Datasets:

LLukas22

/

nq

like 0

this is the song that goes on forever

The song That Never Ends - wikipedia "The Song That Never Ends '' (originally, "The Song That Does n't End '') is a self - referential and infinitely iterative children 's song. The song appears in the album Lamb Chop 's Sing - Along, Play - Along by puppeteer Shari Lewis. It is a single verse long song, written in an infinite - loop motif in a march style, such that it naturally flows in a cyclical fashion, repeating the same verse over and over. It is still a very popular tune, typically sung during long car journeys. The song was written by writer / composer Norman Martin in 1988. This is the song that does n't end Yes, it goes on and on my friend Some people started singing it not knowing what it was And they 'll continue singing it forever just because This is the song that does n't end... This is the song that never ends It just goes on and on my friends Some people started singing it, not knowing what it was And they 'll continue singing it forever just because This is the song that never ends... The most notable appearance of the song in the US was as the closing theme of Lamb Chop 's Play - Along, a 1992 televised puppet show on PBS, though with slightly different lyrics and a slightly different title (known as "The Song That Does n't End ''). At the end of each episode, the puppets and children would sing several verses of the song while hostess Shari Lewis would try in vain to stop them. They would eventually leave (on her urging), even while beginning a sixth verse (which eventually fades out). Then, the puppet character Charlie Horse would return and try to get to sing the song again, but Shari successfully stops him by grabbing his mouth and persuading him to "go away. ''. A short rendition of the song appeared in a skit on the animated TV show Cartoon Planet (the skit is also featured on the companion album, Space Ghost 's Musical Bar - B - Que). Brak sings the song until he is asked to stop by Zorak, who finds it annoying. Brak explains that he is unable to because it 's the "song that does n't end. '' He attempts to continue until Zorak loses his temper, causing Brak to cease, remarking, "I guess it just ended. '' The song has been adopted as an unofficial anthem by disparate groups. The Discordian organization (or disorganization) known as POEE has listed the song in their material with claims that it was written by a member, while fans of the rock band Styx adopted a variation, "The Tour That Never Ends '', to describe Styx 's 400 - plus date tour in the late 1990s in support of their album Brave New World. It was also the subject of a single strip in Dave Kellett 's Sheldon webcomic. A series of Canadian Motrin pain killer ads featured kids singing the song in the back of a car, during a traffic jam, while eating chocolate - covered coffee beans. In the Smart Guy episode "Love Bug '', Mo and Yvette (Omar Gooding and Essence Atkins) perform "The Song That Never Ends '' variant in order to annoy a fellow contestant to see if he will exit the car they are supposed to stay in for an entire weekend in order to win it. The two eventually (and suddenly) stop singing, driving the man crazy as to whether they will start singing the song once again, leading to him escaping the car and automatically eliminating himself from the contest. YouTube personality Shane Dawson also uses "The Song That Does n't End '' in some of his videos such as his "saw '' parody because the puppet he uses is a Lamb Chop puppet.

what season of american horror story was filmed in new orleans

American Horror Story: Coven - Wikipedia American Horror Story: Coven is the third season of the FX horror anthology television series American Horror Story. It premiered on October 9, 2013, and concluded on January 29, 2014. The season takes place in 2013, in New Orleans, and follows a Coven of Salem witches as they fight for survival. It also features flashbacks to the 1830s, 1910s, 1960s, and 1970s. Returning cast members from the previous season of the series include: Sarah Paulson, Taissa Farmiga, Frances Conroy, Evan Peters, Lily Rabe, Denis O'Hare, Jessica Lange, Jamie Brewer, Alexandra Breckenridge, and Robin Bartlett, along with new cast members Emma Roberts and Kathy Bates. Like its predecessors, Coven was met with both mostly positive reviews, and strong ratings, with the premiere episode attracting a series high of 5.54 million viewers. The season garnered seventeen Primetime Emmy Award nominations, including Outstanding Miniseries and five acting nominations for Jessica Lange, Sarah Paulson, Angela Bassett, Frances Conroy, and Kathy Bates, with Lange and Bates winning their respective acting categories. In addition, Coven was nominated for Best Miniseries or TV Film at the Golden Globe Awards. The third season follows a Coven of witches who are descendants from some of those who escaped Salem and who reside within Miss Robichaux 's Academy in New Orleans. Zoe Benson (Taissa Farmiga) is sent to the Academy after discovering her dark power: she can magically induce brain hemorrhaging in any man by having sex with him. Upon arrival, she meets Madison Montgomery (Emma Roberts), a telekinetic and a recovering drug abuser who was once a child film star; Queenie (Gabourey Sidibe), a descendant of Tituba with the power to inflict wounds on others by harming herself, without feeling any pain; and Nan (Jamie Brewer), an enigmatic clairvoyant who can hear the thoughts of others. The Academy is run by headmistress Cordelia Foxx (Sarah Paulson), who has always lived in the shadow of her mother, Fiona Goode (Jessica Lange). Fiona is the Coven 's "Supreme '', a witch born every generation who embodies specific gifts and magical abilities known as the Seven Wonders of Witchcraft. The Academy is looked after by Spalding (Denis O'Hare), a mute butler who has a mysterious relationship with Fiona. The Coven is assessed by the Council of Witchcraft, which includes Fiona 's old rival and Cordelia 's mother figure, Myrtle Snow (Frances Conroy). At a party, Zoe meets fraternity president Kyle Spencer (Evan Peters), who takes a liking to her. Madison is gang - raped by Kyle 's frat brothers and, as revenge, uses her power to flip their bus, killing Kyle and six others. Two of the boys survive and are placed in critical care. Zoe goes to the hospital and kills the remaining rapist with her power. To repay Zoe, Madison revives a dismembered Kyle by attaching his frat brothers ' severed limbs to his head and casting a resurrection spell, but he returns frightened and simple - minded. It is revealed that Kyle 's mother sexually abused him, making it hard for him to be trusting of physical touch. His revived corpse attracts Misty Day (Lily Rabe), a witch who resurrected herself after being burned at the stake. Meanwhile, Fiona is cursed with untreatable cancer due to a new Supreme rising. She tries, in vain, to regain her youth and cure herself. Voodoo priestess and the Salem witches ' rival, Marie Laveau (Angela Bassett), has gained immortality by dealing with a voodoo spirit, Papa Legba (Lance Reddick). Fiona frees Marie 's immortal prisoner, 19th - century slave killer Delphine LaLaurie (Kathy Bates), who becomes the Academy 's maid. She struggles to adjust to the modern world due to her inherent racism. Fiona believes Madison is the next Supreme and slits her throat; Spalding helps cover it up. Zoe discovers Spalding 's secrets and kills him, turning him into a ghost that haunts the Academy. Cordelia is blinded in