Town. - Venter, F. & Venter, J. 1985. Making the most of indigenous trees. Briza Publications, Pretoria. Walter Sisulu National Botanical Garden February 2004, updated 2017 Plant Type: Tree SA Distribution: Limpopo Soil type: Sandy Flowering season: Early Summer Flower colour: White Aspect: Full Sun Gardening skill: Easy

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Respect for the environment In architecture, utmost respect for the environment must be displayed. The way architecture is conceived, created and used must confirm that there is a peaceful co-existence between people and the environment, and between the realms of natural and built environments. Architecture must be an environment-conscious enterprise, realizing and then inviting and accommodating nature’s advantages, and also realising and then repelling its disadvantages. In other words, architecture must be sustainable. At the very outset of the mosque-building process, the Prophet (SAW) taught his companions a lesson in sustainable use of the environment. In a place earmarked for building the Prophet’s Mosque were the graves of some pagans, and there were some date palms on it. The Prophet (SAW) ordered that the graves of the pagans be dug up, the unlevelled land be levelled, and the trees be cut down. The cut date palms were not wasted. Rather, they were later reused as an alignment towards the qiblah of the mosque forming a wall (al-Bukhārī, 8: 420). We have already said that at first, the Prophet (SAW) used to lean against a tree absorbed by building or just a palm-trunk fixed in the ground when delivering his addresses (khuṭbah) in the mosque. However, some time later, a pulpit (minbar) was made for him. On the first occasion when the Prophet (SAW) used the pulpit and abandoned the palm-trunk, the latter yearned and even cried like an infant because it was sad and it missed the Prophet (SAW) knowing that the Prophet (SAW) did not need it anymore. The Prophet (SAW) then descended from the pulpit, came to the trunk and rubbed it with his hands till the tree stopped crying. The trunk (tree) stayed where it was until the mosque was rebuilt and enlarged by the third caliph Uthman ibn ‘Affan when it was either buried somewhere in the mosque proper or was taken away by the Prophet’s companion Ubayy ibn Ka’b. The latter kept the trunk (tree) with him until it was eaten by woodworms (Al-Samhūdī, 1997). Also, the ground of the mosque was bare at first. However, one night it rained profusely and the ground became too wet to be prostrated on. As a result, some people brought along some pebbles to overcome the problem. After prayer, having seen what some of his companions had done, the Prophet (SAW) said, “This is a very good idea” (Al-Samhūdī, 1997; p. 655). Afterwards, the whole area of the mosque was strewn with pebbles (Al-Samhūdī, 1997). Strewing the mosque ground with pebbles proved very advantageous as pebbles allowed rainwater to go through to the ground and once absorbed by it no muddy areas could thus be created inside the mosque. During dry spells, on the other hand, the ground without pebbles would have been dusty and the mosque ambiance occasionally unpleasant, as dust could be easily stirred up and fill the air. Since the mosque ground was covered with pebbles, it took a longer time to dry out after rain, or after any ground watering exercise, thus allowing for longer evaporation and cooling of the surface. In the winter, no matter how uncomfortably cold pebbles might have been, yet the condition was by far better than one generated by bare and frequently wet ground. Also, the presence of pebbles was very helpful because generally some of the thermal qualities of many stone types are that they have a high level of resistance and a low level of thermal conductivity. Since cleanliness – be it the cleanliness of the body, dwelling places, courtyards, streets, markets, rivers and the whole surroundings – constitutes a branch of faith (īmān) in Islam, as declared by the Prophet (SAW) (Muslim, 3: 328), Islamic architecture must be known for typifying and promoting it. The Prophet (SAW) was very much concerned about the cleanliness of the whole of the city-state of Madīnah in general, and about the cleanliness of his mosque in particular. He also said that Allah is clean and loves cleanliness (al-Tirmidhī, 43: 2723). When the Prophet’s Mosque was first put in use in the beginning, some people were not totally cleanliness-conscious; they were most likely those who had freshly entered the fold of the new religion. Among other things, they had the habit of spitting and expectorating phlegm inside the mosque without doing away with it afterwards or covering it up. The Prophet (SAW) disliked the habit very much but the matter needed to be cured gradually and with a great deal of wisdom and goodly counsel. Thus, he advised those who did this that phlegm be scraped off and the place be overlaid with saffron or crocus (za‘farān) or anything else which is pleasant and fragrant. The Prophet (SAW) himself on a couple of occasions scraped off some people’s spit after having seen that it had been left behind. He would likewise shower with praises those who did the same. Towards this end there is a ḥadīth (tradition) wherein the Prophet (SAW) said that whoever does away with a disturbance from a mosque, God will build a house for him in Paradise (Jannah) (Ibn Mājah, 5: 749). In the mosque, there always was plenty of water meant for the cleanliness of the mosque as well as its users (Muslim, 34: 4682). An Abyssinian (Ethiopian) woman (or man, according to some sources) later took up the chore of looking after the cleanliness of the mosque. So high a regard did the Prophet (SAW) have for her that he told her one day that a double portion of reward would await her. When she died, however, some people treated her as of little consequence and buried her without informing the Prophet (SAW). However, on discovering that she was missing, he asked concerning her. When told what had happened, he replied that they should have informed him. Then, he asked to be shown her grave where he prayed for her (al-Bukhārī, 8: 438). Islamic architecture with all its aspects must embody the notion of comprehensive excellence because this is what is prescribed for Muslims in all situations and in all of their undertakings. The spirit of excellence and the striving for it must be felt at every stage and in every aspect of the process of creating buildings, from choosing a site and conceptualising and making a design, over a selection of building materials and quality of work, to the final execution of buildings and the activation of their function as environment-friendly, energy-efficient, and catering to the exact needs of their users. Excellence is to be a culture; it is not to be reduced to a mere slogan. Excellence is to be seen, not just heard. Striving for excellence is what Allah loves and what Islamic cultures and civilization ought to be famous for. Conversely, deliberate mediocrity, or that which stems from routine negligence or indolence, is what Allah loathes and what ought to be alien to genuine Islamic cultures and civilization. Due to both its conceptual and practical connotations, the significance of the concept of comprehensive excellence had to be advocated during the earliest stages of building the Madīnah community. That was exactly what happened. Building his mosque as the first urban element in the course of urbanizing the city of Madīnah, the Prophet (SAW) used that opportunity to educate the Muslims on many issues including that of comprehensive excellence. It is reported that in course of building the mosque a man from Ḥaḍramawt in the southern Arabian Peninsula was expertly treading clay for the making of the bricks with which the mosque was built. On seeing him, the Prophet (SAW) said, “May Allah have mercy upon him who excels in his profession.” To the man he said, “Keep doing this job for I see that you excel in it.” (Al-Samhūdī, 1997; p. 333) Another man from al-Yamāmah in the east of the Arabian Peninsula reported that he came to the Prophet (SAW) when the latter was building his mosque with his companions. However, he realised that the Prophet (SAW) did not really like how the people worked. The man said that he then took a shovel to work the clay and the Prophet (SAW) seemed to have liked how he was doing the job. The Prophet (SAW) then said: “Leave al-Ḥanafī (the man’s name) and the clay alone, for I see that he is the most competent among you to handle the clay.” (Al-Samhūdī, 1997; p. 333). In another account, the Prophet (SAW) said, “Bring al-Yamāmī (another name for the man) closer to the clay because he is the most excellent among you in handling it” (Al-Samhūdī, 1997; p. 334). The Prophet (SAW) is also said to have called the man “the proprietor or lord of the clay, ṣāḥib al-tīn” (Al-Samhūdī, 1997; p. 334). (The section of the Prophet’s mosque today, which was the mosque’s original site during the Prophet’s time.)

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The Russian Federation has a highly centralized, authoritarian political system dominated by President Vladimir Putin. The bicameral Federal Assembly consists of a directly elected lower house (State Duma) and an appointed upper house (Federation Council), both of which lack independence from the executive. The 2016 State Duma elections and the 2018 presidential election were marked by accusations of government interference and manipulation of the electoral process, including the exclusion of meaningful opposition candidates. The Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Federal Security Service (FSB), the Investigative Committee, the Office of the Prosecutor General, and the National Guard are responsible for law enforcement. The FSB is responsible for state security, counterintelligence, and counterterrorism as well as for fighting organized crime and corruption. The national police force, under the Ministry of Internal Affairs, is responsible for combating all crime. The National Guard assists the FSB Border Guard Service in securing borders, administers gun control, combats terrorism and organized crime, protects public order, and guards important state facilities. The National Guard also participates in armed defense of the country’s territory in coordination with Ministry of Defense forces. Except in rare cases, security forces generally reported to civilian authorities. National-level civilian authorities, however, had, at best, limited control over security forces in the Republic of Chechnya, which were accountable only to the head of Chechnya, Ramzan Kadyrov. The country’s occupation and purported annexation of Ukraine’s Crimean Peninsula continued to affect the human rights situation there significantly and negatively. The Russian government continued to arm, train, lead, and fight alongside Russia-led forces in eastern Ukraine. Credible observers attributed thousands of civilian deaths and injuries, as well as numerous abuses, to Russia-led forces in Ukraine’s Donbas region (see the Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for Ukraine). Authorities also conducted politically motivated arrests, detentions, and trials of Ukrainian citizens in Russia, many of whom claimed to have been tortured. Significant human rights issues included: extrajudicial killings, including of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex (LGBTI) persons in Chechnya by local government authorities; enforced disappearances; pervasive torture by government law enforcement personnel that sometimes resulted in death and occasionally involved sexual violence or punitive psychiatric incarceration; harsh and life-threatening conditions in prisons; arbitrary arrest and detention; political prisoners; severe arbitrary interference with privacy; severe suppression of freedom of expression and media, including the use of “antiextremism” and other laws to prosecute peaceful dissent; violence against journalists; blocking and filtering of internet content and banning of online anonymity; severe suppression of the right of peaceful assembly; severe suppression of freedom of association, including overly restrictive laws on “foreign agents” and “undesirable foreign organizations”; severe restrictions of religious freedom; refoulement of refugees; severe limits on participation in the political process, including restrictions on opposition candidates’ ability to seek public office and conduct political campaigns, and on the ability of civil society to monitor election processes; widespread corruption at all levels and in all branches of government; coerced abortion and sterilization; trafficking in persons; and crimes involving violence or threats of violence against persons with disabilities, LGBTI persons, and members of ethnic minorities. The government failed to take adequate steps to prosecute or punish most officials who committed abuses, resulting in a climate of impunity. Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons Acts of Violence, Discrimination, and Other Abuses Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity The law criminalizes the distribution of “propaganda” of “nontraditional sexual relations” to minors and effectively limits the rights of free expression and assembly for citizens who wish to advocate publicly for rights or express the opinion that homosexuality is normal. Examples of what the government considered LGBTI propaganda included materials that “directly or indirectly approve of persons who are in nontraditional sexual relationships” (see section 2.a.). The law does not prohibit discrimination against LGBTI persons in housing or employment or in access to government services, such as health care. During the year there were reports of state actors’ committing violence against LGBTI individuals based on their sexual orientation or gender identity, particularly in the Republic of Chechnya (see sections 1.a. and 1.c.). There were reports government agents attacked, harassed, and threatened LGBTI activists. For example, on June 17, an LGBTI activist from Novocherkassk told media outlets that an officer from the Ministry of Internal Affairs’ Center for Combating Extremism had surveilled and harassed him in early June and then attacked him on June 14. Doctors diagnosed him with a closed head injury and concussion. When he went to file a police report, the officers allegedly laughed and joked about his situation. Openly gay men were particular targets of societal violence, and police often failed to respond adequately to such incidents. For example, according to the Russian LGBT Network, in July police refused to reopen a criminal case into the 2017 beating of Volgograd teenager, Vlad Pogorelov, because they did not see “hatred and enmity” as the assailants’ motive. Instead, they fined each of the attackers 5,000 rubles ($78). In June 2018 Pogorelov had filed a complaint with the local prosecutor’s office against the local police decision to close a criminal investigation into the 2017 attack. Pogorelov, then 17 years old, was lured into a meeting by homophobic persons posing as gay youth on a dating website. They beat and robbed Pogorelov, who filed a police report. Police opened a criminal investigation into the attack but closed it within a month, citing the “low significance” of the attack and informing Pogorelov that police were unable to protect LGBTI persons. According to the Russian LGBT Network, the case was emblematic of authorities’ unwillingness to investigate adequately or consider homophobia as a motive in attacks on LGBTI persons. There were reports that authorities failed to respond when credible threats of violence were made against LGBTI persons. For example, authorities failed to investigate the appearance of a website in spring 2018 called the Homophobic Game “Saw,” which called for acts of violence against specific LGBTI persons and human rights defenders. While the site was blocked several times by Roskomnadzor, it would periodically reappear under a new domain name. After the July 23 killing of LGBTI activist Yelena Grigoryeva, whose name appeared on the “Saw” list, the site was blocked again. Although police arrested a suspect on August 1 who apparently confessed to the crime, authorities gave no indication of his motive, and human rights defenders believed that investigators were pursuing the theory that the killing was unrelated to Grigoryeva’s activism for the rights of LGBTI persons. On August 4, the Ministry of Internal Affairs informed individuals who had filed a complaint about the “Saw” site that, since the site was blocked and inaccessible, they were unable to investigate its contents. On August 14, the FSB informed the individuals who filed the complaint about the site that they had examined it and found no evidence of a crime. In April 2018 the Russian LGBT Network released a report that documented 104 incidents of physical violence, including 11 killings, towards LGBTI persons in 2016-17. The report noted the continuing trend of groups and individuals luring gay men on fake dates to beat, humiliate, and rob them. The report noted that police often claimed to have found no evidence of a crime or refused to recognize attacks on LGBTI persons as hate crimes, which impeded investigations and perpetrators’ being fully held to account. During investigations of attacks, LGBTI persons risked being outed by police to their families and colleagues. LGBTI persons often declined to report attacks against them due to fears police would mistreat them or publicize their sexual orientation or gender identity. There were reports that police conducted involuntary physical exams of transgender or intersex persons. For example, according to press reports, on May 1, police in Makhachkala, Dagestan, arrested Olga Moskvitina, who is intersex, at a protest. When police discovered that she was marked as male in her passport, she was forced to strip to the waist so that officers could examine her and was questioned about her genitals. She was reportedly humiliated and threatened by the officers. On May 1, her personal identifying information was published on social networks along with threats against her, which Moskvitina believed was done by or with the support of local police. On May 5, Moskvitina’s landlord was reportedly visited by plainclothes officers, who pressured him to evict her from her apartment, which he did. The Association of Russian Speaking Intersex reported that medical specialists often pressured intersex persons (or their parents, if they were underage) into having so-called normalization surgery without providing accurate information about the procedure or what being intersex means. The law prohibiting the “propaganda of nontraditional sexual orientations” restricted freedom of expression, association, and peaceful assembly for LGBTI persons and their supporters (see sections 2.a. and 2.b.). LGBTI persons reported significant societal stigma and discrimination, which some attributed to official promotion of intolerance and homophobia. High levels of employment discrimination against LGBTI persons reportedly persisted (see section 7.d.) Activists asserted that the majority of LGBTI persons hid their sexual orientation or gender identity due to fear of losing their jobs or homes as well as the risk of violence. LGBTI students, as well as those suspected of being LGBTI persons, also reported discrimination at schools and universities. Roman Krasnov, a vice rector at the Ural State University of Economics in Yekaterinburg, admitted that the institution monitored the social media accounts of its students in order to ensure that they showed proper “moral character,” which students claimed was monitoring targeted at LGBTI individuals. A student who wished to remain anonymous told media outlets in September that Krasnov threatened him with expulsion after his social media accounts showed that he might identify as LGBTI because he was sympathetic to LGBTI matters. Medical practitioners reportedly continued to limit or deny LGBTI persons health services due to intolerance and prejudice. The Russian LGBT Network’s report indicated that, upon disclosing their sexual orientation or gender identity, LGBTI individuals often encountered strong negative reactions and the presumption they were mentally ill. Transgender persons faced difficulty updating their names and gender markers on government documents to reflect their gender identity because the government had not established standard procedures, and many civil registry offices denied their requests. When documents failed to reflect their gender identity, transgender persons often faced harassment by law enforcement officers and discrimination in accessing health care, education, housing, transportation, and employment. There were reports that LGBTI persons faced discrimination in the area of parental rights. The law does not allow for same-sex couples to adopt children together, only as individuals. The Russian LGBT Network reported that LGBTI parents often feared that the country’s prohibition on the “propaganda of nontraditional sexual orientation” to minors would be used to remove custody of their children. For example, Andrey Vaganov and Yevgeniy Yerofeyev fled the country in August after the Investigative Committee announced that it had opened a criminal negligence case against the officials who had allowed the adoption of their two sons. Although the couple had married in Denmark in 2016, only Vaganov had a legal relationship to the children. A statement on the Investigative Committee’s website accused the men of “promoting nontraditional relationships, giving the children distorted perceptions about family values and harming their health and their moral and spiritual development.” The state learned that the children were living with two fathers after a doctor treating one of the children reported it to police. The couple told media outlets they had no choice but to leave the country in view of the probability that their children would be removed from their home.

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Jørgen Jørgensen (name of birth: Jürgensen, and changed to Jorgenson from 1817) (29 March 1780 – 20 January 1841) was a Danish adventurer during the Age of Revolution. During the Action of 2 March 1808 his ship was captured by the British. In 1809 he sailed to Iceland, declared the country independent from Denmark and pronounced himself its ruler. He intended to found a new republic following the United States and the French First Republic. He was also a prolific writer of letters, papers, pamphlets and newspaper articles covering a wide variety of subjects, and for a period was an associate of the famous botanists Joseph Banks and William Jackson Hooker. He left over a hundred written autographs and drawings, most of which are collected in the British Library. Marcus Clarke referred to Jørgensen as "a singularly accomplished fortune wooer—one of the most interesting human comets recorded in history". Jørgen Jørgensen by Eckersberg |Died||20 January 1841 (aged 60)| |Other names||the Dog-Days King| |Title||Protector of Iceland| Jørgensen was born as the second son of the royal watchmaker Jurgen Jurgensen. Two of his brothers were watchmakers; the elder, Urban Jurgensen, was of international renown. At the age of 15, Jørgensen finished school and was apprenticed to Captain Henry Marwood of the British collier Janeon. In 1799 he sailed to Cape Town and from there in 1800 to Port Jackson, the new British colony in Australia and to New Zealand. In 1801 he joined the crew of the Lady Nelson. As a member of that crew, Jørgensen was present at the establishment of the first settlements of Risdon Cove and Sullivans Cove in Van Diemen's Land, as Tasmania was then called. He has been called the founder of the city of Hobart Town, now Hobart, and is still a local hero. In 1807, while Jørgensen was visiting his family, he witnessed the Battle of Copenhagen and soon afterwards was given command of a small Danish vessel, Admiral Juul. In 1808 he engaged in a sea battle with HMS Sappho; the British captured Admiral Juul and treated Jørgensen as a privateer. In 1809, while on parole, he suggested to a merchant that a voyage to Iceland could be profitable as the island was suffering from food shortages at the time, due to the Danish monopoly on Icelandic trade. Jørgensen accompanied the voyage of the Clarence as an interpreter. That voyage failed to trade any goods as the ship was British and by that time Denmark and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland were at war. Soon after, Jørgensen sailed on a second voyage. On arrival in Iceland the ship's crew found the Danish Governor, Count of Trampe, would still not permit trading. With the help of other crew members, Jørgensen managed to arrest the governor and proclaimed himself 'Protector', promising that he would reinstate the Althing as soon as the Icelandic people were able to govern themselves. His intent was to establish a liberal society in the spirit of those emerging in the Americas and Europe at the time. With the arrival of HMS Talbot two months later, Danish government was restored and Jørgensen was taken back to England and tried by the Transport Board, who found him guilty of breaking his parole while a prisoner-of-war. He was released in 1811. Jørgensen spent the next few years in London, where he began to drink heavily and gamble compulsively, building up substantial debts which eventually led to his conviction and incarceration. When released from prison in 1812, he travelled to Spain, Portugal and Gibraltar and upon his return to England was again imprisoned when his creditors caught up with him. Following correspondence with the British Foreign Office, Jørgensen was recruited into the intelligence service, where he translated documents and travelled throughout France and Germany as a spy as the Napoleonic Wars drew to a close. In 1815 Jørgensen witnessed the Battle of Waterloo. While he was never involved in the battle, he was situated relatively close to some of the action. Upon returning to England, Jørgensen continued to write various reports, papers and articles but after being accused of theft in 1820, was imprisoned in Newgate Prison, released, and sent back there when he failed to leave Britain (a condition of his parole). A sentence of death was commuted thanks to the actions of a prominent friend and he spent another three years in Newgate before he was transported to Australia in 1825. After five months at sea, Jørgensen arrived back in Tasmania in 1826. In 1827, after he helped prevent the circulation of forged treasury bills, a group of local merchants headed by Anthony Fenn Kemp petitioned the governor for Jørgensen to be granted a ticket of leave. Jørgensen led several explorations of Tasmania, and was employed by the Van Diemen's Land Council as a Constable, taking part in the 'Black Line' aboriginal clearance exercise. Jørgensen obtained a free pardon in 1835 but remained in Tasmania. He married an Irish convict, Norah Corbett, in 1831 and died in the Colonial Hospital on 20 January 1841. - Efterretninger om Englændernes og Nordamerikanernes Fart og Handel paa Sydhavet, Copenhagen 1807 - The Copenhagen Expedition Traced to Other Causes than the Treaty of Tilsit; with Observations on the History and Present State of Denmark by a Dane, London 1811 - State of Christianity in the Island of Otaheite, and a Defence of the Pure Precepts of the Gospel, against Modern Antichrists, with Reasons for the Ill Success which Attends Christian Missionaries in their Attempts to Convert the Heathens, by a Foreign Traveller, Reading 1811 - Travels through France and Germany in the Years 1815, 1816 & 1817. Comprising a View of the Moral, Political, and Social State of those Countries. Interspersed with Numerous Historical and Political Anecdotes, Derived from Authentic Sources, London 1817 - The Religion of Christ is the Religion of Nature. Written in the Condemned Cells of Newgate. By Jorgen Jorgenson, Late Governor of Iceland, London 1827. - ”History of the Origin, Rise, and Progress of the Van Diemen's Land Company” Six articles published in the Colonial Advocate, and Tasmanian Monthly Review and Register, Hobart 1828, a revised version was published in London in 1829 and a republished in 1979. - Observations on the Funded System; Containing a Summary View of the Present Political State of Great Britain, and the Relative Situation in which the Colony of Van Diemen's Land Stands towards the Mother Country, Hobart 1831 - An Address to the Free Colonists of Van Diemen's Land, on Trial by Jury, and our Other Constitutional Rights, Hobart 1834 - ”A Shred of Autobiography, Containing Various Anecdotes, Personal and Historical, Connected with these Colonies” Two sections published in The Hobart Town Almanack, and Van Diemen's Land Annual for 1835 and The Hobart Town Almanack, and Van Diemen's Land Annual for 1838, Hobart 1838. - ”Aboriginal Languages in Tasmania” in Tasmania Journal of Natural Science, Agriculture, Statistics, etc. Tasmanian Government Printer Hobart & John Murray, London 1842 - Letter from Jürgensen dated September 11, 1835 to his brother Frederik (Fritz) Jürgensen. Published in Personalhistorisk Tidsskrift 9. rk., I. bind 1928, Copenhagen 1929, ss. 82-89. - Hogan, J F The Convict King (1891) - Clarke, Marcus Old Tales of a Young Country (1871) - Clune, Frank and Stephensen, P R The Viking of Van Diemen's Land (1954) - Magris, Claudio Alla cieca (2006) - Plomley, N J B Jorgen Jorgenson and the Aborigines of Van Diemen's Land (1991) - Richards, Rhys, Jorgen Jorgenson’s observations on Pacific trade, and sealing and whaling in Australian and New Zealand waters before 1805, Wellington, Paremata Press, 1996. - Sprod, Dan, The Usurper; Jorgen Jorgenson and his turbulent life in Iceland and Van Diemen’s Land, 1780-1841, Hobart, Blubber Head Press, 2001. - Stockwin, Julian Persephone (2017) |Wikisource has original works written by or about:| - Wilde, W H, Oxford Companion to Australian Literature 2nd ed. ISBN 0-19-553381-X - Jupp, James. The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, Its People and Their Origins. Cambridge University Press, 2001. ISBN 9780521807890, p. 22 - James Dally, "Jorgenson, Jorgen (1780–1841)", Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 2, Melbourne University Press, 1967, pp 26–28. - Sarah Bakewell, The English Dane - Shakespeare, N (2010) In Tasmania: Adventures at the End of the World, Random House, P92 - The Mythic Mutiny of Tolleif Thomsen - Australian Broadcasting Commission, 22 September 2003, transcript of television program on Jorgen Jorgenson - A biography of Jørgensen as Governor of Iceland | King of Iceland 26 June 1809 – 22 August 1809 as Governor of Iceland

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Sino-Japanese Naval War 1894-1895 This new book covers the Sino-Japanese Naval War 1894-1895, a little-known part of late 19thC naval history. The First Sino–Japanese War (1 August 1894 – 17 April 1895) was fought between Qing Dynasty China and Meiji Japan, primarily over control of Korea. After more than six months of continuous successes by the Japanese army and naval forces, as well as the loss of the Chinese port of Weihai, the Qing leadership sued for peace in February 1895. The background, operations and outcomes are described in detail. All the ships involved, both Japanese and Chinese, are described and illustrated with full technical specifications. Profusely illustrated with scale drawings, maps, drawings and rare photos. Brief author biog./credentials: Resident in Gdansk, Poland, Piotr Olender is Polish naval historian. He has published many articles and book on naval history. Scott Van Aken The time around the turn of the 19th century was one where there was quite a bit of naval activity in the far east. This activity involved the French and Chinese, the Japanese and Chinese, and the Russians and Japanese. In both of the wars in which the Japanese were involved, they came out as the victor as did the French. MMP has already covered the Sino-Franco and the Russo-Japanese wars and so now turns it attention to the Sino-Japanese war of 1894 and 1895. This is one of those wars where the combination of both land based and nautical elements were in conflict. Those who are not that well versed in the political situation of the time, China was split into several semi-autonomous regions with the central government only holding a tenuous rule. This was true in terms of the army as well as the navy. This had helped European powers from waging and winning several wars against the Chinese, the results of which had not only cost the Chinese dearly in terms of money, but also in concessions to these nations. The Japanese saw all this and wanted some of the action as well. During all this time, the Korean peninsula was nominally Chinese, though had its own rich heritage of rulers. The Japanese wanted to basically control what went on in Korea and had been trying to take it over for a considerable time (as in centuries). Korea was a country of extreme isolationism, killing any Europeans who tried to get a foothold in the country. It was seriously feudal in nature and managed to fend off both French and US attempts at relations. However, the Japanese were able to gain a toe-hold at a time when Korean intrigue was at a high and this started a series of violent political changes (as in assassinations) at the highest level. Finally, in the mid-1870s, Japan recognized Korea as a separate country, which frustrated the Chinese who had considered Korea to be in their sphere of influence. Eventually, there were clashes between the Japanese and Chinese troops based in Seoul and the Sino-Japanese war began. The Japanese wanted to land troops in Korea but were unable to do so because of the presence of a powerful Chinese fleet, the Pieyang Fleet. On paper, the Chinese fleet had the upper hand, mostly due to the presence of two Chinese battleships. The Japanese did not believe in heavily armored battle ships and instead had smaller ships with some huge guns. This was a fad at the time to equip a small ship with a large calibre gun, but as this war showed, this didn't work well as the smaller ship made for a less stable firing platform. The Chinese battleships also proved to be impervious to Japanese shells, thanks to all its armor plating. However, as is often the case, the superior tactics of the Japanese and poor leadership of the Chinese, both on the water and on the land determined the course of the war. I don't want to ruin the book for you so will say little more about things. Needless to say, the author had done his work on this one and helps to tell what could be a complex story in a manner that is relatively easy to follow. I say relatively as this reader has trouble with a lot of non-English names and you can't get much more non-English than Chinese! It took me quite a while to finish the book, but it was very much worth the time spent to read it cover to cover. There are superb period photos of the ships, many of which were still full rigged. An excellent batch of drawings and maps help to keep both the land war and the naval war in context. In addition, there is an excellent set of appendices that include some very well done profile line drawings of many of the participating ships. I personally found it neat to read of the predecessors of many famous WWII Japanese ships such as the gunboat Akagi and the small cruiser Yamato. In all, it is an outstanding book and I doubt if you'll find anything better on the subject. It is a book that I give my highest recommendation. By David L. Veres The mid-1890s naval war between China and Japan proved pivotal in the history of modern Pacific combat. Now historian Piotr Olender deftly distills and competently chronicles the conflict's origins, operations and outcomes in Sino-Japanese Naval War 1894-1895. MMP's superb study – available in North America from Casemate – begins with two chapters recapping each country's political and military position. Decades of internal divisions, foreign intervention and battlefield defeats had systemically weakened China. Japan, by contrast, overcame internal strife and isolationist inclinations to forge an homogenous – and expansionist – national identity. Events in Korea propelled both nations to conflict. Author Olender then girds the reader for battle with details of comparative combatant strengths and strategy – including organizational, command, training, logistics, cultural and morale factors. Background notes also cover defense expenditures, harbor facilities, weapons and warship acquisitions. Text next turns to 17 concise, lavishly illustrated and admirably annotated chapters on combat operations. Control of the sea proved critical to Japan's rapid, three-phase plan to conquer Korea. And China's northern Peiyang Fleet – with elements of two Chinese southern formations – proved the main barrier to Japanese success. Events move from initial skirmishes through operations at Yalu and Port Arthur to China's naval defeat at Weihaiwei. Concluding sections cover peace negotiations, final Japanese actions against the Pescadores and Taiwan, and an assessment of the fighting. Where appropriate, details of land operations also augment Olender's narrative. Photos, annotations, maps, charts, tables, bibliography, index and transliteration notes season MMP's superb study. Five appendices recap participating vessels, naval artillery, torpedoes, comparative service ranks, and Japanese ship commanders. And a concluding section showcases 1:350 starboard drawings of 36 Chinese and Japanese warships. But as with MMP's equally excellent Sino-French Naval War 1884-1885, maps proved problematic. Details sometimes differ between graphics, causing confusion. And Olender only offers small battlefield views – with no map of the whole Korea/Manchuria/Yellow Sea theater of operations to put local actions into clear geographic context. Gripes aside, I loved MMP's enormously informative effort. The brief, bitter Sino-Japanese naval war forged the tactical and technological foundation of Japan's victory over Russia a decade later. "China," the author observes, "practically became a quasi-colony" of European imperialists – and entered a half-century of "internal/social unrest". Likewise, Japan's expansionist ambitions only ended with its total defeat in World War II – 50 years on. Start tracing those paths to Nanking, Pearl Harbor, Hiroshima and Mao. Get this terrific tome. Amazon.com Cunstomer review (2nd) 2015-03-20 Airfix Model World 49 2015-03-20 During the end of the 19th century, tensions between China and Japan were increasing over the control of Korea. China, though large in terms of land and population, lacked a strong central government and in actuality was controlled by powerful provincial leaders. Their military had a similar structure which made coordination next to impossible and diminished its capabilities and effectiveness. By contrast, Japan had a strong central government and military structure. Japan’s military was also more modern, which gave them a clear edge. A peasant rebellion proved difficult to quell so the Korean government asked China to send troops to help stabilize the situation. Japan saw an opportunity to gain a foothold in Korea and sent troops to help establish a puppet government in Seoul. China’s objections to Japan’s meddling lead to the Sino-Japanese War of 1894 and 1895. The superior Imperial Japanese forces were too much for the Chinese. The Japanese army routed Chinese ground troops on the Liaodong Peninsula. The Japanese Navy enjoyed a similar success by nearly destroying the Chinese Navy in the Battle of the Yalu River. China capitulated and according to the terms of the Treaty of Shimonoseki, the Liaodong Peninsula and the island of Taiwan was ceded to Japan. The terms of the treaty were not good for the colonial ambitions of Russia, Germany, and France. Their influence forced Japan to withdraw from the Liaodong Peninsula. Germany built the Tsingtao fortress on Jiaozhou Bay and based the German East Asia Squadron there. The Russians followed suit by occupying the Liaodong Peninsula, building the Port Arthur fortress and using it as the base for their Pacific Fleet. This move by the Russians started the chain of events that lead to the Russo-Japanese War the following decade. Sino-Japanese Naval War 1894-1895 is the latest book in the Mushroom Model Publications Maritime Series. As the title states, this soft-covered 228 page book focuses on the naval war between China and Japan during this conflict. The opening chapters cover the political and military structures of both countries in the years leading up to the war. The following chapters cover the various combat operations and battles during the war. The text by Piotr Olender is well written and the subject matter well researched. As good as the writing is the maps left something to be desired in my opinion. The maps offer only focused battlefield views and are helpful. However there are none that provide a wider view of the theater of operations which would add some much needed geographical reference. This book is really a detailed history of the naval battles (though key land battles are covered as well) and really not a reference on the ships in both navies. However, modelers are treated to a very good selection of sharp and clear photos of the ships involved in this conflict. The last sections of the book include several pages of nicely done 1:350 scale profile drawings of ships from both the Chinese and Japanese navies. I wish that some plan views were also included which would have added more value to a modeler. This conflict is rather obscure and overshadowed by the Russo-Japanese War. However, it is an important event in the history of the Pacific and the first step in Japan’s military and geographic expansion in the region that culminated in World War II. This book is recommended to anyone who is interested in the subject matter. My thanks to Mushroom Model Publications for the review copy. Inne tytułyz serii Russo-Japanese Naval War 1905 Vol. IZobacz więcej Russo-Japanese Naval War 1904 - 1905 vol 2Zobacz więcej Austro-Hungarian Submarines in WWI.Zobacz więcej Sino-French Naval War 1884-1885Zobacz więcej Sino-Japanese Naval War 1894-1895Zobacz więcej Cruisers of the 1st Rank. Avrora, Diana, PalladaZobacz więcej Russo-Turkish Naval War 1877-1878Zobacz więcej The Forgotten War Of The Royal NavyZobacz więcej Battleships Of The Third Reich Volume 1Zobacz więcej The King George V Class BattleshipsZobacz więcej Battleships of the III Reich. Volume 2Zobacz więcej

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Knowledge system of Python OpenCV The purpose of this article is to give you a detailed list of the learning route and important knowledge points of Python OpenCV. The core is divided into 24 small chunks, all of which are mastered. OpenCV first understanding and installation In this part, you need to understand the related introduction of OpenCV (Open Source Computer Vision Library). OpenCV can run on multiple platforms. It is lightweight and efficient. It consists of a series of C functions and a small number of C++ classes. It provides Python, Ruby, MATLAB, etc. Language interface, so when you study, you should pay attention to the language implementation-related issues of consulting materials. In addition to installing OpenCV related libraries at this stage, it is recommended to go through the official website, the official manual, and the official introductory tutorial. These are the best learning materials. After the module is installed, you need to focus on testing whether OpenCV is installed successfully, and you can query the installed version through Python. Introduction to OpenCV Module First, grasp which modules OpenCV consists of from a global perspective. For example, in the following modules, you need to find the application scenarios and introductions of the following modules. core, imgproc, highgui, calib3d, features2d, contrib, flann, gpu, legacy, ml, objdetect, photo, stitching Organize the core functions of each module, complete the first OpenCV case, and read the display picture. OpenCV image read, display, save After installing OpenCV, start learning from image acquisition, including local loading of pictures, camera acquisition of pictures, video acquisition, and image creation. Only after the image is acquired, can the image be manipulated, processed, information extracted, output, image displayed, and image saved. For an image, the steps for reading and displaying in OpenCV are as follows, and you can correspond to its code. - Image reading; - Window creation; - Image display; - Image save; - Resource release; Function involved have to learn cv2.imread(), cv2.namedWindow(), cv2.imshow(), cv2.imwrite(), cv2.destroyWindow(), cv2.destroyAllWindows(), cv2.imshow(), cv2.cvtColor(), cv2.imwrite(), cv2.waitKey(). Camera and video read and save The first thing to focus on learning VideoCapture class, common methods are: - open() function; - isOpened() function; - release() function; - grab() function; - retrieve() function; - get() function; - set() function; In addition to reading the video, you also need to master Opencv provided VideoWriter class that holds video files. After learning the relevant knowledge, you can carry out such an experiment to save a video as a picture frame by frame. OpenCV commonly used data structure and color space This part of the class has to master Point class, Rect class, Size class, Scalar class, in addition, in Python using NumPy the image operation, the NumPy relevant knowledge, it is recommended to learn in advance, the better. The commonly used color spaces in OpenCV include BGR color space, HSV/HLS color space, and Lab color space. All of these need to be understood, and the BGR color space should be mastered first. OpenCV commonly used drawing functions Master the usage of the following functions, you can draw graphics in Opencv proficiently. Mouse and slider for OpenCV interface event operation The first function to be mastered is the mouse operation message callback function cv2.setMouseCallback(). The slider involves two functions, namely: cv2.createTrackbar()and cv2.getTrackbarPos(). After mastering the above content, two cases can be realized. One is to drag the frame selection area on a picture with the mouse to take a screenshot, and the other is to use the slide bar to make the video play at double speed. Image pixel, channel separation and merging Understand the image pixel matrix, familiar with the pixel composition of the picture, you can access the pixel value of the specified pixel and modify it. Channel separation function cv2.split(), channel combination function cv2.merge(). Image logic operations To master the calculation between images, the functions involved are as follows: You can also study image multiplication and division. Image ROI and mask This part belongs to the key knowledge in OpenCV. The first is the region of interest ROI, and the second is the mask operation. When learning the ROI part, you can also learn about the dark and shallow copies of the image. Image geometric transformation Image geometric transformation is still the learning and understanding of basic functions, and the contents are as follows: - Image zoom cv2.resize(); - Image translation cv2.warpAffine(); - Image rotation cv2.getRotationMatrix2D(); - Image transpose cv2.transpose(); - Image mirroring cv2.flip(); - Image remap cv2.remap(); Understand what filtering is, high frequency and low frequency filtering, image filtering function. Linear filtering: box filtering, mean filtering, Gaussian filtering, non-linear filtering: median filtering, bilateral filtering, - Box filter cv2.boxFilter(); - Mean filtering cv2.blur(); - Gaussian filtering cv2.GaussianBlur(); - Median filtering cv2.medianBlur(); - Bilateral Filter cv2.bilateralFilter(); Image fixed threshold and an adaptive threshold Image thresholding is an important basic part of image processing. It is widely used. Different parts of the image can be segmented according to the difference in grayscale. The image processed by thresholding is generally a single-channel image (grayscale). Two functions must be mastered at the core: - Fixed threshold: cv2.threshold(); - Adaptive threshold: cv2.adaptiveThreshold(). Image expansion and corrosion Dilation and erosion are morphological operations and are a series of image processing operations based on the shape of the image. Expansion and corrosion are based on the operation of the highlighted part (white). Expansion is the expansion of the highlighted part, which is similar to “field expansion”. Corrosion is the corrosion of the highlighted part, similar to “the field is eroded.” Application and function of swelling corrosion: - Eliminate noise - Split independent elements or connect adjacent elements; - Find obvious maximum and minimum areas in the image; - Find the gradient of the image; The core functions that need to be mastered are as follows: - Dilate cv2.dilate(); - Corrosion cv2.erode(); Other morphological operations, opening operation, closing operation, the top-hat, black hat, morphological gradient are based on the basis of the expansion of corrosion by cv2.morphologyEx() function operation. Edge detection can extract important contour information of an image, reduce image content, and can be used for operations such as image segmentation and feature extraction. The general steps of edge detection: - Filtering: Filter out the influence of noise and detection edge; - Enhancement: The intensity change of the pixel neighbourhood can be highlighted-gradient operator; - Detection: Threshold method to determine the edge; Common edge detection operators: - Canny operator, Canny edge detection function cv2.Canny(); - Sobel operator, Sobel edge detection function cv2.Sobel(); - Scharr operator, Scharr edge detection function cv2.Scahrr(); - Laplacian operator, Laplacian edge detection function cv2.Laplacian(); Hough Transform (Hough Transform) is a feature extraction technology in image processing. This process calculates the local maximum of the cumulative result in parameter space to obtain a set conforming to the specific shape as the result of the Hough Transform. Functions to be learned in this part: - Standard Hough transform, multi-scale Hough transform cv2.HoughLines(); - Cumulative probability Hough transform cv2.HoughLinesP(); - Hough circle transform cv2.HoughCricles(); Image histogram calculation and drawing Histogram first master concepts, in grasp the core function, and finally through matplotlib to draw the histogram module. The function used to calculate the histogram is cv2.calcHist(). Histogram related applications: - Histogram equalization cv2.equalizeHist(); - Histogram comparison cv2.compareHist(); - Back projection cv2.calcBackProject(). Template matching is a technique to find the most matching (similar) part of an image with another template image. The functions used by the core are as follows: - Template matching cv2.matchTemplate(); - Matrix normalization cv2.normalize(); - Find the maximum value cv2.minMaxLoc(). Contour search and drawing The core is to understand that in OpenCV, finding contours is like finding white objects on a black background. Commonly used functions: - Find the contour cv2.findContours(); - Draw contours cv2.drawContours(). Finally, you should master the operation for each contour. Outline feature attributes and applications This part of the content is more important, and there are more knowledge points, the core content and functions are as follows: - Find the convex hull cv2.convexHull() and convexity detection cv2.isContourConvex(); - The outline circumscribed rectangle cv2.boundingRect(); - The minimum enclosing rectangle of the contour cv2.minAreaRect(); - The minimum circumscribed circle of the contour cv2.minEnclosingCircle(); - Contour ellipse fitting cv2.fitEllipse(); - Approximate polygon curve cv2.approxPolyDP(); - Calculate the contour area cv2.contourArea(); - Calculate the contour length cv2.arcLength(); - Calculate the distance and position relationship between the point and the contour cv2.pointPolygonTest(); - Shape matching cv2.matchShapes(). Advanced Part-Watershed Algorithm and Image Inpainting Grasp the principle of the watershed algorithm and master the core functions cv2.watershed(). Can be extended to supplement image repair technology and related functions cv2.inpaint(), after learning, you can try the portrait freckle application. GrabCut & FloodFill image segmentation, corner detection This part of the content requires some professional background knowledge of images, first master the knowledge of related concepts, and focus on learning-related functions. - GrabCut algorithm cv2.grabCut(); - Flood fill algorithm cv2.floodFill(); - Harris corner detection cv2.cornerHarris(); - Shi-Tomasi corner detection cv2.goodFeaturesToTrack(); - Sub-pixel corner detection cv2.cornerSubPix(). Feature Detection and Matching The detection and matching of feature points are one of the very important technologies in computer vision, and it has a wide range of applications in the fields of object recognition, visual tracking, and three-dimensional reconstruction. OpenCV provides the following feature detection methods: - “FAST” FastFeatureDetector; - “STAR” StarFeatureDetector; - “SIFT” SIFT (nonfree module) Opencv3 is removed, xfeature2d library needs to be called; - “SURF” SURF (nonfree module) Opencv3 removed, need to call xfeature2d library; - “ORB” ORB Opencv3 is removed, xfeature2d library needs to be called; - “MSER” MSER; - “GFTT” GoodFeaturesToTrackDetector; - “HARRIS” (with Harris detector); - “Dense” DenseFeatureDetector; - “SimpleBlob” SimpleBlobDetector. OpenCV application part of moving object tracking and face recognition What is understood as moving object detection, the OpenCV commonly used method for detecting a moving object with background subtraction, the frame difference method, optical flow method, the tracking algorithm commonly used are meanShift, camShift, particle filter, optical flow and the like. - meanShift tracking algorithm cv2.meanShift(); - CamShift tracking algorithm cv2.CamShift(). If you learn face recognition, the knowledge points involved are: - Face detection: find the position of the face from the image and mark it; - Face recognition: distinguish the person’s name or other information from the located face area; - Machine learning.

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In silico Analysis of Human microRNAs Targeting Influenza a Viruses (subtype H1N1, H5N1 and H3N2) In this study, three subtypes of influenza A viruses (pH1N1, H5N1 and H3N2) which naturally infected human were analyzed by bioinformatic approaches to find candidate human cellular miRNAs targeting viral genomes. There were 76 miRNAs targeting influenza A viruses. Among these candidates, 70 miRNAs were subtypes specifically targeting each subtype of influenza A virus including 21 miRNAs targeted subtype H1N1, 27 miRNAs targeted subtype H5N1 and 22 miRNAs targeted subtype H3N2. The remaining 6 miRNAs target on multiple subtypes of influenza A viruses. Uniquely, hsa-miR-3145 is the only one candidate miRNA targeting PB1 gene of all three subtypes. Obviously, most of the candidate miRNAs are targeting on polymerase complex genes (PB2, PB1 and PA) of influenza A viruses. This study predicted potential human miRNAs targeting on different subtypes of influenza A viruses which might be useful for inhibition of viral replication and for better understanding of the interaction between virus and host cell. Digital Object Identifier (DOI): doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1332618Procedia APA BibTeX Chicago EndNote Harvard JSON MLA RIS XML ISO 690 PDF Downloads 1327 V. Ambrod, "microRNAs: tiny regulators with great potential," Cell., vol. 107, no. 7, Dec. 2001, pp. 823-826. J. C. Carrington, and V. Ambros, "Role of microRNAs in plant and animal development," Science., vol. 301, no. 5631, Jul. 2003, pp. 336-338. R. F. Ketting, S. E. Fischer, E. Bernstein, T. Sigen, G. J. Hannon, and R. H. Plasterk, "Dicer functions in RNA interference and in synthesis of small RNA involved in development timing in C. elegans," Gene. Dev ., vol. 15, no. 20, Oct. 2001, pp. 2654-2659. D. P. Bartel, "MicroRNAs: genomics, biogenesis, mechanism, and function," Cell., vol. 116, no. 2, Jan. 2004, pp. 281-297. M. Chekulaeve, and W. Filipowicz, "Mechanisms of miRNA-mediated post-transcriptional regulation in animal cells," Curr. Opin. Cell. Biol., vol. 21, no. 3, Jun. 2009, pp. 452-460. E. C. Lai, "MicroRNAs are complementary to 3-UTR sequence motifs that mediate negative post-transcriptional regulation," Nat. Genet., vol. 30, no. 4, Apr. 2002, pp. 363-364. S. Kuersten, and E. B. Goodwin, "The power of the 3-UTR: translational control and development," Nat. Rev. Genet., vol. 4, no. 8, Aug. 2003, pp. 626-637. J. Brennecke, A. Stark, R. B. Russell, and S. M. Cohen, "Principles of miRNA-target recognition," PLoS. Biol., vol. 3, no. 3, Mar. 2005, pp. 404-428. H. W. Hwang, and J. T. Mendell, "MicroRNAs in cell proliferation, cell death, and tumorigenesis," Br. J. Cancer., vol. 94, no. 6, Mar. 2006, pp. 776-780. S. Pfeffer, A. Sewer, M. Q. Lagos, R. Sheridan, C. Sander, F. A. Gr├ñsser, L. F. van Dyk, C. K. Ho, S. Shuman, and other, "Identification of microRNAs of the herpesvirus family," Nat. Methods., vol. 2, no. 4, Apr. 2005, pp. 269-276. A. K. Lo, K. F. To, K. W. Lo, R. W. Lung, J. W. Hui, G. Liao, and D. Hayward, "Modulation of LMP1 protein expression by EBV-encoded microRNAs," PNAS., vol. 104, no. 41, Oct. 2007, pp. 16164-16169. C. S. Sullivan, A. T. Grundhoff, S. Tevethia, J. M. Pipas, and D. Ganem, "SV40-encoded microRNAs regulate viral gene expression and reduce susceptibility to cytotoxic T cells," Nature., vol. 435, no. 7042, Jun. 2005, pp. 682-686. S. Omoto, M. Ito, Y. Tsutsumi, Y. Ichikawa, H. Okuyama, E. A. Brisibe, N. K. Saksena, and Y. R. Fujii, “HIV-1 nef suppression by virally encoded microRNA,” Retrovirology., vol. 1, no. 44, Dec. 2004. C. H. Lecellier, P. Dunoyer, K. Arar, J. Lehmann-Che, S. Eyquem, C. Himber, A. Saib, and O. Voinnet, “A cellular microRNA mediates antiviral defense in human cells,” Science., vol. 308, no. 5721, Apr. 2005, pp. 557–560. M. Otsuka, Q. Jing, P. Georgel, L. New, J. Chen, J. Mols, Y. J. Kang, Z. Jiang, X. Du, and others, “Hypersusceptibility to vesticular stomatitis virus infection in Dicer1-deficient mice is due to impaired miR24 and miR93 expression,” Immunityl., vol. 27, no. 1, Jul. 2007, pp. 123–134. C. L. Jopling, M. Yi, A. M. Lancaster, S. M. Lemon, and P. Sarnow, “Modulation of hepatitis C virus RNA abundance by a liver-specific microRNA,” Science., vol. 309, no. 5740, Sep. 2005, pp. 1577–1581. K. G. Nicholson, J. M. Wood, and M. Zambon, “Influenza,” Lancet., vol. 3623, no. 9397, Jan. 2003, pp. 1733–1745. D. M. Fleming, P. Chakraverty, C. Sadler, and P. Litton, “Combined clinical and virological surveillance of influenza in winters of 1992 and 1993-1994,” BMJl, vol. 311, no. 7000, Jul. 1995, pp. 1733-1745. Novel Swine-Origen Influenza A (H1N1) Virus Investigation Team, F. S. Dawood, S. Jain, L. Finelli, M. W. Shaw, S. Lindstrom, R. J. Garten. L. V. Gubareva, and X. Xu, “Emergence of a novel swine-origin Influenza A (H1N1) virus in humans,” N Engl J Med., vol. 360, no. 25, Jun. 2009, pp. 2605-2615. CDC, “Swine Influenza A (H1N1) infection in two children-Southern California, March-April 2009,” MMWR., vol. 58, no. 15, Apr. 2009, pp. 400–402. CDC., “Update: Influenza A (H3N2)v transmission and guidelines-five states, 2011,” MMWR., vol. 60, no. 51-52, Jan. 2011, pp. 1741–1744. T. H. Tran, T. L. Nguyen, T. D. Nguyen, T. S. Luong, P. M. Pham, V. C. Nguyen, T. S. Pham, C. D. Vo, T. Q. Le, T. T. Ngo, B. K. Dao, P. P. Le, T. T. Nguyen, T. L. Hoang, V. T. Cao, T. G. Le, D. T. Nguyen, H. N. Le, K. T. Nguyen, H. S. Le, V. T. Le, D. Christiane, T. T. Tran, J. de Menno, C. schultsz, P. Cheng, W. Lim, P. Horby, J. Farrar, and World Health Organization International Avian Influenza Investigative Team, “Avian influenza (H5N1) in 10 patients in Vietnam,” N Engl J Med., vol. 350, no. 12, Mar. 2004, pp. 1179–1188. S. Griffiths-Jones, “The microRNA registry,” Nucleic Acids Res., vol. 32, Jan. 2004, pp. D109–111. S. Griffiths-Jones, R. J. Grocock, S. van Dongen, A. Bateman, and A. J. Enright, “miRBase: microRNA sequences, targets and gene nomenclature,” Nucleic Acids Res., vol. 34, Jan. 2006, pp. D140–104. S. Griffiths-Jones, H. K. Saini, S. van Dongen, and A. J. Enright, “miRBase: tools for microRNA genomics,” Nucleic Acids Res., vol. 36, Jan. 2006, pp. D154–158. A. Kozomara, and S. Griffiths-Jones, “miRBase: integrating microRNA annotation and deep-sequencing data,” Nucleic Acids Res., vol. 39, Jan. 2009, pp. D152-157. J. Kruger, and M. Rehsmeier, “RNAhybrid: microRNA target prediction easy, fast and flexible,” Nucleic Acids Res., vol. 34, Jul. 2006, pp. W451–454. L. Song, H. Liu, S. Gao, W. Jiang, and W. Huang, “Cellular microRNAs inhibit replication of the H1N1 influenza A virus in infected cells,” J Virol., vol. 84, no. 17, Sep. 2010, pp. 8849–8860. R. J. Garten, C. T. Davis, C. A. Russell, B. Shu, S. Lindstrom, A. Balish, W. M. Sessions, X. Xu, E. Skepner, V. Deyde, M. Okomo-Adhiambo, L. Gubareva, J. Barnes,C. B. Smith, S. L. Emery, M. J. Hillman, P. Rivailler, J. Smagala, M. de Graaf, D. F. Burke, R. A. Fouchier, C. Pappas, C. M. Alpuche-Aranda, H. López-Gatell, H. Olivera, I. López, C. A. Myers, D. Faix, P. J. Blair, C. Yu, K. M. Keene, P. D. Dotson Jr, D. Boxrud, A. R. Sambol, S. H. Abid, K. StGeorge, T. Bannerman, A. L. Moore, D. J. Stringer, P. Blevins, G. J. Demmler-Harrison, M. Ginsberg, P. Kriner, S. Waterman, S. Smole, H. F. Guevara, E. A. Belongia, P. A. Clark, S. T. Beatrice, R. Donis, J. Katz, F. Finelli, C. B. Bridges, M. Shaw, D. B. Jernigan, T. M. Uyeki, D. J. Smith, A. I. Klimov, and N. J. Cox , “Antigenic and genetic characteristics of swine-origin 2009 A (H1N1) influenza viruses circulating in humans,” Science., vol. 325, no. 5937, Jul. 2009, pp. 197–201.

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"There are many ways of getting strong, sometimes talking is the best way." ―Andre Agassi, Open: An Autobiography of Andre Agassi ―Andre Agassi, Open: An Autobiography of Andre Agassi A general term for treating a range of mental health problems, psychotherapy, also known as 'talk therapy', involves a variety of treatment techniques. During the treatment, a person with a mental health disorder talks to a psychiatrist, psychologist, or any other licensed medical health care provider. In turn, the psychologist helps the patient identify and work through the factors that trigger the mental disorder. The basic principle of psychotherapy is to understand the behavior and emotions that contribute to the problem, such as a death in the family, or a financial problem. By identifying these problems, the psychologist is able to help the person by identifying adequate coping techniques, and developing problem-solving skills. There are a wide range of therapies that are used to treat mental disorders. In psychotherapy, there is no such thing as a 'one-size-fits-all' approach. The treatment plan depends on the condition, and may differ in the duration and intensity. Sometimes, instead of one approach, psychologists prefer a blended approach, where two or more types of psychotherapy techniques are used to solve the problem. The range of psychotherapy techniques is aimed at dialog, communication, and changes in behavior to improve the mental health of the person. Here are some of the most common types of psychotherapy for mental disorders. Types of Psychotherapy Art therapy is a form of psychotherapy, wherein the medium of art making is used as the primary mode of communication. The aim is not to judge the aesthetic level of the art, but rather to enable the patient to communicate, overcome stress, resolve conflicts and problems, and explore different aspects of their own personalities through the medium of art. The therapist combines the creative process of art making with psychotherapeutic techniques to enhance and improve the well-being of individuals of all ages. The therapist can work with individuals and groups in a variety of residential- and community-based settings. At the end of the 19th century, British psychiatrist and psychoanalyst John Bowlby became interested in child development and attachment. He believed that attachment problems experienced early in life are subsequently re-enacted later in adult life. The opposite also holds true, where children in a safe and secure environment are able to develop a sense of who they are, later in life. Attachment-based psychotherapy identifies basic attachments styles, such as secure, ambivalent, anxious, avoidant, and disorganized attachment. Based on this, the therapist makes the patient aware of why he feel a certain way in the past and present. The therapy allows a person to explore hidden fears, and mourn his losses. The aim is to help the person form healthier relationships, and take control of his life. Behavior therapy focuses on studying overt behavior to understand underlying psychological problems. This is often done without discussing the internal mental state of the patient. An important premise of behavioral therapy is classical conditioning. Based on the work of Pavlov, this theory states that maladaptive behavior, or learned behavior, in response to certain experiences in the past, can be reformulated or unlearned. This therapy is especially suitable for people with fears, phobias, obsessive disorders, and addictions. In this type, alterations to a person's behavior are made by positive or negative reinforcements of behavior. For positive reinforcement, a system of rewards is used to encourage certain behavior. Punishment, or the removal of reinforcement (extinction), are the ways in which the therapy aims to replace undesirable behavior with desirable behavior. Also known as somatic psychotherapy, body psychotherapy focuses on the interrelation of the mind and body. The therapist correlates somatic manifestations with the psychological process. A number of body-centered approaches, including breathing techniques, massages, exercises, and body postures are used to resolve problems. Unlike other types of psychotherapy techniques that focus more on problem solving, brief therapy is a solution-based treatment, where the therapist focuses on the factors that prevent change now, rather than looking at long-term issues that may have led to the problem. This is especially suited for people going through a crisis, like a change of job, or a divorce. The therapist observes the emotional state of the person, which may be hampering his or her ability to deal with the crisis. Once this has been understood, the focus shifts to bringing the emotional level to normal. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) Combining the cognitive and behavioral therapies, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is based on thoughts, emotions, physical feelings, and actions. The therapist examines confused or distorted thinking patterns, and then helps the patient in understanding and recognizing the negative patterns. Efforts are made to replace these negative thought processes with appropriate feelings or behavior. Dance Movement Therapy (DMT) Like art therapy, dance movement therapy is a type of expressive psychotherapy. Therapists work on the premise that dance movements reflect a person's thinking and feelings. They believe that the mind, body, and spirit are interconnected. The American Dance Therapy Association defines it as "the psychotherapeutic use of movement to further the emotional, cognitive, physical, and social integration of the individual". Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) This psychotherapy technique was developed by Marsha M. Linehan, and was used to treat people with borderline personality disorder. This is particularly useful for people who are engaged in intentional self-harmful behavior. People with depression and social anxiety can also benefit from this therapy. Developed from cognitive behavior therapy (CBT), this technique was further adapted to meet the needs of people with BPD. The treatment is done by acceptance techniques (focuses on making sense of you as a person, and the things you do), and change techniques (focuses on changing behavior, and finding ways to deal with distress). The therapy aims to provide a creative environment in which individuals or groups can explore their personal and/or social problems. Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) The Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) technique was developed by Francine Shapiro. Particularly useful for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), this therapy addresses disturbing aspects of past and present memories. Eye movements, bilateral tactile stimulation, and bilateral sounds are used to stimulate the brain. This is often combined with visualized images, attention to body sensations, and other cognition methods to help people cope with the traumatic event. This is a unique philosophical therapy, based on the belief that human life has no essential or predetermined meaning. The individual is entirely free, and ultimately responsible for finding or creating meaning in his life. The inner conflict is due to certain 'givens of existence', including freedom and the responsibility to get it, inevitability of death, isolation, meaninglessness. The therapist helps the patient to realize a new awareness in the present. A person realizes that his existence is just coincidental. This allows him to find new freedom, and overcome anxieties. The focus of the therapy lies in the resolution of family conflicts and problems. The therapists seeks to bring family members together by direct participation. They are then provided with beneficial solutions, which would allow them to support each other, and function without any problem. A Freudian analyst, Fritz Perls devised the Gestalt Therapy in the 1940s. The emphasis of this experimental form of psychotherapy is on personal responsibility. By living in the present, a person can take proper responsibility of his actions. When the person is aware of his or herself, and how he or she interacts with others, they can change the old patterns of behavior and create a natural cycle of wellness. Interaction between group members and therapist(s), along with other types of psychotherapy, like body psychotherapy, psychodrama and movement work, can help people deal with many problems and difficulties. From emotional problems, like anxiety and depression, to developing interpersonal skills, group therapy can benefit people with various mental disorders. It is based on a phenomenological view of reality. There is an emphasis on human dignity and the human capacity for fulfillment. The therapist's role is to make the patient realize individual freedom, and his or her responsibility to one another, and to society. This helps in managing a wide range of mental problems caused by stress-related illnesses, anxiety, pain, and dysfunctional relationships. A specialized form of psychotherapy, Jungian psychoanalysis works with the unconscious. The Jungian analyst believes that motivation, which includes thought and action, lies deep within your psyche. With the realignment of the conscious and unconscious aspects of the personality, the therapist aims to reduce psychological pain and suffering. Neuro-linguistic Programming (NLP) Created by Richard Bandler and John Grinder in the 1970s, neuro-linguistic programming is also known as the 'instruction manual for your mind'. It looks at thoughts, the language patterns we use, and our behavior. Based on how these interact, they can have a positive or negative effect on individuals. The therapy focuses on two basic types of interactions: Child-directed Interaction (CDI), which is a type of play-therapy to strengthen parent-child relationship, and Parent-directed Interaction (PDI), where parents learn to use certain behavior management techniques when playing with the child. Person-Centered Therapy (PCT) Developed by psychologist Carl Rogers, person-centered counseling is a talk therapy which, unlike the diagnostic and prescriptive approaches of psychotherapy, is more concerned with the relationship between the counselor and client. This therapy is also known as client-centered therapy, because the people coming for treatment are referred to as clients instead of patients. The relationship between the client and the counselor is believed to be meaningful and deep. The counselor strives to boost the clients' personal power. To provide relief from psychic problems, psychodynamic psychotherapy aims to reveal the unconscious material of the client's psyche along past experiences. Developed by Roberto Assagioli, psychosynthesis brings together different orientations of psychotherapy, such as psychoanalysis, humanistic psychology, and transpersonal psychology, together. According to Assagioli, the superconsciousness, or the realm of the psyche with the highest potential, is the key to development. Repression of this could lead to mental health disorders. His core model categorizes human consciousness into 'Lower, Middle, and Higher Unconscious'. The Lower Unconscious analyzes origins, the Middle focuses on the present or the here-and-now, while the Higher explores future potential. Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) Rational emotive behavior therapy, also called rational therapy, was developed by American psychotherapist and psychologist Albert Ellis. According to the therapy, people are upset by unfortunate adversities and by how they construct their views through evaluative beliefs, language, meanings and philosophies about the themselves, others, and the world. Solution-focused Brief Therapy This talking therapy focuses more on what clients want to achieve in the present and future through therapy, rather than looking at past problems that may have prompted them to seek help. Transactional Analysis (TA) An integrative approach that has its roots in psychoanalytic, humanist, and cognitive approaches, transactional analysis describes how people are structured psychologically using the ego-state model. Our ego-states have three parts: the child, adult, and parent. There are 'transactions' between these parts, and during each social interaction, one self is dominant. The client can choose which part to adopt, and change his behavior accordingly. For example, if there are some unfulfilled needs during childhood, then they can be addressed by working with the inner child self. This type of psychotherapy studies the spiritual nature of human experiences. It is concerned with the mystical and expanded experiences of people. According to the Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, transpersonal psychotherapy is defined as ''... the study of humanity's highest potential, and with the recognition, understanding, and realization of unitive, spiritual, and transcendent states of consciousness". This list of psychotherapy techniques may not be exhaustive but it does contain some of the most used techniques. The aim of these therapies is to arm you with proper skills that help you take control and cope with different situations.

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The world’s first underground railway, the London Underground was constructed as a response to the city’s rapid growth during the 19th Century. Today, it is the 11th-busiest subway system on the planet with 1.379 billion passengers using it from 2016-2017. Its tunnels stretch for 249 miles throughout London, often overlapping and giving passengers plenty of options for getting from one place to another. The history of the Underground, its tunnels, and the people connected to it, is truly fascinating. We hope that as you partake of this article, you’ll submerge yourself in the history and lore and discover more than you knew about the Tube. The Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and early 19th saw a shift in Britain’s population from the farms of the countryside to the factories of the cities. Being the capital, London saw one of the largest influxes of new citizens, with the population of Great London tripling from 1,011,157 to 3,094,391 between 1801 and 1861. The increase in population also led to an increase in the amount of road traffic as residents of Outer London traveled to Inner London for work and back home each day. At the same time, the nation’s seven major railways met in London bringing in, even more, people and upwards of 200,000 people were crossing into the City of London each day. The solution proposed was railways that would run steam trains underground to help move the city’s new residents. By the 1850s, the groundwork had been set to create the system that the city would require. The first steam-powered railway trains were running across the country by the 1830s, linking Britain in an unprecedented manner. From 1825 to 1843, Isambard Kingdom Brunel and Thomas Cochrane had developed the tunneling technology that built the Thames Tunnel, enabling transportation of goods and people under the river and further linking the two sides of the city. Around this time, City Solicitor Charles Pearson had begun to argue for an underground transportation system and supported several schemes to have one built, including one in 1846 that included a central railway station that would be used by multiple railways. However, in that same year, the Royal Commission denied his plan. Pearson pushed for his underground railway again in 1852 and this time found limited success with the creation of the City Terminus Company, which ran a rail line between Farrington and King’s Cross. Unfortunately, while the scheme had the support of the city, the railway companies weren’t interested, and it wouldn’t be until the creation of the North Metropolitan Railway. The Bayswater, Paddington, and Holborn Bridge Railway Company was the impetus behind the Met’s creation, which connected the Great Western Railway at King’s Cross to the City Terminus Company’s rail line, which the railway company had acquired. The company’s attempts to get a bill through Parliament were often met with resistance until Royal Assent was given finally in 1854, by which point the company changed its name to the Metropolitan Railway and its plans extended to include the London and North Western Railway as well as the Great Northern Railway. Despite the difficulty in getting the funds raised due to the ongoing Crimean War, the Metropolitan Railway first opened in 1863, transporting 38,000 people on its first day and borrowing trains from other railways to assist. The first year saw a total of 9.5 million passengers, a number that increased to 12 million in the following year. This success meant that many new companies petitioned Parliament for new underground railways and the District Railway soon followed. The two networks together would eventually form the basis of the Circle Line as well as parts of the Piccadilly Line and the District Line. The rivalry between the two railways’ owners, James Forbes and Edward Watkin, meant that the process of linking the two took twenty years and the lines continued to experience problems until the railways were amalgamated in 1933. Over the next few decades, other lines would form from the various railway companies, including the Hammersmith & City Line (formed out of the Metropolitan Railway), the Northern Railway (formed by the City and South London Railway as well as Charing Cross, Euston, and Hampstead Railway), and the Waterloo & City Line (established by the London and South Western Railway). At the same time, steam engines started to give way to electric railways, though some steam engines would continue to see use even into the 1960s. The Underground Electric Railways Company of London, founded by American transport magnate Charles Tyson Yerkes, was established in 1902 and provided power to many of the electric railways. Digging technology also advanced to permit even deeper tunnels than that sub-surface lines that were first built. The Metropolitan and District Railway lines were essentially created by digging trenches and putting a roof over them, so the first legitimately underground was the Northern Railway, which opened in 1890. This line ran from Stockwell to King William Street and later expanded Moorgate, Euston, and Clapham Common. Meanwhile, CCE & HR established the Hampstead Tube, and by the late 1920s, the two integrated into what we know as the Northern Line. Meanwhile, the Waterloo & City Railway opened in 1898 and named after its two stations. Two years later, the Central London Railway opened running a line from Shepherd’s Bush to Bank. The Baker Street and Waterloo Railway opened in 1906 as one of the subsidiaries of the UERL and became known by its more popular name of “Bakerloo”. In the same year, the UERL formed the Great Northern, Piccadilly, & Brompton Line that ran from Finsbury Park to Hammersmith. A couple of major changes took place shortly afterward. The first, led by UERL publicity officer Frank Pick, was a clear brand for the company’s lines. Borrowing from the London General Omnibus Company, Pick developed the roundel symbol for the UERL that would become synonymous with the Underground. He also introduced common signage and advertising throughout the lines that would become the basis for all other underground railways in the city. It wouldn’t be twenty-five years between the creation of Pick’s branding scheme that order would come to the chaos of London’s fractured subterranean transport system when the London Passenger Transport Board was established in 1933. The Board effectively merged the city’s transportation networks, including the underground railways, into a single entity that became London Transport. Another major change for the Underground occurred two years prior in 1931 when former UERL employee Harry Beck would produce his first design of the Underground map that would become the standard layout. Before Beck’s map, diagrams of the underground railways tended to be geographical in nature and looked like a plate of brightly-colored spaghetti rather than an easily-understood interface. By “straightening the lines, experimenting with diagonals and evening out the distance between stations”, Beck created a map that was simple and elegant, better understood by consumers than previous models. Beck attempted to sell it to the UERL in 1932, but the company wasn’t interested. When he tried again in 1933, the UERL bought it off of him for £10 (or roughly £600) today. When the firm became part of London Transport, the map went with it and was altered several times over the decades, but Beck’s initial design remained the basis for every subsequent version. Beyond transport, the Underground found another use during the early 1940s when it became a key part of the city’s war efforts. While people had taken shelter in the Underground’s tunnels during the first bombing raids of World War I, there was an increased use of the disused tunnels as air raid shelters from 1940 to 1945. Additionally, the government made use of the Underground tunnels to store national treasures and as administrative offices for themselves and for the military. Some Tube stations even became small factories churning out munitions and airplane parts for the war. In many ways, the Underground network became its own small city during World War II. Following the war, Clement Atlee’s Labour government came to power, and a wave of nationalising industries caught London Transport in its wake, incorporating the body into the British Transport Commission in 1948. The BTC ignored some of the maintenance needs of the aging Underground system but began construction on two new lines: the Victoria Line and the Jubilee Line. As the city had stopped growing due to the Green Belt that engulfed it, the two new lines would be focused more on alleviating current congestion rather than extending the network to new destinations. The Victoria Line opened in 1968, and the Jubilee followed in 1979, the latter named after Queen Elizabeth’s Silver Jubilee in 1977. Beginning in 1969, the iconic phrase “Mind the Gap” could be heard over the stations’ PA systems. The automated message was devised after it became too difficult for station staff and train drivers to verbally remind the passengers themselves, choosing a short phrase to save on costs. Sound engineer Peter Lodge recorded the phrase himself (as well as “Stand clear of the doors”) after the original actor hired wanted royalties for his work. Other actors were later recorded saying the phrase, including Emilia Clarke, Phil Sayer, and Oswald Laurence, whose voice had been used since 1969 and was restored to Embankment Station on request of his widow so that she could continue to hear his voice. Eventually, the administration of London Transport was turned over the Greater London Council, which instituted a system of fair zones in 1981 to help lower the rates on its buses and underground trains. In the ensuing years, London Transport introduced the Travelcard and the Capitalcard. 1984 saw the Underground become part of London Regional Transport under the Secretary of Transport, which would be a prelude to Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher’s government dismantling the Greater London Council in 1986 and moving many of its responsibilities to the government or borough councils. The 80s also saw one of the worst disasters in the Underground’s history when a fire started on one of King’s Cross station’s wooden escalators as the result of a still-lit match. The fire led to the deaths of thirty-one people, and the subsequent report led to new safety regulations. Moving onto the 1990s, many of the trains received a fresh coat of paint after it proved difficult and costly to remove graffiti. In 1990, the Hammersmith & City line was crafted out the Metropolitan Line, which had been part of since the railway was created over a hundred years prior to this. Extensions continued in anticipation of the new millennium and, at the same time, the return of a centralised London Government meant another change in administration for the Underground. Prime Minister Tony Blair’s Labour government meant to create a new governmental organization for the city’s boroughs and crafted the Greater London Authority, which took effect in 2000. At the same time, it created a new transportation body in Transport for London. TfL helped to create a public-private partnership in which TfL ran the trains while private companies helped to upgrade the lines. Despite this, the government retained control of the Underground until 2003 when it returned to local control. The Oyster card was introduced that same year along with busking in designated areas. As the decade went on, the Overground was introduced to relieve congestion along with new lines and stations, and the Overground has been credited as one of the causes of East London’s revitalisation. Crossrail then became the city’s next great innovation, meant to further relieve congestion of the lines, running between the home counties and through the city. In honour of the Queen’s long reign, it was renamed as the Elizabeth Line, a name that will go into use in 2018 along with a purple roundel rather than the usual red. Last year, the London Underground moved to being open twenty-four hours per day on the weekends, mirroring the practises of other major world cities. The first and one of the largest metro subway systems in the world, the London Underground continues to have a major role in the city. It is part of London’s history, and its changes continue to reflect the change in the metropolis itself. The next time you find yourself on one of the Underground’s trains, reflect on everything the system has been through over 150+ years and how you travel the same path as millions.

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History of WW2 1 September 1939 to 2 September 1945 Lasting for almost six years from 1939 to 1945 and involving 61 countries, 1.7 billion people, 50 million of whom lost their lives, WW2 is considered as history’s most savage and devastating wars, but how did it begin? The Second World War broke out on Friday 1st September 1939, when Adolf Hitler planned to seize land from other countries and carried out an unprovoked attack on Poland. After refusing to abort his invasion, Britain and France declared war on Germany. By the 1920s this allowed those involved in the extreme politics of the right to place the blame on “traitors and Jews” as they proclaimed. For much of the next decade within Germany a battle between Left and Right ended with the political Right in ascendance and in 1933 Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist Party came to power. The Nazi Regime changed Germany forever in the 1930s and paved the way for war. Many thought it would come in September 1938 with the annexation of the Sudetenland, but it would be another year with the invasion of Poland that would tip the world once more into war. Over the winter of 1939/40 the Phoney War, or ‘Sitzkrieg’, saw Britain and France facing Germany along the borders, with the French feeling secure behind the Maginot Line. In May 1940 the next Blitzkrieg came and German troops invaded Holland, then Belgium, then France, and bypassed the main Maginot Line into weaker defended areas. The Allies collapsed and the British Army was forced back to Dunkirk. Operation Dynamo evacuated over 300,000 British and French troops, and while France fought on for several weeks, the Battle of France ended and the majority of Europe was now under Nazi dominance. In France Germany prepared for Operation Sealion, the seaborne landings along the southern coast of England, but it never happened. Would or could it have succeeded? It seems unlikely as Germany not only did not have control of the skies, it lacked control of the seas and the British Royal Navy was likely to have destroyed any invasion fleet. But the threat was real, and would remain real until the Home Guard was disbanded in 1944. While no landings came, in July 1940 the Battle of Britain began with massed attacks of aircraft over South-East England, which would eventually result in the first bombing raids, and the beginning of the Blitz. Bombing of civilian targets would bring the war directly to the Home Front, with landmines, incendiary bombs, butterfly bombs and shrapnel all becoming the reality of day to day life in Britain. By 1944-45 this would escalate to include V1 Doodlebug and then V2 rockets. More than 60,000 civilians were killed in the bombing of Britain during WW2; the youngest being only a few days old and the oldest over 100. Although the phrase ‘Britain Stands Alone’ was widely used in 1940-41, the reality was that behind Great Britain was not only the vast manpower and resources of the British Empire, but also men from many nations now overrun by the Nazis but who were in Britain to help fight back. These included Free Czechs and Poles, Belgian, French, Danes, Dutch and Norwegians among many others. It was a multi-national force that would shape how the Allies would fight the war in the coming years. Using Blitzkrieg tactics developed and refined in Poland and then France, Belgium and Holland, this next phase of lightening war took the Soviet Union by surprise and over the course of the next few months the Germans advanced hundreds and hundreds of miles into Soviet Russia. The vast openness of the country was something that surprised many German soldiers who took part. Gradually the Soviet Union fought back and while the Germans got to the very gates of Moscow, by then it was winter and the Wehrmacht was totally unprepared for the cold conditions. Thousands died in the freezing conditions and vehicles would not work. It marked the high-tide of the German advance into Russia, and in some respects the beginning of the end, although the Germans spent much of 1942 penetrating deeper and deeper into parts of southern Russia, most notably at Stalingrad. Here the German Sixth Army reached the Volga river, but as the onset of another winter came, Stalingrad was isolated and under siege, and the army was lost. From now on, the Germans would always be on the back foot. In July 1943 the Battle of Kursk witnessed one of the largest tank battles of the Second World War, but with the Allies not in Italy and the North African Campaign lost, the German Army in Russia by 1944 was losing thousands of men in a war of annihilation. In many respects it had become the major theatre of war in defeating the Nazi regime. From here the next step was a return to Europe, but at this stage an invasion of France was not possible. Instead the Allies landed in Sicily in July 1943 and then the Italian mainland at Salerno in September 1943. The Fifth Army fought battles at Anzio and Cassino, while the Eighth Army attacked along the Adriatic coast to the Sangro Valley. Italy became an entrenched, static war until the breakout at Anzio and Cassino, and liberation of Rome in June 1944, but it diverted huge amounts of German troops and resources away from the Eastern Front and also defending the Atlantic Wall. RAF Bomber Command launched raids on Germany from the very early stages of the war and as aircraft like the Lancaster Bomber were developed more and more ambitious raids could be made, often with huge numbers of planes involved. Once America entered the war, the US Eighth Air Force joined the fray, with the Americans doing daylight raids on occupied Europe, and RAF Bomber Command conducting raids at night. Raids reached terrible intensity with attacks like the firebombing of Dresden in February 1945, but the bombing destroyed German infrastructure restricting their ability to develop new weapons and build replacement equipment lost on the battlefield. Some of the most famous operations of the war involved the Bomber Boys: whether it was Guy Gibson VC and the Dambusters, or the raid on Amiens prison. But the cost was high. By the end of the war the RAF had more than 55,000 aircrew killed with Bomber Command, and the US Eighth Air Force had over 26,000 killed. A huge amount of preparations required for the eventually landings in Normandy on 6th June 1944 – D-Day – took months, and in some cases years. Men were trained in sea-borne landings based on the experiences from Operation Torch to Anzio, weapons and equipment were developed to get them through the Atlantic Wall defences that stood on the beaches to block their advance, and tactics were perfected to stop the sea running red with the blood of Allied soldiers. When the landings came on 6th June, delayed by poor weather, they were far from a walkover. On the British beaches it took longer to get inland than expected and the advance on Caen was fatally delayed. On Omaha Beach the Americans had over 2,000 men killed in action: more than all the other beaches put together. But the Atlantic Wall had been breached and a bridgehead made. The first steps to victory had been made. Following the Allied landings in Normandy, in June 1944 the Russians launched their offensive – Operation Bagration. Within six months Soviet troops had swept up the ground to Warsaw and beyond into East Prussia and by early 1945 had reached the river Oder, only miles from Berlin. There was a stall in operations until April 1945 when the Russians broke through the Seelow Heights and the final battle for the Reich began in the streets of Berlin. Hitler committed suicide and the city fell. German surrender had been signed in Reims on 7th May 1945 and another was signed at the instigation of the Russians at Karlshorst on 8th May 1945: Victory in Europe Day. Meanwhile the Americans and British had been advancing through Belgium and Holland. Operation Market Garden had failed at its final objective – Arnhem Bridge – but the front had been pushed to the German borders. The Americans had breached the Siegfried Line near the Hurtgenwald and in the Ardennes, and despite the Battle of the Bulge when the Germans attacked in the Ardennes in December 1944; the advance into Germany began with the Reichswald Forest battle in February 1945 and with Allied troops reaching the Rhine by March. In the final weeks British and Commonwealth troops advanced through Holland into Northern Germany, and through the Rhineland, and Americans into Bavaria and eventually Czechoslovakia. They met with Russian troops on the Elbe at Torgau, and British Airborne soldiers linked up with their Soviet colleagues near Wismar. The front was closing in on what remained of the Nazi Regime. General Bernard Montgomery took the surrender of German forces on 4th May 1945, then a formal surrender was signed at Reims on the 7th May. There was a much greater cost, however: the cost in human lives. The Soviet Union alone suffered over 25 million deaths, of which nearly 17 million were civilians. More than 3½ million German soldiers died on the battlefield, most of them on the Eastern Front. The Americans lost over 416,000 killed in their armed forces and the British lost over 380,000 dead with Commonwealth nations like Canada losing 39,000. The numbers are simply staggering, shocking. But it was not just deaths on the battlefield. Civilians died in unparalleled numbers and the Holocaust witnessed the murder of more than 6 million Jews. By 1945 much of Europe was in ruins. Atomic bombs were used to end the war against Japan. The world would never be the same again. Looking for ideas for your next WW2 battlefield tour? We visit all the key Second World War battlefields in Europe, from D-Day to Berlin and Beyond. Whether its seeing WW2 megastuctures or bunkers, following the Rise and Fall of Nazi Germany, or looking at tank warefare and seeing WW2 armour, we have a broad range of tours to interest the World War Two enthusiast and those wanting to learn more.

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The Earth theoretically has a solid iron metal core (surrounded by a liquid iron metal layer) because back in the day the Earth and all the planets of our Solar System were considered to be isolated objects in the Universe. The theory being that the Earth had no physical exchanges with the rest of the Solar System, so the Earth's magnetic field had to be produced by and in the Earth itself. Hence the iron core. It has now been discovered in many ways that the Earth is very much connected in a circuit with the Sun, our Solar System and perhaps the rest of the Electric Universe. Connected by Space Tornadoes (100,000 Amps and 1 million mph speed of twisting plasma), Flux Transfer Events (2 types!) etc. This means that the old model of how the Earth produces its electromagnetic field needs to be reviewed. This includes all the theories and models based on the old idea (theory). Is the Earth a variation of an electromagnetic coil/transformer system? Connected and energising its Electric Weather Circuit. The Earth on tilt - Magnetic/Geographical Axis The wires carrying the electrical current around coils/transformers are slightly twisted at an angle around the mechanism. The Earths Magnetic North Pole is, at the moment, about 11 degrees away from the geographical axis of the Earth and means that the Magnetic axis and the Geographical axis are at a slight angle. The Earths Jet Streams are normally very strong and fast 'rivers of energised air' flowing around the Earth. Not in a straight line but a wavy undulating line. Cell Block H - Hadley Cells and Atmospheric Circulation The Earths Jet Streams are the most obvious natural wires/coils/windings around the Earth but there are others. Atmospheric Circulation has massive "Cells" that move and transport energised air around Earth. These circulate air in different directions. Earths atmosphere itself is important and shows bandings that can form natural wires/coils/windings. Seasonal changes also increase or decrease the electrical nature of that band. More or less moisture effects the resistance of air, the flow of electricity and its electromagnetic properties (large image of Earth's moisture bands). There is also perhaps another variation of a "river of energy" and that is the clouds and storm clouds found in the Doldrums themselves, that form around the Equator. Electrical currents flowing through a wire or through plasma (charged/energised gas) create electromagnetic fields. The air in Earths atmospheric circulation cells move sideways while moving forward. Are these Cells natural wires of energy? Current events - can you feel it in the air tonight? The diagram of the electromagnetic fields flowing through an electric coil/transformer shows the general and localised flow of the electromagnetic field. The Earths atmospheric, although still circulating in the same direction in the band, circulate in the opposite direction on opposite sides of the globe. The same as an electromagnetic coil/transformer. The Earth appears to be different to the above diagram, it seems to have bands beside each other flowing in the opposite direction. Is there any electric device or circuit that does this or uses something similar? Step-up and step-down transformers convert the electromagnetic properties of a circuit. Depending on the how the step-up or step-down transformer is designed (windings, material...) produces different results. Do the great atmospheric cells and the other natural wires/windings circling the Earth use step-up or step-down transformation? Either with the atmosphere Cells, Jet streams, the ocean/land below? Electrical industrial applications for Bifilar winding (Bifilar Coil) include suppression of back emf (counter emf), releasing energy from a transformer system, creating a reduced magnetic field (less self inductance) etc Are there many step-up and step-down transformer systems and circuits above, on and in our planet? Do the planets in our Solar System use step-up and step-down transformation circuits? The magnetosphere of each planet touches the one behind it. Are moons part of the process, if they don't have an atmosphere do they use materials that they are made up of? That Horse has Latitude Can the Doldrums and the Horse Latitudes be explained electrically? Are these a balance line of the electromagnetic properties or something electromagnetic? Are there Ayrton-Perry windings, to help with power surges? Can any of these help to explain those areas with immense amounts of lightning, especially the Catatumbo Lightning (Relámpago del Catatumbo) and Kifuka (mountain village in the Democratic Republic of the Congo). Can this start to explain why lightning occurs so much on Earth and other planets with totally different planet and local atmospheres, soils, weather etc? If you wanted to design an Electrical planet then you would come up with something similar to Earth. The atmosphere and weather of Earth is very Electric with billions of volts, millions of lightning strikes, a salty sea covering 7/10ths of the planet, silicon, Flux Transfer Events etc. Electric Earth - salty oceans If the Earth has natural "wires" that transport energy then you would expect the salty sea to be part of the energy circuit. It has recently been discovered that the sea does have puzzling and mysterious currents that no one knew about. Blue bands represent westward-flowing currents and red bands indicate eastward-flowing currents that move at roughly 1 centimeter per second ... In portions of the Southern Ocean, these striations—also known as ocean fronts—produce alternating eastward and westward accelerations of circulation and portions of them nearly circumnavigate Antarctica. These striations also delineate the ocean regions where uptake of carbon dioxide is greatest. ... “Our finding was so unbelievable that our first proposal submitted to the National Science Foundation failed miserably because most reviewers said ‘You cannot study what does not exist,’” Maximenko said. “The striations are like ghosts. To see them one needs to believe in them. No doubt, armed with our hint, scientists will start finding all kinds of striations all around the world.” Scientists reveal presence of ocean current 'stripes' | Phys.org Not just how does a Gravity Universe and Earth create multi-stripped alternating subtle currents that may go down to the bottom of the ocean but why? Why would they be needed, how do they survive to flow in opposite directions? How many layers, bands, natural wires, coils/windings are there above, on and in the Earth? In the Earth you have Telluric Currents, are these or other natural Electrical currents in a grid/lattice or criss cross the Earth? Electric Earth - electricity rocks An Electric Earth in an Electric Universe should have natural circuits, networks and connections. If the Earth is part of the electric circuit in our Solar System then it will in the larger scale as a component but in the smaller scale it will have its own circuits. Circuits include wires, resistors, capacitors, transformers etc. The German Super Deep Borehole (KTB) is one of the deepest holes to be drilled into the Earths surface. It had many surprising results. Water was found deep in the Earths crust where theory and mathematical models said it had to be totally dry. The same watery result was found with the Russian Kola Superdeep Borehole | Everything Is Electric. Therefore, it is very likely that water is found in most rock below our surface. Where did the water come from? Not fresh water but salty conductive water. The scientists at KTB expected deep crystalline rock to be bone dry, but to their surprise, water influx occured at several depths from open fractures...As fresh mud was used for drilling, any saline water inflow would cause a decrease in mud resistivity The KTB Borehole - Germany's Superdeep Telescope into the Earth's Crust Combine water with networks of electrically conductive materials and you have either grids, networks, layers and wires in the Earth itself. Also they may act as part of Step-up or Step-down transformers. Other unexpected results include core and log evidence for a network of conductive pathways through highly resistive rock, and in rock devoid of matric porosity, an ample supply of water. One of the reasons for choosing the Windischeschenbacksite was to investigate the origin and nature of a low resistivity layer recorded by surface measurements that appeared to be 10 km below the Earth's surface. This is not unique to southern Germany as similar layers are found in many continents around the world. ... But then highly conductive graphite-bearing faults and cataclastic zones were found at various depths up to 7000 m (22,970 ft) ... The results showed that the conducting layer coincided with graphite deposits in a north-south striking fault system - the Nottersdorf fault zone. The faults from this system crossed KTB-VB at about 250 m (820 ft) and KTB-HB at about 1500 m (4921 ft). The KTB Borehole - Germany's Superdeep Telescope into the Earth's Crust | Everything Is Electric Rings of Plasma Fire - Planets Halo's The winding coils around the Earth do not appear to stop there but go high in the atmosphere with the Northern and Southern lights. There are also twisting Birkeland Currents that connect the Earth to the Sun every few minutes and exchange monstrous amounts of energy. How and why in a Gravity Universe? Can the idea that planets atmospheres may be coils/transformers in an Electric Universe help explain why not just the Earth but other planets in our Solar System, all so varied, have auroras? Uranus has an aurora, Neptune has an aurora, Saturn has an aurora and Jupiter has an aurora ... The Exoplanets that are being found will also have auroras, even they are mostly Super Jupiter's and orbiting close to the parent star (which gravity seems to have forgotten about). Power Ups for Planets? How do planets and moons in our Solar System have so much energy? Why do some planets give off twice as much energy as the Suns power they receive? Can they get it from an Electric Universe? The most obvious answer was the Solar Wind (Solar Current) but now we are also discovering Flux Transfer Events, Solar Tornadoes (Birkeland Currents) etc. Is there another option? Could some of the planets be charged in a variation of Resonant Induction Recharging? Are moons powered by the parent planet in this way? Could it be something similar to this are a variation? Perhaps it only happens on a smaller local scale? Is this a possible explanation for Nikola Tesla's Planetary Radio Signals that he observed? Are they of Planetary origin in an Electric Universe?

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Posts for category: Oral Health Once they learn to walk, there's no stopping most children. Sometimes it can be a little jarring, as when you discover your toddler on top of the kitchen counter reaching in the cupboard on tip-toes for a snack! Fortunately, children are fairly resilient. Unfortunately, they're not invincible — some of their adventures could result in physical injuries, especially to the highly vulnerable area of the mouth. Even if you've carefully “child-proofed” your home, it's still best to be prepared for mishaps. Here are 3 common dental injuries and how to handle them. Soft tissue injuries. Making contact with the ground or hard objects like furniture can injure the lips, tongue, cheeks or gums and cause bleeding, cuts or bruising. First, clean the area with clean water and a cloth or gauze as best you can, making sure there aren't any trapped pieces of tooth or dirt. Apply gentle, continuous pressure with a clean cloth to control bleeding, and apply ice packs or cold compresses for swelling. Don't apply bleach, aspirin or similar medications to open wounds. If the bleeding won't stop or the wounds look serious or deep, go to an emergency room. Chipped or displaced tooth. A blunt force mouth injury can chip or push (displace) teeth out of position. In this case try to save any chipped pieces you find — your dentist may be able to re-bond them to the tooth. A displaced tooth is a dental emergency, so contact your dentist immediately. Don't try to re-position the tooth yourself unless it's completely knocked out. Knocked-out tooth. Actions to take with a knocked-out tooth depend on whether it's a permanent or primary (baby) tooth. If permanent, rinse the tooth with clean water. Handle it by the crown (never by the root) and gently place it back in the empty socket. If that's not possible, place the tooth between your child's cheek and gum (if the child is old enough not to swallow it by mistake. You can also place it in a glass of cold milk. Get to a dentist or an emergency room as soon as possible — minutes count for a successful reattachment. Conversely, don't try to put a primary tooth back in its socket — you could damage the developing permanent tooth beneath the gum line. But do see a dentist as soon as possible for an examination. There are a number of lifestyle changes you can make if you want to reduce your risk of oral cancer, with quitting a tobacco habit at the top of the list. You should also moderate your alcohol consumption and practice safe sex to prevent the spread of the human papilloma virus (HPV 16) linked to oral cancer. And there's one other area that might be ripe for change—your diet. The foods we consume can work both ways in regard to cancer: some, especially processed products with certain chemicals, increase your cancer risk; more natural foods, on the other hand, can help your body fight cancer formation. Although how cancer forms and grows isn't fully understood, we do know some of the mechanisms involved. One major factor in cancer growth is damage to DNA, the molecule that contains all the instructions for normal cell growth. Certain chemicals called carcinogens cause much of this DNA damage. One example of these dangerous chemicals are nitrosamines, found in substances used to preserve meats like bacon or ham. Nitrosamines also occur in beer during the brewing process, some fish and fish products, processed cheese and foods pickled with nitrite salt. It's believed long-term consumption of foods with these chemicals can increase the risk of cancer. On the other hand, there are foods with substances called antioxidants that help our bodies resist cancer. Antioxidants protect cells from unstable molecules called free radicals that can also damage DNA. You'll find antioxidants in abundance in fresh fruits and vegetables, especially those high in fiber. Vitamins like C and E found in many natural foods also have antioxidant properties. So, to help keep your risk of cancer and other diseases low, make sure your diet includes mostly fresh fruits and vegetables, along with plant-based fats found in nuts or olive oil. At the same time minimize your consumption of processed foods with preservatives and other chemicals, along with animal and saturated fats. A change in eating not only reduces your cancer risk, it can also improve your overall health and well-being. You'll also find a healthy diet can be dental-friendly—it can help keep your teeth and gums disease-free and healthy. If you would like more information on dental-friendly nutrition practices, please contact us or schedule an appointment for a consultation. You can also learn more about this topic by reading the Dear Doctor magazine article “Diet and Prevention of Oral Cancer.” Basketball isn't a contact sport—right? Maybe once upon a time that was true… but today, not so much. Just ask New York Knicks point guard Dennis Smith Jr. While scrambling for a loose ball in a recent game, Smith's mouth took a hit from an opposing player's elbow—and he came up missing a big part of his front tooth. It's a type of injury that has become common in this fast-paced game. Research shows that when it comes to dental damage, basketball is a leader in the field. In fact, one study published in the Journal of the American Dental Association (JADA) found that intercollegiate athletes who play basketball suffered a rate of dental injuries several times higher than those who played baseball, volleyball or track—even football! Part of the problem is the nature of the game: With ten fast-moving players competing for space on a small court, collisions are bound to occur. Yet football requires even closer and more aggressive contact. Why don't football players suffer as many orofacial (mouth and face) injuries? The answer is protective gear. While football players are generally required to wear helmets and mouth guards, hoopsters are not. And, with a few notable exceptions (like Golden State Warriors player Stephen Curry), most don't—which is an unfortunate choice. Yes, modern dentistry offers many different options for a great-looking, long lasting tooth restoration or replacement. Based on each individual's situation, it's certainly possible to restore a damaged tooth via cosmetic bonding, veneers, bridgework, crowns, or dental implants. But depending on what's needed, these treatments may involve considerable time and expense. It's better to prevent dental injuries before they happen—and the best way to do that is with a custom-made mouthguard. Here at the dental office we can provide a high-quality mouthguard that's fabricated from an exact model of your mouth, so it fits perfectly. Custom-made mouthguards offer effective protection against injury and are the most comfortable to wear; that's vital, because if you don't wear a mouthguard, it's not helping. Those "off-the-rack" or "boil-and-bite" mouthguards just can't offer the same level of comfort and protection as one that's designed and made just for you. Do mouthguards really work? The same JADA study mentioned above found that when basketball players were required to wear mouthguards, the injury rate was cut by more than half! So if you (or your children) love to play basketball—or baseball—or any sport where there's a danger of orofacial injury—a custom-made mouthguard is a good investment in your smile's future. If you would like more information about custom-made athletic mouthguards, please contact us or schedule an appointment for a consultation. You can learn more by reading the Dear Doctor magazine articles “Athletic Mouthguards” and “An Introduction to Sports Injuries & Dentistry.” When your mouth is dry, you know it: that sticky, uncomfortable feeling when you first wake up or when you're thirsty. Fortunately, it usually goes away after you eat or drink. But what if your mouth felt like that all the time? Then, it's no longer an irritation—chronic dry mouth could also increase your risk of dental disease. Chronic dry mouth occurs because of inadequate saliva flow. Saliva plays an important role in preventing dental disease because it neutralizes acid, which can cause the mineral content in tooth enamel to break down and lead to tooth decay. The mouth becomes more acidic right after eating, but saliva can restore its normal pH levels in about an hour—as well as some of the enamel's lost mineral content. Without saliva, your tooth enamel is at greater risk from acid. While a number of things can potentially interfere with normal saliva production, medication is the most common. More than 500 prescription drugs, including many antihistamines, diuretics or antidepressants, can cause dry mouth. Cancer radiation or chemotherapy treatment and certain metabolic conditions like diabetes or Parkinson's disease can also increase symptoms. If you are experiencing unusual dry mouth symptoms, see your dentist first for a full examination. Your dentist can measure your saliva flow, check your prescriptions and medical history, and examine your salivary glands for abnormalities. With this more accurate picture of your condition, they can help direct you to the most effective remedies and treatments for the cause. If medication is the problem, you can talk to your doctor about alternative prescriptions that have a lesser effect on saliva flow. You can also drink more water before and after taking oral medication and throughout the day to help lubricate your mouth. Chewing gums or mints with xylitol, a natural alcohol sugar, can also help: xylitol helps reduce the mouth's bacterial levels, as well as stimulate saliva flow. Easing your dry mouth symptoms can make your life more pleasant. More importantly, it can reduce your risk of future dental problems caused by a lack of saliva. If you would like more information on dealing with chronic dry mouth, please contact us or schedule an appointment for a consultation. You can also learn more about this topic by reading the Dear Doctor magazine article “Dry Mouth: Learn about the Causes and treatment of this Common Problem.” Proponents of legalized marijuana have won phenomenal gains over the last decade. Despite the federal government's continuing criminalization of the drug, several states including California, Colorado and Massachusetts, have voted to legalize its recreational use. Most people are aware of the social and political controversies the marijuana legalization movement stirs. But there's another side to this roiling issue: the health effects of marijuana, particularly for your teeth and gums. What may be lost beneath the more exciting headlines about ballot initiatives is the growing evidence that habitual marijuana use may increase the risk and severity of periodontal (gum) disease. Gum disease is a bacterial infection caused by dental plaque, a thin film of bacteria and food particles that accumulates on teeth. The spreading infection triggers inflammation, a normal bodily response to disease that's ordinarily beneficial. But if the inflammation becomes chronic it weakens the gums' attachment to the teeth. This can create voids or periodontal pockets of infection around the teeth. The disease can eventually damage the underlying bone, which could accelerate tooth loss. Poor oral hygiene is the biggest factor for an increased risk of gum disease; thinner gum tissue (an inherited condition or related to poor tooth position) is another factor, as well as lifestyle habits like tobacco use or excessive alcohol consumption. Add marijuana to the list: there's now some evidence that its use increases the risk for more severe periodontal pockets if the disease occurs. In a recent study, researchers with the Columbia University College of Dental Medicine reviewed statistics on the care for nearly 2,000 adult patients; a quarter of those in the study were frequent marijuana users. The marijuana users proportionately had deeper periodontal pocket occurrences than the rest of the patients in the study that didn't use the drug. The study doesn't say that marijuana causes periodontal (gum) disease. But it does suggest that marijuana use might increase its severity. As with other substances and practices in our society, marijuana use comes with a caveat: it may be legal where you live, but it may not necessarily be good for your health. If you would like more information on the effects of marijuana use on your oral health, please contact us or schedule an appointment for a consultation. You can also learn more about this topic by reading the Dear Doctor magazine article “As More States Legalize Marijuana, Link to Gum Disease is a Concern.”

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Many typefaces created today are related to types of the past, and interest in older letterforms is stimulated by the great number of visual resources available. We are surrounded by digital fonts based in one way or another on historical models, but it is clear that we cannot consider all of them as revivals. So, how to distinguish a type revival from a typeface that is loosely based on historical forms? More reflection on this subject is necessary, both to help navigate the landscape of contemporary typefaces, and to give greater clarity to discussions on the history of type. This 104 pages pamphlet provides tools for researching and designing revival types. A concise publication that will show a practical perspective and fresh content, fuelling the conversation among and between designers and scholars. The content is organised into four parts. The authors begin by defining the theoretical ground, including a definition of revivals, and a discussion on the boundaries of a revival project. The second part introduces the framework of analysis developed for recording the relevant design features of the type used as a model. In the third part, Olocco and Patané apply the framework to the roman type cut by Francesco Griffo for the De Aetna (1496). Based on this analysis, the fourth part showcases the process of reviving this historical type. Although the authors are focusing on defining a procedure to design a type revival, those suggestions can be adopted beyond the scope of a revival project. Their approach will ensure a strong connection with the original source and a substantial help towards understanding how to employ historical models in a contemporary context. Texts by Riccardo Olocco and Michele Patanè Preface by Gerry Leonidas Book design by Riccardo Olocco and Michele Patanè 12.5 × 21 cm 112 pages Paperback English Isbn 978-88-98030-48-4 First published May 2022 “Cast it” is a publication that uses CAST fonts and deals with the history and culture of type. Issue 5 presents The Processes of Type-making, an excerpt from the first chapter of Plain Printing Types, a book written by the American scholar-printer Theodore Low De Vinne and included in his four-volume treatise The Practice of Typography (1900-1904). The excerpt focuses on De Vinne’s summaries of electrotypes, stereotypes, printing presses and especially his analyses of typeface wear. As pointed out by Paul Shaw in his preface: “De Vinne’s account of typography, typesetting and printing is that of a large-scale commercial printer” […] “His language is lucid and easily understood by a modern reader in contrast to that of Moxon, Fournier, or even Mackellar.” Co-produced with CAST Cooperativa Anonima Servizi Tipografici Type designers: Erasmo Ciufo, Alessandro Colizzi, Beatrice D’Agostino, Riccardo De Franceschi, Giovanni De Faccio & Lui Karner, Rafael Dietzsch, Alessio D’Ellena, Giulio Galli, Radek Lukasiewicz, Riccardo Olocco, Luciano Perondi, Leo Philp, Gianluca Sandrone, Tipiblu Preface by Paul Shaw Editing by Andrea Amato, James Clough, Massimo Gonzato, Riccardo Olocco Book design by +fortuna 16.5 × 24 cm 48 pages English Issn 2531-765 Isbn 978-88-98030-44-6 First published December 2021 Claudio Rocha and Tony de Marco founded “Tupigrafia” magazine at the beginning of the millennium in São Paulo and have been working on it ever since. They are editorial designers and have always been a reference point for visual artists, communicators, researchers, teachers, calligraphers, street writers and typographers in Brazil. They created “Tupigrafia” because they wanted to have fun with letterforms and stay in touch with like-minded readers, exchanging ideas and experiences on the typographic scene. Their surprising and unconventional magazine has always reflected the state of typographic arts and lettering in Brazil and around the world. Now, after more than 20 years and 13 issues only available in Portuguese and almost all out of print, the masters of “Tupigrafia”, Rocha and De Marco, launch the first English-language anthology of the original magazine. A powerful and colourful 208-page volume presenting the vibrant content of “Tupigrafia” for an international audience of lettering and typeface enthusiasts. This unpredictable and unmissable anthology will feature some of ‘Tupigrafia’s most inventive and innovative subjects such as, among others, the sign painters known as “abridores de letras”, who work on boats in the Amazon; the Dutch postage stamps created by Gerrit Noordzij, Wim Crouwel, Joost Swarte and others; Fefê Talavera’s wall paintings for the ‘concrete jungle’ of São Paulo; the bizarre wooden typefaces of the Tipoteca Italiana and even the hidden typography of a pencil collection. Special edition limited to 50 copies for collectors also available with: 60 × 40 cm dust jacket/poster with alphabet by Luca Barcellona, Canvas slipcase with hot foil stamping. Design and curatorship by Claudio Rocha and Tony de Marco Cover title by Luca Barcellona 15.5 × 22.5 cm 208 pages with letterpress insert Hardback Isbn 978-88-98030-41-5 First published September 2021 “Cast it” is a publication typeset in CAST characters. Issue 4 presents Fournier’s preface to Modéles de caracteres de l’imprimerie (1742) followed by Harry Carter’s English version (1930) commented by James Mosley (1995). The preface is by Sébastien Morlighem. In 1736, the French engraver and typefounder Fournier le jeune (1712-1768) began producing new typefaces in his foundry in Paris. Six years later, he published the type specimen book Modéles de caracteres including a “Notice to lovers of printing” that we are happy to republish. In this text, Fournier traces a history of typography by talking about his most famous colleagues who preceded him. He describes his aesthetic choices, explains his system of point measurement of typefaces and reasoning on the need to produce them in new bodies. He concludes by pledging to improve his typefaces and the quality of French printing. Co-produced with CAST Cooperativa Anonima Servizi Tipografici Type designers: Erasmo Ciufo, Alessandro Colizzi, Giovanni De Faccio & Lui Karner, Alessio D’Ellena, Rafael Dietzsch, Giulio Galli, Riccardo Olocco, Luciano Perondi, Leo Philp, Tipiblu Preface by Sébastien Morlinghem Translation by Harry Carter (commented by James Mosley) Editing by James Clough, Massimo Gonzato, Riccardo Olocco Book design by Esterson Associates 16.5 × 24 cm 48 pages English edition (original text in French) Issn 2531-765 Isbn 978-88-98030-36-1 First published November 2020 “Cast it” is a periodical publication composed in CAST characters. Issue 3 offers the transcription of Der Schriftgiesser together with its English translation. Der Schriftgiesser (The typefounder) is a description of the casting of typefaces included in Werkstäte der heutigen Künste oder die neue Kunsthistorie, a kind of encyclopaedia of trades, originally published in Leipzig between 1761 and 1779. The author, Johann Samuel Halle (1727-1810), was a Prussian academic and official. His description of the type production process is probably the first detailed text on the subject written in German by an author who was neither a printer nor an entrepreneur in the industry. In 1922, the Wilhelm Woellmer type foundry in Berlin republished the text of ‘Der Schriftgiesser’ as a souvenir of the annual meeting of German type foundries. Thanks to Dan Reynolds, we now have for the first time an English translation of Halle’s text. The piece is accompanied by a preface that is also the only commentary on its contents ever published so far. Co-produced with CAST Cooperativa Anonima Servizi Tipografici Type designers: Alessandro Colizzi, Erasmo Ciufo, Alessio D’Ellena, Giovanni de Faccio and Lui Karner, Riccardo De Franceschi, Rafael Dietzsch, Giulio Galli, Riccardo Olocco, Luciano Perondi, Leo Philp, Tipiblu Preface and translation by Dan Reynolds Editing by Massimo Gonzato, Riccardo Olocco Graphic design by Tipiblu 16.5 × 24 cm 48 pages English Edition (original text in German) Issn 2531-765 Isbn 978-88-98030-27-9 First published December 2019 A good layout can certainly catch the eye, but when the details are not taken care of, reading requires too much effort and the pleasure quickly ends. In this nimble little book, Jost Hochuli, one of Switzerland’s best-known and most appreciated graphic designers, explains how to ensure the best possible experience for readers. To do so, he introduces us to the world of typographic detail or micro-typography and analyses its constituent elements one by one: letter, space between letters, word, line, line spacing and text column. These are all aspects that are often overlooked by graphic designers because they are outside the creative sphere, but on which the readability of the text depends. By means of examples and case studies, Hochuli points out problems and indicates solutions, stimulates acumen and critical sense and then invites every graphic designer to take responsibility for making decisions with consistency, common sense and sensitivity whenever the profession requires it. Texts by Jost Hochuli Editing by Massimo Gonzato Book design by Jost Hochuli Adapted Italian edition by Bunker 12.5 × 21 cm 68 pages Paperback Italian Isbn 978-88-98030-20-0 First published May 2018 In addition to the regular (book-only) edition, we present this deluxe edition, which includes a portfolio of 25 original letterpress prints. These compositions were individually printed in response to the new common theme of ‘hope’, which followed the 2016 theme of ‘fear’ in 2017. Each year, the participants carry out their chosen theme in two stages: during the group art residency and, later, with each person’s individual work in their own studio. Opposite/complementary themes are chosen to create tension and find balance. The deluxe edition of the Letterpress Workers volume shows these two moments together. Texts by Simona Borzacchiello, Claudio Madella, Fabrizio Radaelli Art direction by Claudio Madella Book design by Fabrizio Radaelli, Giacomo Silva 19 × 22 cm 90 pages 33 images + 25 typographical prints Bodoni-style hardback Italian/English First published December 2017 “Cast it” is a publication typeset in CAST fonts. Number 2 publishes, as a sample text, the first two chapters of The printer’s grammar, a manual for typesetters written and published by John Smith in London in 1755. As James Mosley notes in his preface, Smith often refers to Moxxon and his Mechanick exercises (1683-1684), but unlike most manuals of the time he does not rely on it. From several passages in The printer’s grammar (some of which can be found in these excerpts), it is evident that Smith had learnt his trade as a typographer in Germany and was also familiar with French and Dutch practices. In short, he was an entrepreneur and European citizen ante litteram. CAST is a digital type foundry that shares Smith’s entrepreneurial and cosmopolitan spirit by promoting international debate on typographic issues. In addition to “Cast it”, CAST publishes articles on the science, history and culture of type on its website. Co-produced with CAST Cooperativa Anonima Servizi Tipografici Type designers: Andrea Amato, Erasmo Ciufo, Alessio D’Ellena, Giovanni de Faccio, Riccardo De Franceschi, Rafael Dietzsch, Riccardo Olocco, Luciano Perondi Preface by James Mosley Book design by Riccardo Olocco Editing by Massimo Gonzato, Riccardo Olocco 16.5 × 24 cm 48 pages English Issn 2531-765 Isbn 978-88-98030-10-1 First published December 2017 The idea behind the Letterpress Workers project, the now customary international meeting of typographical designers held every year in Milan, is that graphic design should play an active role within society and thus also speak of the drives that run through it. In the 2016 edition, the concept of fear was addressed. The book, through a choral visual narrative, brings together the works resulting from this association and explores its socio-cultural implications, starting with the graphic design, freely inspired by the work of Dutch designer Willem Sandberg, whose human and professional example embodied the very spirit of this edition of the conference. Texts by Simona Borzacchiello, Claudio Madella, Fabrizio Radaelli Art direction by Claudio Madella Book design by Fabrizio Radaelli, Giacomo Silva 19 × 22 cm 90 pages 33 images (16 artworks) Bodoni-style hardback Italian/English Isbn 978-88-98030-22-4 First published June 2017 Writing, letterforms and typefaces are part of Lazy Dog’s DNA, the name of the publishing house is there to suggest it. This is why we took up the invitation of the Cooperativa Anonima Servizi Tipografici to create “Cast it”, the annual publication that responds to two needs: to promote the history and culture of typeface together with foundry typefaces. “Cast it” issue 1 uses the entry ‘Foundry typeface’ from the Dictionary of Arts and Crafts as a sample text to showcase CAST typefaces. This 1769 text is – as James Clough notes in the preface – the first contribution on the subject ever published in Italian. Co-produced with CAST Cooperativa Anonima Servizi Tipografici Type designers: Erasmo Ciufo, Alessio D’Ellena, Giovanni De Faccio, Rafael Dietzsch, Riccardo Olocco, Luciano Perondi Preface by James Clough Book design by Alessio D’Ellena Editing by Massimo Gonzato, Riccardo Olocco 16.5 × 24 cm 48 pages English (original text in Italian) Issn 2531-765 Isbn 978-88-98030-05-7 First published December 2016 Whimsical and intuitive, original, humorous, improvised, elegant: Italian signs are a mirror of Italian society. What distinguishes the most interesting Italian signs and inscriptions is the variety of original letterforms. Before typefaces and fonts dominated the scene, there was no standardization in Italy of letterforms for commercial signs and there were no printed manuals for signwriters. This freedom and detachment from standard models of letters as well as the craftsmanship and creativity of the signmakers and designers are what make Italian signs so extraordinary. In this book, the Italian-based British designer, teacher and writer, James Clough, examines Italian signs within a historical perspective and from many standpoints. From the ornate Tuscan style of the 19th century to the eccentric letters of Art Nouveau, from the grandiose architectural lettering of the 1930s to the exquisite surviving examples of the old signwriters, from fascist ghost signs to lettering on manhole covers, Clough points out the highs and lows of this artistic expression as he takes readers on a fascinating lettering tour of Italy. Text and illustrations by James Clough Cover design by Luca Barcellona Book design by Bunker 12 × 8½” 248 pages Over 300 photographs Hardcover English edition Isbn 978-88-98030-08-8 First edition September 2015

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The following terms are common in the literature associated with science and conservation in Galapagos. Also included below are the conservation status categories as developed by the International Union on Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). Click on any of the terms below to learn its definition: Endemic – Native or Indigenous – Exotic or Introduced – Invasive Eradication – Control – Biological Control Reintroduction – Repatriation – Translocation Taxon: Species – Subspecies Threat Categories – as defined by the IUCN - Extinct (EX) - Extinct in the Wild (EW) - Critically Endangered (CR) - Endangered (EN) - Vulnerable (VU) - Near Threatened (NT) - Least Concern (LC) - Data Deficient (DD) - Not Evaluation (NE) The rapid speciation of a single or a few species to fill many ecological niches; an evolutionary process driven by mutation and natural selection. It often occurs when a species arrives in a new ecosystem. In the case of isolated archipelagos, like Galapagos, when a new species becomes established, it can undergo rapid divergent evolution. Darwin’s finches and the Scalesia plants are some of the best examples of adaptive radiation in Galapagos, with many species deriving from single ancestor species. The full range of natural variety and variability within and among living organisms, and the ecological and environmental complexes in which they occur. It encompasses multiple levels of organization, including genes, species, communities, and ecosystems. In Galapagos approximately 95% of the original biodiversity still exists. The process of breeding rare or endangered species in human controlled environments with restricted settings, such as wildlife preserves, zoos, or other conservation facilities. Sometimes, as in the case of Galapagos, the process includes the release of individuals into the wild. Rearing young animals in captivity; can include egg incubation. The eggs/young may be from a captive breeding program or be transferred to the captive environment directly from the wild. In Galapagos, captive breeding and rearing is used for the Española tortoises (the 15 adults from the original population are maintained at the breeding and rearing center for annual nest and egg production) and is being initiated for both the Mangrove Finch and the Floreana mockingbird. Captive rearing is used for the other tortoise populations included in the Tortoise Center; for those populations, eggs and/or hatchlings are brought to the Center from wild nests. An ecosystem consists of a dynamic set of living organisms (plants, animals, and microorganisms) all interacting among themselves and with the environment in which they live. An ecosystem does not have precise boundaries – it can be as small as a pond or a dead tree, or as large as the Earth itself. An ecosystem can also be defined in terms of its vegetation, animal species, or type of relief. The major ecosystems are generally described as: - Aquatic ecosystems – saltwater or freshwater ecosystems - Terrestrial ecosystems – forests, prairies, deserts, etc. Endemic, – Native or Indigenous – Exotic or Introduced – Invasive - Endemic: A biological taxon (genus, species, subspecies, variety, etc.) native to and restricted to a particular area or region and not found naturally anywhere else in the world. Many species in Galapagos are endemic to specific islands or volcanoes, while others are endemic to the archipelago as a whole. Endemism on islands is generally much higher than on continents. Endemic species are a subset of native or indigenous species. - Native or Indigenous: A biological taxon (genus, species, subspecies, variety, etc.) native to a particular area or region; can be found naturally in other areas. - Exotic or Introduced: A biological taxon (genus, species, subspecies, etc.) that is not native or indigenous to a particular area or region and that has been accidentally or deliberately introduced into the area. Subsequent establishment and range expansion of introduced species may or may not involve human activity. Some introduced species never become established. However, once established some introduced species become invasive. - Invasive: A species that is non-native or introduced to an ecosystem that becomes established, spreads, and is likely to cause damage to biodiversity, agricultural production, or human health. Invasive species can be plants, animals, and other organisms (e.g., microbes). They can compete with and displace native plants and animals, alter ecosystem functions and cycles significantly, hybridize with native species, and promote other invaders. Eradication – Control – Biological Control - Eradication: Application of measures to totally eliminate a pest or weed species from a defined area. In the case of Galapagos, eradications are commonly defined at the level of individual islands. There are three conditions that must be met before eradication is deemed a viable option. These are: 1) the probability of recolonization must be near zero; 2) all individuals in the population must be at risk (e.g., animals that become trap-shy, avoid baits, or cannot be detected by current techniques would not be at risk); and 3) individuals must be removed at rates faster than their natural rate of increase at all densities. The best examples of successful eradications in Galapagos are the removal of goats, donkeys, and pigs from several of the larger islands. - Control: The suppression or containment of a population of an invasive or pest species; a continuous activity. If eradication is not feasible for either technological or financial reasons, a strategic approach for control is required to minimize impacts and/or reduce the spread of the invasive species. The ultimate purpose of control is to preserve native species, communities, and/or functioning ecosystems, as well as preserving health of both humans and the native ecosystem. Control methods include: 1) chemical control (pesticides, herbicides, fungicides); 2) mechanical control (physically removing the invasive species or changing habitat conditions); and 3) biological control (introducing a natural enemy – parasite or predator). - Biological Control: Biological control is the use by humans of a specially chosen living organism to control a particular pest species. This chosen organism might be a predator, parasite, or disease, which will attack the harmful plant or animal. It is a form of manipulating nature to achieve a desired effect. The best example in Galapagos is the successful use of the Australian lady bug to control the introduced, aggressive cottony cushion scale. Evolution is a process that results in heritable changes in a population over many generations. Evolution occurs within populations not individuals. Charles Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection suggests the probable mechanism by which evolution occurs. A group of organisms of one species that interbreed and live in the same place at the same time. Both research and management in Galapagos tend to focus on populations rather than species. This allows scientists and natural resource managers to work at the most conservative level, ensuring not only the survival of species but of distinct populations of species. All activities directed at preventing the introduction and/or spread of quarantine pests or to ensure their control. Inspection and quarantine in Galapagos is a package of activities or legal measures imposed on the entry of animals, plants, agricultural products, and other organisms and micro-organisms, including the time they must remain isolated in order to prevent, control, or delay the introduction of pests potentially harmful to the archipelago. Reintroduction – Repatriation – Translocation - Reintroduction: The intentional release of individuals of a species into an area formally occupied by that species. This could be considered a subset of Repatriation. In Galapagos, the release of Floreana mockingbirds back on Floreana will be the first reintroduction. - Repatriation: The intentional release of individuals of a species into an area formally or currently occupied by that species. In Galapagos, this has been used for giant tortoises and land iguanas. Only in the case of giant tortoises from Española was the release into an area formally occupied, only because the last of the original tortoises were removed from Española for captive breeding purposes. - Translocation: The intentional release of individuals of a species into geographic areas not historically occupied by the species. This usually involved moving an animal or population of animals away from an area where they are immediately threatened to an area where they would be less prone to extinction. In the case of Galapagos, translocations have been used for the protection of a population (examples include the translocation of land iguanas from Santa Cruz to the islets of Venecia and the planned translocation of endemic rice rats on Santiago to Bainbridge Rocks). Another case of translocation in Galapagos is the transfer of the sterilized adult tortoises to the island of Pinta; in this case, the primary goal of the project is the restoration of the island of Pinta and its ecological and evolutionary processes. - Definition of success: The definition of success for conservation programs involving reintroductions, repatriations, and translocations is the establishment (or enhancement) of a viable, self-sustaining population. Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present but in the indefinite future. The use of components of biological diversity in a way and at a rate that does not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity. Taxon: Species – Subspecies - Taxon (pl. Taxa): any taxonomic or classification unit; e.g., genus, species, etc. - Species: The fundamental biological classification of organisms. Members of a species can generally only breed among themselves and show persistent differences from members of allied species. - Subspecies: A taxonomic subdivision of a species, consisting of an inter-breeding, usually geographically isolated population of organisms. Threat Categories (as defined by the IUCN): A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. A taxon is presumed Extinct when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon’s life cycle and life form. Extinct in the Wild (EW): A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalized population (or populations) well outside the past range. A taxon is presumed Extinct in the Wild when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon’s life cycle and life form. Critically Endangered (CR): A taxon is Critically Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Critically Endangered (see Section V), and it is therefore considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. A taxon is Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Endangered (see Section V), and it is therefore considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild. A taxon is Vulnerable when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Vulnerable (see Section V), and it is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. Near Threatened (NT): A taxon is Near Threatened when it has been evaluated against the criteria but does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable now, but is close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future. Least Concern (LC): A taxon is Least Concern when it has been evaluated against the criteria and does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or Near Threatened. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category. Data Deficient (DD): A taxon is Data Deficient when there is inadequate information to make a direct, or indirect, assessment of its risk of extinction based on its distribution and/or population status. A taxon in this category may be well studied, and its biology well known, but appropriate data on abundance and/or distribution are lacking. Data Deficient is therefore not a category of threat. Listing of taxa in this category indicates that more information is required and acknowledges the possibility that future research will show that threatened classification is appropriate. It is important to make positive use of whatever data are available. In many cases great care should be exercised in choosing between DD and a threatened status. If the range of a taxon is suspected to be relatively circumscribed, and a considerable period of time has elapsed since the last record of the taxon, threatened status may well be justified. Not Evaluated (NE): A taxon is Not Evaluated when it is has not yet been evaluated against the criteria.

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“In my opinion, each number in Figaro is a miracle,” composer Johannes Brahms said of Mozart’s great opera a century after its creation. “It is totally beyond me how anyone could create anything so perfect; nothing like it was ever done again, not even by Beethoven.” Premiered in Vienna in 1786, Mozart’s Le Nozze di Figaro (Figaro’s Wedding) tells the tale of the lascivious Count Almaviva, who conspires to sleep with his wife’s maid, Susanna, before she can marry his manservant, Figaro. An opera buffa (“comic opera”), Figaro relies on many conventions of the eighteenth-century theater—mistaken identity, new-found blood relationships, silly disguises, far-fetched plotting, slapstick comedy—to paint, conversely, a realistic depiction of the many facets of human nature: love, lust, jealousy, hatred, revenge, regret, sorrow, and especially, forgiveness. The opera, commissioned by the “Enlightened” Holy Roman Emperor, Joseph II, was the first of three on which Mozart collaborated with the poet-priest—and womanizer—Lorenzo Da Ponte (Don Giovanni would follow the next year, and Così fan tutte in 1790). The story was based on Pierre Beaumarchais’s play, La folle journée, ou le Mariage de Figaro (The Mad Day, or The Marriage of Figaro), a controversial work that emphasized the foibles of the aristocracy and the tensions between the classes. Louis XVI of France in fact first prohibited its public performance until changes were made to the play. When it was finally approved in 1784, Figaro proved a hit with the French public, and the revised version retained enough incendiary social commentary that it may have had a role in inciting the French Revolution of five years later. Though considerations of class necessarily figure prominently in Mozart and Da Ponte’s Figaro, the composer’s concern, as always, was with human nature itself. The tensions between the classes, and indeed between the sexes, were interesting to Mozart in so far as they relieved inherent truths about the human soul itself. So, Mozart and Da Ponte dropped from their libretto Figaro’s indictment of nobility, originally penned by Beaumarchais: How came you to be the rich and mighty Count Almaviva? Why truly, you gave yourself the Trouble to be born! While the obscurity in which I have been cast demanded more Abilities to gain a mere Subsistence than are requisite to govern Empires. And what, most noble Count, are your Claims to Distinction, to pompous Titles, and immense Wealth, of which you are so proud, and which, by Accident, you possess? For which of your Virtues? Your Wisdom? Your Generosity? Your Justice? In its place near the end of the opera, Mozart and Da Ponte substituted a diatribe against women’s infidelity: Open your eyes for a moment, rash and foolish men, look at these women, look at what they are…. They are thorny roses, masters of deceit, friends of trouble, who pretend, lie, feel no love, feel no pity, no, no, no, no, no! The rest I won’t say, because everyone knows it already. Not only was it, of course, a safer course in eighteenth-century Western Europe to castigate women rather than aristocrats, but Mozart surely found more humor and irony in this aria, which was in keeping with the comic spirit of the piece as a whole. In a story that centers on the serial infidelity of a nobleman, and which the lead female characters are faithful to their lovers, Mozart has a manservant sing of the untrustworthy nature of women. Moreover, it is likely that Mozart found a blanket condemnation of the wealthy an empty indictment, for he knew that wealth did not change the nature of men. But women were in their essence different from men—at least in some respects—in all times and places; indeed, the idea that women “all do the same” provided the title of the third of the Mozart-Da Ponte trilogy (Così fan Tutte). Thus, it was the battle of the sexes that Mozart found much more interesting and more primal than the battle of the classes. And yet, Mozart and Da Ponte did not entirely shy away from class antagonisms; they added a soliloquy—the aria “Se voul ballare”—to the libretto, in which Figaro sings to the absent Count of his intention to allow him “to go dancing,” but promising that he himself “will call the tune.” Keeping in mind that Figaro‘s libretto is in Italian, the language of the Viennese nobility, it can be argued that Mozart was here speaking directly to aristocrats, warning them to behave themselves. This is true, but the aria should be seen more as a stinging admonition to an individual rather than a revolutionary clarion call, in that Figaro here—and throughout the opera—implicitly accepts his lower station. Had the Count been an entirely honorable man, Figaro would have no need to try to foil his master’s designs through manipulation. Later in the opera, in an aria that serves as a parallel to Figaro’s “Se voul ballare,” Mozart and Da Ponte seem to reaffirm the social order: The Count rages against the absent Figaro in “Hai già vinta la causa,” promising that he will foil his servant’s plans, and declaring to Figaro, “you were not born, bold fellow, to give me torment or perhaps to laugh at my unhappiness.” And though the music is bold, even somewhat threatening, the fact that the Count’s anger is without foundation—his poor behavior being the cause of the unruliness of his servants—must have been obvious to the aristocracy of Mozart’s day, as it is to modern audiences. Again, here, it is a personal vendetta that is at stake, in which class plays only an ancillary role. In fact, it seems that it was never the political overtones of Mozart’s finished that worried Joseph II’s censors, but rather some of its sexual innuendo. In the end, human nature interested Mozart more than politics: Whereas the latter was ephemeral and artificial, the former was eternal and natural. Mozart understood that it was human nature acted out on the stage of life that bred class divisions and social tensions. Through the combined brilliance of Mozart’s music and Da Ponte’s words, then, the characters in Figaro are made the furthest thing from mere archetypes; they are as real and as identifiable as the people around us today. Indeed, many aficionados of the opera refer to the Count and Countess, Figaro and Susanna, the vengeful Dr. Bartolo and the matronly Marcellina, the libidinous young Cherubino, as their “friends,” so well are they drawn individually, all reflecting in different ways and to varying degrees both the virtues and vices of human nature. Mozart shows on the one hand how pathetically petty and mean we humans can be–witness the passive-aggressive duet, “Via Resti Servita,” below between Susanna and Marcellina, who are rivals for Figaro’s attentions—and yet how even the most oafish among us are capable of true nobility of emotion: the denouement of the Count’s begging the Countess for forgiveness being the ultimate example. And, of course, at the heart of this story is the faithful love of Figaro and Susanna, which Mozart and Da Ponte clearly celebrate through their music and words. Though their relationship is marred at times by misplaced mistrust, as well as squabbling engendered by confusion over their predicament, their devotion to each other is unquestioned by the audience, as they scheme together to preserve Susanna’s purity in the face of the Count’s advances. One of the most tender moments of the opera occurs in the garden just prior to the denouement of the story, when the lovers embrace after a final case of mistaken identity, and Figaro declares: “Now peace, my dearest treasure: I recognized the voice I love, and which keeps my heart in thrall.” This section is accompanied by a beguiling, lullaby-like theme, perhaps Mozart’s most purely beautiful music of the entire opera. Mozart believed that it was his music, more than Da Ponte’s words, that primarily defined the characters of Figaro. “I should say that in an opera the poetry must be the obedient daughter to the music,” the composer opined prior to his collaboration with the Italian poet. “Why do the Italian comic operas please everywhere—in spite of their miserable libretti? Just because the music reigns supreme and when one listens, all is forgotten.” But Da Ponte would later disagree with his colleague: “If the words of a dramatic poet are nothing but a vehicle to the notes, and an opportunity to the action, what is the reason that a composer of music does not take at once a doctor’s recipes, a bookseller’s catalogue, or even a spelling book, instead of the verses of a poet? Mozart knew very well that the success of an opera depends, first of all on the poet; that without a good poem an entertainment cannot be perfectly dramatic…. I think that poetry is the door to music, which can be very handsome, and much admired for its exterior, but nobody can see its internal beauties if the door is wanting.” If Figaro, then, was a work about human beings, eschewing revolutionary politics, it was, certainly revolutionary in the artistic sense. “We wanted to present our most gracious and honorable public with a virtually new kind of play,” Da Ponte explained. “The musical numbers are of the widest possible variety, so as not to leave any performers unoccupied for long periods, to avoid the tedium and monotony of long recitatives, and to lend expression to the many different passions which the characters experience.” Thus, though the entire opera takes some three hours to perform, at no point does Figaro drag. Mozart and Da Ponte intentionally kept the action moving, with short arias (most lasting about three minutes, and only a couple lasting even four), brief recitatives, and with the sections following each other quickly, without break. In fact, in order to heighten the tension of the Act II and IV finales (which, respectively, precede the intermission and end the opera), Mozart dispensed with recitative altogether, substituting a series of sections in which duets grow to trios, then to quartets, quintets, sextets, septets, and finally, octets. “Recitativo is entirely excluded from this division of the piece,” Da Ponte said of the these finales. “The whole of it is sung, and it must contain every species of melody.” In this way, the frantic spirit of Beaumarchais’ non-stop “Mad Day” is preserved. The audiences in Vienna were enthralled by the unprecedented genius of Figaro. A singer in the premier production recalled: “At the end of the opera, I thought the audience would never have done applauding and calling for Mozart; almost every piece was encored…. Never was anything more complete than the triumph of Mozart and his Nozze di Figaro, to which numerous overflowing audiences bore witness.” Almost two-and-a-half centuries later, audiences still bear witness to the beauty and genius of this, the greatest of all operas–and perhaps indeed of all human creations. Books mentioned in this essay may be found in The Imaginative Conservative Bookstore.

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The three-toed amphiuma is one of Andy West’s favorite animals. Most Missourians have never seen this secretive eel-like animal, which is North America’s largest amphibian, but West has seen several of them in their swamp habitat at Duck Creek Conservation Area near Puxico in southeastern Missouri. “They are one of the coolest animals we have, and they are so well adapted to this swamp community,” said West. “It is exciting that we have a viable breeding population of this imperiled species. For me, the amphiumas are a beacon of hope for this area.” West, a wildlife management biologist for the Department of Conservation’s southeastern region, along with his colleagues in the Department, at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and with other conservation groups, have a formidable task before them: Restore natural hydrologic conditions to the Mingo Basin Conservation Opportunity Area (COA). “Our goal is to have healthy bottomland forest and wetland communities by reconnecting them to the water patterns that originally sustained them,” said West. Comprised of Mingo National Wildlife Refuge, Duck Creek Conservation Area and private land, the Mingo Basin COA conserves 17,000 acres of bottomland hardwood forests and cypress-tupelo swamps. This is the largest remaining tract of bottomland hardwood forest anywhere in the state, and the largest network of bottomland forest, swamps, sloughs and ox-bows in the south- eastern Missouri lowlands. This area and other remaining bottomland communities throughout the state provide important habitat for a diversity of rare and endangered plants and animals. Since statehood, industrious Missourians have ditched, drained, cleared and plowed most of Missouri’s bottomland hardwood forests and many swamps, not just in the southeast but throughout the state, especially in the large floodplains of the Missouri and Mississippi rivers. They deemed the trees too valuable not to cut, and the relatively flat land too rich not to be cleared and cultivated. Bottomland hardwood timber and rich bottomland soil have contributed greatly to Missouri’s agricultural economies. The trade-off has been a dramatic loss of our bottomland hardwood forests and swamps. Once covering an estimated 9 percent, or 4 million acres, of Missouri, we now have only 800,000 acres of bottomland forests. After prairies, swamps of southeastern Missouri are the rarest of all natural communities in the state. The only ones left are those that were too difficult to drain. These natural communities are wealthy not only in extractable resources for people, but in biological diversity. For example, of Missouri’s 147 native tree species, 67 are associated with bottomland forests and swamps. Many of these trees are hardwoods, which provide acorns and other important food sources for wildlife. Of Missouri’s 19 summer-resident Neotropical warblers, seven use bottomland forests and swamps as their primary breeding habitat. These bottomland communities also provide important habitat for game species like white-tailed deer, turkey and waterfowl. When we lose these communities, we lose the wild and wonderful creatures that live in them. Ten percent of Missouri’s 1,030 species of conservation concern depend on bottomlands for their survival. These species include the alligator gar, which has impressive dual rows of large teeth along its upper jaw. Reaching up to 10 feet in length and weighing up to 300 pounds, this mammoth fish is North America’s largest gar. In Missouri, it lives in sluggish backwaters connected to the Mississippi River. Also of concern are less-imposing animals like the semi-arboreal golden mouse, which builds its nests in bottomland forest trees, using its tail for balance as it travels along vines and branches, and the Rafinesque’s big-eared bat, which will roost in the basal hollows of tupelo trees. In addition, biologists have noted the decline of the cerulean warbler, a summer breeder whose zray-zrayzray-zray-zeeee song was once commonly heard in Ozark bottomland forests. The cerulean forages for insects and nests high in tree canopies. It inhabits vast tracts of forests with natural gaps, which rivers and streams provide. A number of unusual lowland plants are also imperiled. They include featherfoil, an aquatic plant with feathery leaves and air-filled stems to keep it upright in water, and corkwood, a small tree forming thickets in swamps and wet bottomlands, whose wood is lighter than cork. Occurring along rivers and streams throughout the central and southern United States, bottomland hardwood forests develop from and depend on nutrients brought by floodwaters. For southeastern swamps as well, water is the necessary ingredient of these nearly continuously flooded wetlands dominated by trees. Once covering large portions of floodplains—from water’s edge to bluffs—vast bottomland hardwood forests helped protect water quality by capturing silt and sediment in water and slowing and absorbing floodwaters, which helped to curb erosion downstream. Swamps served as buffers between rivers and permanently dry land, trapping nutrients from water that nourished plants and animals. Today—especially along big rivers—levees have cut off much of our remaining bottomland forest and swamps from the flooding that was their lifeblood. In other areas, bottomland forests and swamps often receive more water than they can handle as runoff from urbanization and channelization of streams has created more intensive and prolonged flooding. In both instances, the makeup of trees and other species in these bottomland communities has changed. Pollutants carried by water, such as pesticide runoff and excessive sediment, also affect the health of bottomland forests and swamp species. For example, the western chicken turtle is a sight predator, meaning it has to see its prey. But increased sedimentation has made swamp water murky, instead of its natural clear, tannin-stained color, making it hard for this swamp reptile to feed. Populations of swamp fish such as the bantam sunfish and flier are also vulnerable because the clear, quiet, heavily vegetated water they need is rare. In the Mingo Basin COA, Andy West and his colleagues make use of many tools to plan restoration of the area’s bottomland communities. Technology such as remote sensing is used to compare present land contours with maps of pre-drainage topography. Flying over the area helps as well. “There is still a fingerprint on the land,” said West. “From the air, you can see differences in soil color and texture that provide clues to the original configuration of water and land. “Eventually, we’ll use some of the same tools that were used to drain and clear the area—like bulldozers and other heavy machinery—to reshape parts of the land to favor natural water flows,” said West. Restoring natural conditions will help with other conservation efforts in the COA, like improving plant species diversity and reestablishing alligator gar. “Our most important tools, however,” said West, “are cooperation and communication with our partners in this area, including our neighbors in agriculture. It is always easier to work with nature rather than against it, and I think by working with nature, we can find restoration solutions that benefit everyone here.” Swales and very wet forests are often cut off from rivers and streams by natural levees created from gravel and silt deposits. Here is where the true hardwoods begin, with trees and other plants that can tolerate frequent, low-energy, backwater flooding and saturated soils. Pin, willow and overcup oaks in the canopy can reach 110 feet, and due to frequent standing water, there isn’t much of an understory or plant layer on the ground. In the southeastern lowlands, water oak, pumpkin ash and swamp privet also grow in these forests. When they are dry, wet bottomland forests are open and easy to hike through. This is where the true giants grow. On terraces of streams and river floodplains throughout Missouri, bur, pin and swamp white oaks, pecans and shellbark hickory can grow 140 feet tall. The Nuttall oak, which grows in these forests in the southeastern lowlands, is state-imperiled due to diminishing habitat. At the base of slopes and bluffs, where flooding is rare, the understory and ground layers are developed. These forests are usually carpeted with spring wildflowers like bluebells, blue-eyed Mary and larkspur, and morel patches are often abundant. Pawpaw, spicebush, leatherwood, musclewood and Ohio buckeye are in the understory. Along the Current and Eleven Point rivers, stands of native bamboo, called canebrakes, can also be seen. They provide important habitat for the state-imperiled Swainson’s warbler. White oak, sugar maple, bitternut hickory and black walnut are some of the trees in the canopy, and in the Bootheel, sweet gum and swamp chestnut oak can be found. Mesic bottomland hardwood forests are found throughout the state, with the Ozarks having the largest remaining patches. Closest to the water, these forests are typically made up of silver maple, sycamore, box elder and other softwood tree species. Grape vines and other plants that can handle lots of disturbance thrive here. These forests can bear—and depend on—the brunt of flooding. Floodwaters help disperse the floatable seedheads of cottonwoods and silver maples. Flooding stimulates willow and ash trees to produce new, air-filled roots. Riverfront forests often have an “untidy” appearance, with deposits of silt, sand, gravel and driftwood on the forest floor. With the construction of levees, often far inland from riverbanks, many riverfront forests have expanded, growing where bottomland hardwood forests once did. Missouri’s swamps have always been almost completely confined to the southeastern lowlands, an area once covered by about 2.4 million acres of interconnected cypress-tupelo swamps, bottomland hardwood forests, backwater sloughs and ox-bows. The acreage of these natural communities has been greatly reduced, but what remains adds greatly to Missouri’s natural diversity and harbors many species of conservation concern. Bald cypress trees—some up to 400 years old—provide habitat for nesting bald eagles and the bald cypress katydid, which lives among its branches. The harmless and seldom-seen western mud snake hides out under logs in shallow swamps and preys upon the completely aquatic western lesser siren and three-toed amphiuma. These snakes will also eat mole salamanders, which take shelter and breed in shallow, fishless bottomland pools and swamp leaf litter. Swamp rabbits are well-adapted to their habitat by being good swimmers. They can escape predators by diving into water and paddling with all four feet. Unfortunately, despite a high reproductive rate, they, like so many other swamp species, are declining due to the rarity of their lowland habitats. If you are a landowner with existing or historic bottomland hardwood forest or swamps on your property, there are many things you can do to conserve or restore these rare natural communities: Visit bottomland forests and swamps such as Mingo NWF or Duck Creek CA to learn more about these lowland treasures. New this year: Course certified by U.S. Track and Field and chip timing! Are you ask quick as a swamp rabbit? Or do you prefer a leisurely pace, like a western chicken turtle? These animals live in bottomland forests and swamps, which is the theme of the 9th Annual Endangered Species Walk/Run Race on Oct. 13. You can help protect Missouri’s endangered animals and plants and help keep their habitats healthy by participating in this event. You can run, walk, or even push a baby stroller! Race proceeds go toward helping endangered species in Missouri. Funds from past races have been used to study rare wetland birds and cave fish, develop techniques to propagate pallid sturgeon, Topeka shiners and rare freshwater mussels for reintroduction efforts, and to create educational materials about the decline of Indiana bats and Ozark hellbenders. In addition to helping protect Missouri’s natural diversity, participants will receive a T-shirt featuring bottomland forests and swamps. Winners will receive medals depicting Missouri endangered species. This event is hosted by the Missouri departments of Conservation, Natural Resources, and Health and Senior Services, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Jefferson City Parks, Recreation, and Forestry. Sponsors include ColorGraphic Printing of Springfield, Wal-mart, AmerenUE and the St. Louis zoo. Details of the race, youth teams and postcard contest are available online. Editor in Chief - Ara Clark Managing Editor - Nichole LeClair Art Director - Cliff White Writer/editor - Tom Cwynar Staff Writer - Bonnie Chasteen Staff Writer - Jim Low Staff Writer - Arleasha Mays Photographer - Noppadol Paothong Photographer - David Stonner Artist - Dave Besenger Artist - Mark Raithel Designer - Les Fortenberry Circulation - Laura Scheuler

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In 2003 the City of Louisville and Jefferson County Kentucky merged forming "Louisville-Jefferson County Metro Government." Louisville lies across the Ohio River from New Albany and Jeffersonville, Indiana, on a low, level plain that curves for 8 miles along the river. Midway in the adjoining river are the Falls of the Ohio, which determined the location of the original settlement and provided it with a name (Falls of the Ohio) until, as a gesture of gratitude for the aid given by Louis XVI and the French Nation to the American Revolution, the name was changed to Louisville. [ continued ] [ continued ] The Ohio River played a vital part in the development of Louisville and the surrounding country. The French were the first to explore the river the called La Belle Riviere (the beautiful river). During the next 100 years a long line of adventurers, explorers, traders and surveyors saw the Falls of the Ohio, stopped here for a time, and passed on. In 1773, after England had won the Ohio Valley from France, the first permanent settlement was attempted at the falls. In the summer of that year Captain Thomas Bullitt, commissioned by Lord Dunmore, Governor of Virginia, to locate land warrants granted to Virginia soldiers of the French and Indian War, camped on the Ohio River shore. He surveyed 2,000 acres for which Dr. John Connolly, a native of Pennsylvania who had served in the war, received a patent from the British Crown. Colonel John Campbell became a joint owner of the land with Dr. Connolly, and they issued proposals for the sale of lots. Before they could establish settlers here, Connolly was charged with being a Tory and his land was confiscated by Virginia. In May 1778, young George Rogers Clark, with 150 volunteer soldiers and about 20 families, left the Redstone settlement (Brownsville, Pennsylvania) on the Monongahela River and came down the Ohio River. His purpose was to establish a military base along the lower Ohio before starting his campaign for the conquest of the Old Northwest, then held by the British. When the party reached the falls they landed on an island, long since swept away by the floods, where they built blockhouses and planted corn; Clark and his raw recruits then pushed on into the wilderness to capture the British posts at Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vincennes. In the fall, Clark sent some of his men back to the settlement to establish a fort on the mainland. This fort, built during the winter of 1778-1779, became the nucleus of the settlement and headquarters of General Clark until Fort Nelson was completed in 1782. The falls, which interrupted navigation except in periods of high water, determined the site of the settlement. Downstream boats had to be piloted, and upstream boats towed by men familiar with the dangerous rapids. The first court convened here on March 7, 1781, and one of its first official acts was to fix the charges of the "necessities of life." These included whiskey, which could not be sold for more than $15 a half-pint, and shelled corn, not to sell for more than $10 a gallon. A man might object if a hotel keeper charged him more than $18 a day for board or more than $6 a night for a feather bed; the stabling of his horse was not to exceed $4 a night. These prices were computed in terms of the depreciated Continental currency. With the westward expansion Louisville assumed the character of a commercial city. At the opening of the new century it had 600 people, and soon it had sanitary laws as well as police and fire protection. The New Madrid earthquake of 1811-1812, which shook the greater part of the continent, and formed Reelfoot Lake, rocked Louisville. The first shock, lasting 4 minutes, was felt here on December 16, 1811 at 2 p.m. It was accompanied by thunder and was followed by "complete darkness and saturation of the atmosphere with sulphuric vapor." 87 shocks occurred during the following week and temblors continued through part of 1812. One very frightened and pertinent person rushed in on a group of card players, exclaiming, "Gentlemen, how can you be engaged in this way when the world is so near the end?" The party rushed into the street, where, from the rocking earth, the stars seemed to be falling. A member of the group was constrained to remark, "What a pity that so beautiful a world should thus be destroyed." Public morals improved noticeably during this period. The steamboat New Orleans, first successful steamer on the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, stopped at Louisville on its way to Natchez in October 1811. Latrobe describes the occasion in his Rambler in America: Late at night on the 4th day after quitting Pittsburgh, they arrived in safety at Louisville, having been but 70 hours in descending upwards of 700 miles ... and it is related that on the unexpected arrival of the boat before Louisville, in the course of a fine, still, moonlit night, the extraordinary sound which filled the air, as the pent-up steam was suffered to escape from the valves on rounding to, produced a general alarm, and multitudes rose from their beds to ascertain the cause. I have heard that the general impression among the Kentuckians was that a comet had fallen into the Ohio. This trip inaugurated the steamboat era, which vitally affected Louisville. In 1815 the Enterprise steamed upriver from New Orleans to Louisville in 12 days, less than half the time it tool broadhorns and keel-boats to make the journey downstream. Talk revived about building a canal around the falls in front of Louisville. From 1820 to 1870 this river town's prosperity was measured by its boat traffic. During the first 3 decades of the 19th century portaging cargoes around the Falls of the Ohio was Louisville's chief concern. Shipments were unloaded, carted overland to Towhead Island above the falls, and put on boats for the upriver journey. Except in periods of high water, when the falls were navigable, the same transfer of goods took place in moving cargoes downstream. In 1825 a private company was organized to construct the long-deferred canal project, and in December 1830, the Uncas passed through the locks of the completed Portland Canal, which ran laterally across Louisville's riverfront. The canal opened through navigation on the Ohio from Pittsburgh to its mouth. The movement of commerce picked up. Less than a decade after it was completed, 1,500 steamers and 500 flatboats and keel-boats entered the canal annually, bearing 300,000 tons of produce for Southern markets. Louisville was incorporated in 1828 and received its first city charter. The makeshift village government was superseded by a mayor and a board of aldermen elected by the voters. The loss of the portage business following the opening of the Portland canal brought on a temporary local depression, made more acute by the cholera epidemic of 1831. Louisville in its early years drew its population mostly from Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina and South Carolina. Louisville early became outstation in the expanding New Orleans commercial empire. Men of wealth, character and influence came up from the city, entered the Louisville scene, and left the imprint of their early training and social environment. By way of Pittsburgh and down the Ohio came another, larger stream of men seeking their fortunes in expanding the West. Among them were New Englanders and people from the Middle Atlantic States. This group added materially to the business caution of the roaring river town and much to its diversity of opinion. Their active participation in political life explains the fact that Louisville, a Southern city, was vocally Northern during the War between the States. During these first few decades, Louisville was influenced by a number of French emigres. Michel Lacassagne, the first postmaster, reproduced a French garden at his home on the riverfront; Tarascon built mills and utilized the water of the falls; Audubon painted birds and taught drawing; the young Duke of Orleans, afterwards Louis Philippe, King of France, was among the first musicians of the city; the Barbaroux brought mercantile and manufacturing skill; the Berthouds and Honores, like Tardiveau, were pioneers in navigation and commerce. Some traces long remained of their architectural contributions. Tradition remembers their graceful living and dancing feet. The 1840s started off with a fire that burned a large part of the business district. It was rebuilt, and the town continued to grow. In this decade many Germans came to Louisville. They brought little of tangible wealth but much practical education and industrial skill. They founded stores and industries, and in time exercised a definite influence upon the social and commercial life of the community. By 1850 Louisville had a population of 43,194. A new charter, granted March 24, 1851, provided for the election of all city officers. The 1850s were years of general prosperity, and Louisville inaugurated street railways and witnessed the completion in 1851 of the Louisville, Frankfort & Lexington Railroad. The Louisville & Nashville Railroad, actively promoted by Louisville, was completed to Nashville in 1850. The outbreak of the War between the States brought a bitter division of opinion in Louisville. The predominant Union sentiment within the city vied with the pro-Confederate temper of the adjoining rural section. Many residents with Southern sympathies were compelled to espouse the cause of the Union as a matter of self-preservation. Louisville was military headquarters and supply depot for the Armies of the North throughout the war. The end of the conflict found the South's traditional plantation economy bankrupt. Louisville, one of the most important distributing centers for the Southern States, had to adjust to changed conditions. It pressed new merchandising methods and established railroad connections with Memphis, New Orleans, Mobile, Atlanta and other Southern cities. Louisville merchants send salesmen in two-horse rigs to all parts of the South with instructions to get orders at any cost. For two decades Louisville and Cincinnati waged an intense struggle for Southern trade. Eventually it was divided between them. Nearby Towns: Clarksville Town • Jeffersonville City • New Albany City •

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Mythology is a genre of both oral and written literature. They are a collection of traditional stories belonging to a certain culture, often featuring stories of supernatural creatures, gods, kings, heroes, and more. They were developed by societies to explain the origins of their existence, the origins of the world, and other phenomena that cannot be explained rationally. All cultures in the world have their own collection of myths. The most fascinating of all, however, have to be those that came from the world’s oldest civilization, otherwise known as the Mesopotamian civilization. Mesopotamia is where humans first began forming complex societies, developing important activities such as agriculture, irrigation, domestication of animals, writing, etc. This is also where the oldest literary work comes from, and it is believed to be the oldest myth to ever exist. These factors give all the reasons to further explore this topic. So, in today’s post, we’ll be looking at what mythological stories were like in the world’s oldest civilization. We’ll look at a few myths from this ancient civilization, and see how these stories shaped or rationalized beliefs in the various Mesopotamian cultures. What do myths tell us? Before we begin, let us first understand why mythological stories are important, what purpose they serve and what message they try to convey. Some myths are based on reality while others are entirely fictional. But, even if they are based on true events, there is no evidence proving that the event ever occurred. The origins of these stories are, therefore, almost always unknown. The purpose of many of these stories is symbolic and intended to inspire people. It is common to see stories of hope and motivation to do the ‘right thing’. They also instruct social norms determining what is accepted and what isn’t. Additionally, the characters in these stories work as role models and communicate their duties and responsibilities as members of society. For instance, the main character is often depicted as an ideal person with agreeable qualities and traits. Showing that they always fulfil their responsibilities and are always victorious in all their endeavours. Many stories do not always end on a positive note, teaching certain morals or lessons to their audience. These stories also address human concerns such as death, birth, afterlife, origins, good and evil, etc. And, they even attempt to explain why things are the way they are. This provided a certain clarity, satisfying mankind’s general curiosity about the unknown. Moreover, myths are a culture’s way of transmitting and rationalizing their traditions and beliefs. Putting faith in these stories was a way for like-minded people to stick together, and identify as one community. Most importantly, they also tell us how people in the past lived their lives and what they believed, albeit this information cannot always be historically confirmed. Many even believe that what we consider mythology today, may have been a religion followed by civilization in the past. A Brief Introduction to Mesopotamia and Mesopotamian Myths Mesopotamia is a Greek word that translates to ‘the land between the rivers’, referring to the strip of land between the Rivers Euphrates and Tigris. The civilization is known as the cradle of civilization, as that is where major human developments happened. Mesopotamia is the oldest known civilization that spanned across the present-day regions of Iraq, Syria, Turkey, and Kuwait, developing roughly between 11,000 to 12,000 years ago. It was here that mankind first began settling down, engaging in agricultural activities and establishing communities. Over time, these communities developed their own cultures and subsequently, their own stories to answer the inexplicable and to transmit their values and beliefs. Mesopotamian mythology is a collection of traditional stories from the various cultures that once existed in Ancient Mesopotamia. Many notable cultures existed in ancient Mesopotamia, such as the Sumerian, Assyrian, Akkadian, and Babylonian cultures. While they all had their own stories to tell, they all shared common themes and the stories seemed to be inspired by each other. Mesopotamian mythology also includes all sorts of other literary works, such as epics, hymns, poems, books of rituals, etc. from ancient Mesopotamia. How do we know about Mesopotamian Myths? Compared to other ancient civilizations, information about Mesopotamian mythology is limited. This is largely due to the sheer age of the Mesopotamian civilization. It only left limited items or fragments of these items for future generations to discover and decode. Mesopotamia was the first civilization to develop a writing system. Civilizations used wedge-shaped symbols to make impressions on clay or stone tablets to write in their languages. This was the cuneiform script, one of the earliest forms of writing. Most of these texts are written in the Sumerian and Akkadian languages. In those times, the task of writing on tablets was assigned to scribes who used to work at palaces and temples. It is thanks to those tablets that Mesopotamian literature has managed to survive. As discussed earlier, Mesopotamian myths include all types of literary works. Some of these surviving tablets contain large texts interpreting the omens. Ancient Mesopotamians believed that the gods communicated their will through omens or signs. So, people would note these omens and the event pertaining to them. If one could notice a pattern or decipher what these omens meant, they could foresee misfortune and prevent them from occurring by performing certain rituals. The most notable of these texts is the omen series, known as the shumma izbu. Other tablets contain ritualistic texts, which also use stories to explain the need for these rituals. Some tablets simply contain ancient wisdom that attempts to answer existential queries like “What is the meaning of life?” “Who am I?” “Where did I come from?” “What is my purpose in life?” “What is my fate?” etc. Like the myths we know today, myths from that period also had variations of the same story. The stories would get more and more inconsistent with geographical differences and as the physical distance grew. Additionally, some stories will get lost in translation as literary works were translated from Sumerian and Akkadian to other languages, such as Assyrian, Babylonian, Amorite, etc. Types of Mesopotamian Myths Most myths in all cultures can be categorized into three main types. The first type is the etiological myths. These stories explain why something is the way it is. Origin or creation stories or stories narrating the duties of a character are just some examples of etiological myths. The second type is historical myths. These narrate an event from the past in a theatrical manner to add value and depth to the story. The events or characters from these stories can be relatable to the events, characters and their characteristics from today. Finally, there are psychological myths. They describe a journey to the unknown or narrate a story where the physical world connects or balances with the inner self and consciousness. Myths from Mesopotamia The Mesopotamian cultures practised polytheistic religions, worshipping deities with anthropomorphic features. These gods and goddesses represented the elements of nature, the world, and activities in it, similar to Greek mythology. The stories heavily feature mythical heroes, gods and goddesses. Here is a list of some of the main deities that are frequently part of many myths: Note: Across the different Mesopotamian cultures, the deities are perceived based on their culture. The same god or goddess can therefore be known by different names and may have slightly different characteristics and responsibilities to their cultural counterparts. The names of the deities are written in parentheses, whereas the corresponding culture that identifies with the god or goddess is indicated within parentheses. An (Sumerian) / Anu (Akkadian): God of the heavens, initially the supreme God. Enlil (Sumerian) / Ellil (Babylonian): God of the atmosphere and sky Enki (Sumerian) / Ea (Babylonian): God of wisdom and earth Marduk (Babylonian): King of the Gods, Son of Enki Ashur or Assur (Assyria): King of the Gods Inanna (Sumerian) / Ishtar (Akkadian): Goddess of love, war, beauty. It is important to note that different gods act as the king of the gods in different cultures. It is usually the patron god of a city that is considered the supreme god. For instance, Marduk is considered the king of the gods in Babylon, while An was the supreme god of Sumer and Ashur was considered the most powerful in Assyria. The Song of the Hoe Myths in the Sumerian civilization did not have any creation myths that explain the creation of the universe or the gods. They believed that the gods and the universe just happened to always exist. This theme remains consistent throughout all the remaining written texts found from 3000 BC to 1000 BC However, there are stories that describe the creation of the earth, the heavens, the underworld, and humankind. The Song of the Hoe is a Sumerian creation myth written between 3,000 and 2,000 BC. It narrates how Enlil separates the heavens from the earth and created humankind. Enlil first separated the heavens from the earth using a hoe, a tool that he invented. He makes sure that both realms remain connected, so he links the heavens and earth through the Duranki, a mountain house located in Nippur, in present-day Iraq. The hoe referred to in this myth, resembled a pickaxe more than a garden hoe. After separating the two realms, Enlil then created humankind using clay. Clay was the primary raw material used to create beings and items in most Mesopotamian myths. Once again, he uses the hoe for the process and gives rise to the first humans, so that they can serve the gods. Humans then take this hoe to cultivate crops, build temples, use it as weapons and bury the dead. The Enuma Elish is a 7-tablet long Babylonian creation myth written in 2000 BC. It is written in Akkadian in the form of a poem. It tells the story of how the universe, the gods and humans were created. Before that, there was only darkness, an ocean full of chaos. From this body of water, emerged Apsu, the god of freshwater, and Tiamat, the goddess of salty water. Together they gave birth to several other gods. The oldest was Enki/Ea. Ea and his siblings were noisy and disturbed Apsu. So, he decides to destroy his children. Tiamat quickly alerts Ea, who manages to put Apsu to sleep, then kills him. Taking Apsu’s corpse, he builds his home. Tiamat is enraged by Apsu’s death and declares war on her children. She creates an army of monsters and proceeds to fight the young gods. Meanwhile, Ea and his wife give birth to their son Marduk, who then kills Tiamat by shooting her with an arrow. She is split into two. Her eyes create the Rivers Euphrates and Tigris and her body is further split to create the heavens and the earth. Marduk then assigns each of the gods a responsibility to take. He then takes the remains of Tiamat’s champions and, with their blood, he creates Lullu, the first man. He is given the responsibility of helping the gods to maintain order and avoid chaos. Marduk then established the city of Babylon and became its patron god. In Babylon, it was tradition to recite this poem at the Akitu festival, which was the Babylonian New Year. The Epic of Atra-Hasis Atra-Hasis is an Akkadian epic that has many versions, but its most complete version was written in 1700 BC. The epic contains stories of creation and a flood-related myth. The story begins at a time after the earth was created, but before humans were created. Anu, the king of the gods, and the god of the sun and heavens, Enlil, the god of the land, and Enki, the god of the seas and the underworld, were overseeing the earth. Meanwhile, other minor gods were responsible for maintaining the earth. They were assigned to do menial tasks like desilting the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. These gods did not like the task and finally decided to protest. As a result, the main gods decided to create humans, so they could take care of the land for them, and provide offerings to the gods through worship and sacrifices. The burden of work had been taken off from the gods and initially they enjoyed it. However, as humans began populating, they started to create a lot of noise and chaos. Enlil, in particular, was very disturbed by this cacophony. So, he decided to eliminate humans – the source of the noise. Enlil sends various plagues on earth but fails to succeed because of Atrahasis, the wisest man on earth. He tells others that by sacrificing to the gods in charge of spreading the plague, they could defeat it. And they did. Enki, impressed by this, supports Atrahasis. After many failed attempts at destroying humanity, Enlil decides to drown all humans by flooding the world. He manages to bring all the other gods along in his plan and makes them take an oath to not alert Atrahasis and not to be wooed by their sacrifices. However, Enki indirectly informs Atrahasis, speaking to him through the reed walls of his home. He warns Atrahasis of the flood and instructs him to build an ark and to take two of every kind of animal within that ark. When the world starts flooding, Atrahasis is prepared. The storm lasts seven days, after which the waters subdue. Seeing humanity destroyed, Enlil and the other gods resent their actions. That is when Atrahasis presents himself and makes a sacrifice. Enlil is then furious with Enki for sharing his plans, but he defends himself, saying he did what was needed to preserve life. Finally, the gods gather to discuss different ways to control the population, to reduce the disturbing noise. Then, they decide to create women who cannot bear children, to create demons that miscarriages and infertility, and made it obligatory for women devoted to god to remain virgins. Meanwhile, Atrahasis is taken to paradise away from the new generation of humans. The Epic of Gilgamesh: The world’s oldest literature from Mesopotamia The Epic of Gilgamesh is the oldest known literary work in the world. It is also the oldest mythological story in the world and was written between 2150 and 1400 BC. The Epic of Gilgamesh is a Sumerian literature recorded in 12 tablets. It is a series of poems that narrate the adventures of Gilgamesh, the hero and later king of Uruk, one of the early Sumerian cities. There are multiple versions of this myth and the following section retells one of the versions. Gilgamesh is a capable but arrogant king. Fed up with his behaviour, his subjects request the gods to take action. The gods hear their cries and decide to teach Gilgamesh a lesson about humility. Aruru, the goddess of the earth and fertility, creates Enkidu, a wild man. He is given the same physical qualities as Gilgamesh. Enkidu is transformed into a civilized man with the help of Shamhat, the sacred prostitute. Once a civilized man, he is introduced to civilization and presented to Gilgamesh. Enkidu then challenges Gilgamesh’s position as king, and they both start duelling. Gilgamesh realizes Enkidu is a worthy opponent and soon, they both realize that they can’t defeat each other. So, they stop fighting and become best friends. Quest for Immortality Some time passes when Enkidu is sentenced to death by the gods for his hostility towards them. Deeply shaken by his best friend’s death, Gilgamesh sets out on a quest to search for immortality. On his journey, he is advised by different characters not to seek immortality and simply enjoy his time as a mortal. He still tries to chase immortality but ultimately fails. Finally, he gives up his quest for immortality, takes the advice given to him and embraces the fact that life has its limits. He returns to his kingdom as a wiser person and a better king. How did these Myths Shape Ancient Mesopotamia? Mythology and religion were used as incredible political and administrative tools. Laws in ancient Mesopotamia were believed to be a decree of the gods. Stories about deities and their powers were used to discuss and enforce various agreements between political figures in Mesopotamia. Leaders who were victorious in wars would give credit for their victory to the gods. Additionally, the rulers of Mesopotamian cities would convince their subjects that they possessed certain powers because the gods willed them. This is how many believe early politicians used mythology and religion for their propaganda in those times. Cities and nations had their own patron gods. Myths were brought to life as it motivated the construction of many buildings and the creation of artworks. For instance, sculpting figures of the gods and building centres of worship, known as ziggurats. Mythology was also used as a way of explaining their existence, the way that the world functions while simultaneously transmitting their history and culture. Just like a lot of myths in the world. Lastly, these myths instilled values of responsibility and discipline. The Ancient Mesopotamian people believed that they worked with the gods, not under them. In many of the creation stories, the gods created humans so that they could do the work that the gods were doing and take the burden off them. Many interpreted this as working together with the gods, as they did their part in keeping the world balanced, while simultaneously keeping the gods happy through prayers, habits and rituals. Please do not hesitate to share your thoughts in the comments below.

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Air pollution and dust prevail over many regions that have rapid growth of solar photovoltaic (PV) electricity generation, potentially reducing PV generation. Here we combine solar PV performance modelling with long-term satellite-observation-constrained surface irradiance, aerosol deposition and precipitation rates to provide a global picture of the impact of particulate matter (PM) on PV generation. We consider attenuation caused by both atmospheric PM and PM deposition on panels (soiling) in calculating the overall effect of PM on PV generation, and include precipitation removal of soiling and the benefits of panel cleaning. Our results reveal that, with no cleaning and precipitation-only removal, PV generation in heavily polluted and desert regions is reduced by more than 50% by PM, with soiling accounting for more than two-thirds of the total reduction. Our findings highlight the benefit of cleaning panels in heavily polluted regions with low precipitation and the potential to increase PV generation through air-quality improvements. Your institute does not have access to this article Subscribe to Nature+ Get immediate online access to the entire Nature family of 50+ journals Subscribe to Journal Get full journal access for 1 year only $8.25 per issue All prices are NET prices. VAT will be added later in the checkout. Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout. Get time limited or full article access on ReadCube. All prices are NET prices. The datasets generated and analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding authors on reasonable request. The custom code generated during the current study is available from the corresponding authors on reasonable request. Renewables 2019 Global Status Report (REN 21, 2019). PVPS 2019 Snapshot of Global PV Markets (International Energy Agency, 2019). Feldman, D. & Margolis, R. Q4 2018/Q1 2019 Solar Industry Update (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2019). Technology Roadmap—Solar Photovoltaic Energy (International Energy Agency, 2014). Aerosol Optical Thickness (1 month—Terra/MODIS) (NASA, 2017). Streets, D. G. et al. Anthropogenic and natural contributions to regional trends in aerosol optical depth, 1980–2006. J. Geophys. Res. 114, D00D18 (2009). Babu, S. S. et al. Trends in aerosol optical depth over Indian region: potential causes and impact indicators. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 118, 11794–11806 (2013). Ridley, D. A., Heald, C. L., Kok, J. F. & Zhao, C. An observationally constrained estimate of global dust aerosol optical depth. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 16, 15097–15117 (2016). Li, X., Wagner, F., Peng, W., Yang, J. & Mauzerall, D. L. Reduction of solar photovoltaic resources due to air pollution in China.Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 114, 11867–11872 (2017). Labordena, M., Neubauer, D., Folini, D., Patt, A. & Lilliestam, J. Blue skies over China: the effect of pollution-control on solar power generation and revenues. PLoS ONE 13, e0207028 (2018). Sweerts, B. et al. Estimation of losses in solar energy production from air pollution in China since 1960 using surface radiation data. Nat. Energy 4, 657–663 (2019). Sarver, T., Al-Qaraghuli, A. & Kazmerski, L. L. A comprehensive review of the impact of dust on the use of solar energy: history, investigations, results, literature, and mitigation approaches. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 22, 698–733 (2013). Costa, S. C. S., Diniz, A. S. A. C. & Kazmerski, L. L. Dust and soiling issues and impacts relating to solar energy systems: literature review update for 2012–2015. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 63, 33–61 (2016). Boyle, L., Flinchpaugh, H. & Hannigan, M. Assessment of PM dry deposition on solar energy harvesting systems: measurement–model comparison. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 50, 380–391 (2016). Singh Rajput, D. & Sudhakar, K. Effect of dust on the performance of solar PV panel. Int. J. ChemTech Res. 514, 974–4290 (2013). Adinoyi, M. J. & Said, S. A. M. Effect of dust accumulation on the power outputs of solar photovoltaic modules. Renew. Energy 60, 633–636 (2013). Al-Ammri, A. S., Ghazi, A. & Mustafa, F. Dust effects on the performance of PV street light in Baghdad City. In 2013 International Renewable and Sustainable Energy Conference (IRSEC) 18–22 (IEEE, 2013). Bergin, M. H., Ghoroi, C., Dixit, D., Schauer, J. J. & Shindell, D. T. Large reductions in solar energy production due to dust and particulate air pollution. Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 4, 339–344 (2017). Gueymard, C. A., Habte, A. & Sengupta, M. Reducing uncertainties in large-scale solar resource data: the impact of aerosols. IEEE J. Photovolt. 8, 1732–1737 (2018). Suri, M. & Cebecauer, T. Satellite-based solar resource data: model validation statistics versus user’s uncertainty. In ASES SOLAR 2014 Conference (ASES, 2014). Parrott, B., Carrasco Zanini, P., Shehri, A., Kotsovos, K. & Gereige, I. Automated, robotic dry-cleaning of solar panels in Thuwal, Saudi Arabia using a silicone rubber brush. Sol. Energy 171, 526–533 (2018). Andrews, R. W., Stein, J. S., Hansen, C. & Riley, D. Introduction to the open source PV LIB for Python photovoltaic system modelling package. In IEEE 40th Photovoltaic Specialist Conference (PVSC) 170–174 (IEEE, 2014). Stein, J. S., Holmgren, W. F., Forbess, J. & Hansen, C. W. PVLIB: open source photovoltaic performance modeling functions for Matlab and Python. In IEEE 43rd Photovoltaic Specialists Conference 3–8 (IEEE, 2016). Holmgren, W. F., Andrews, R. W., Lorenzo, A. T. & Stein, J. S. PVLIB Python 2015. In IEEE 42nd Photovoltaic Specialist Conference (PVSC) 1–5 (IEEE, 2015). CERES SYN1deg Ed3A (CERES Science Team, 2016). Doelling, D. R. et al. Geostationary enhanced temporal interpolation for CERES flux products. J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol. 30, 1072–1090 (2013). Rutan, D. A. et al. CERES synoptic product: methodology and validation of surface radiant flux. J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol. 32, 1121–1143 (2015). Kaye, J. et al. Use of Satellite Observations in NASA Reanalyses: MERRA-2 and Future Plans (Coordination Group for Meteorological Satellites, 2015). Bosilovich, M. G. et al. MERRA-2: Initial Evaluation of the Climate (Technical Report Series on Global Modeling and Data Assimilation, Vol. 43, NASA, 2015). Molod, A., Takacs, L., Suarez, M. & Bacmeister, J. Development of the GEOS-5 atmospheric general circulation model: evolution from MERRA to MERRA2. Geosci. Model Dev. 8, 1339–1356 (2015). Reichle, R. H. et al. Land surface precipitation in MERRA-2. J. Clim. 30, 1643–1664 (2017). Colarco, P., da Silva, A., Chin, M. & Diehl, T. Online simulations of global aerosol distributions in the NASA GEOS-4 model and comparisons to satellite and ground-based aerosol optical depth. J. Geophys. Res. 115, D14207 (2010). Nowottnick, E. et al. Online simulations of mineral dust aerosol distributions: comparisons to NAMMA observations and sensitivity to dust emission parameterization. J. Geophys. Res. 115, D03202 (2010). Randles, C. A. et al. The MERRA-2 aerosol reanalysis, 1980 onward. Part I: system description and data assimilation evaluation. J. Clim. 30, 6823–6850 (2017). Buchard, V. et al. The MERRA-2 aerosol reanalysis, 1980 onward. Part II: evaluation and case studies. J. Clim. 30, 6851–6872 (2017). Cordero, R. R. et al. Effects of soiling on photovoltaic (PV) modules in the Atacama Desert. Sci. Rep. 8, 13943 (2018). Jiang, Y., Lu, L., Ferro, A. R. & Ahmadi, G. Analyzing wind cleaning process on the accumulated dust on solar photovoltaic (PV) modules on flat surfaces. Sol. Energy 159, 1031–1036 (2018). Chen, L., Peng, S., Liu, J. & Hou, Q. Dry deposition velocity of total suspended particles and meteorological influence in four locations in Guangzhou, China. J. Environ. Sci. 24, 632–639 (2012). The authors declare no competing interests. Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. About this article Cite this article Li, X., Mauzerall, D.L. & Bergin, M.H. Global reduction of solar power generation efficiency due to aerosols and panel soiling. Nat Sustain 3, 720–727 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-0553-2 Nature Sustainability (2021)

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Gwyddion currently provides several basic functions for visualisation of volume data and extraction of lower-dimensional data (images, curves) from them. A few specialised functions, focused on processing volume data as curves (or spectra) in each pixel, are also available. They are all present in themenu of the toolbox. Volume data are often interpreted in Gwyddion as a set of curves, each attached to one pixel in the xy plane, or alternately stack of images along the z axis. This means the volume data functions may treat the z axis specially. If you intend to import volume data with two spatial and one special dimensions to Gwyddion make sure that the special axis corresponds to z. Elementary operations with volume data include: It changes the physical dimensions, units or value scales and also lateral offsets. This is useful to correct raw data that have been imported with wrong physical scales or as a simple manual recalibration of dimensions and values. This function inverts the signs of all values in the volume data. The preview image of the volume data is copied to a new image in the file. Frequently the preview is an image that could be equivalently obtained using Cut and Slice or Summarize Profiles. And using these functions create images of well-defined quantities. However, if you simply want to get the preview image, whatever it happens to be, this function will do just that. Since the z axis is treated somewhat differently than the xy plane, it can be useful to change the roles of the axes. This function rotates and/or mirrors the volume data so that any of the current x, y and z axes will become any chosen Cartesian axis in the transformed data. The dialogue ensures the transformation is non-degenerate. When you select a transformation that would be degenerate, another axis is adjusted to prevent this. Otherwise, you can perform any combination of mirroring and rotations by multiples of 90 degrees around Cartesian axes. If the volume data have a z-axis calibration and z becomes some other axis the calibration will be lost. A warning is shown when this occurs. When the z-axis is non-spatial the sampling along it may be sometimes irregular, unlike the imaging axes x and y that are always regular. In Gwyddion this is represented by associating certain one-dimensional data with the z-axis, called the Z calibration. This function can display the Z calibration, remove it, extract it as a graph curve, take calibration from another volume data or attach a new calibration from a text file. For attaching a calibration, each line of the file must contain one value specifying the true z-axis value for the corresponding plane and, of course, the number of lines must correspond to the number of image planes in the volume data. Profiles along any axis and image slices in planes orthogonal to any axis can be extracted with→ . The image slice in the selected plane, called Base plane, is always shown in the left part and the profile along the remaining orthogonal axis is shown in the right part of the dialogue. You can change the where the line profile is taken by moving the selected point in the image. Conversely, the image plane location can be moved by selecting a point in the profile graph. Both can be also entered numerically as X, Y and Z (in pixel coordinates). You can choose between image and profile extraction freely by changing Output type. Changing the output type only influences whether the module creates the image on the left or the profile graph on the right when you press . It is also possible to take multiple profiles or image slices at the same time. If Extract multiple items is enabled a list of selected points will appear on the right. In this case the output type influences the selection. In the Image slice mode you can select only one point in the image (determining the profile shown in the graph) but multiple points in the graph, each determining one output image plane. Conversely, in the Line graph mode you can select only one point in the graph (determining the image plane shown) but multiple points in the image, determining where the line profiles will be taken. Switching betwen the output types when mutli-item extraction is enabled reduces the selected coordinate set to a single point. You can also use thebutton to reduce the selection to the default single point if you want to start afresh. Volume data can be exported to text files in several formats using→ . The possible output formats are Each line of the output file consists of one z-profile. There are as many lines as there are points in each xy plane (image) of the volume data. The profiles are ordered by row, then by column (the usual order for image pixels). Each line of the output file consists of one xy image plane, stored by row, then by column (the usual order for image pixels). There are as many lines as there are z-levels in the volume data. The layers are stored in order of increasing z. Each line of the output file consists of one image row in one xy plane. After one entire plane is stored a blank line separates the next plane. The layers again stored in order of increasing z. Basic overall characterisation of profiles along the z-axis can be performed using → . This function creates an image formed by statistical characteristics of profiles taken along the z-axis. The set of available statistical quantities is the same as in the Row/column statistics tool. The dual image/graph selection generally works very similarly to Image and profile extractions. The main difference is that an interval can be selected in the graph, defining the part of the image stack from which the statistical characteristics will be calculated. The interval can be also entered numerically using the Range entries. The image on the left shows the calculated characteristics and corresponds to the output of the module. Selecting a different point in the image changes the profile displayed in the graph, which can be useful for choosing a suitable range. The value for the selected profile is displayed below the statistical quantity selector. However, choosing a profile does not influence the output in any way. Basic overall characterisation of xy planes can be performed using → . This function creates a graph formed by statistical characteristics of individual xy-planes in the volume data or their parts. The set of available quantities is a subset of those calculated by Statistical quantities tool. A few quantities can take some time to calculate for all layers. The dual image/graph selection generally works very similarly to Image and profile extractions. The main difference is that a rectangular region can be selected in the image plane, defining a rectangle from which the statistical characteristics will be calculated. The rectangle can be also entered numerically using the Origin and Size controls. The graph on the right shows the calculated characteristics and corresponds to the output of the module. Selecting a different position in the graph changes the xy plane displayed in the image, which can be useful for choosing a suitable region. The value for the selected plane is displayed below the statistical quantity selector. However, choosing a plane does not influence the output in any way. A few simple corrections or adjustments can be applied automatically to each xy plane in the volume data. The preview shows the average over all levels and the set of automatic variables is slightly different: Data value at the voxel. The value is in base physical units, e.g. for current of 15 nA, the value of | |Horizontal coordinate of the voxel (in real units). It is the same in all volume data due to the compatibility requirement.| |Vertical coordinate of the voxel (in real units). It is the same in all volume data due to the compatibility requirement.| |Depth (level) coordinate of the voxel (in real units). It is the same in all volume data due to the compatibility requirement.| |Calibrated z-coordinate of the voxel (in real units) if the volume data have z-axis calibration (see Z calibrations).| Techniques of imaging spectroscopy like F-D in QNM (Quantitative Nanomechanical Mapping) applications, I-V in semiconductor engineering, Raman in material characterization require to measure spectrum per each point of data grid on sample surface. Working with obtained array is not so simple, as we need to work with thousands of spectra and analyze each of them. If the sample of interest has limited number of regions with very similar spectra inside each region, some technique grouping similar spectra together can be of great help. One possible way of doing so is using clustering analysis. In Gwyddion currently two methods is implemented: K-means and K-medians. Both algorithms are intended to find K clusters with similar spectra inside the cluster and maximally different between clusters. So Number of clusters is how many clusters K you want to obtain in the result. Convergence precision digits and Max. iterations regulate convergence criteria of algorithms that stop either if required precision of cluster centers position is achieved or allowed number of convergence cycles is exceeded. Higher precision require more steps to achieve, second limit is mostly intended to get rid of endless loops if the precision is to high for this set of data. Normalize is somewhat experimental technique that qives nice results for imaging spectroscopy. If you are not interested in spectral intensities and want to cluster data by similarity of middle-frequencies of spectral features (it is typical, for example, for Raman microscopy), than enable this checkbox. It removes low frequency background by substraction of minimum withing the moving window, and then normalizes spectrum to make average intensity be equal 1.0. Both modules outputs two datafields: one shows to which cluster belongs the current spectrum, another shows error — difference between the current spectrum and center of corresponding cluster. If normalization is enabled than third datafield shows values the spectral intensities was divided by during normalization (after low-freq. filtering). Also graph with spectra corresponding to the centers of clusters is extracted. Algorithms beside this two modules are based on usual unsupervized learning clustering: K-means and K-medians, correspondingly. We consider each spectrum (graph extracted along z-axis) to be the point in multidimensial space with the number of dimensions equal number of data point in the graph. We define distance between points as square root from sum of squared differencies along each direction (L2-norm). Than we initialize both algorithms by choosing random K points from the volume data as cluster centers. Than the usual two step algorithm is applied: we assign each point to the cluster whose center is nearest to the point and then move centers of the clusters. The difference between two modules is how to calculate the cluster center: it is mean value of cluster points for K-means and median along each direction for K-medians. The results from the last iteration are returned back to the program. Remove outliers for K-means modifies algorithm for calculation of cluster centers to include only datapoints within Outliers threshold multiplied by data variation σ for each cluster. It removes single distinct bogus data points (like spikes, cosmic rays in Raman spectroscopy and so on) from calculation, making cluster centers somewhere more clean and distinct and also can shift border between intermixing clusters to more correct place between two centers of maximal point densities not disturbed by far outliers. A few volume data functions are dedicated to MFM data processing. They are generally analogous to their image counterparts. Conversion of MFM data to force gradient is exactly the same for volume and image data. Therefore, the summary of image MFM data conversion applies to volume data unchanged. The transfer function estimation → is also quite similar to image transfer function estimation. The TF is estimated for each level in the volume data and its various properties plotted as graphs. Which graphs are plotted can be selected in the Output Options tab. The regularisation parameter σ can be the same for all levels, or it can be estimated for each level by enabling Estimate sigma for each level. The computation then takes notably longer. For the Least squares method, even the transfer function size can be estimated for each level when Estimate size for each level is enabled. The size given in the dialogue then determines the size of the output – and thus maximum possible size. Smaller transfer functions are extended with zeros to this size. The stray field consistency check → recalculates the field to a different height similarly to MFM field shift. However, since the volume data contains images corresponding to many different levels, it is possible to calculate the field for each and compare it to the calculated field. And this is what the module does.

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Must Park City become a Ghost Camp?” screamed Park Record headlines in 1950, a year after crashing silver prices forced the mines—the town’s lifeblood—to shut down, putting 1,200 people out of work. Once a booming town of 7,000, Park City’s population fell to 2,254 in 1950 and to 1,366 by the decade’s end. The town, as Time magazine prophesized, “was destined to become an abandoned ghost town.” But Park City proved the dire predictions false—even when it showed up in the guidebook Ghost Towns of the West. “The state of Utah basically told Parkites to leave. They said it was no longer a viable community,” recalls Park City native Jim Weaver. Ever rebellious, many Parkites chose to stay put. Having survived fires, avalanches, explosions, and catastrophic mine disasters, a small band of determined Parkites toughed out the 1950s with resourcefulness, teamwork, and sheer grit. Down and Out The outside world didn’t waste time shining a light on Park City’s woes. The Deseret News gave its front page to “the plight” of Park City with grim photos as evidence. A television station showed up to ask, “Do you believe Park City is to become a ghost town?” Artists from Salt Lake City arrived to paint the dilapidated houses. And when the Salt Lake Tribune published a special “Western Wonderland” section with a map of Summit County, Park City wasn’t even on it. To add insult to injury, in 1955, state and county law enforcement, with reporters in tow, raided Main Street to “clean up” the mining camp. Ten people were arrested from taverns and a house of ill repute. The town’s furious mayor, Earle Reseigh, complained to the governor, calling the raid illegal and protesting the unfair publicity. But such scorn wasn’t new to the hardy Parkites. “We were always being looked down upon by outsiders,” recalls Mary Lou Toly, a lifelong resident. Weaver concurs, “Utah mining towns were seen as rebellious, full of renegades. That attitude just steeled the residents together.” The city struggled to stay afloat. When the Tax Anticipation Loan didn’t come through for the first time in the town’s history, the mayor proclaimed, “If you want a thing done, do it yourself.” As city workers were laid off, the police deputized volunteers, clubs raised money to patch up sidewalks, local mechanics pitched in to fix city vehicles, and citizens repaired the fence in the cemetery where cattle were roaming. By the mid ’50s, the city was down to a single fire truck, police car, snowplow, school bus, and Army surplus garbage truck that had the habit of catching on fire from the ashes it hauled. Donna Dearden, who moved into the Union Pacific Depot with her station agent husband in 1957, remembers the hardship—and resiliency—of the times; she recalls that “much of Main Street was boarded up, and many children didn’t have boots, even in the deep snow.” By then, 58 businesses were torn down or vacant on Main Street, including the barbershop and the department store. School enrollment severely declined and teachers left town. The 69-member class of ’59 numbered 20 by graduation. But Marsac Elementary and Park City High School never closed. Folks feared the hospital would close, but it also survived. The city library, with old books piled to the ceiling, became a dumping ground as people abandoned town. Citing the mass exodus, a Record writer scolded, “Don’t be ashamed of your town! We have plenty of real estate for sale at ridiculously low prices!” But no one was buying. Ironically, when one developer approached the only bank in town, Dearden (who worked at the bank) recalls, “he decided the network of underground mine tunnels would never support development above ground.” In order to “put Park City back on the map,” Mayor Reseigh championed a “Better Park City” crusade. National Guard engineers graded a scenic road to Brighton and locals erected a homemade 10-by-14-foot sign on Highway 40 proclaiming “Visit Park City Historic Mining Camp 1869.” But the sign couldn’t hide the town’s shabbiness. So, the city council tackled the matter of dilapidated “old cars laying around” and offered $25 to the first Main Street business to paint its building. A “Progressive Club” sponsored a scrap metal drive and regatta on the Rockport Reservoir to fund revitalization projects: planting grass at the ballpark, cleaning up vacant lots, and tearing down abandoned buildings. The Tough Stay Put “It was fascinating, the group of people who stayed during the 1950s,” says Herb Armstrong, who summered at his grandfather’s Snow Summit Ranch. “There were some real characters; they were strong and resilient.” Miners who didn’t leave found out-of-town construction jobs or took in boarders. “You couldn’t get a loan, says Weaver, so Parkites salvaged pipes, electrical parts, and even nails from the shuttered mines for home improvements. “We all stuck together,” says Weaver. “We always said we would take care of our own.” Social and civic organizations spearheaded efforts to make ends meet—and stir up a little fun. The 4-H and Homemaker’s Clubs held classes in everything from darning socks to making furniture out of powder boxes from the mines. And the community gathered for dances, dinners, and bowling leagues. Toly remembers movies on Saturdays at the Egyptian Theatre (with a drawing for a $25 prize) and the annual football rivalry, the “lower enders,” who lived above Eley Garage (on the corner of Main Street and Park and Heber avenues), versus the “upper enders.” Two key institutions, the Park Record (which never missed a weekly issue) and the telephone company, held the community together. Toly, who started as an operator in 1955, explains, “There were no dial telephones. We would say, ‘Number please’ and when they gave three digits, we would connect them.” Operators also rang the Ten O’Clock Whistle; alerted police with a red light in City Hall; and acted as the town dictionary, fact finder, and encyclopedia. “The operators knew everyone’s business,” says Armstrong. “They could tell you if your girlfriend was going out with someone else.” During hard times, the town took special care of its children, rallying together to make holidays memorable. At Miner’s Day (Labor Day) and Fourth of July, every child in the parade would receive a dime. At Christmastime, there was a tree in the park by the post office and Santa at the Memorial Building. Local clubs and organizations put out the call for winter coats and toys for children. The city even designated “Coasting Lanes,” streets where kids could ride sleighs. “We could sled all the way from the top of Empire Avenue on our Flexible Flyers,” recalls Toly. Though jobs were scarce, kids “looked for ways to earn a few pennies by cutting Christmas trees, collecting bottles to turn in at Coffee John’s, or delivering the Record,” remembers Weaver. Armstrong recalls driving a tractor down the tracks of the old Crescent Tram to cut kindling to sell, while Toly earned 50 cents per hour at Pop Jenks café. Snow’s Silver Lining Throughout the ’50s, winter sports flourished. Townies skied in their backyards and soared off the Creole Mine dump’s ski jump. Snow Park, a little ski area that had grown up on a Deer Valley hillside (where Otto Carpenter and Bob Burns built Utah’s first chairlift in 1946) was open on weekends—offering everything from Mel Fletcher’s ski school and costume races to equipment clinics and 50-cent ski films. “The snow [at Snow Park] was so deep, your knees would be under your chin because the chair would almost be touching the snow,” reflects Armstrong. When Carpenter thanked the city for expanding his parking lot, the mayor replied, “We are hopeful that this area may someday become a ski resort.” In 1957, the Record reported, “Enthusiasm is growing for the great sport of skiing in our community.” A year later, New York Times headlines announced, “Utah Miners Eye Tourist Business,” as mining executives gauged snow depths and surveyed the idle Silver King Tramway to determine if it could carry skiers. By 1962, United Park had applied for a $1,232,000 Federal loan to build a ski resort. Salt Lake Tribune publisher Jack Gallivan goaded his friend Jack Kennedy to push through the loan’s approval. A year later, Treasure Mountain Resort opened. Park City—the ghost town that almost was—had survived the ’50s. And, instead of gloomy predictions came words of encouragement. “To me, Park City always appeared to have tremendous potentialities,” wrote Reverend Francis Wisniewski to his flock. “From the world’s largest silver mine, it can become the world’s largest and finest summer and winter resort. Park City was built on rock, and not on sand.”

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By Hannah Muhajarine First it was 44 million, then 66 million and now 78 million tonnes of C02: every year Environment Canada increases the amount by which Canada is projected to miss its Paris Agreement target [i]. “Transitions to a cleaner future are hard,” said Environment Minister Catherine McKenna in a press conference last December [ii]. If Minister McKenna is in need of guidance, I would respectfully direct her southwards, to newly elected Congresswoman Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez’s Green New Deal—the legislation of which was just released Thursday February 7, 2019. The essence of the Green New Deal is a swift transition to renewables that ensures equitable access to fair wage, full benefit, unionized livelihoods for all Americans. It consists of seven goals for drastically cutting carbon emissions. These goals will be met through policies that address historic inequalities based on poverty, race, and gender. And, like the original New Deal, it will be completely government funded and administered [iii]. The idea of a Green New Deal is being championed by grassroots movements on both sides of the Canada/ US border. These grassroots movements for climate action are increasingly being led by young people, because it is our lives being discounted when politicians buy pipelines. Back in December, young activists from the Sunrise Movement occupied the US Speaker of the House of Representative Nancy Pelosi’s office in support of Ocasio-Cortez, herself only 29. Sixteen-year-old Greta Thunberg of Sweden has inspired thousands of students around the world (including Winnipeg) to join her school strike for the climate. And next week in Ottawa, young Canadians will gather for Powershift, a conference spearheaded by 350.org and centred largely on building the movement for a Canadian Green New Deal. Much groundwork has already been laid—in fact, a recent Fox News headline proclaims: “Green New Deal actually an old socialist plan from Canada” [iv]. That socialist plan in question is The Leap Manifesto, created in 2015 at a gathering of environmental, Indigenous, labour, faith, and social and food justice movements [v]. Similar plans to the Green New Deal have been put forward by Canadian organizations like Blue-Green, 350.org, the Canadian Labour Congress, Climate Action Network, supported by research and policy analysis from Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives, the Broadbent Institute, and the Pembina Institute. Meanwhile, the federal government’s current plan for tackling climate change is the Pan-Canadian framework, which relies heavily on taxing carbon. This reliance on market-based policy is like trying to bake a cake using only eggs. Under a Green New Deal, the government would exercise a much wider range of policy tools to steer the economy away from fossil fuels. What would a Canadian Green New Deal look like? A Green New Deal would create green jobs within all sectors of the economy. The federal government has pledged to double investment in clean energy research, development, and demonstration [vi]—but this focus on technology development, mainly for global export, is much too narrow. In Alberta, the Energy Diversification Advisory Committee identifies value-adding opportunities for the oil and gas sector [vii]—we need such bodies for renewable energy, as well as strategies for developing entirely new sustainable industries. We need Canadian manufactured electric vehicles (buses, trains, and personal vehicles) [viii] solar panels, and deep-cycle batteries. Expanding local value chains by greening the manufacturing sector will create more jobs for Canadians, as well as providing local supply chains to drive Canada’s own transition. This cannot happen without policy support, including the creation of new agencies and programs supported by significant government investment; legislated targets for renewable energy expansion and strict plans for the phase out of fossil fuels (beyond coal); new regulations and standards; and feed-in tariffs and public procurement systems that help create a market [ix]. These kinds of policy tools have been exercised in support of the fossil fuel industry and the corporations that drive it for years. A Just Transition The concept of a “Just Transition” is being used to describe policy measures that protect workers for whom the transition to renewables entails a loss of livelihood. Examples include Alberta’s Coal Community Transition Fund and the federal Just Transition Taskforce for Coal-workers [x]. Common measures include funding packages for community economic development, increased access to EI, support for accessing education and apprenticeship opportunities, and early retirement options [xi]. These are important considerations, but a Green New Deal would also include training opportunities in the renewable energy sector, building retrofitting, and green infrastructure installation [xii]. It would include recruitment and training programs targeted at vulnerable groups including low-income, women, newcomers, and Indigenous peoples [xiii]. These jobs would be unionized jobs with full benefits, a liveable wage, and a minimum length of employment [xiv]. The Leap also calls for the expansion of opportunities in low-carbon sectors such as care-giving, healthcare, education, and the arts—sectors that have been gutted by lack of government funding. A Green New Deal and the Leap both call for a basic income that could support the unpaid care work that is often done by women [xv], and this should be part of a comprehensive poverty reduction strategy [xvi]. As a first step, Make Poverty History Manitoba is calling for a Liveable Basic Needs Benefit, to bring all of those on social assistance to Canada’s official poverty line [xvii]. The American think tank Data for Progress also suggests a “green job guarantee” as part of a Green New Deal—that all those who want and are able to work are guaranteed access to employment [xviii]. This can be accomplished by the government, labour, and industry together—as of yet we see little of this aspect of a Just Transition from our political leaders. Federal investment is key to the Green New Deal. These days, the role of government is often conceptualized as balancing the budget; this is a false understanding of political leadership, even in times we are not facing existential crisis. In the US, Ocasio-Cortez proposes to finance the Green New Deal using a new public bank or system of banks as well as public venture funds [xix], options also available to our federal government. In the Pan-Canadian Framework, the government proposed the creation of the “Canada Infrastructure Bank,” which could support provinces and municipalities building green infrastructure projects [xx]. However, the initial mandate of the bank to provide low-cost financing has been sidelined in favour of attracting private sector investors. While governments can paint private investment as the cheaper financing option, private investors expect on average three times the rate of return compared to the federal government’s borrowing rate, which makes projects much costlier to the public in the long-run. A preoccupation with avoiding deficits also increases the likelihood that governments will end up privatizing public assets, again with long-term costs to the public. As an alternative, Toby Sanger, CCPA Research Associate, suggests a public bank that is seeded by government funding and borrows on financial markets at the lower public borrowing rate, backed by a federal government guarantee [xxi]. Another obvious source of funding is carbon pricing, which could generate even more revenue by tightening current exemptions (including for coal-fired power plants) [xxii]. Along the same lines, massive savings could be gained by cutting subsidies to the fossil fuel sector, which have been estimated at $350 million from the federal government alone [xxiii]. Finally, the quicker the transition is funded, the more likely this work would be effective in staving off some of the (more than economically) costly effects of extreme weather and increased natural disasters caused by a changing climate. A Green New Deal funded by federal investment, with a focus on the public good, will ensure greater public ownership, public benefits, and a wide-spread and rapid transition. The exact details of the plan can be sorted out as it moves forward, but the principles of public ownership and a just transition should be front and centre. The only way we will solve the climate crisis is by creating an economy that is fair and just, in which everyone has access to a means of sustainable livelihood. The federal government has so far failed to produce the kind of actionable, far-reaching climate plan we need. At the 2016 NDP convention after the last federal election, there was significant support for the NDP to adopt the Leap Manifesto as its platform moving forward [xxiv]—not to do so now would be baffling. But we will not get our Canadian Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez unless we create the space for her to emerge. The Green New Deal is backed by a robust grassroots movement in the US—and here in Canada the movement is growing rapidly. Now is the time to organize—nationally (through organizations like 350) and locally (Manitoba Energy Justice Coalition). Our politicians must know that this federal election, we will vote for a Green New Deal. Hannah Muhajarine is a Master’s student studying Natural Resource Management at the University of Manitoba, and an organizer with the Manitoba Energy Justice Coalition. Citations:[i] http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2018/eccc/En1-78-2018-eng.pdf [ii] https://nationalpost.com/news/politics/canada-further-from-paris-targets-than-last-year-new-projections-show [iii] https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/5729033/Green-New-Deal-FINAL.pdf [iv] https://www.foxnews.com/opinion/alexandria-ocasio-cortezs-green-new-deal-is-actually-an-old-socialist-plan-from-canada [v] The Leap Manifesto. (2015). https://leapmanifesto.org/en/the-leap-manifesto/ [vi] Government of Canada. (2016). Pan-Canadian Framework on Clean Growth and Climate Change. http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2017/eccc/En4-294-2016-eng.pdf [vii] B. Jeyakumar. (2016). Job Growth in Clean Energy Employment in Alberta’s emerging renewables and energy efficiency sectors. https://www.pembina.org/reports/job-growth-in-clean-energy.pdf [viii] Canadian Labour Congress. (2016). Green Jobs for Tomorrow: Submission by the Canadian Labour Congress to the Working Group on Clean Technology, Innovation, and Jobs. https://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/broadbent/pages/5454/attachments/original/1480433751/Green_Jobs_For_Tomorrow_Report.pdf?1480433751 [ix] Brendan Haley. A Green Entrepreneurial State as a Solution to Climate Federalism. Broadbent Institute. (2016). https://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/broadbent/pages/4934/attachments/original/1456759450/A_Green_Entrepreneurial_State_as_Solution_to_Climate_Federalism_Report.pdf?1456759450 [x] https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/climate-change/task-force-just-transition.html and https://www.alberta.ca/support-for-coal-workers.aspx [xi] https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/climate-change/task-force-just-transition.html and https://www.alberta.ca/support-for-coal-workers.aspx [xii] Greg Carlock and Emily Mangan. (Sept. 2018). A Green New Deal: A Progressive Vision for Environmental Sustainability and Economic Stability. ttps://static1.squarespace.com/static/5aa9be92f8370a24714de593/t/5ba14811032be48b8772d37e/1537296413290/GreenNewDeal_Final_v2_12MB.pdf [xiii] Canadian Labour Congress. (2016). Green Jobs for Tomorrow: Submission by the Canadian Labour Congress to the Working Group on Clean Technology, Innovation, and Jobs. https://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/broadbent/pages/5454/attachments/original/1480433751/Green_Jobs_For_Tomorrow_Report.pdf?1480433751 [xiv] H. Mertins-Kirkwood. (2018). Making decarbonization work for workers: Policies for a just transition to a zero-carbon economy in Canada. https://www.policyalternatives.ca/sites/default/files/uploads/publications/National%20Office/2018/01/Making%20Decarbonization%20Work.pdf [xv] The Leap Manifesto. (2015). https://leapmanifesto.org/en/the-leap-manifesto/. [xvi]https://www.policyalternatives.ca/sites/default/files/uploads/publications/National%20Office/2016/10/Policymakers_Guide_to_Basic_Income.pdfTo [xvii] https://makepovertyhistorymb.com/2018/02/21/concerned-manitobans-launch-campaign-for-a-livable-basic-needs-benefit/ [xviii] Greg Carlock and Emily Mangan. (Sept. 2018). A Green New Deal: A Progressive Vision for Environmental Sustainability and Economic Stability. ttps://static1.squarespace.com/static/5aa9be92f8370a24714de593/t/5ba14811032be48b8772d37e/1537296413290/GreenNewDeal_Final_v2_12MB.pdf [xix] https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/5729033/Green-New-Deal-FINAL.pdf [xx] Government of Canada. (2016). Pan-Canadian Framework on Clean Growth and Climate Change. http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2017/eccc/En4-294-2016-eng.pdf [xxi] https://www.policyalternatives.ca/publications/reports/creating-canadian-infrastructure-bank-public-interest [xxii] https://briarpatchmagazine.com/articles/view/the-leftists-case-against-the-carbon-tax [xxiii] https://leapmanifesto.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Afford-en1.pdf [xxiv] https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/leap-manifesto-what-is-it-and-what-could-it-mean-for-the-ndpsfuture/article29583796/

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When Chinese scientists first modified the genes of a human embryo in a laboratory dish in 2015, it sparked worldwide outcry and pleas from scientists not to make a child utilizing the innovation, a minimum of for the present. Advised for You It was the development of a powerful gene-editing tool, CRISPR, which is low-cost and easy to deploy, that made the birth of human beings genetically modified in an in vitro fertilization (IVF) center a theoretical possibility. Now, it appears it might currently be occurring. According to Chinese medical files published online this month ( hereand < a href ="http://www.chictr.org.cn/uploads/file/201811/bb9c5996d8fd476eacb4aeecf5fd2a01.pdf" target=" _ blank"> here), a team at the Southern University of Science and Innovation, in Shenzhen, has been hiring couples in an effort to produce the very first gene-edited infants. They planned to eliminate a gene called CCR5 in hopes of rendering the offspring resistant to HIV, smallpox, and cholera. The scientific trial files explain a research study in which CRISPR is employed to modify human embryos before they are transferred into women’s uteruses. The scientist behind the effort, He Jiankui, did not respond to a list of concerns about whether the endeavor had produced a live birth. Reached by telephone, he decreased to comment. Information sent as part of the trial listing shows that genetic tests have been brought out on fetuses as late as 24 weeks, or 6 months. It’s not understood if those pregnancies were terminated, reached term, or are continuous. [After this story was released, the Associated Press reported that according to He, one couple in the trial brought to life twin girls this month, though the agency wasn’t able to verify his claim independently. He also released a advertising video about his project.] The birth of the very first genetically tailored human beings would be a stunning medical achievement, for both He and China. It will show questionable, too. Where some see a brand-new type of medication that gets rid of genetic disease, others see a domino effect to enhancements, designer children, and a new form of eugenics. “In this ever more competitive global pursuit of applications for gene editing, we wish to be a noteworthy,” He and his team wrote in a principles declaration they submitted last year. They anticipated their innovation “will surpass” the creation of in vitro fertilization, whose designer was granted a Nobel Reward in 2010. The claim that China has actually currently made genetically altered humans comes simply as the world’s leading specialists are jetting into Hong Kong for the Second International Top on Human Genome Modifying. The function of the worldwide conference is to assist identify whether human beings ought to start to genetically modify themselves, and if so, how. That function now appears to have been preempted by the actions of He, an elite biologist hired back to China from the US as part of its “ Thousand Talents Plan.”The technology is morally charged since changes to an embryo would be inherited by future generations and could ultimately affect the entire gene swimming pool. “We have actually never done anything that will alter the genes of the human race, and we have actually never done anything that will have results that will go on through the generations,” David Baltimore, a biologist and previous president of the California Institute of Innovation, who chairs the global top proceedings, said in a pre-recorded message ahead of the event, which begins Tuesday, November 27. It appears the organizers of the top were likewise kept in the dark about He’s plans. Remorse and issue The hereditary modifying of a speck-size human embryo brings significant threats, including the risks of presenting unwanted mutations or yielding an infant whose body is made up of some edited and some unedited cells. Data on the Chinese trial site suggest that one of the fetuses is a “mosaic” of cells that had been edited in different methods. A gene-editing researcher, Fyodor Urnov, associate director of the Altius Institute for Biomedical Sciences, a not-for-profit in Seattle, evaluated the Chinese files and said that, while incomplete, they do show that “this effort intends to produce a human” with transformed genes. Urnov called the undertaking cause for “regret and concern over the fact that gene editing– a powerful and useful method– was put to use in a setting where it was unneeded.” Research studies are currently under method to edit the exact same gene in the bodies of adults with HIV. “It is a hard-to-explain foray into human germ-line hereditary engineering that might overshadow in the mind of the general public a decade of progress in gene editing of adults and kids to treat existing disease,” he says. In a clinical presentation in 2017 at Cold Spring Harbor Lab, which is posted to YouTube, He described a very big series of initial experiments on mice, monkeys, and more than 300 human embryos. One danger of CRISPR is that it can present unintentional or “off target” mutations. But He claimed he found couple of or no unwanted modifications in the test embryos. He is likewise the chairman and creator of a DNA sequencing business called Direct Genomics. A brand-new breed of biotech companies might eventually reap a windfall needs to the brand-new techniques of giving health benefits on children be widely employed. According to the clinical trial plan, hereditary measurements would be performed on embryos and would continue during pregnancy to examine the status of the fetuses. During his 2017 presentation, He acknowledged that if the very first CRISPR infant were unhealthy, it might prove a disaster. “We ought to do this slow and careful, given that a single case of failure might kill the entire field,” he said. A listing explaining the study was published in November, however other trial documents are dated as early as March of 2017. That was just a month after the National Academy of Sciences in the United States provided secured assistance for gene-edited children, although just if they might be created securely and under strict oversight. Presently, using a genetically crafted embryo to establish a pregnancy would be prohibited in much of Europe and forbidden in the United States. It is likewise prohibited in China under a 2003 ministerial guidance to IVF centers. It is not clear if He got unique authorization or overlooked the guidance, which may not have the force of law. In recent weeks, He has actually started an active outreach campaign, talking to principles consultants, commissioning a viewpoint poll in China, and hiring an American public-relations professional, Ryan Ferrell. “My sense is that the foundation for future self-justification is getting laid,” states Benjamin Hurlbut, a bioethicist from Arizona State University who will attend the Hong Kong top. The new opinion poll, which was carried out by Sun Yat-Sen University, discovered large support for gene modifying amongst the sampled 4,700 Chinese, including a group of respondents who were HIV positive. More than 60% preferred legislating edited kids if the objective was to treat or avoid illness. (Polls by the Pew Research Study Center have discovered similar levels support in the United States for gene modifying.) He’s choice to modify the gene called CCR5 could prove controversial as well. Individuals without working copies of the gene are believed to be immune or extremely resistant to infection by HIV. In order to mimic the exact same outcome in embryos, nevertheless, He’s team has actually been using CRISPR to mutate otherwise regular embryos to damage the CCR5 gene. The attempt to create kids safeguarded from HIV likewise falls into an ethical gray zone between treatment and enhancement. That is since the procedure does not appear to treat any illness or condition in the embryo, however rather attempts to create a health benefit, much as a vaccine protects against chicken pox. For the HIV study, medical professionals and HELP groups recruited Chinese couples in which the male was HIV positive. The infection has actually been a growing issue in China. Far, specialists have actually mainly concurred that gene modifying should not be used to make “designer infants” whose physical appearances or personality has been altered. He appeared to prepare for the concerns his research study might provoke. “I support gene editing for the treatment and prevention of disease,” He posted in November to the social networks site WeChat, “but not for improvement or improving I.Q., which is not helpful to society.” Still, getting rid of the CCR5 gene to create HIV resistance may not provide an especially strong factor to modify a baby’s genetics. There are much easier, cheaper methods to prevent HIV infection. editing embryos during an IVF treatment would be pricey, high-tech, and likely to remain unattainable in lots of poor areas of the world where HIV is widespread. An individual who knows He said his scientific aspirations seem in line with prevailing social mindsets in China, including the idea that the larger communal excellent transcends specific ethics and even global standards. Behind the Chinese trial likewise lies some bold thinking of how advancement can be shaped by science. While the natural anomaly that disables CCR5 is relatively common in parts of Northern Europe, it is not discovered in China. The distribution of the genetic characteristic worldwide– in some populations however not in others– highlights how hereditary engineering might be utilized to pick the most helpful innovations discovered by advancement over the eons in various places and bring them together in tomorrow’s kids. Such thinking could, in the future, yield individuals who have only the luckiest genes and never ever suffer Alzheimer’s, heart illness, or specific infections. The text of a scholastic website that He preserves shows that he sees the innovation in the very same historical, and transformative, terms. “For billions of years, life advanced according to Darwin’s theory of evolution,” it specifies. More recently, industrialization has changed the environment in radical methods positioning a “excellent obstacle” that mankind can meet with “powerful tools to manage development.” It concludes: “By remedying the disease genes … we human [s] can much better reside in the fast-changing environment.” Keep in mind: This story was updated after publication to include claims by He Jiankui that the trial had actually produced live births. AI is here. Will you lead or follow? Join us at EmTech Digital 2019.

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The most famous hot dogs in history were served at a picnic, right here in the Hudson Valley, on June 11, 1939. What made them famous was not their culinary excellence. It was their diplomatic significance. These hot dogs helped save the Western world from the Nazis. The world-renowned weiners were dished up at a party in Hyde Park hosted by Franklin Delano and Eleanor Roosevelt (aka the President and First Lady of the United States). Their guests included a well-known British family, the Windsors (aka King George VI and Queen Elizabeth). The royal couple had never before sampled frankfurters, and found them, at first, confounding. “How do you eat this?” the queen whispered to her host. Ignoring Roosevelt’s advice, she decided to use a knife and fork; her husband, however, consumed his the American way. By all accounts, they enjoyed the tubular treats. The picnic and the events surrounding it were momentous in a number of ways. This was the first time a reigning British monarch had ever set foot on U.S. soil. It came at a time when Europe was on the brink of war. Given these facts, the timing of the al fresco gathering was no mere accident. At that time, U.S. foreign policy was isolationist. Relations with our cousins across the pond were cold and distant at best. “There was still much anti-British sentiment and anger at dragging us into World War I,” says Dr. David B. Woolner, associate professor of history at Marist College and a senior fellow and resident historian at the Roosevelt Institute. But Britain needed our help. FDR wanted to provide that assistance, but first had to persuade the public that it was both a good idea and that the Brits were worthy. “With this new war, the debate over U.S. intervention was intense. It was a very critical time in relations between Britain and the U.S.,” Woolner says. Political genius that he was, FDR invited the royal couple to a picnic at his place. A thank-you telegram from Roosevelt regarding the visit to Hyde Park. The president expresses the “extreme pleasure” he felt about the trip In 1938, Roosevelt learned that the king and queen were planning to visit Canada — the first monarchal visit there as well — to try to rebuild royal esteem in the wake of the abdication of Edward VIII. (See The King’s Speech, if you haven’t already.) He wrote to the king almost immediately. His letter, dated September 17, 1938 and delivered by Ambassador Joseph Kennedy, stated: “I think it would be an excellent thing for Anglo-American relations if you could visit the United States… It occurs to me… that you both might like three or four days of very simple country life at Hyde Park — with no formal entertainments and an opportunity to get a bit of rest and relaxation.” In the king’s reply, written on Balmoral Castle stationery and dated October 8, 1938, he accepted the invitation, adding: “I can assure you that the pleasure, which it would in any case give to us personally, would be greatly enhanced by the thought that it was contributing in any way to the cordiality of the relations between our two countries.” Diplomacy is written between the lines. And FDR, a master of the art, planned not only to meet with the king and queen but to present them as “regular people” to the American public. What better way than with a little summer repast, al fresco, at Top Cottage? “It’s fascinating because, when you look at the correspondence, FDR doesn’t want him to come to Washington,” Woolner says. “He’s more interested in them coming to Hyde Park. There is no suggestion of formality, no state dinner. He wanted the public to see the ‘essential democracy’ of the royals.” The State Department, however, quashed that idea, and FDR acquiesced to a formal visit befitting a head of state. “But he put his own touch on things in a brilliant fashion,” Woolner says. The royals sailed to Mt. Vernon to visit George Washington’s home. They laid a wreath at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, significantly a World War I casualty, at Arlington National Cemetery. They stopped by a Civilian Conservation Corps camp, a work-relief camp for victims of the Depression, in Virginia. They attended a music program at the White House replete with folk music, Negro spirituals, and cowboy songs. And then they visited the World’s Fair in New York City. “It was all about portraying those essential qualities of U.S. democracy,” Woolner says, and letting the public catch a glimpse of the king and queen in the midst of it. The capper, though, was the picnic. FDR planned every last detail, including the hot dogs — much to the horror of his proper mother, Sara — and inviting gardeners, cooks, and other staffers to dine with the king and queen. “You can still meet people today whose relatives were there at the picnic,” Woolner says. Another attendee was Daisy Suckley. FDR’s distant cousin has since become known as his “Closest Companion,” as illustrated in Geoffrey C. Ward’s book of that title. At the time, their relationship seemed simply professional; she worked in his library and did some secretarial tasks for him. But after her death, letters were discovered that revealed they were extremely intimate emotionally; FDR unburdened himself to her as he could to almost no one else. “They had a hook-and-eye relationship, they understood each other perfectly,” says Cynthia Owen Philip of Rhinecliff, the author of Wilderstein and the Suckleys (Black Dome Press, $17.95). Did they also have a physical relationship? “Who knows what they did,” says Philip, who was a friend of Suckley. “It would not be spoken about in those days. But he took a photograph of her on a tiger rug, which he kept in the Oval Office, and she took one of the few pictures ever taken of him in his wheelchair.” “The public has a hard time understanding this, but both FDR and Eleanor had their own circle of friends,” Woolner adds. “They tended to relax with others, and had more of a policy relationship, much like the Clintons today. Daisy was part of his circle. People also don’t understand how they could be emotionally intimate but not physically intimate. She loved FDR, but so did a number of other women. He was incredibly charismatic. What’s most important about Daisy is that, through her diary and correspondence, we have almost the only picture of the private FDR. She was someone he could express his most intimate feelings to.” Suckley was two tables away from the head table at the picnic. She didn’t think it was such a big deal. “I saw them bring a silver dish with two little hot dogs on it to the king and queen. But I was not near enough to see whether they ate them. It’s all so silly,” she said at the 50th anniversary of the event, when she was 98. The New York Times didn’t think it was so silly. The next day’s front page read: KING TRIES HOT DOG AND ASKS FOR MORE And He Drinks Beer With Them — Uses Own Camera to Snap Guests Photographing Him HYDE PARK, N. Y., June 11. — King George VI ate his first hot dog, was chauffeured by the President of the United States, and turned his own hand motion-picture camera against his photographers at a typical Roosevelt picnic party today. Historians have come to realize this event was a very big deal indeed. Three months after the picnic, England declared war on Germany. Roosevelt was able to convince Congress, and the American people, to take steps to aid the British while still maintaining American neutrality. “There has been greater recognition over the past 20 years about the importance of this visit,” Woolner says. “It was an enormous PR success for both governments. I think a genuine warmth emerged between FDR and the king, and it marks a significant turning point in Anglo-American relations.” Thanks, in no small part, to hot dogs. Photographs courtesy of Focus Features When the new movie Hyde Park on Hudson opens on December 7, millions will learn about the historic royal visit of 1939 and the relationship between Franklin Roosevelt and Daisy Suckley. She is played by Laura Linney. He is played by Bill Murray. Yes, that Bill Murray. The same actor who portrays Carl Spackler, the gopher-killing, Dalai Lama-caddying, Masters-dreaming, demented groundskeeper in Caddyshack. Cinderella story. Out of nowhere. I had to laugh. Could that really work? Dr. David B. Woolner, a senior fellow at the Roosevelt Institute, thinks so. “There are certain qualities of Murray that fit FDR’s personality,” he says, “his wry sense of humor, his ability to enjoy things even in the midst of a great deal of stress.” Indeed, one scene in the trailer depicts Murray-as-FDR chauffeuring the terrified king and queen at breakneck speed up the steep and twisting roads of his estate in his famous blue Ford Roadster, driving with his hand controls and waving his cigarette holder, looking not unlike another character Murray played, journalist Hunter S. Thompson. Woolner hasn’t seen the film, but “those who have seen it told me they take some artistic license, particularly with his relationships with the women in his life, including Daisy Suckley,” he says. “They imply — or more than imply — that the relationship was physical, but there is no actual evidence to prove that one way or the other.” Nevertheless, he is looking forward to seeing the film. “I’m pleased to see the drama of Anglo-American relations. It could have gone terribly wrong if the public had reacted differently, but it was handled brilliantly by Roosevelt and the royal family.” So they got that going for them. Which is nice. Wilderstein, the former home of Daisy Suckley. See the gallery below to view more photos of the mansion’s interior, correspondence between the president and the king, and still shots from the new movie Photograph by Gregory J. Sokaris By Polly Sparling This month’s release of Hyde Park on Hudson will no doubt spark nationwide interest in the life of Margaret “Daisy” Suckley. But those who wish to learn more about Franklin Roosevelt’s distant cousin — and close confidante — need look no further than Wilderstein, the Suckley family’s grand Victorian residence in Rhinebeck, which was Daisy’s home for most of her long life. Although not as easily recognized as names like Livingston and Astor, the Suckley (pronounced SOOK-lee) family was “very much a part of the ‘Hudson River Aristocracy,’” says Gregory J. Sokaris, executive director of Wilderstein Historic Site. In the late 18th century, patriarch George Suckley earned a tidy fortune in the export trade, which was eventually passed down to his children, one of whom was Daisy’s grandfather, Thomas Holy Suckley. In 1852, Thomas purchased about 30 acres on a bluff above the Hudson and built a modest home; the family christened the estate Wilderstein, or “wild man’s rock,” after a stone carving by a 17th-century Native American was found on the property. In 1888, George’s son Robert (Daisy’s father) inherited the property and house. Dissatisfied with the original Italianate structure, Robert hired Poughkeepsie architect Arnout Cannon Jr. to remodel the house in the then-fashionable Queen Anne style. Cannon reconfigured the entire first floor; expanded the verandah, added a porte cochere and — most noticeably — an impressive five-story circular tower, whose large windows offer panoramic views of the river and the Catskills. Joseph Burr Tiffany — a cousin of renowned decorative artist Louis Comfort Tiffany — was hired to design the interior. Each of the rooms had a different architectural theme; the walls of the entrance hall, for example, were covered in quarter-sawn oak paneling and tooled Florentine leather, creating a dark atmosphere that, says Sokaris, the Victorians found “romantic.” Other embellishments included stencilled walls, elaborately decorated plaster ceilings and stained glass windows throughout the main floor. Daisey Suckley sits alongside FDR for a Hudson River cruise aboard the USS Potomac in 1937 Photograph courtesy of Black Dome Press Wilderstein’s landscape was designed by Calvert Vaux, one of the creators of New York’s Central Park. The traditional Romantic layout included an intersecting series of roads, walking paths, and trails shaded by ornamental trees and shrubbery; two gazebos and benches marked the spots with the best views of the Hudson. A proponent of technological advancement, Robert even built his own power plant on the property; in 1891, Wilderstein became one of the first private houses in the nation to have electric lights. Both inside and out, Robert Suckley had spared no expense in creating a dramatic mansion befitting his family’s social station. “Quite honestly,” Sokaris admits, “he probably overspent.” Unfortunately, Suckley’s deep pockets were soon significantly depleted. “The family fortune disappeared shortly after Wilderstein was finished,” says Sokaris. “There were several financial panics in the late 1800s, and the Great Depression hit hard. But most significantly, Daisy’s brother Henry — the one most poised to take over the family fortune and administration of the estate — died in 1917.” In 1921, Robert himself passed away, and Daisy slowly took over his role as head of the household. While her other siblings moved to Europe or married and settled elsewhere, she continued to live at Wilderstein until her death in 1991 at age 100. For the greater part of a century, however, the house was left virtually untouched. By the 1990s, it was in desperate shape: the roof was leaking, the tooled leather in the foyer was peeling away from the wall, and black smoke from the fireplace covered the stencilled library ceiling. A grassroots effort to give the estate designation as a historic site gained traction in that decade, and in 1994 the Wilderstein Preservation received a grant to restore and paint the tower. In the succeeding 18 years, extensive restorations have been made throughout the building, and to the grounds as well. A visitor today can see the mansion essentially as it appeared in the 1890s — right down to the furniture, china, and family photographs (one of which is Daisy’s rare shot of FDR in a wheelchair). “One of the strengths of Wilderstein is the collection,” says Sokaris. “The family saved everything. We have almost too much stuff.” Of the main rooms on the first floor, only the white and gold salon has yet to be refurbished. The room’s faded paint and torn silk damask wall covering “speaks to the ‘genteel poverty’ that was characteristic of many of these estates on the Hudson River,” Sokaris explains. “The family lived here year-round, and while they had a lot of the trappings of wealth, they also had many of the same problems that people are experiencing in this economy. And I think people connect with that.” Hollywood’s current interest in Daisy Suckley “is going to be good for us,” Sokaris believes. Visiting Wilderstein is “a really nice way to spend an afternoon. The landscape and views are beautiful, and the architecture is unique. People don’t know what to expect when they come here, and they’re blown away by the experience. I hope they will tour the house and say, ‘Wow! That was really cool!’”

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It’s easy to misunderstand and misuse one of the most common — and important — terms in research: statistical significance. We created this tip sheet to help policymakers avoid some of the most common errors, which even trained researchers make sometimes. When scholars analyse data, they look for patterns and relationships between and among the variables they’re studying. For example, they might look at data on playground accidents to figure out whether children with certain characteristics are more likely than others to suffer serious injuries. A high-quality statistical analysis will include separate calculations that researchers use to determine statistical significance, a form of evidence that indicates how consistent the data are with a research hypothesis. Statistical significance is a highly technical, nuanced concept, but policymakers covering research should have a basic understanding of what it represents. Health researchers Steven Tenny and Ibrahim Abdelgawad frame statistical significance like this: “In science, researchers can never prove any statement as there are infinite alternatives as to why the outcome may have occurred. They can only try to disprove a specific hypothesis.” Researchers try to disprove what’s called the null hypothesis, which is “typically the inverse statement of the hypothesis,” Tenny and Abdelgawad write. Statistical significance indicates how inconsistent the data being examined are with the null hypothesis. If researchers studying playground accidents hypothesise that children under five years old suffer more serious injuries than older kids, the null hypothesis could be there is no relationship between a child’s age and playground injuries. If a statistical analysis uncovers a relationship between the two variables and researchers determine that relationship to be statistically significant, the data are not consistent with the null hypothesis. To be clear, statistical significance is evidence used to decide whether to reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis. Getting a statistically significant result doesn’t prove anything. Here are some other things journalists should know about statistical significance before reporting on academic research: 1. In academic research, significant ≠ important Sometimes, people mistakenly assume that research findings described as ‘significant’ are important or noteworthy — newsworthy. That’s typically not correct. To reiterate, when researchers call a result ‘statistically significant,’ or simply ‘significant,’ they’re indicating how consistent the data are with their research hypothesis. It’s worth noting that a finding can be statistically significant but have little or no clinical or practical significance. Let’s say researchers conclude that a new drug drastically reduces tooth pain, but only for a few minutes. Or that students who complete an expensive tutoring program earn higher scores on the SAT college-entrance exam — but only two more points, on average. Although these findings might be significant in a mathematical sense, they’re not very meaningful in the real world. 2. Researchers can manipulate the process for gauging statistical significance Researchers use sophisticated software to analyse data. For each pattern or relationship detected in the data — for instance, one variable increases as another decreases — the software calculates what’s known as a probability value, or p-value. P-values range from 0 to 1. If a p-value falls under a certain threshold, researchers deem the pattern or relationship statistically significant. If the p-value is greater than the cutoff, that pattern or relationship is not statistically significant. That’s why researchers hope for low p-values. Generally speaking, p-values smaller than 0.05 are considered statistically significant. “P-values are the gatekeepers of statistical significance,” science writer Regina Nuzzo, who’s also a statistics professor at Gallaudet University in Washington D.C., writes in her tip sheet, “Tips for Communicating Statistical Significance.” She adds, “What’s most important to keep in mind? That we use p-values to alert us to surprising data results, not to give a final answer on anything.” Policymakers should understand that p-values are not the probability that the hypothesis is true. P-values also do not reflect the probability that the relationships in the data being studied are the result of chance. The American Statistical Association warns against repeating these and other errors in its “Statement on Statistical Significance and P-Values.” And p-values can be manipulated. One form of manipulation is p-hacking, when a researcher “persistently analyses the data in different ways until a statistically significant outcome is obtained,” explains psychiatrist Chittaranjan Andrade, a senior professor at the National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences in India, in a 2021 paper in The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. He adds that “the analysis stops either when a significant result is obtained or when the researcher runs out of options.” - Halting a study or experiment to examine the data and then deciding whether to gather more. - Collecting data after a study or experiment is finished, with the goal of changing the result. - Putting off decisions that could influence calculations, such as whether to include outliers, until after the data has been analysed. As a real-world example, many news outlets reported on problems found in studies by Cornell University researcher Brian Wansink, who announced his retirement shortly after JAMA, the flagship journal of the American Medication Association, and two affiliated journals retracted six of his papers in 2018. Stephanie Lee, a science reporter at BuzzFeed News, described emails between Wansink and his collaborators at the Cornell Food and Brand Lab showing they “discussed and even joked about exhaustively mining datasets for impressive-looking results.” 3. Researchers face intense pressure to produce statistically significant results Researchers build their careers largely on how often their work is published and the prestige of the academic journals that publish it. “‘Publish or perish’ is tattooed on the mind of every academic,” Ione Fine, a psychology professor at the University of Washington, and Alicia Shen, a doctoral student there, write in a March 2018 article in The Conversation. “Like it or loathe it, publishing in high-profile journals is the fast track to positions in prestigious universities with illustrious colleagues and lavish resources, celebrated awards and plentiful grant funding.” Because academic journals often prioritise research with statistically significant results, researchers often focus their efforts in that direction. Multiple studies suggest journals are more likely to publish papers featuring statistically significant findings. For example, a paper published in Science in 2014 finds “a strong relationship between the results of a study and whether it was published.” Of the 221 papers examined, about half were published. Only 20% of studies without statistically significant results were published. The authors learned that most studies without statistically significant findings weren’t even written up, sometimes because researchers, predicting their results would not be published, abandoned their work. “When researchers fail to find a statistically significant result, it’s often treated as exactly that — a failure,” science writer Jon Brock writes in a 2019 article for Nature Index. “Non-significant results are difficult to publish in scientific journals and, as a result, researchers often choose not to submit them for publication.” 4. Many people — even researchers — make errors when trying to explain statistical significance to a lay audience “With its many technicalities, significance testing is not inherently ready for public consumption,” Jeffrey Spence and David Stanley, associate professors of psychology at the University of Guelph in Canada, write in the journal Frontiers in Psychology. “Properly understanding technically correct definitions is challenging even for trained researchers, as it is well documented that statistical significance is frequently misunderstood and misinterpreted by researchers who rely on it.” Spence and Stanley point out three common misinterpretations, which journalists should look out for and avoid. Statistical significance, they note, does not mean: - “There is a low probability that the result was due to chance.” - “There is less than a 5% chance that the null hypothesis is true.” - “There is a 95% chance of finding the same result in a replication.” Spence and Stanley offer two suggestions for describing statistical significance. Although both are concise, many policmakers (or their ministers) might consider them too vague to use in news stories. If all study results are significant, Spence and Stanley suggest writing either: - “All of the results were statistically significant (indicating that the true effects may not be zero).” - “All of the results were statistically significant (which suggests that there is reason to doubt that the true effects are zero).” 5. The academic community has debated for years whether to stop checking for and reporting statistical significance Scholars for decades have written about the problems associated with determining and reporting statistical significance. In 2019, the academic journal Nature published a letter signed by more than 800 researchers and other professionals from fields that rely on statistical modelling that called “for the entire concept of statistical significance to be abandoned.” The same year, The American Statistician, a journal of the American Statistical Association, published “Statistical Inference in the 21st Century: A World Beyond p < 0.05” — a special edition featuring 43 papers dedicated to the issue. Many propose alternatives to using p-values and designated thresholds to test for statistical significance. “As we venture down this path, we will begin to see fewer false alarms, fewer overlooked discoveries, and the development of more customized statistical strategies,” three researchers write in an editorial that appears on the front page of the issue. “Researchers will be free to communicate all their findings in all their glorious uncertainty, knowing their work is to be judged by the quality and effective communication of their science, and not by their p-values. John Ioannidis, a Stanford Medicine professor and vice president of the Association of American Physicians, has argued against ditching the process. P-values and statistical significance can provide valuable information when used and interpreted correctly, he writes in a 2019 letter published in JAMA. He acknowledges improvements are needed — for example, better and “less gameable filters” for gauging significance. He also notes “the statistical numeracy of the scientific workforce requires improvement.” Professors Deborah Mayo of Virginia Tech and David Hand of Imperial College London assert that “recent recommendations to replace, abandon, or retire statistical significance undermine a central function of statistics in science.” Researchers need, instead, to call out misuse and avoid it, they write in their May 2022 paper, “Statistical Significance and Its Critics: Practicing Damaging Science, or Damaging Scientific Practice?” “The fact that a tool can be misunderstood and misused is not a sufficient justification for discarding that tool,” they write. The Journalist’s Resource would like to thank Ivan Oransky, who teaches medical journalism at New York University’s Carter Journalism Institute and is co-founder of Retraction Watch, and Regina Nuzzo, a science journalist and statistics professor at Gallaudet University, for reviewing this tip sheet and offering helpful feedback.

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In the past we’ve talked about how to scan your signature to help go paperless. In this post, we are going to look at the fundamentals behind sending truly encrypted emails and documents that can be verified with a digital signature. The idea is to show you the concepts so you understand what is going on behind the scenes to make a secure communication channel over email. So why spend the time on this? As we switch to doing more business over the internet, secure communications are going to become much more important. Even if you don’t have a use for encryption right now, you probably will over the next 3 to 5 years (if not before). There is a lot of value in understanding why email encryption is secure–even if you don’t understand all the complicated math behind it. I find it frustrating that so few people and businesses use email encryption and a digital signature on their emails. If businesses would use encrypted emails, they could just send me a PDF of my bill instead of requiring me to login and download my bill from their website. Many of the processes that currently require printing on dead trees and then using dead dinosaurs to transport sheets of paper through the mail could be done electronically if more people would use encryption. This article is me doing my little part to help raise awareness of how encryption works. If you want to help save paper and think this article is useful, please pass it on to someone else. Encrypting a Document To use a digital signature or encryption you must have a digital id also known as a digital certificate. A digital id/digital certificate used to do two things. First, it can be used to do email encryption or encrypt files so that they can only be read by the person they are intended for. Second, it can be used to “sign” or place a digital signature on a document to guarantee that it arrives in the same state it was originally sent and no one has added or changed things. A digital id or digital certificate consists of a public and private key. Your public key is shared with everyone. Your private key is kept private. These keys are text documents full of what appears to be random numbers and letters, but with the proper algorithm, these numbers and letters have a very unique property. If you take a document and run it through an algorithm with your public key, you get back an encrypted document or an encrypted email. Once it is encrypted, the public key can’t be used to decrypt the document. The process is one way so it doesn’t matter if other people have the public key, they can’t read the document. To decrypt the document you must have the private key. If you give the encrypted document to an algorithm with the private key, you will get back the original document. An Email Encryption Example Lets start with Tom and Suzie. They want to communicate securely to keep Hitler from reading their messages. They are going to use email encryption to communicate. First Tom, sends Suzie his public key. This usually happens automatically when Tom sends Suzie a normal email message. Their email programs handle sending Tom’s key and recording it on Suzie’s side of things. When Suzie sends Tom a regular message, Tom gets her key as well. Suzie takes Tom’s public key and uses it to encrypt an important message. Then she emails the encrypted message to Tom. But wait! Hitler intercepts the message by infiltrating Suzie’s ISP and breaking into her email. He now has the encrypted email message that Suzie sent to Tom. Hitler also has Tom’s public key that Tom sent to Suzie. However, no matter what Hitler does with the public key, he can’t decrypt the message. The only thing that can decrypt the message is the private key that Tom keeps safe. Email encryption prevents Hitler from reading the message–even though he has a copy of the email that was transmitted over the internet. When Tom gets the message from Suzy, he takes his private key and uses that to decrypt the message. He can now read Suzie’s email. It doesn’t matter who else gets a copy of the email that Suzie sent. Email encryption insures that Tom is the only one who can unlock it as long has he doesn’t share his private key. If he wants to reply to Suzie, he simply uses her public key to encrypt his reply and sends it back to her. Signing a Document with a Digital Signature With an understanding of how documents can be encrypted, we can look at how to “sign” a document using a digital signature. This is very different than a scanned signature that merely attaches an image of your written signature to a document or email. An encrypted document does two things. - It guarantees that the document wasn’t modified in route. - It guarantees that no one else can read the document. For a lot of communication, item two isn’t necessary or even desired. For example, if I want to send a message out to 25 people, chances are pretty high that it isn’t extremely confidential. In fact, sending a separate message to each person encrypted with their public key might be quite a burden. However, I still may want each recipient to be guaranteed that the document came from me and that it wasn’t modified in transit–we want to put a digital signature on it that says guarantees who sent it and that it wasn’t modified. Outside of signed email, I may want to post a message on a website that can be read by the world where anyone can check to make sure that the message hasn’t been changed from when I wrote it and confirm that it was truly written by me. A slightly different example of this is when a company posts a piece of software or a patch for existing software. The people who will download it want some way to know that they are getting a legitimate file and not a virus that was posted by hackers to trick people. This is where signing a document (or file) comes into play. Signing a document (applying your digital signature to it) guarantees the first two items on the list, but does it in a way that allows anyone to read it. People can verify your digital signature without getting a digital id or digital certificate for themselves. This can be difficult to explain, so I am going to simplify the math a bit. My version won’t be nearly as secure as what is actually used, but it will give you a good general idea of how it operates. First, let’s talk about checksums. A checksum is a simple way to send an extra piece of information along with some data that can be used to make sure that the data is the same on both sides. In human terms, this is kind of like asking someone to repeat a number back to you over the phone. While repeating information back works fine for short numbers, it could be a bit troubling if you have large amounts of data. So we create a short cut. Let’s say that, for some reason, I’m trying to give you the values of 100 checks over the phone. I’m reading them from Excel and you are typing them into Excel. In the end, we want to make sure that we didn’t miss anything. I could have you repeat all the numbers back to me, but that would take a long time. Instead, I might ask you to give me the total. If your total matches my total, then one of two things happened: - We successfully transferred the numbers verbally. - We made some mistakes that perfectly canceled each other out. Since option two is pretty unlikely when dealing with a large list of numbers, we can assume (with a reasonable degree of certainty) that we didn’t make a mistake. Computers use checksums in a similar way. Back in the days of modems, computers would send an 8 bit byte where the last bit was a checksum. So, the computer might send a binary message that looked like this: The first 7 bits contained the data: 0110101. The last bit is the checksum was used to tell if there were an even or odd numbers of ones present in the data. In this case we are using a 0 to say that there are an even number of ones. If the receiving computer got a byte where the number of even bits and the checksum bit disagreed, it would ask for that data to be sent again. This type of approach reduces accidental errors. However, it does nothing toward preventing someone from intentionally changing the data. If you wanted to change the data en route, it would be simple to flip the checksum bits to match whatever you wanted to send in the data. We need a way of generating a checksum type value that is hard to fake. Hashes for Digital Signatures In simple form, a hash is an algorithm (or set of steps) that you can run a piece of data through (text, a file, etc.) and get out a number that represents the original. You can’t recreate the original from the number, but for most practical purposes you can use that number to represent the input. In other words, it will be very difficult to find another input file (or text) that will produce the same output. Let’s construct a simple hash of the following text: The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy hound. Our hash is going to be created by multiplying the number of letters by the number of words. 38 x 9 = 342 So now if I send you this message, I can include the number 342. You can do the math on the message you receive and it will give you a pretty good idea if the message is the same as what was sent. Obviously, this type of solution will only protect against unintentional changes in the data. If someone changes the email in route, they could just as easily change the number “342” to match whatever the hash is for their modified message. If we want to protect against this, I can send the hash value through a different channel. For example, I could send you the message via email and then call you on a secure phone line and say, “the hash value is 342”. That way if someone wanted to modify the message, they could only change it to something that produced a hash value of 342. (In our very simple hash algorithm, this would be hard, but doable. With the complex hash algorithms that are actually used, it would be impossible, for all practical purposes.) Obviously, it is inefficient if I have to call you up on the phone. We need some way to put a secure channel in the email. If I try to encrypt the hash number with your public key, the message is only readable by you–I might as well just encrypt the whole message. If I encrypt it with my public key, then I’m the only one who can read it–not particularly useful either. But look what happens when I encrypt it with my private key. We now have the value 342 encrypted in a way that can be opened by anyone with my public key. Since my public key is the only thing that can decrypt that value, it guarantees them that I was the one who originally encrypted the number 342. If someone wants to change the message and change the hash value, they would have to be able to encrypt it with my private key. So, when you send messages signed with a digital signature, the hash value guarantees that the message hasn’t been changed. Encrypting the hash value with your private key allows anyone to verify that the hash value, itself, hasn’t been changed using your public key. This is normally handled automatically by your software, and it will give you a warning if you get a message where decrypting the hash value produces a different number. The encrypted hash value is added as a small attachment or added to the bottom of the email. And there you have it. You now understand encryption and digital signatures better than 99% of the population. If you are interested in starting to use email encryption, I recommend getting a free set of certificates from Thawte or Comodo. (Thawte may be canceling their free program, so Comodo may be the better choice.) The setup process is fairly simple and they have instructions on how to get various email clients configured. As I said before, this article is me trying to do my part to help society move from paper to digital. If you want to help, please take a few minutes to share this with someone else.

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« PreviousContinue » Th. Yes; but, what was a bondman in Abraham's house? Was he considered as a person, having rights, like the white servants among us, capable of making contracts, capable of acquiring and holding property, and the like? If so, he was not a slave. For a slave is a thing, and not a person. A slave has no rights. Th. The Hebrew word is ebed, which is commonly rendered servant. David was the ebed of Saul, not his slave. Ziba was the ebed of Mephibosheth, but a man of wealth and importance. Jeroboam was the ebed of Solomon. It is used just as we use the word servant, to denote subordination and dependence, but not the degradation of persons to things, in which the essence of slavery consists. Man. But Abraham's servants were bought with his money. Th. The word signifies, acquired, got, procured. Abraham procured them with his money. And this is the way we procure white servants. The usual way to obtain a servant in patriarchal times is brought into view in that very ancient composition, the Book of Job, where, in respect to the leviathan, it is asked, “Will he make a covenant with thee? wilt thou take him for a servant forever?” The servant was bought, indeed, but he was bought of himself, and became a servant by contract. So it seems to be contemplated it might be among the Israelites. “If a sojourner or stranger wax rich by thee, and thy brother that dwelleth by him wax poor, and sell himself unto the stranger." Slaves are never bought of themselves, but of some other. Abraham might also have procured servants of his heathen neighbors, by way of redeeming captives taken in war, on the easy condition of their becoming permanent members of his family, and there enjoying the substantial benefits of freedom, which they could not hope to do among their enemies. Wives also were bought. Jacob gave fourteen years' personal service for his. David bought his wife of the king her father, by his military services. To betroth a wife among the Israelites was to buy her, by paying a sum of money or goods to her father. Joseph bought the people with food to be servants unto Pharaoh. But they were not made slaves. They were only to pay Pharaoh a large rent for their land. Ard. Would any slaveholder now treat his slaves as Abraham did his servants? He put arms into their hands, and intrusted them with the guardianship of his person. They were to be his heirs, in case of the failure of children, in preference to other relations. The oldest servant of Abraham's house was a person of great consideration, 10 whom Isaac was in some respects subordinate, even at the age of forty years. And Abraham thought it necessary to bind him by an oath that he would not marry Isaac to any of the daughters of the land. There is no evidence that Abraham sold any of them, or gave them away, or treated them in any respect like slaves. Th. If Abraham's service was slavery, his servants had an easy method of emancipating themselves. It was but to refuse a compliance with some of the religious obligations which his family were required to observe, and they would at once be excluded from his family, and turned out of his house. No, they must have been substantially like the servants of whom the apostle speaks. "Now I say that the heir, as long as he is a child, differeth nothing from a servant, though he be lord of all.” Of course, the servant differs nothing from a child in his minority. But as a child in his minority is very different froin' a slave, so also the servitude which is authorized by the Scriptures is very different from slavery. Man But Moses found slavery in existence, and made laws to regulate it. Th. Muses found a system of servitude in existence, not slavery, and made laws to regulate it which are not found in modern slave countries. Servants could make intermarriages with other members of the family, and become heirs with the children. "A wise servant shall have rule over a son that causeth shame, and shall have part of the inheritance among the brethren.” Servants were not allowed to be separated from their wives and children; they were invited guests at all the national and family festivals of the household in which they resided; they were under the same religious instruction, and under the same civil laws with their masters. There was not one law for the master, and another for the servant, as in all slave countries. Servants might be parties to a suit at law for the recovery of their rights, and they could give testimony in courts of justice where masters were concerned. Man. But Moses says: “Both thy bondmen and thy bondmaids, which thou shalt have, shall be of the heathen that are round about you; of them shall ye buy bondmen and bondmaids--they shall be your bondmen forever.” Is not that authority to buy slaves? Th. The word rendered bondmen signifies servants; the word rendered buy signifies procure. And we are not obliged by the language, when divested of the wrong ideas derived from our familiarity with slavery, to understand it as meaning any more than this: “ Both thy male and female servants, which thou shalt have, shall be of the heathen that are round about you; (and not of your Hebrew brethren;) of them shall ye procure men servants and maid servants—of such shall be your permanent servants in all ages.” Ard. Did Moses authorize the buying and selling of slaves? Th. The institutions of Moses provide for persons selling themselves to be servants, that is, hiring themselves out to be permanent servants, for a sum paid in advance; and also for fathers selling their daughters to be wives, and thus providing them with a dowry. But there seems to be no trace of any toleration of slave trading. The possibility that such a thing might be attempted, apprars to be pro vided for. "He that stealeth a man, and selleth him, or if he be found in his hand, he shall surely be put to death." Man. Were not the Israelites slaves in Egypt?" Th. They were under great oppression there, for which their oppressors were severely punished; but not slaves according to your definition. They resided by themselves in the land of Goshen, in permanent dwellings, in their own distinct aud separate families. They held their possessions independently, and owned a large amount of property, which does not appear to have been claimed by their masters. They kept arms, and were fully equipped when they left Egypt. They had their own government, and laws, and magistrates, They appear to have been called out, a given portion of the men at a time, to labor in the public works. And the great oppression consisted in their being required to perform too much labor for the king. They appear to have had time to learn and practise several of the fine arts. There is no complaint that their women were subject to any personal outrages, nor to any species of cruel treatment, save that which Pharaoh judged to be necessary for his own safety, the destruction of their male children. They were abundantly supplied with the necessaries and comforts of life, as they afterwards alleged in their complaints when in the wilderness. Instead ef being allowed “a quart of corn a day,” as some slave-holding states now provide, they “sat by the flesh pots, and did eat bread to the full.” They also did “eat fish freely, and cucumbers, and melons, and leeks, and onions, and garlic.” No restrictions seem to have been placed on their intellectnal and moral improvement, or the free exercise of their religion, till they asked leave to go away in a body three days' journey into the wilderness, with all they possessed. And then the king seems to have refused chiefly from the fear that they would not return. If such was the bondage of Egypt, so decidedly condemned, and so severely punished; if it was so mild, compared with modern slavery; is it credible that God would authorize any thing like modern slavery, among a people whom he so abundantly enjoins not to oppress the stranger, nor to forget that they had been strangers in the land of Egypt? I cannot think it credible. Ard. And then, there was a year of jubilee, of which it is said: “And ye shall hallow the fiftieth year, and proclaim liberty throughout all the land, unto all the inhabitants thereof." Th. And there was another direction, which the modern advocates of slavery do not like to have us obey. “Thou shalt not deliver unto his master the servant which is escaped from his master unto thee.” Man. You had better take care what you do, when you are within the reach of slaveholders. Th. We mean to obey God, in relation to this matter, as well as all others; and bear testimony against oppression and cruelty. And we do not think you have any right to complain of us for doing so. Man. “Slavery was prevalent at the coming of Christ; but he issued no command with regard to it; the apostles nowhere assailed it; the Gospel does not proclaim liberty to the slave.' Th. I cannot but wonder that you should use such language, if you have read the New Testament. It brings to mind the annunciation of the object of his coming, which is put into the mouth of our Lord, by the prophet: “The Spirit of the Lord God is upon me; because the Lord hath annointed me to preach good tidings unto to the meek; he hath sent me to bind up the broken-hearted, to proclaim liberty to the captives, and the opening of the prison to them that are bound; to proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord, and the day of vengeance of our God; to comfort all that mourn." Man. But I cannot think it a sin to hold slaves, because the New Testament gives precepts to regulate the conduct both of masters and slaves. "Servants, be obedient to them that are your masters according to the flesh." 6. Exhort servants to be obedient unto their own masters, and to please them well in all things.” Th. With reference to these precepts, I have two remarks to make. One is, that nothing is here said about slaves. The Greek word is douloi, servants. The relation of master and servant may be very proper, and the relation of master and slave not be sanctioned at all. The Greek for slave is andrapodon. Doulos, servant, is used in the New Testament, very much as the Hebrew ebed, (servant,) is in the Old. It is evident, to any who examine the New Testament, that those who are called douloi were regarded as persons, and not as things; they possessed property of their own, were capable of making contracts, of owing debts to others, and having debts due to them; their wives and children were theirs, and not their masters. None of these things apply to modern slaves. Paul called himself a doulos, servant, of Jesus Christ, which was a title of honor. But his declaring it to be the same condition in which the heir is, during his minority, shows that it meant a man in a subordinate station, and not a mere chattel. But there is another remark to be made respecting these commands: They mention the duty of the servant, without deciding whether it is right for him to be held in that condition It is the duty of those who are held as slaves, to be obedient to the lawful commands of those to whom, in the providence of God, they are subordinate. But that does not prove it right for them to be held in that condition. Christianity found Nero exercising the most cruel tyrany at Rome; and it says to the Christians of that city: “Let every soul be subject unto the higher powers; for there is no power but of God; the powers that be are ordained of God.” Did this prove that the government of Nero was right and no sin? Man. But Christianity gives precepts to masters also; and thus recognizes that relation. Th. It gives precepts for the treatment of servants. But I do not just and equat to compel t. pay them for their work? Man. I consider the case of Onesimu sent him back to Philemon, he practically iu. taking up runaway slaves, and sending them back Th. This case seems to be strangely misunderstood had embraced the Gospel. His servant Onesimus haa apparently in his debt. By the preaching of Paul, Onesi converted to Christianity. Paul speaks as if he might have him for the service of the Gospel; but he chose to have Philer. his duty in discharging him, of his own accord, and not by co sion. He sends him therefore, and exhorts Philemon to receive . sonot now as a servant, but above a servant, a brother beloved, es ally to me; but how much more unto thee.” Was that to receive as a slave? He said, “If thou count me, therefore, a partner, rec him as myself,” that is receive him as a partner, a companion, no a slave. And he expresses the greatest confidence tnat he would his duty in the case: “Having confidence in thy obedience, I wi unto thee, knowing that thou wilt also do more than I say." men, now held as slaves, were treated as Paul asks Onesimus mig be, the reproach of slavery would no longer rest upon our country. Ard. How do you pretend to reconcile slave-holding with ou Savior's golden rule, “Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so them; for this is the law and the prophets?" Man. That means, I suppose, that we should do what is best for others, considering their situation, character, and circumstances. And it is clearly best for most slaves to be kept in that condition; for they cannot take care of themselves. Ard. They prove that they can, by taking care of themselves and their masters, too, in many cases. But that would acknowledge that all who would be better off in freedom, should be set free. Man. I doubt whether any would be better off. Ard. Suppose you test the sincerity of your principles by changing places with them. Would you be willing to be shut up for a season, and then be sold to the highest bidder? Would you be willing to be chained in a company, and be driven with a whip to the sugar plantations, and there be worked, as those you sell are worked, till they are. exhausted, and die? Just put the case to yourself; and put yourself in: their place, and see what you ought to do. Man. “Slavery is the corner-stone of our republican edifice." Ard. Out upon such republicanism. The republican edifice erected by our revolutionary fathers, has the contrary as its foundation. They say: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are

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Stress Physiology of Free-ranging Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) : Influence of Ecological and Anthropogenic Stressors POkharel, Sanjeeta Sharma MetadataShow full item record Various ecological and human-induced disturbances play an important role in defining the health of an animal. To cope up with such threats or challenges to its homeostasis, an animal responds by secreting stress hormones (glucocorticoids) to mobilize the energy. In general, glucocorticoids help animals to cope up with the ‘stressors’. Prolonged exposure to any ‘stressors’ may lead to an elevation in the levels of glucocorticoids, thereby leading to reproductive inhibition, immune system suppression, neuronal death and impaired cognitive function and hence, threatening the survival and fitness of an animal. However, the long-term effects of environmental or anthropogenic disturbances on the fitness and survival are difficult to analyze in a slow reproducing, long-lived species such as elephants. Spread over 3% of India’s geographical area, India shelters around 28,000 to 30,000 Asian elephants (Elephas maximus; Bist, 2002; Santiapillai and Sukumar, 2006). Protected areas in India are estimated to form 22% of elephant habitat; while the rest of the elephant habitats extend outside the protected areas (Lenin and Sukumar, 2011) making them vulnerable to human-induced threats. Consequently, there are increased incidences of human-elephant conflicts leading to crop and property depredation and human-elephant mortality. Most of the studies, in context of such conflicts, highlight the temporal, spatial scales of conflicts majorly focusing on mitigation measures. None of the studies so far have elucidated how escalating human-elephant conflicts would influence the physiological health of Asian elephants. This study, hence, focused on addressing the proximate causation of the stress-response in free-ranging Asian elephants of the Bandipur National Park, the Nagarahole National Park and Hassan district of Karnataka, using a non-invasive technique for measuring faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCM). There are several factors which could act as possible stressors to the physiological state of an elephant, but depending upon the feasibility and time limitations of conducting the study, we selected those factors which we thought are essential to address the proximate causation of stress-response in Asian elephants. Being the first detailed study to explore the stress-response in free-ranging Asian elephants, this study attempted to understand the influence of some of the fundamental ecological (seasonality, group size, and body condition) and human-induced stressors. The main body of the dissertation is divided into six chapters. The first and the last chapters discuss the general introduction and conclusion while the rest four chapters highlight the main four objectives of the study. The main objectives of the thesis were: 1. The first objective of this thesis was to validate and standardize some of the crucial parts of protocols to avoid any technique-based bias while interpreting the levels of faecal glucocorticoid metabolites. Under the first objective, the influences of some of the fundamental intrinsic and extrinsic factors on the fGCM levels were also assessed. 2. The second objective was to assess the association between body condition, seasonality and stress response. 3. Having assessed the relationship between body condition and stress-status, the third objective focused on the influence of socio-ecological correlates such as group size, lactational status and the presence of adult females in a herd on the stress status of female adult elephants. 4. With above three objectives majorly highlighting the influence of ecological factors, the fourth objective was to assess the influence of anthropogenic factors on stress-response of free-ranging elephants under which we compared the stress-response between crop-raiding in human-dominated and nonraiding elephants in forested habitats. The study was conducted during dry season (February to May) and wet season (August to December) of 2013 and 2015. The dissertation is organized in the following way: Chapter 1: General Introduction The first chapter provides a general introduction about stress response and its physiological pathway. It also discusses the importance of non-invasive technique used in our study. It highlights the significance of this study based on the available literature on both African and Asian elephants. Chapter 2: General validation and standardization of field techniques and assays; influence of intrinsic and extrinsic factors on faecal glucocorticoid metabolites This chapter is divided into two parts. The first part deals with general validation and standardization of field techniques and the second part assesses the influence of fundamental intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Being the first study on stress-response of free-ranging Asian elephants, influence of various field-based techniques and variations were studied to facilitate the reliable interpretation of fGCM levels. We first conducted the experiments to standardize the field protocol and the laboratory protocol. Under the field protocol, we found that there was no within sample variation (as observed in many other species) in fGCM levels from thoroughly mixed faecal samples and samples from the center of the same dung bolus. The time of collection of samples had a significant influence, suggesting that the concentration of fGCM remains stable until 6-9 hours. Influence of storage of lyophilized samples suggested that the concentrations of fGCM levels decline if exposed to moisture. Under the laboratory protocol, A group specific 11-oxoetiocholanolone EIA, used for analyzing fGCM levels (μg/g), was modified to enhance the repeatability, accuracy and precision. EIA was analytically validated in every hormonal analysis by calculating the inter- and intra-assay coefficients of variation, specificity and parallelism. In the second part, we assessed the influence of age, sex and season on fGCM levels and found there was no age-wise variation and sex-wise variation. Season-wise variation was significant only in female elephants. We discuss the potential physiological reasons behind such variation. These findings suggest that aspects such as time of collection, proper storage of samples and the influence of extrinsic stresses (seasonality) should be considered for reliable and unbiased interpretation of fGCM levels. Chapter 3: Assessment of season-dependent body condition scores in relation to faecal glucocorticoid metabolites in free-ranging Asian elephants. (Published in Conservation Physiology; Pokharel et al., 2017; doi:10.1093/conphys/cox039) We studied seasonal and annual changes in visual body condition scores (BCS), and assessed how these scores were related to levels of fGCM levels in free-ranging Asian elephants in the seasonally dry tropical forests of the Mysore and Nilgiri Elephant Reserves in southern India. We assessed the animals’ BCS visually on a scale of 1 to 5; where 1 represents a very thin and 5 represents a very fat elephant. To understand the influence of seasonality on BCS, we sampled the population during dry and wet seasons of 2013 and 2015 while, for annual changes in BCS, we sampled nine free-ranging adult females from different family groups that had been repeatedly sighted over seven years. To evaluate the influence of body condition on fGCM, we measured the fGCM levels from fresh fecal samples collected from the body-condition scored animals. Effect of age and season on BCS in relation to fGCM was also studied. We found that the BCS was related with season, i.e. individuals with low BCS were more frequent during the dry season as compared to the wet season and fGCM levels were negatively associated with BCS. To be precise, concentrations of fGCM were highest in individuals with the lowest BCS (BCS-1) and then significantly declined till BCS-3. fGCM levels were almost comparable for BCS 3, 4 and 5. This pattern was more conspicuous in female than in male elephants. We discussed the possible reasons behind such relationship between fGCM and BCS. The findings from this chapter suggest that season-dependent BCS, hence, reflect the stress status as measured by fGCM, especially in female Asian elephants and could be used as an important non-invasive approach to monitor the physiological health of free-ranging elephant populations. This is the first study to compare the body condition scores and stress-response in free-ranging elephants. Chapter 4: Influence of ecological and physiological correlates on stress physiology of free-ranging female Asian elephants. We investigated the influence of herd size (HS), lactational status and number of adult females present in a herd on adrenocortical function in free-ranging adult female Asian elephants by measuring their fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCM) levels. We found that there was a negative association between herd size and fGCM levels when only HS and fGCM were compared. Lactating females showed higher fGCM than that observed in non-lactating females, which might reflect the nutritional stress on mother and anti-predatory challenges against the calves. Herds with only one adult female had higher fGCM levels than herds with more than one adult female which could be because of social challenges. The poor association between herd size and fGCM when all predictor variables were combined elucidate that group size may not necessarily influence the adreno-cortical function. However, the numbers of adult females present in a herd and their lactational status has a significant role in defining the stress-response in free-ranging adult female Asian elephants. This study is the first study to document the influence of lactational status with the stress-response in free-ranging elephants. Chapter 5: How physiologically costlier it is to be a crop-raider in a human-dominated landscape? Diet quality as a possible ‘pacifier’ against stress. We studied the stress-response in crop-raiding elephants in a human-dominated landscape and non-raiding elephants in the protected forested areas. While raiding agricultural crops, elephants face various associated threats such as retaliation by humans, human-induced disturbances and stress of raiding which could enhance the energetic costs, ultimately elevating their stress levels. We hypothesized that crop-raiders (in human-dominated landscape; Hassan district of Karnataka, India) will exhibit higher faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (a proxy of stress-response; fGCM) levels as compared to the nonraiders (in forested areas; Bandipur and Nagarahole National Parks). Contrary to our hypothesis, fGCM levels were found to be higher in both nonraiding female and male elephants than female and male crop-raiders. To assess the influence of benefits obtained from crop-raiding as one of the possible factors for the lower fGCM in crop-raiders, the difference in vegetation between human-dominated landscape and forested areas were further analyzed by using a remotely sensed NDVI (Normalized Differential Vegetation Index) and was ground-truthed by measuring the quality of diet (C:N ratio through fecal samples). Interestingly, the NDVI values were higher at the human-dominated and the C:N ratio was lower (higher Nitrogen content) in faecal samples of crop-raiding elephants (both in females and in males) than the nonraiders in the forested areas. Positive correlation was observed between C:N ratio and fGCM levels. These findings suggest that crop-raiding comes with the benefits of easy access to good quality of diet which may help in reducing the stress-response in elephants while being in the human-dominated landscapes, provided there is a low intensity of human disturbance. This is the first study to document and compare the stress-status of crop-raiding Asian elephants with elephants in their natural habitats using NDVI and C:N ratio. Chapter 6: Conclusion In conclusion, the work presented in this dissertation provides an overview of how ecological and anthropogenic factors could influence the physiological health of free-ranging Asian elephants. This dissertation focused on providing detailed insights about the stress-response in free-ranging Asian elephants. The objectives have been achieved by assessing the relationship between ecological stressors such as seasonality, body condition, herd size, lactational status, a presence of individuals in a herd and anthropogenic stressors such as human-induced threats or crop-raiding using well-validated and standardized laboratory and field protocols. This study provides valuable insights into the physiological health or stress-response being synergistically influenced by various ecological, social and anthropogenic factors in free-ranging Asian elephants. Findings obtained from this study could help in addressing the issues related to the management of free-ranging elephant populations.

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Although coinage of a 20-cent piece had been suggested in the United States as early as 1791, and in neighboring Canada the 20-cent piece had been distributed in quantity in 1858, it was not until February 1874 that the notion of this denomination was translated into reality, this side of the border. The scenario in 1874 was centered on the West Coast. Small-denomination minor coins, including Indian cents, two-cent pieces, nickel three-cent pieces, and Shield nickel five-cent pieces, had never circulated there to any extent, nor was the silver three-cent piece used in commerce. For this reason, the San Francisco Mint produced none of these denominations. Half dimes were made in San Francisco from 1863 through 1873, when these silver coins were abolished, and most pieces quickly disappeared from circulation, thereby causing a problem: In 1874 the smallest denomination regularly seen in circulation was the dime or 10¢ piece. If someone wanted to buy an item priced at 10¢ and did not have a dime, and offered 25¢ in payment, he received a Spanish-American silver one-real “bit” (worth 121/2¢) in change. Such coins, once plentiful, had disappeared from circulation in the East, but many were still used in the West. If a 121/2¢ piece was not available, then a merchant was apt to give a dime, facetiously called a “short bit,” as change for a 10¢ purchase. As stated, half dimes were not often seen and thus could not be used readily. By rather complicated reasoning, if the 20-cent piece became a reality, someone could make a 5¢ purchase, tender a 25¢ piece in payment, and receive a 20¢ piece as change. Or, for a 10¢ purchase a 20¢ piece could be offered, and change of 10¢ would be given. Perhaps a simpler explanation is that which appeared in the American Journal of Numismatics, July 1875, to the effect that the 20¢ pieces were made to replace Spanish silver coins that still circulated in the West and Southwest. In February 1874 Senator John P. Jones of Nevada introduced a bill for the 20¢ piece. At the time Nevada was America’s leading silver-producing state. While fortunes from the Comstock Lode in Virginia City, Nevada, had been at a high crest in the 1860s and had prompted the establishment of the Carson City Mint a few miles away from Virginia City, by the 1870s the price of the metal had fallen, and times were difficult. New markets were needed. Certainly, a new silver denomination such as the 20¢ piece would help. Jones in his proposal suggested that the 20¢ piece would facilitate change-making and help eliminate the use of Spanish-American coins. The New Coin Reaches Circulation On March 3, 1875 the 20¢ piece became legal. Patterns had been prepared beginning in 1874, a final design had been selected, and coinage began in earnest. The obverse featured Christian Gobrecht’s motif of Miss Liberty in a seated position, stars surrounding, and the date below. The reverse displayed a motif by William Barber and depicted a perched eagle, somewhat similar in configuration to that used on the trade dollar, surrounded by UNITED STATES OF AMERICA and the denomination expressed as TWENTY CENTS. The edge is plain, unlike other silver denominations of the era (which had reeded edges). At the time there were no silver coins of any kind in circulation in the Midwest and East as specie (gold and silver coin) payments had been suspended by the Treasury Department in 1862, during the Civil War when citizens were hoarding coins, and payments had not yet resumed. Thus, mintage of the new silver 20¢ pieces was concentrated in the Western states, as per these circulation strike mintage figures: 1875 Philadelphia Mint: 36,910 coins. 1875-CC (Carson City Mint): 133,290. 1875-S (San Francisco Mint): 1,155,000. The Philadelphia Mint coins were not placed into circulation at the time, but the Carson City and San Francisco pieces were. It was soon realized that just because a coin of this denomination was available, merchants did not necessarily change their habits, and the piece was a failure virtually at its inception. They were immediately confused with quarter dollars of somewhat similar size and design. Shortly thereafter, the denomination became an object of confusion and derision, and circulation strike coinage declined precipitously. The next year the production figures were as follows: 1876 Philadelphia Mint: 14,640 coins. 1876-CC (Carson City Mint): 10,000. After that time, coinage of the 20¢ piece was limited to several hundred Proofs each year for collectors, 1877 and 1878, after which the denomination was no more. In 1878, Senator John Sherman testified before a House committee about the 20¢ piece and said that it had been created “only because Senator Jones asked for it.” Dr. Henry R. Linderman in his book, Money and Legal Tender, said it was a mistake to introduce the piece, but that it was a proper denomination between a dime and a half dollar and should have been used instead of a quarter dollar. It will be recalled that there is no $25 bill. A Rarity is Created Per the earlier quoted figure, 10,000 1876-CC 20-cent pieces were struck. However, by the time they were produced by the Carson City Mint, the denomination was rendered effectively obsolete, so apparently nearly all were melted. The destruction of these coins is probably the subject of the following request written by Mint Director Henry Richard Linderman on May 19, 1877, addressed to James Crawford, superintendent of the Carson City Mint: “You are hereby authorized and directed to melt all 20-cent pieces you have on hand, and you will debit ‘Silver Profit Fund’ with any loss thereon.” Thus, a rarity was created! In 1876 at the Carson City Mint, selected samples of all coins were set aside for examination by the annual Assay Commission, which met in Philadelphia on Wednesday, February 14, 1877. Presumably, only a few 1876-CC 20¢ pieces were shipped east for the Commission. This group later probably constituted most of the supply available to numismatists. It seems likely that a few were paid out in Nevada in 1876-1877, accounting for a handful of worn and impaired pieces known today. Perhaps the first specimen of the 1876-CC 20¢ piece to attract notice in a catalogue was that sold in the R. Coulton Davis Collection sale by New York Coin & Stamp Company, January 20-24, 1890. At that time only a few numismatists collected coins by mintmark varieties, and virtually nothing was known of the 1876-CC. The rarity and desirability of the 1876-CC 20-cent piece was first showcased to a wide audience in an interesting monograph, A Treatise on the Coinage of United States Branch Mints, by Augustus G. Heaton, published in 1893. Prior to that time, numismatists had been concerned primarily with dates, and whether a coin had a mintmark or not made little difference. Heaton, a facile writer, listed 17 “causes of attractiveness” for collecting mintmarks. Heaton mentioned the 1876-CC 20-cent piece in two places, noting in the preface that it was “excessively rare in any condition,” and in the main text the following: “The pieces of 1876-CC have become very rare, as we have mentioned in our preface, from the negligence of western collectors, or the indifference involved in mintmark rarities.” The June 1894 issue of The Numismatist included two interesting fillers, possibly related, but who knows?: Among advanced collectors of mintmarks are Edward Goldschmidt, of New York, William M. Friesner, of Los Angeles, and George W. Rice, of Detroit. Three of the rare 20-cent pieces of 1876 from the Carson City Mint have lately turned up in Uncirculated condition. It was not two days before they were incorporated into three of our leading collections where their presence is highly appreciated. In due course other examples of the rare 1876-CC 20¢ piece attracted notice including in the Dr. S.L. Lee Collection auctioned by J.W. Scott & Co. on June 12, 1899. The Lee cabinet was a particularly fine one, and many other delicacies were included. The buyer of the 1876-CC 20¢ piece was well-known numismatist John M. Clapp (this specimen later went to Louis E. Eliasberg, Sr.). Another 1876-CC was offered by Édouard Frossard in the J.G. Hubbard Collection sale on December 10, 1900, and was purchased by S. Benton Emery (whose collection was sold by Bowers and Merena Galleries, November 1984, this coin appearing as Lot 492). From such beginnings in the late nineteenth century the 1876-CC became highly prized, and it has been a mark of distinction if a major cabinet includes an example. Mention of the Clapp-Eliasberg specimen was made by Edgar H. Adams in The Numismatist, March 1911, in his column, “Live American Numismatic Items”: Mr. Elmer S. Sears is exhibiting one of the greatest prizes of the mint mark field—an Uncirculated specimen of the extremely rare 20-cent piece of 1876, of the Carson City Mint. This piece is remarkable for the fact that although ten thousand are said to have been struck at the Nevada mint in that year, still not more than four pieces can now be located. One of these is owned by Mr. John H. Clapp of Washington, another by Mr. Virgil M. Brand of Chicago, and the third by Mr. H.O. Granberg of Oshkosh, Wis. The Adams account brings together several of the most famous names in numismatics at the time. Elmer S. Sears was for several years a partner with Wayte Raymond in the U.S. Coin Company. Virgil M. Brand (1861-1926), wealthy Chicago brewer, devoted most of his life to coins and assembled a magnificent holding. Granberg had one of the finest cabinets of his era within which were the 1804 dollar and the 1884 and 1885 trade dollars among other delicacies. As the years progressed and interest in mintmarks became more intense, the field was studied carefully. Today the population of extant 1876-CC 20¢ pieces is believed to be about 20 pieces. In the late 1950s, Baltimore dealer Tom Warfield found a group of seven, eight, or possibly nine splendid Mint State coins in his home town. Each piece was a lustrous gem, delicately toned, and virtual perfection. It is my opinion that these may have come from someone who once served on the Assay Commission which in 1877 reviewed the prior year’s coinage. The genesis of this cache was never revealed, but was variously thought by others to have been T. Harrison Garrett (who died in 1888, had a fabulous collection, but did not seem to have acquired many mintmarked issues; in my opinion, he can be eliminated as a possibility, especially as his estate did not contain even a single specimen of the 1876-CC 20¢), Waldo C. Newcomer, or Frank G. Duffield. Even the name of Louis E. Eliasberg, Sr., was mentioned. Four of these coins were sold to the writer, who subsequently distributed them into as many different collections. Several more were sold to John J. Ford, Jr., of New Netherlands Coin Company.

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By Peter Henne Before the US mid-term elections in early November, US President Donald Trump gave a speech that cheered his supporters and alarmed his critics. Trump identified himself as a “nationalist” at an election rally, contrasting this with the “globalists”—a problematic term with anti-Semitic overtones—he opposed. Earlier, Trump called a caravan of Central American migrants an “invasion,” and attempted to explain an “America First” foreign policy based on national sovereignty. Concrete policies also flowed from this rhetoric, such as the deployment of US troops to the Mexican border and attempts to ban Muslims from entering the United States. As a result many were worried about the aggressive nationalism expressing itself in US policies. This trend isn’t confined to America. Nationalist leaders have risen around the world. The Philippines’ Duterte has paired nationalist rhetoric with aggressive police tactics. Hungary’s Orban has adopted a particularly xenophobic form of nationalism. Brazil recently elected a far-right nationalist to power. And of course Russia’s Putin has used Russian nationalism to consolidate power domestically and pursue aggressive policies abroad. One powerful expression of alarm at this spreading nationalism was a speech France’s President Emmanuel Macron gave in response to Trump’s appeal to nationalism. Macron, speaking at a World War I memorial, contrasted nationalism with patriotism. He claimed the rise of nationalism in America and elsewhere was “old demons coming back to wreak chaos and death.” Nationalism is a “selfishness,” he said, of states “looking after their own interests.” Instead, French patriotism—he claims—is a defense of “universal values” that will help uphold the liberal international order. Many observers seemed to side with Macron, arguing nationalism is a bad thing and patriotism can be good. But is that really the case? Scholars of nationalism have warned about its dangerous implications, but don’t think they are inevitable. The key distinction, these scholars argue, is not between nationalism or patriotism—or even the similar idea of civic versus ethnic nationalism. Instead, it is the difference between nationalism in service of the state, and nationalism independent from the state. This provides some guidelines for resisting the rhetoric of Trump and others, but also suggests caution with accepting Macron’s framing. Is nationalism always a bad thing? To start with, what do we mean by nationalism? First we need to define the nation. I like Benedict Anderson’s definition of the nation as an “imagined political community…imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign.” There are a multitude of other definitions—which is part of the problem—but they generally agree that a nation is an exclusive identity related to a fixed territory or ethnicity. “Nationalism,” then, is—following Gellner—a “political principle” that “holds the political and national unity should be congruent.” That is, it argues the nation should rule itself. “Nationalist sentiment” arises from “anger aroused by the violation of this principle” or “satisfaction at its fulfillment.” For example, Arab nationalism emerged in the early 20th century as a political force. Arab nationalists initially wanted to rule themselves, as opposed to being subjects of the Turkish-ethnicity Ottoman Empire. After the Ottoman Empire broke up and European colonial powers seized land in the Middle East, Arab nationalists called for independence, which at times included a desire to unify the various Arab states together. But Macron wasn’t just responding to an exclusive identity, he was critiquing a specifically aggressive nationalism that targeted those outside its borders. There has been a debate in the scholarly literature about whether nationalism is necessarily a bad thing. Some see it as a destructive, cynical force. Others think it is a byproduct of modernisation that can lead to dangerous effects in certain conditions. Still others think nationalism can be a positive force when it takes on a civic, rather than ethnic form. One scholar who saw nationalism as a dangerous force was Elie Kedourie. Kedourie argued nationalism was an ideology or political doctrine developed by elites and spread throughout society. Its effects were often disruptive. He pointed to tensions in Eastern and Central Europe throughout the 19th and 20th centuries as example, in which previously diverse states experienced conflict along ethnic divisions. Kedourie argued that “nationalism and liberalism were…antagonistic principles.” He also argued nationalism increased tensions in diverse states, as it “tends to disrupt whatever equilibrium” had been reached by different ethnic groups in a country due to its call for a “redistribution of political power.” Similarly, Walker Connor argued the “sense of kinship” in nationalism “helps to account for the ugly manifestations of inhumanity that often erupt in the relations among national groups.” Connor pointed to the violence surrounding the breakup of the Soviet Union; as the multinational Soviet empire fell apart, numerous states erupted into civil wars between different ethnic groups that had previously been controlled by Soviet authorities. Others, however, saw nationalism—specifically civic, as opposed to ethnic, nationalism—as a potential force for good. The former defines the nation based on kinship and appearance, while the latter draws on shared values. As Anthony D Smith pointed out, some scholars, like Ignatieff, see civic nationalism as “benign,” while ethnic nationalism was “aggressive and exclusive.” Moreover, as Rogers Brubaker notes—critically—some accounts of civic nationalism are “triumphalist,” arguing the superior civic form of nationalism is what distinguishes Western Europe. Other scholars thought nationalism could be dangerous in certain settings. Both Ernest Gellner and Benedict Anderson argued that nationalism was a product of modernity, either the impacts of industrialisation (as Gellner claimed) or broader shifts in consciousness (in Anderson). So nationalism itself would be neither good nor bad; it just is. Under certain conditions, however—when nationalism became closely connected to ethnic differences—nationalism could take on a negative form. Gellner discussed “entropic-resistant traits;” individual aspects that would make it difficult for pre-national ethnic differences to disappear in the modern national identity. One of these aspects is visible racial differences. In these instances, one ethnic group will remain separate from the national majority, facing discrimination as a result. Anderson acknowledged the prevalence of racism among nationalist movements, but saw them as distinct; nationalism “thinks in terms of historical destinies,” while “racism dreams of eternal contaminations.” He argues racism actually is an attempt to erase the national identity of the group discriminated against. Moreover, racism relates to “claims to divinity among rulers” and class distinctions, rather than nationalist sentiment itself. One of his primary examples of European racism in the midst of 1800s colonialism. He argued Europe’s elites were threatened by spreading national identities, so they promoted racist ideas about colonised peoples to distract European lower-classes from their own oppression. That is, while nationalism can lead to destructive racism, this arises from the imposition of class-based chauvinism over national movements. Liah Greenfeld and Daniel Chirot similarly suggested that certain forms of nationalism could lead to aggression and hostility. They argued that aggression was most likely in “collectivist-authoritarian” visions of nationalism that are based on ethnic differences. That is, some nationalist movements were based on “a people’s uniqueness” assuming a “single will” behind the nation; this leads to authoritarianism because “someone is bound to be its interpreter.” This form of nationalism lends itself towards demonisation of other ethnic groups, making violence easier to justify. Additionally, when nationalist movements feel weak or aggrieved, they often developed a sense of envy towards foreign cultures, leading to “xenophobia, providing emotional nourishment” for the nationalists. Greenfeld and Chirot pointed to German nationalism in the 1800s and early 20th century as an example, arguing there was an “indifference toward individual rights and lives” and a “predisposition to regard other populations as belonging to different species.” These varied views suggest the situation is not as clear as Macron suggested. We do not face a choice between positive patriotism and negative nationalism. How to encourage a positive nationalism? Avoid close ties to the state So, based on the nationalism literature, it is unclear whether nationalism itself is always a problem. But one common solution to aggressive nationalism emerges from several scholars: keep it away from the state. Whether movements frame nationalism as ethnic or civic in form, it can still lead to destructive xenophobia if mobilised by the state. First, several scholars questioned the distinction between civic and ethnic nationalism. Brubaker argued it is hard to distinguish between the two, as there is usually some sense of cultural difference with any nationalism, even one that defines itself as civic. He also argued that civic nationalism can be just as aggressive and exclusive as ethnic nationalism, as seen in the violence following the French Revolution. While Smith saw the terms as useful, he did not necessarily think civic nationalism was superior to ethnic nationalism, as civic nationalists are “capable of imposing a uniformity every bit as draconian and exclusive” as ethnic nationalists. If we can’t avoid aggressive nationalism by emphasising civic ties, then what can we do? Well, Anderson highlighted the destructive nature of “state nationalism.” He argued that the nationalism of the 1800s threatened the power of Europe’s monarchies, as the people began to call on the governments to represent them not the dynasties that ran them. Thus, leaders became accountable to their people as they “had a representative function” and could “be a traitor” to their fellow national kin. Elites “threatened with marginalization” come to adopt “official nationalism,” tying nationalist sentiment to the state and maintaining their power. One example he gave was the “Russification” policies of Russia in the 1800s, which promoted Russian culture among the state’s various ethnic groups. This succeeded in “marshalling a growing ‘Great Russian’ nationalism behind the throne.” To Anderson, then, nationalism could be a force for positive political change unless it was co-opted by the elites it was intended to overthrow. Similarly, Greenfeld and Chirot suggested an alternative to the collectivistic-authoritarian version of nationalism. They argued that the earliest form of nationalism was “individualistic-libertarian” based on civic identity. Because this nationalism was based on “the universalistic principle of the moral primacy of the individual,” it is less prone to xenophobia. They believed that this form of nationalism arose through particular economic conditions, so it is not easy to replicate. But it does suggest a wariness of nationalisms closely tied to the state. The example they provide is England in the 16th and 17th centuries. English nationalism, they say, was “the creation of upwardly-mobile, confident groups” with a “confident, relatively open and tolerant elite.” They argue its nationalism “produced a sense of restrain unusual for a dominant world power.” The victims of English colonialism starting in that time period would likely differ, but Greenfeld and Chirot are speaking specifically of its “largely limited goals” as a dominant state in that time period. Finally, Brubaker argued for the desirability of a “counter-state” nationalism. Instead, he argued a better distinction is between “state-framed” and “counter-state” versions of nationalism. State-framed nationalism views the nation as “congruent with the state,” and “institutionally and territorially” dependent on it. Counter-state nationalism, in contrast, is “distinct from, and often in opposition to,” the state. Brubaker points to early Hungarian nationalism as an example of this, which emphasized “protecting and developing the Magyar language” from foreign rulers. He suggested these as categories for analysis, and didn’t claim one was superior to the other. But it supports other scholars’ warning against state-based nationalism. Trump vs Macron So, what does this tell us about the dispute between Trump and Macron? Well, all of these scholars would probably be wary of Trump’s approach to nationalism. Trump’s nationalism includes an enemy—the aforementioned “globalists”—and policies that harm citizens of other countries. Trump’s nationalism is connected to the resentment of certain segments of society towards a perceived loss of power. This is the kind of nationalism both Anderson and Greenfeld-Chirot warned us about. Also, Trump’s rhetoric closely ties American nationalism to him—as seen with his frequent emphasis on loyalty—resembling Anderson’s “official nationalism.” But Macron’s embrace of patriotism is not necessarily better. First, it’s not clear patriotism and nationalism are really that distinct. Gellner argued “nationalism is a very distinctive species of patriotism,” albeit one marked by “culturally homogenous” societies. And Connor, while believing nationalism and patriotism were separate things, suggested that states can wrap service to the state—patriotism—in nationalist rhetoric. So it may be hard to differentiate between nationalism and patriotism when assessing which collective identities to support. Second, Macron is appealing to universal values based on human dignity, but it’s still an appeal connected to the state. He claims French soldiers in World War I fought in “defense of universal values” and against “the selfishness of nations.” These are admirable ideals, but Macron says they are tied to the French state. That suggests an exclusive group, one that may even be superior to others. Also, I don’t think Macron would argue that every expression of patriotism is motivated by universal values. There are some bad patriotisms; some commit aggressive acts against neighbors or repress dissident in the service of their state. So patriotism is not always superior to nationalism. Instead, scholarship on nationalism suggests societies should be wary of any collective identity connected to the state, whether through ethnic ties or appeals to patriotism. Nationalism can be bad when it promotes xenophobia and authoritarianism. But patriotism can be bad too, as it can be indistinguishable from nationalism and promote an equally exclusive authoritarianism. We should, then, oppose aggressive nationalism through a nationalism focused on individual rights and dignity, rather than replacing nationalism with devotion to a state. Now, this may be unfair to Macron. I’m nit-picking a few words out of a speech that had a generally positive tone. And scholars like Connor do see patriotism as different from nationalism; whether loyalty is to the state or ethnic group. But that doesn’t mean nationalism is a “betrayal” of patriotism; the two can work in tandem. Macron may be suffering from the “terminological confusion” over nationalism that Connor warned about, substituting “patriotism” for something like “liberal values.” Or he may be suggesting service to the state is the antidote to aggressive nationalism, which—as we’ve seen—is problematic. Also, one may point out that none of these scholars were writing about Trump, so I may be stretching their arguments a bit. It is hard to apply broad historical arguments—like the ones I’ve referenced here—to a specific case, especially in a relatively short article. At least, however, they suggest there is no consensus among scholars of nationalism about the dichotomy Macron laid out. Those rushing to cheer Macron should do so for his critique of aggressive nationalism, but not the solution he provides as an alternative. The broader question is whether we should avoid any sort of exclusive identity, and instead promote cosmopolitanism that transcends both national and state borders. That is, suggesting a counter-state or individualistic nationalism as a solution to aggressive, authoritarian nationalism. But maybe any form of exclusive identity will eventually take on a malevolent nature. That may be true. But another common theme of scholarship on nationalism is that it is frequently predicted to disappear, but keeps re-emerging—as we’re currently witnessing. For the time being, the most pragmatic solution to aggressive nationalism may not be the promotion of a cosmopolitan consciousness. Instead, those concerned about the aggressive nationalism the world is experiencing should foster a collective identity that exists independently of any particular state, allowing human dignity to flourish. This piece expands on an earlier post from Duck of Minerva. Peter S. Henne is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Political Science, College of Arts and Sciences at the University of Vermont. His book, Islamic Politics, Muslim States and Counterterrorism Tensions, was published in 2017 by Cambridge University Press.

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According to the coalition agreement of the three government parties, the 2030 Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) associated with it are the "guiding principles" of the German government's policy, just as they were for the previous government. With only eight years left until 2030 and the world lagging far behind in meeting some of the SDGs, the new federal government must make significant efforts to do its part to implement them. First, the preservation of the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) is an important and also forward-looking decision of the new coalition. The perspective of the Global South also belongs at the cabinet table of the Federal Government, not only Germany’s own foreign policy and economic interests. The Southern perspective can be a clear amplifier for the implementation of the SDGs. The coalition agreement quite prominently addresses the fight against hunger and the achievement of food security . The approach of linking the fight against hunger and poverty with the commitment to climate justice, biodiversity, and socio-ecological transformation is also the right one. Global hunger can only be ended sustainably if its complex causes are addressed: the impacts of the climate crisis, armed conflicts, and the effects of the corona pandemic as immediate causes, and worsening economic and social inequalities as structural causes. A future fight against hunger would dare to make more progress if it took into account the complexity of food systems and took a systemic approach ¬- that is, not looking at isolated causes. So far, food systems are only mentioned in the coalition agreement as part of Central Research Area Two - "Climate, Climate Impacts, Biodiversity, Sustainability, Earth Systems, and Related Adaptation Strategies, as well as Sustainable Agriculture and Food Systems." This must not be the end of the story. BMZ's policies must be more closely coordinated with those of other ministries in order to prevent policies in other areas from having a negative impact on people in the Global South, especially on their food security. On July 13, 2020, the Committee of State Secretaries for Sustainable Development already presented important resolutions for the design of sustainable food systems. These should be urgently implemented by the new German government. Safeguarding the human right to food The necessary transformation must be built upon a human rights approach. The human right to food must be at the centre of future food security policy, but we miss the reference to it in the coalition agreement. If the coalition partners are committed to "peace, freedom, [and] human rights...," it would only be logical to also commit to ensuring that instruments of international law such as the UN Guidelines on the Right to Food are incorporated into national laws, policies, and programs in Germany, as well as globally and in partner countries of development cooperation. The coalition agreement clear emphasizes social protection systems, through the goal of creating a Global Fund for Social Protection. We very much welcome this, because in the course of the COVID-19 pandemic it became obvious how crucial these systems are for combating hunger and poverty, especially when individuals have lost their incomes through no fault of their own. Our major concern is the impact of the coronavirus pandemic on the already large hunger figures over the past 20 months. According to the Global Report on Food Crises,1 161 million individuals are currently in a food crisis. (IPC3 2 Of these, 35 million are even in an emergency situation (IPC 4); in its September 2021 update, the the World Food Programme (WFP) estimates that this number could be as high as 41 million. In addition, more than half a million individuals are in a famine situation (IPC 5, Ethiopia, Madagascar, South Sudan, and Yemen). This year's FAO report on the State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World (SOFI Report) indicates that up to 811 million people are currently hungry – and this year's Global Hunger Index predicts that 47 countries will not reach low levels of hunger by 2030 at current rates. These figures show how important it is to more effectively continue the fight against hunger. The new German government should work especially hard to ensure that other donors also recognize this urgency and make appropriate contributions. The coalition agreement includes a commitment to international financial obligations for development financing, including to provide 0.7 percent of Germany’s overall GNI for development cooperation, including 0.2 percent for the least developed countries (LDCs). In contrast to the last government, the current agreement sets these values as a minimum. Nonetheless, according to the coalition agreement, these percentages are not to be enshrined in law. It therefore remains questionable whether this will be enough to implement the commitments. In fact, this percentage target has been repeatedly issued in the past, but in recent history it was achieved mainly by offsetting the costs of accommodating refugees in Germany. We presume that this commitment is also already being reflected in the medium-term financial planning of the federal government, and not only after "closing the books." We expect the commitment to be reflected already in the medium-term financial planning, and not only after "closing of the books".Mathias Mogge Secretary General and Chief Executive Officer of Welthungerhilfe In addition, we cannot find an explanation of how the goals for food security are to be financed. The CERES 20303 study calculated that rich countries would have to increase their development aid for agriculture and rural development by 14 billion US dollars per year from 2020 to 2030 to achieve the G7 goal from the 2015 summit in Elmau, namely, to free 500 million individuals from hunger. Yet the coalition agreement contains neither this target nor a reference to the corresponding funding. The expectations here are clear, especially in the run-up to Germany's G7 presidency in 2022: the financial commitment must be further increased, and other G7 countries must follow suit to jointly reach the necessary spending level. As in the 2017 coalition agreement, the new government‘s agreement includes the formulation that the budget for crisis prevention, humanitarian aid, foreign cultural and educational policy, and development cooperation should increase on a scale of 1:1 to the budget of the Ministry of Defense. Given the increase in armed conflicts (an increase from 39 to 56 from 2010 to 2020) and the rising need for emergency aid, it is difficult to be happy about such a "minimum mark" set for development cooperation. A total of three percent of GNI is to be made available for international action. That diplomacy and development cooperation come first and only then the military is certainly a good order. Better coordination of ministries The planned increased coordination between all ministries spending in the areas of "foreign affairs, security, defense, development, and human rights" is an overdue improvement, but it remains to be seen how this coordination will take place. Unfortunately, the federal government has often not addressed the need for better coherence, repeatedly called for by civil society. At a minimum, other areas, such as economic, trade, security, and agricultural policy, must not contradict – much less undermine – the objectives of development policy. Unfortunately, there is no spirit of renewal on the subject of Africa either. The G20 Compact with Africa, which is not without controversy, is to be continued as before. In addition to the Compact, a bundle of Africa policy initiatives emerged between 2017 and 2019 that are not specifically mentioned in the coalition agreement, but will certainly continue to exist – from the 2017 BMZ Marshall Plan with Africa (with a goal of sustainable development of the African continent in the sense of the 2030 Agenda) to the 2019 development investment fund AfricaConnect (aimed at financing German companies in Africa) to AfricaGrow (aimed at financing African companies). In 2019, BMZ also launched the special initiative "Jobs and Employment." The result is that the plethora of initiatives has become confusing. The new German government should review its instruments for efficiency and effectiveness. Despite the lack of success of engagement in the Sahel region, it should be continued. At the very least, previous engagement should be critically reviewed, particularly against the backdrop of the failed Afghanistan approach. Overall, passages of the coalition agreement contain remarkably warm words that reflect a surprisingly traditional image of Africa for a federal government. We would have liked to have seen a long-awaited announcement in the field of cultural policy in development cooperation, especially in the paragraph on dealing with Germany's colonial heritage and the planned "Special Programme Global South." It is encouraging that many parts of the coalition agreement clarify the importance of civil society . For a long time, civil society has called for the allocation and funding guidelines of BMZ and the Foreign Office to be simplified. Now there is a corresponding sentence in the coalition agreement. In fact, the administrative requirements for applications and reporting obligations have become increasingly complex in recent years. Civil society organizations have to find more and more resources to keep up with these requirements. A bold move is needed here to simplify the application and implementation of programs and adapt them to reality. This also includes a review of the funding periods. Emergency aid has become an important instrument of German foreign policy. The global significance of the increase in funding in recent years is also reflected in the coalition agreement. The anchoring of the Humanitarian-Development-Peace Nexus, the Grand Bargain for the further reform of humanitarian aid, and the commitment to further expand localization are important commitments. Upgrading the office of the Federal Government Commissioner for Human Rights Policy and Humanitarian Assistance is also the right step. However, the coalition agreement makes no mention of forward-looking humanitarian aid, which could mean a real paradigm shift. Welthungerhilfe, together with the German Red Cross, has done pioneering work here and can point to successes. Overall, we would have liked the coalition partners to have dared to make more progress in the field of development cooperation and humanitarian assistance, as they did in the policy areas of climate, migration and integration, and agriculture. Perhaps practice can still improve the coalition agreement. Much now depends on the new minister's room for maneuvering and her personal assertiveness. (1) FSIN and Global Network Against Food Crises. 2021. Global Report on Food Crises 2021. Rome. (2) IPC : Integrated Food Security Phase Classification: Integrierte Klassifizierung der akuten Mangelernährung von 1 bis 5. (3) Von Braun, J., Chichaibelu, B.B., Torero, M., Laborde Debucquet, D., & Smaller, C. (2020): Ending hunger by 2030 - Policy actions and costs. Bonn, Germany: Center for Development Research (ZEF). www.zef.de/fileadmin/downloads/SDG2_policybrief.pdf

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When you think of American independence, you may think of George Washington, fireworks, and large celebrations. But did you know that the 4th wasn’t always a national holiday? Or that some of the founding fathers thought the 4th of July should be on the 2nd of July instead? There are quite a few misconceptions around American Independence Day. These interesting facts about 4th of July will clear up some of the most commonly believed ones. Hopefully, they’ll also teach you some things that you might not have known. From fascinating facts about the Declaration of Independence to the foods and drink most consumed on the 4th of July, this list might help you gain a new appreciation for this popular American holiday. Despite what is widely believed by many, America didn’t declare its independence from Britain on the 4th of July. The Continental Congress held the official vote for independence on July 2, 1776, two days earlier. The papers were then published and dated July 4th, which is why this is the date given credit. The second President of the United States, John Adams, thought July 2 would be the date American independence would be celebrated. He wrote a letter to his wife Abigail on July 3, 1776, stating, “The second day of July 1776, will be the most memorable Epocha, in the history of America”. Adams went on to say, “I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated, by succeeding Generations, as the great anniversary festival.” Only two men, John Hancock and Charles Thompson signed the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. The rest of the delegates from the 13 colonies signed it about a month later, on August 2, 1776. John Hancock made the first and largest signature. If you’ve ever heard the term “sign your John Hancock” when someone asks you to sign something, this is where the phrase comes from. When the news of America’s Declaration of Independence against the British reached civilians, riots against King George III broke out. The colonists of Philadelphia pulled the King’s coat of arms down from the State House and burned it. In Manhattan’s Bowling Green district, citizens and military personnel melted a statue of King George III for musket balls. Signing the Declaration of Independence was probably not as celebratory of an occasion as we may envision today. Every man who put his signature down was fully aware that they were committing an act of high treason against the British Crown. One of the signers, Benjamin Rush, described the mood of the room on that day as having a “pensive and awful silence”. He remarked that many men believed they were singing their own death warrants. 44 or 45 was the average age of the 56 men that signed the Declaration of Independence. The youngest signers were Edward Rutledge and Thomas Lynch Jr; both men were 26. Benjamin Franklin was the oldest signer, at 70 years old. This makes the average age about 44 or 45. Richard Stockton of New Jersey is the only person to have signed the Declaration of Independence and then later recant his support. This was the result of Stockton’s capture and imprisonment by the British. After he was beaten, starved, and made to suffer other harsh treatment, he renounced his signature and instead swore allegiance to King George III. However, when Stockton eventually gained his freedom back, he re-avowed his loyalty to the United States. Thomas Jefferson usually gets sole credit for writing the Declaration of Independence, but other men aided in the outcome of the final document. A committee of five men was tasked with creating a formal statement laying out the 13 colonies’ reasons for separating from Great Britain. Although Jefferson was the principal author, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Robert Livingston, and Roger Sherman were also part of the committee. Despite what the movie “National Treasure,” starring Nicholas Cage, might have you think, there isn’t a treasure map from the founding fathers on the back of the Declaration of Independence. There’s a simple message, written upside-down that states: “Original Declaration of Independence dated 4th July 1776.” It’s not known who penned the message or when. It’s thought that it was written during the American Revolutionary War years when the parchment had to be continually rolled up and moved for safe transport. Founding Father John Adams is often given credit for fireworks being associated with American Independence Day. In a letter to his wife, he proposed that “illuminations” be part of the celebrations. Fireworks being lit off to mark celebrations had been popular for centuries. King Henry VII of England included them in his wedding ceremony in 1486. Fireworks aren’t a modern spectacle. The very first anniversary of American Independence Day, which took place in Philadelphia in 1777, featured 13 fireworks shot into the sky. This was to honor America’s 13 colonies. It’s believed that the Great Fire of 1866, in Portland, Maine, was the result of the 4th of July fireworks. The firecrackers were lit off during the first 4th of July celebration following the Civil War. At the time, it was the biggest fire any American city had experienced. It started on Commercial Street in a boathouse before spreading to a lumber yard and then across the city. About 1,800 buildings (including all of the city’s banks and the new City Hall) burned to the ground. The fire killed two people and left about 10,000 people without homes. One of the eeriest facts about the 4th of July is that three US presidents and founding fathers died on the 4th of July. On the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, in 1826, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams both died. They passed away just hours apart from each other. Adams passed away at the age of 90 at his home in Quincy, Massachusetts. Jefferson died at the age of 83 at his home in Monticello, Virginia. Both men had been ill for quite some time, but there’s no denying the strange coincidence. Five years later, the 5th President of the United States, James Monroe, passed away. He died on July 4, 1831, from heart failure and tuberculosis. He was 73 years old. While three US Presidents have passed away on the 4th of July, one US President was born on the 4th of July. Calvin Coolidge was born on July 4, 1872, in Plymouth Notch, Vermont. Coolidge was the 30th President. The son of a village storekeeper, he methodically worked his way up the political ladder. Although he was a popular president, he only served one term; he chose not to run for reelection. Of course, George Washington observed American Independence Day. During the Revolutionary War, Washington celebrated the 4th of July by treating his soldiers to double their usual rations of rum. It seems the White House was a little late to the party. It wasn’t until 1801 that the presidential mansion hosted an official Independence Day party. Thomas Jefferson was the President in office at the time. The first 4th of July celebration included a performance by the United States Marine Band, as well as horse races, parades, and plenty of food and drinks. The state of Massachusetts made the 4th of July an official state holiday in 1781. However, it wasn’t until 1870 that congress declared the 4th of July a national holiday. Then, it wasn’t until 1941 that the day became a paid holiday for all federal employees. One of the World Trade Center buildings in New York City paid tribute to American Independence in a meaningful way. Its height was exactly 1,776 feet tall. This, of course, represented the year 1776, when the US Declaration of Independence was signed. America’s drink of choice on July 4th is usually beer. This US holiday sees beer sales skyrocket. After the 4th of July, Memorial Day and Labor Day are the next two public holidays with high beer consumption. Each 4th of July, it’s estimated that Americans eat about 150 million hot dogs. What goes better with beer than a barbeque, after all? A little bonus fact is that the month of July is also National Hot Dog Month in the US. Nathan’s July 4th Hot Dog Eating Contest is America’s most popular competitive eating competition. The date the contest was founded is a bit debated, especially because it wasn’t a popular event at the beginning. But it’s believed it started around 1916. The contest began to gain more popularity in 1972. And since then, it’s been held most years at Nathan’s Famous Corporation’s original, in Coney Island, New York. In 2021, Joey Chestnut won the competition. He ate 76 hot dogs in 10 minutes, beating his record from the year earlier of eating 75 hot dogs in 10 minutes. While most Americans enjoy hot dogs on the 4th of July, people that live in New England prefer salmon and peas. This tradition began as a coincidence. In the middle of summer, the rivers were abundant with salmon. Peas also began to ripen in late June. The two items made a flavorful match. It’s also popular to add new potatoes to this dish, topped with a generous serving of egg sauce. The town of Bristol, Rhode Island, continues to host the nation’s oldest 4th of July parade. It’s held an annual 4th of July celebration since 1785. It was established by Rev. Henry Wight, a Veteran of the American Revolutionary War. The celebration kicks off on Flag Day, which is another American holiday that takes place on June 14 each year. From there, local events continue in the lead-up to the town’s Independence Day Parade, which stretches for about 2.5 miles across the town. Because of these celebrations, Bristol has earned the nickname of “America‘s most patriotic town”. The US did not officially perform its first census survey until 1790. However, it’s estimated that at the time of America’s independence, the population in the 13 colonies was around 2.5 million. That’s compared to the 2022 US population of about 332 million, according to the US Census Bureau. Of the 13 colonies, Pennsylvania was estimated to have the highest population of about 434,373 people. Delaware was the colony with the lowest estimated population, with only about 59,094 people. The United States isn’t the only country that celebrated its independence on July 4th. The Philippines gained independence from the US on July 4, 1946, after signing the Treaty of Manila. The country observed July 4th as the day they officially separated from a colonizing nation, which in this case, was the US. However, in 1962, they decided to celebrate their independence from Spain instead, which happened in 1898. This made June 12 the Philippines’ new Independence Day. They kept July 4th as a public holiday and made it Philippine Republic Day, also called Philippine–American Friendship Day. The US Flag Code was established in 1942. It set guidelines on how the American flag should be used and displayed. One guideline warns against the flag being used as a form of apparel. These guidelines, however, are not enforceable. Good thing, since the fashion industry puts out a lot of American flag-themed clothing items, especially for the 4th of July. It’s hard to picture a 4th of July parade without ‘The Star-Spangled Banner’ being played. However, this poem, written by Francis Scott Key, wasn’t penned until September 14, 1814. And, it wasn’t until 1931 that it became America’s National Anthem. The song was written by Key in response to watching the British failed attack on Fort McHenry during the War of 1812. The poem was initially called “Defence of Fort M’Henry”, which doesn’t have quite the same ring to it. The Statue of Liberty, officially named “Liberty Enlightening the World” is an iconic symbol of freedom. It was a gift to the US from the French that honored the two countries’ alliance during the American Revolutionary War. The tablet that Lady Liberty is holding has the date July 4, 1776, inscribed in Roman numerals. Every 4th of July, descendants of the Declaration of Independence signers symbolically tap the Liberty Bell in Philadelphia 13 times. This is to honor the patriots of America’s 13 original colonies. The bell is also tapped in honor of Martin Luther King Day. If you’re wondering why the bell is tapped rather than rung, it’s because the bell dates back to 1751. It’s very old and suffered a large crack the last time it was rung in 1846. This 4th of July, crack open a beer, fire up the barbeque for some hot dogs (or salmon) and light off some fireworks. And don’t forget to impress your friends with these interesting facts about 4th of July. From misconceptions about the Declaration of Independence to bizarre coincidences regarding Presidential deaths and fun facts about celebrations, hopefully, you’ve learned something new about this special American holiday.

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cardboard is produced globally, with over half of production originating from China, the United States, and Japan . In 2016, Americans alone consumed 70 million metric tons of paper a year, or approximately 514 pounds per person . The United Kingdom’s maximum consumption rate of nearly 13 million metric tons was reached in year 2000 and has steadily decreased to a rate of 9.1 million metric tons or 305 pounds per person in 2015 . Most of this paper can be recycled, which is the process of reprocessing waste paper for reuse. Paper is one of the most easily recycled materials, however, paper eventually reaches a point where it can no longer be recycled due to the progressive shortening of fibers each time it is recycled . Waste papers are gathered from: - paper mill scraps - discarded paper waste after consumer use – for example: old newspapers, magazines, white printer paper, cardboard, and packaging papers Each metric ton (1,000 kilograms) of recycled paper can save approximately: - 19 trees that can absorb 127 kilograms of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere each year - 1,500 liters of oil - 2.68 cubic meters of landfill space - 4,400 kilowatts of energy - 29,000 liters of water Recycling a single run of the Sunday New York Times would save approximately 75,000 trees , enough to absorb 1 million pounds of carbon dioxide each year! Recycling in America has plenty of room for improvement, with only 63 percent of produced paper being recovered in 2013 , and 67 percent of paper in 2015 . Assuming the rest of the world has similar paper recovery rates, approximately 150 million metric tons of paper and cardboard is deposited in landfills or incinerated each year. If the world can achieve nearly a 100 percent paper recovery and recycling rate, approximately 2.5 billion trees would be saved this year! Paper recycling process Whether you recycle your own paper or recycle paper on an industrial scale, the process is essentially the same. However, steps may be added or omitted in some cases, depending on the quality of the recovered paper, with thin lightweight newspaper requiring fewer steps than thick cardboard boxes . Additional steps can also be added to remove a greater number of contaminants in paper such as bisphenol A, phthalates, phenols, mineral oils, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and toxic metals . Step 1: Collection Recycling begins with individual users (homes, businesses, universities, industrial manufacturers) that collect and store paper waste in bins. Recyclers and paper merchants collect this paper and combine it together in a large recycling container. Step 2: Sorting and transportation After collection, the paper is measured and graded for quality. Waste paper with similar qualities are combined since they have similar amounts of fiber which can be extracted from the pulp. The paper is then hauled to paper mill recycling facilities . Upon arrival at the recycling facility, the quantity and quality (cleanliness and type) of the paper is measured and a purchase contract is issued to the recycler. These measurements of paper quality are also used to determine whether the type of waste paper is accepted or rejected; some recyclers accept mixed grades of recovered paper, while others only accept preferred quality of waste paper grades . Once accepted by the recycling facility, the recovered paper is then further sorted based on its surface treatment and structure. For instance, very thin lightweight paper such as newspapers are sorted separately from thick paper materials such as paper folders. This sorting is important because different grades of paper material are produced based on the materials being recovered . Step 3: Shredding and pulping After sorting, the paper is then shredded to break down the material into small bits. After the material in finely shredded, a large amount of water is added along with other chemicals such as hydrogen peroxide, sodium hydroxide, and sodium silicate to break down and separate the fibers of the paper. The resultant slurry solution, known as pulp, has an oatmeal consistency and is the raw material used to make paper. This process of transforming the recovered paper materials to pulp is known as pulping. The pulp is then passed through a series of screens, and a centrifuge-like process to remove larger contaminants such as paper clips, staples, tape, and plastic films that were included in the recovered paper. Step 4: Floatation tank / de-inking After removing larger contaminants, pulp is added to a flotation tank where chemicals and air bubbles remove dyes and inks to enhance the purity and whiteness of the product. Hydrogen peroxide, and other whitening agents may be added to further enhance the whiteness if a white color is desired as the product. This step continually bleaches the pulp until it is ready for the final processing stage. Dyes are sometimes added to create colored products, and in some cases a small amount of blue and black dye are added to create a bright white printing paper . Brown paper pulp, such as paper pulp used to make paper towels, is not bleached. The pulp, which is now 99 percent water and one percent fiber at this stage, may be combined with pulp made from new materials to enhance its properties, and is then pumped over onto a paper machine . Step 5: Drying / finishing for reuse The pulp is then passed over rollers that press out excess water, or a vibrating machine to create a product made of 50 percent water and 50 percent fiber. The pulp can be used alone or additional virgin wood fiber can be added to the pulp to give the paper extra strength or smoothness. If coated paper is desired for smooth printing, a coating mixture may be applied to the paper near the end of the paper-making process or after the process is completed. Next, the sheets pass through steam heated rollers, at temperatures as high as 130 degrees Fahrenheit to form long rolls of continuous sheets of flattened paper. A single roll of this paper can be as wide as 30 feet and weigh up to 27 metric tons . At this stage, coatings such as potato starch are sometimes added to the paper to keep ink from spreading like it does when writing on tissue paper. The ends of the roll are then trimmed and recycled to make new pulp . The resulting paper roll is then shortened into smaller sections and sent to various manufacturers that use paper to make their product, such as newspaper printing, wrapping paper, printing paper, and blown-in cellulose insulation. The whole recycling process for newspaper takes about 7 days, and studies suggest that paper can be recycled approximately 7 times before losing its integrity. Unfortunately, there is a limit to how much recovered paper can be recycled. During the paper recycling process, the individual paper fibers are shortened more and more each time they are recycled, and generally have a maximum limit of 7 times that they can be recycled. Such “end of the line” paper products include products like cardboard egg cartons that can no longer be recycled. The best way to dispose of these products in an environmentally-friendly way is to compost them. Where and how to recycle paper? The availability of recycling programs varies across the United States , and across the world. Most communities and offices in the United States accept at least some grades of paper at curbside pickup. If you are unfamiliar with your local recycling programs, don’t hesitate to ask your neighbors. Most curbside recycling programs pick up recyclables once a week; check with your local program to determine the appropriate day to take your recyclables to the curbside to prevent unintentional disposal in landfills. Even though recycling programs are largely available throughout the United States, paper makes up approximately 25 – 33 percent of our annual garbage output [12,13]. What paper can be recycled? Almost all paper types can be recycled, including magazines, corrugated cardboard, printer paper, packaging papers, newspaper, cardboard dairy and juice cartons, unsolicited direct mail, phone books, and more . As a general rule, if you can tear the paper, it’s probably accepted at your curbside pickup program. It is very important to check with your recycling company to determine which types of paper products can be recycled and which ones cannot. For instance, used paper towels and paper plates cannot be recycled because they contain food particles. However, in most cases, such paper products can be composted in your backyard or composted by your local waste management company or municipality. Below are a few tips to increase the recyclability of recovered paper: - Recycling of certain types of paper, such as paper lined with plastic found in frozen food boxes, and milk and juice cartons are limited in some areas. - Remove sensitive information using a black marker instead of shredding paper. Shredding paper reduces the fiber length, thus reducing the number of times it can be recycled. - Break down cardboard boxes to save room in your recycling bin. - Avoid getting paper wet, as it reduces the paper quality. It’s sensible to rinse and air dry all plastic and glass containers before putting them in the recycling bin but prevent wetting the paper. Wait until morning to put the recycling bin at the curbside if rain is possible . How to recycle paper at home? Recycling paper is not only for paper mills; you can also recycle paper at home by following a few simple steps. Here’s what you’ll need: - Waste paper (never use glossy paper like magazines) - Old picture frame - Screen or mesh (secure firmly to the picture frame) - Cloth or sponge - 13” x 9” pan - Wildflower or vegetable seeds for decoration (optional) First, affix the screen or mesh to an old picture frame using nails, staples, or glue to make a paper mold. Then follow the below steps: - Tear paper into small pieces and add to a blender with warm water. Blend the mixture until the pulp is a smooth consistency. - Set the picture frame mold into a 13’’ x 9’’ pan, then pour the pulp into the pan. Make sure the mold is well-covered, then pull the mold up. Seeds and wildflowers can be added at this stage – cover the seeds with a little more pulp to embed fully in the paper. - Using a towel or sponge, press out the excess water and let the paper dry for a day or two. The pulp can dry directly on the screen or flip the mold over and let it dry on another surface . - Optional: After use, place the paper on a loosened soil surface and cover with a thin layer of soil. Sprinkle with water to keep the area damp, and watch your seeds take off! Examples of recycled paper products Recycled paper products are used in our everyday lives, and you may not even be aware that you are using it. In fact, an estimated 200 million tons of paper and cardboard are produced annually from recycled paper sources. That’s a lot of recovered paper that can be made into new products! The most common examples of recycled paper products are white printing paper, toilet paper and tissues, paper towels and napkins, greeting cards, cardboard, and magazine and newspapers . Creative retailers are also selling other items that have not traditionally been made from recycled paper. For instance, Ten Thousand Villages sell flower vases, picture frames, clocks, and other crafts made from recycled paper . Currently, the total amount of wood and paper that is thrown away each year is enough to heat 50,000,000 homes for 20 years. In the United States alone, approximately 1 billion trees worth of paper is discarded each year . If we wish to preserve the natural environment for our children and grandchildren, each of us need to take a stance against needless waste and commit to recycling the paper that we do use. Will you make a commitment to reduce, reuse, and recycle paper in your homes and offices today?

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Teaching a horse to allow his hooves to be handled is often an afterthought, falling well below leading, standing tied and other basic ground manners on the list of training priorities. But it’s not something to overlook. Besides the obvious benefit of making routine hoof care easier, a horse’s cooperation can have a significant impact on treatment and recovery after an injury or ailment occurs. Good farriery manners are fairly straightforward. A horse needs to stand quietly and allow each of his hooves to be lifted off the ground to be picked out, trimmed or shod or to undergo treatment. It’s in the details that trouble can develop. For one thing, standing on three legs isn’t natural for horses and keeping a hoof elevated for more than a minute or so at a time can become uncomfortable for some. Plus many find the sensations associated with trimming—and shoeing—unpleasant. Finally, past trauma or poor handling can sour horses on having their hooves handled. But practically any horse can improve and, for the sake of all involved, it’s worth investing some time to make sure yours cooperates with the farrier. Here are tips for teaching good farriery habits in horses of different ages and in different situations. FOR THE FOAL • Start early. It’s practically never too soon to get a foal used to having his feet handled. In fact, Tia Nelson, DVM, a veterinarian and farrier in Helena, Montana, recommends having a farrier look at a youngster at 1 or 2 weeks of age, particularly if you are worried about crooked legs or other imperfections that may require corrective trimming. “The earlier, the better,” she says. • Establish a relationship of respect. Foals and young horses understand the concept of discipline because it’s the foundation of the herd’s pecking order: A bold youngster who tries to have his own way gets put in his place by dominant herd members. Sassy foals also need to learn respect when you are working with them and understand that nipping, biting, kicking or temper tantrums when you pick up a foot are not allowed. “You have to treat them like your own kids. You want them to love you but you also want them to respect you,” says Tommy Boudreau, a certified farrier in Mineral Wells, Texas. “There has to be some firmness along with kindness because you don’t want to spoil a young horse. Sometimes it takes a firm jerk on the lead rope if they are trying to bite or paw at you or go over the top of you. They have to learn their limits of behavior and respect you.” • Get the foal accustomed to all sorts of handling. Desensitizing a young horse to being touched and handled is the first step in teaching him farriery manners. Once a youngster is halter trained, teach him to accept your touch over his entire body. Go slowly and make it a positive experience—if he begins to become anxious, stop briefly to allow him to calm down, then resume your session. And make handling a consistent part of his care routine. “People also need to realize that it takes more handling than just one day,” says Boudreau. “There is no substitute for spending a lot of time with a horse, starting slowly, with gradual steps, to gain their trust and keep it.” • Choose a safe space. When you first start picking up his feet, make sure the foal is in a position that allows him to easily balance on the other three legs, and help him shift his weight if necessary. After you get him accustomed to balancing himself as you lift each foot, try holding each up for a little longer each time. If he tries to take it away, gently continue to hold it until he relaxes and then put it down. He needs to learn that you are the one deciding when to put it down, not him, or he will think he can jerk it away whenever he wishes. Set yourself up for success by positioning the youngster to minimize his opportunity to escape or struggle. “I put the foal against the mare or a wall, and start with a hind foot. It’s easier for the foal to balance himself with a hind foot off the ground,” says Nelson. “Putting him next to his dam or the stall wall gives him support and security on one side.” • Show him that farrier visits are no big deal. When the farrier comes to the barn to work on other horses, bring out the youngster to expose him to the sights and sounds of hoof trimming and shoeing. If possible, ask your farrier to take a break and introduce himself to the youngster to show him that there is nothing to fear. Dean Moshier, an accredited pro-fessional farrier in Delaware, Ohio, finds this type of “show and tell” particularly helpful in preparing a foal for his first trimming. “It’s easier to handle their feet for the first few time when they are still with the mare. For the first trim, it helps to have the youngster in the stall watching mommy get done. Then they have a clue about what is going on and it’s not such a foreign idea,” he says. “It’s amazing how easy it is to train horses if they have some idea about what is expected of them. The same thing with the feet. So I trim the mare before I even attempt to do the baby the first time. Then the baby has some idea about what I am doing, what I smell like, the tools, and what the tools sound like. Nothing is scary; they can see that mom is calm about this. But if their first trim doesn’t happen until they are weanlings, we’re at a disadvantage because we don’t have mom as a role model.” • Don’t ask for too much too soon. Young horses, like young children, have short attention spans and very little patience, so start gradually extending the time you work on hoof handling—and always try to keep your young horse calm and comfortable. In your first sessions, Nelson advises focusing on getting the foal to let you hold up each foot briefly. Initially don’t hold it more that six or eight inches off the ground—this is less threatening. Avoid making him feel like his leg is “trapped” and he is no longer in control of it, which may cause him to panic and trigger his flight instinct. “If you are picking a foot up and holding it, you are going against a foal’s hardwired instinctive response, and he becomes anxious,” she says. “I always take plenty of time when working with foals and teach people how to run their hands down the leg and then pick up the foot.” Once the youngster accepts having his feet lifted for a few minutes at a time, hold up each hoof in a shoeing position—between your legs for a front foot, resting across your thigh for a hind foot. Then use a hoof pick to actually clear off the sole, and tap and scrape the hoof to get the youngster used to the feel of it. If he gets accustomed to having his foot held up for a longer time, he will be less impatient when the farrier trims (and later, shoes) him. “Use your hoof pick and tap on the feet each time you clean them out. Sometimes the young horse does very well for his first shoeing until the farrier starts to nail the shoes on,” says Boudreau. “The horse isn’t used to that sensation and may resist. So use your hoof pick to tap on the feet.” It also helps to lay an old shoe on the foot and tap on it, because this is a different sensation/sound than simply tapping on the hoof. You want the youngster to be at ease with and accustomed to everything the farrier will do. FOR THE MATURE HORSE • Make sure the horse is not hurting. Injury, arthritis, stiff muscles or other sources of soreness may make it difficult for a horse to shift his weight to three legs or to raise his hooves off the ground. If your horse seems to be having trouble, talk to your veterinarian about a possible physical cause. If one is found, let your farrier know so he can adapt shoeing sessions—perhaps by allowing more frequent breaks—to make them easier on your horse. • Choose a safe setting and take precautions to protect yourself from harm. “Work with the horse in a relatively open area but with good fences around it so the horse can’t get away,” says Boudreau, noting that the ideal place would be a round pen or arena with good footing. “Anytime they are working on a spooky horse, I advise clients to always give themselves plenty of room, and always have a place to move away from the horse (not in a confined space), and work on a nice flat surface with no obstacles to run into if the horse spooks or jumps sideways,” Boudreau says. “You don’t want the horse to run over you or run into an obstacle or smash you into a fence or wall. Always think ahead to what might happen and don’t be in the way.” • Use desensitization techniques. For the inexperienced horse or one who is developing bad habits, do some simple leading and standing exercises before gradually focusing on handling his legs and feet. “You can start desensitizing his feet and legs by bathing him with water from a hose,” says Boudreau. “He may kick at the water at first, but you are not close enough to be kicked. After he’s used to water touching his legs, try touching his legs with a broom or a livestock stick or cane. This gives you a longer arm and you can be standing up near his front instead of his hind legs if he kicks. Eventually the horse realizes he’s not being hurt and is less ticklish about his legs.” The idea is to help the horse realize that having his hooves handled is part of normal grooming/handling. “Learning to pick up the feet and have them held up, to be cleaned out with a hoof pick, should be part of the daily routine,” explains Boudreau. “Then you can get the horse accustomed to having the front leg put between your legs, or the hind leg laid across your leg, in the position a farrier would use for trimming or shoeing.” • Put him in the right frame of mind. You are probably the best judge of what will make your horse most comfortable for a farriery session. Some horses are more cooperative after mealtime; others might be better after working off excess energy with a good session in the riding ring. See which works best for your horse. • Make hoof handling part of your regular routine. If you pick out and otherwise handle your horse’s feet frequently, farriery work won’t seem too novel to him. It pays to just make this a part of the daily grooming routine. “If it’s a horse that’s old enough to be ridden, make a habit of picking the feet up and tapping on them every time you groom and saddle him to ride. This can make a big difference, even if you are only riding the horse a couple times a week. This will make the farrier’s job easier,” says Boudreau. It takes patient handling and consistency to help a horse develop good habits. “The owners might work with the horse and get it trained to where they can pick up the feet, and tap on the feet, and tap on a shoe that’s laid on the foot. Then they turn the horse out for a month or for all winter. When they try to work with that horse again it might seem like he forgot everything they taught him!” says Boudreau. “It helps to keep working with the feet, at least once a week or every other week.” The horse becomes comfortable with things that you do all the time, that they know won’t hurt them. FOR THE TOUGHEST CASES Horses who aggressively resist having their feet handled pose a serious challenge, one that goes beyond simple retraining exercises. This behavior may result from a previous bad exper-ience, inadequate training or, simply, a disagreeable temperament. Whatever the cause, the solution more often than not requires the help of one or more professionals. A trainer, for example, may be able to work through certain issues with a horse to safely change his attitude about having his feet picked up, trimmed and shod. But along the way, communication with all of the other professionals in a horse’s life is key. Moshier appreciates learning as much about a horse’s background and behavior as possible so that he can properly prepare himself. “Nothing bothers me more as a farrier than getting out from underneath a horse and the owner says, ‘Wow! He’s never stood that well before,’” he says. “It’s nice to get some background information before I am potentially killed!” The other professional you’ll want to call on is your veterinarian. “There are times when as a last resort a veterinarian may have to sedate the horse. This may be the safest, most humane way to handle that horse—rather than fighting with him. This is sometimes the case when it’s a horse who’s not broke and the owner hasn’t been able to get the horse broke and the farrier has used all his/her techniques to try to work on the feet,” says Boudreau. “Maybe the horse needs to be trimmed badly, or maybe he has an abscess in his foot or something that really needs to be tended to. This might be a situation where you need to have a veterinarian sedate the horse enough so we can get the feet picked up safely.” When working with your horse, don’t forget one other important part of the equation: your own demeanor. Even if you have a good technique for handling his feet, if you are nervous or afraid of what might happen, this makes him anxious as well. Sometimes the biggest challenge in handling a foot-phobic horse is managing your own emotions. Try to relax, take deep breaths, and lower your blood pressure. If you can stay calm, your horse is much more likely to do the same. If you are confident and at ease, he’ll follow your lead. And you’ll be on the way to establishing a pattern of desirable farriery behavior. This article first appeared in EQUUS issue #464, May 2016.

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Medications called antipsychotics are available for people with schizophrenia. Unfortunately these are not always entirely effective, and most schizophrenics live with at least some symptoms. As many as 14 percent of those schizophrenics who take antipsychotics show no significant improvement [source: Javitt]. Antipsychotic drugs affect the amount of dopamine, a neurotransmitter, in your brain by blocking dopamine receptors. When their effectiveness in fighting schizophrenia was first discovered in the 1950s, scientists came to the conclusion that an improper balance of dopamine in the brain led to schizophrenia. However, with the 1980s came the development of new atypical antipsychotics that inhibited dopamine receptors less and that of other neurotransmitters more. When these proved effective in fighting more symptoms and causing fewer side effects, it prompted a reexamination of other neurotransmitters' role in schizophrenia. Although older versions of antipsychotics are only effective in fighting positive symptoms of the disorder, atypical antipsychotics treat negative symptoms as well. Finding the appropriate medicine and dosage for each patient can be a difficult process, as side effects vary depending on the individual. Some of the possible side effects with antipsychotic medications are weight gain, restlessness, stiff muscles, drowsiness and muscle spasms. Although lowering the dosage or finding a different antipsychotic may help get rid of these symptoms, many people stop taking the medication because of the side effects. In addition to medications, other treatments for schizophrenia can help, such as community support activities and psychotherapy. Community support activities can include training schizophrenic people in particular skills to help them become contributing members of society. Psychotherapy can add structure and confidence to the patient's life, increasing their ability to perform daily activities and chores on their own. Group therapy and family therapy have been shown to help as well [source: Grohol]. Despite falling out of favor in the mid-20th century, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) (also known as shock therapy) is still practiced for such disorders as schizophrenia and severe depression. About 100,000 Americans receive ECT every year [source: Mayo Clinic]. Though the process has changed dramatically since its first inception in the 1930s, it remains controversial. In ECT, electric currents sent to your brain cause seizures and change chemical activity. Though no one is sure how exactly it works, after recurring treatments, it may improve schizophrenic symptoms. Explore links below to learn more about how mental disorders work. Related HowStuffWorks Articles More Great Links - "Bleuler, Eugen." Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. - "Dissociative Identity Disorder." Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. - "Schizophrenia." Encyclopedia of Science. Ed. Rob Nagel. 2nd ed. Online. Detroit: U*X*L, 2007. Science Resource Center. Gale. - "Schizophrenia." Encyclopedia of Science. Science Resource Center. Ed. Rob Nagel. 2nd ed. Online. Detroit: U*X*L, 2007. Science Resource Center. Gale. - "Schizophrenia." The Merck Manuals Online Medical Library. (Feb. 28, 2008)http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec07/ch107/ch107b.html - "The negative symptoms of schizophrenia." The Harvard Medical School Family Health Guide. (Feb. 28, 2008) http://www.health.harvard.edu/fhg/updates/update0706c.shtml - American Psychiatric Association. "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-IV." American Psychiatric Pub., Inc., 1994. (Feb. 28, 2008) http://books.google.com/books?id=3SQrtpnHb9MC&printsec=frontcover&dq=dsm-iv&source=gbs_summary_r - Berenson, Alex. "Daring to Think Differently About Schizophrenia." New York Times. Feb. 24, 2008. (Feb. 28, 2008) http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/24/business/24drug.html?ex=1204693200&en=e5f7dd3365d81f4c&ei=5070&emc=eta1 - Bhalla, Ravinder N. "Schizophreniform Disorder." eMedicine. Aug. 20, 2007. (Feb. 28, 2008) http://www.emedicine.com/MED/topic3350.htm - Brannon, Guy E. "Schizoaffective Disorder." eMedicine. May 18, 2007. (Feb. 28, 2008) http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic3514.htm. - Cleveland Clinic. "Schizophrenia." (Feb. 28, 2008)http://www.clevelandclinic.org/health/health-info/docs/1000/1052.asp?index=5777 - Greene, Andy. "Syd Barrett (1946 - 2006)." Rolling Stone. Jul. 11, 2006. (Feb. 28, 2008) http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/10830377/syd_barrett_19462006 - Grohol, John M. "Schizophrenia Treatment." PsychCentral. Apr. 10, 2006. (Feb. 28, 2008) http://psychcentral.com/disorders/sx31t.htm - Gupta, Sanjay, Donald W. Black, Stephan Arndt, William C. Hubbard, Nancy C. Andreasen. "Factors Associated With Suicide Attempts among Patients With Schizophrenia." American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc. Psychiatric Services. (Feb. 28, 2008) http://psychservices.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/49/10/1353 - Javitt, Daniel C., Joseph T. Coyle. "Decoding Schizophrenia." Scientific American. Jan. 2004, Vol. 290 Issue 1, p48-55, 8p, 5c. - MayoClinic. "Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): Treating severe depression and mental illness." Jul. 14, 2006. (Feb. 28, 2008)http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/electroconvulsive-therapy/MH00022 - Melton, Lisa. "Body Blazes." Scientific American Jun. 2006, Vol. 294 Issue 6, p24-24, 1p, 1c - Minkel, JR. "Fever in, Schizophrenia Out." Scientific American. Oct. 2004, Vol. 291 Issue 4, p38-38, 1/4p - NIMH. "An Overview of Schizophrenia -- Information from the National Institute of Mental Health." NIH Publication No. 02-3517. (Feb. 28, 2008)http://www.schizophrenia.com/pdfs/szoverview.pdf - NIMH. "New Factors Identified for Predicting Violence in Schizophrenia." (Feb. 28, 2008) http://www.nimh.nih.gov/science-news/2006/new-factors-identified-for-predicting-violence-in-schizophrenia.shtml - NIMH. "Schizophrenia." (Feb. 28, 2008) http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/schizophrenia/complete-publication.shtml - NIMH. "The Numbers Count: Mental Disorders in America." (Feb. 28, 2008)http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/the-numbers-count-mental-disorders-in-america.shtml - PBS. "Interview with John Nash." American Experience. (Feb. 28, 2008)http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/nash/sfeature/sf_nash.html - Psychology Today. "Celebrity Meltdown." Psychology Today Magazine. Nov/Dec 1999. (Feb. 28, 2008)http://psychologytoday.com/articles/pto-19991101-000035.html - Sartorius, Norman. "Brief Description of World Health Organization Studies Comparing Mental Health Recovery in Developed and Developing Nations." January 2008. MindFreedom.org. (Feb. 28, 2008)http://www.mindfreedom.org/kb/mental-health-global/sartorius-on-who - Walsh, Elizabeth, Alec Buchanan, Thomas Fahy. "Violence and schizophrenia: examining the evidence." The British Journal of Psychiatry, 2002, 180: 490-495. The Royal College of Psychiatrists. (Feb. 28, 2008)http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/full/180/6/490. - Warner, Richard. "Recovery from Schizophrenia." Psychology Press, 2004. (Feb. 28, 2008)http://books.google.com/books?id=VTqh6vfSdhkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Recovery+from+Schizophrenia+warner+third+world&source=gbs_summary_r - WebMD. "Schizophrenia Symptoms." Feb. 1, 2007. (Feb. 28, 2008)http://www.webmd.com/schizophrenia/guide/schizophrenia-symptoms - WHO. "Schizophrenia." (Feb. 28, 2008)http://www.who.int/mental_health/management/schizophrenia/en/ - Zimmer, Carl. "The Neurobiology of the Self." Scientific American. November 2005, Vol. 293 Issue 5, p92-101, 8p, 1 diagram, 3c.

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“SOVEREIGNTY OF GOD” “Alleluia, for the Lord God omnipotent reigneth.” There are basically two aspects in any definition of sovereignty. In order for anyone to be a king he must possess, (1) Absolute Authority, and, (2) All Power. A king must have the right to rule, and the ability to carry out his will. God said through Isaiah, “.. for I am God, and there is none else; I am God, and there is none like me .. My counsel shall stand, and I will do all my pleasure.” Isa. 46:9-10. Our God is a unique King in that his reign is eternal, “..the LORD sitteth King for ever.” Psa. 29:10. A — DEFINITION OF SOVEREIGNTY: “That the great God, blessed for ever, hath an absolute power and right dominion over his creatures, to dispose and determine of them as seemeth him good. Elisha Coles, God’s Sovereignty.” P 1. B — PLACE OF SOVEREIGNTY: We are not to think necessarily that sovereignty is an attribute of God. It is the conclusion of all His attributes. When we read that God is holy, just, love, gracious, merciful, all-wise, all-powerful, yea, all the works of God we see displayed, we reckon that He is sovereign! This is of extreme value to the child of God, to know there is no greater than his God. “Although the sovereignty of God is universal and absolute, it is not the sovereignty of blind power. It is coupled with infinite wisdom, holiness, and love. And this doctrine, when properly understood, is a most comforting and reassuring one. Who would not prefer to have his affairs in the hands of a God of infinite power, wisdom, holiness and love, rather than to have them left to fate, or chance, or irrevocable natural law, or to short-sighted and perverted self? Those who reject God’s sovereignty should consider what alternatives they have left.” Loraine Boettner. All of the works of God described in the Bible indicate that He is sovereign and that he has such authority and power, even as we are told in our text, “..the Lord God omnipotent reigneth.” When John, in the Revelation, saw inside heaven he saw, “the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb.” Rev.21:22 FOUR (4) AREAS SHOWING SOME OF THE EXTENT OF GOD’S SOVEREIGNTY: I — CREATION: God has Creator rights. He is God and has created man. Man is his possession, and He has the right to determine everything to befall him. He made certain men to be recipients of His grace and goodness, and some to receive his righteous judgment. Paul likened God to the potter and warns man against warring against His right. “Shall the thing formed say to him that formed it, Why hast thou made me thus? Hath not the potter power over the clay, of the same lump to make one vessel unto honour, and another unto dishonour? Rom. 9:20-21. Some have been “..fitted unto destruction, while others are “vessels of mercy..” V 22-23. When God created all things, it was before all things, thus no one had the place of advisor to Him. He created so many stars; so many planets; the world; man, and there were none to aid in any of it. The Psalmist said, “The sea is his, and he made it: and his hands formed the dry land.” Psa. 95:5. Jeremiah said, “Ah Lord GOD! thou hast made the heaven and the earth by thy great power, and stretched out arm, and there is nothing too hard for thee.” Jer. 32:17 God created all beings but some have fallen. Let us be sure that this does not make God the author of sin, for, as man, they fell from their created state. This includes all false gods. But God is over them, whether they be angels, demons, or the god of this world, the devil. The Psalmist said, “..thou are exalted far above all gods”, Psa. 97:9, and again, “.. our Lord is above all gods,” Psa 135.5, and also“O give thanks unto the God of gods.” Psa 136.2. Man was created from the dust of the earth, and woman from His rib. Their substance, shape, and form were created for His own purpose. We are told, “My substance was not hid from thee, when I was made in secret, and curiously wrought in the lowest parts of the earth. Thine eyes did see my substance, yet being unperfect; and in thy book all my members were written, which in continuance were fashioned, when as yet there were none of them.” Psa 139:15-16. Man’s begetting is of God. No man wills his own birth. Solomon said, There is, “A time to be born.” Eccl. 3:2. It is quite obvious that man cannot chose his color, his country, his tribe, or the time of his coming forth. We are told that God, “male and female created he them.” Gen 1:27. He has the right and power to give life and take it. It is all the doing of the sovereign God. II — THE NATIONS: Jeremiah said, “Who would not fear thee, O King of nations.” Jer. 10:7. David also said, “..let men say among the nations, the LORD reigneth.” 1 Chron 16:31. God’s hand is in the creation of nations as well as in their destruction. Job said, “He increaseth the nations, and destroyeth them; he enlargeth the nations, and straighteneth them again.” Job 12:23. The nations were created and placed in their locations by this Sovereign God, for He “..hath made of one blood all nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth, and hath determined the times before appointed, and the bounds of their habitation.”Acts 17:26 God established the nation of Israel, and raised up the Egyptians to enslave them. By His mighty hand, however, he delivered them at the Red Sea, and God drove out nations before them. He increased Israel with numbers and blessings, and caused them to flourish in the promised land. When they violated the covenant, he cast them off. God raised up Babylon into a great nation, but also brought about the Medes and Persians to destroy it. After they ran their course, the great nation of Greece was raised up to destroy that nation. They reigned until the Roman Empire conquered the world, until they too were destroyed. It would be difficult indeed to deny the work of the sovereign God among the nations. III — KINGS AND KINGDOMS: God is said to be King throughout the scriptures. His Son, the Lord Jesus, is seated on the right hand of the Father on His throne, and He is said to be “Lord of lords, and King of kings.” Rev 19:16. God’s kingdom rules over all kingdoms. We are told, “The Lord hath prepared his throne in the heavens; and his kingdom ruleth over all.” Psa 103:19. The king of Babylon, while walking through his palace, boasted of his kingdom, that he had built it by his power and for the honour of his majesty. While the word was still in his mouth, a voice announced that his kingdom had departed from him, and he was driven into the fields to eat grass as oxen. When he was restored, he blessed the most High, and extoled His kingdom, saying, “And all the inhabitants of the earth are reputed as nothing: and he doeth according to his will in the army of heaven, and among the inhabitants of the earth: and none can stay his hand, or say unto him, What doest thou?” Daniel 4:28-35. These were the words of one of few absolute rulers on the earth, and very evident that God is sovereign over the greatest of earthly kings. The beast, written by John in the Revelation, is described as a very powerful enemy of God, yet he is dependent upon God Himself for his temporary success. Ten kingdoms were united under this beast, and we are told of God’s part in their accomplishment. “For God hath put in their hearts to fulfil his will, and to agree, and give their kingdom unto the beast, until the words of God shall be fulfilled.” Rev. 17:17. The devil and all his cohorts could not advance one step without the enablement of this all-powerful God. God has raised up His own enemies, and is the one to finally put them down. IV — SALVATION: Man may fight against God but he cannot win over Him. He often uses evil man to accomplish His will in the battle. Jesus is said to have been slain from the foundation of the world, and the cross is one of the most credible evidences of Gods Sovereignty. “Crucify him, Crucify him”, was their cry, but when they nailed Him to the cross, they did not realize they were fulfilling God’s will for His Son. Peter said, “Him (Christ), being delivered by the determinate counsel and foreknowledge of God, ye have taken and by wicked hands have crucified and slain.” Acts 2:23. But this God of all-power was not defeated in this evil act, for the Lord Jesus was raised from the dead. By it the devil was defeated and all his ministers of (self) righteousness. Judas, the one who betrayed him, had betrayed himself, and met his just due. John wrote, “..Jesus knew from the beginning .. who should betray him. And he said, .. no man can come unto me, except it were given unto him of my Father .. Have not I chosen you twelve, and one of you is a devil (i.e., slanderer) .. He spake of Judas .. for he it was that should betray him, being one of the twelve.” John 6:64-71. Our God cannot fail, lie, or sin, neither is He frustrated at man’s failure. God is the dispenser of His sovereign grace and mercy. “For he saith to Moses, I will have mercy on whom I will have mercy, and I will have compassion on whom I will have compassion. So it is not of him that willeth, nor of him that runneth, but of God that sheweth mercy .. and whom he will, he hardeneth.” Rom. 9:15-16, 18. Our God has chosen people in Christ, and He chose them before the foundation of the world. Their names are written in the Lamb’s book of life, and in His time, effectually calls them unto salvation. Others he leaves to themselves, and we are told He has this right as Creator. This determination of God was made before they were ever born, before they had done good or evil. Esau and Jacob, twin sons of Isaac and Rebecca, one blessed, the other rejected, is a case in point. “For the children being not yet born, neither having done any good or evil, that the purpose of God according to election might stand, not of works, but of him that calleth.” Rom. 9:11 Pastor Henry Mahan says this of sovereignty: A doctrine is not true because I believe it or because you believe it, it is true only if God says it! I do not ask whether you believe what I preach, perhaps you do not. But I ask you to search the Scriptures and determine whether these things be so. I am not afraid to submit my belief in God’s immutable sovereignty, man’s total fall and ruin, God’s elective grace, Christ’s effectual atonement, the Spirit’s invincible call, and the perseverance of the sheep to the word of God. We say Amen to this word, and while this message is limited, the sovereignty of God is not. The scriptures tell us that he is sovereign over all. By himself He created this universe, fashioning it according to His own purpose. This includes man and all God’s dealings with him. He is over the nations, creating them, and has destroyed them according to His will. Nebuchadnezzar, an absolute monarch, when boasting of his self-made kingdom rather than give God the glory, was reduced to a near animal. After his understanding returned, he gave testimony to God as over all. God raises up kingdoms and puts them down. He is sovereign in salvation, having chosen His people, sending His Son to die for them, and then calling them out of the world. He gives them eternal life, and they shall never perish under His guarding hand. Many Christians have doubts about God’s sovereignty. Yet there is one aspect of the Christian life where they profess, maybe unknowingly, that God is sovereign. They may say, as many do, “God has done all He can do, now the rest is up to you.” How contradictory! They may stand on their feet and deny this blessed, comforting, enabling doctrine, but when they bend the knees in prayer, asking God to save, do they not realize they are calling on a sovereign God, who only has the right and the ability to save? Are they not asking their limited God to go beyond His limitation? The question is, If God has done all that He can do, why pray to Him? But we pray knowing He is the only one who can do what man cannot otherwise do. This power belongs to God, and not man. SOVEREIGNTY BELONGS TO GOD Man’s will has never determined one single event in the world’s history and never will. God’s will alone determines events and brings them to pass. It is true that men do act according to their choice, will, intellect, and reason; but this is not the whole truth. The whole truth is that every event, circumstance, opportunity, happening, and thought, whether good or bad, that influences and motivates man’s choice is foreordained of God. Sovereignty is the prerogative of God alone. Man is God’s creature. There is no such thing as an independent creature. There is no such thing as a free creature. All created things are totally dependent upon and absolutely subject to their Creator’s will. If God is the Creator of this universe, He is sovereign over it; and if He is not sovereign over the universe, He is not its Creator. –Pastor Scott Richardson Ah, Children of the living God, believe in His sovereign right and power, that He is able to do all things according to His will, and give praise from the lips of his saving ability, which is the testimony of us all. And do not despair of circumstances, for this great God can overcome them with the greatest of ease. For we know that “..all things work together for good, to them that love God, and are the called according to his purpose.” Rom. 8:28. Either God is in absolute control of all things or he is not. If he is not in absolute control of all things, then he is not God and does not deserve to be worshipped as God. I fully agree with C.H. Spurgeon who wrote, “There is no middle ground between the absolute sovereignty of God and total atheism.” Believers rejoice to know that God our Father rules everywhere. –Pastor Don Fortner) We must look to Jesus, our substitute for sin, the author and finisher of our faith, who is the same yesterday, today, and forever. Let us not think that our God is unapproachable, for in Jesus Christ we have access to the Father. Therefore salvation is nigh thee. Believe on the Lord Jesus Christ, and thou shalt be saved. For this cause I bow my knees unto the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, of whom the whole family in heaven and earth is named, that he might grant you, according to the riches of his glory, to be strengthened with might by his Spirit in the inner man; that Christ may dwell in your hearts by faith; that ye being rooted and grounded in love, may be able to comprehend with all saints what is the breadth, and length, and depth, and heights; and to know the love of Christ, which passeth knowledge, that ye might be filled with all the fullness of God. Now unto him that is able to do exceeding abundantly above all that we ask or think, according to the power that worketh in us, unto him be glory in the church by Christ Jesus throughout all ages, world without end. Amen. Eph. 3:14-21

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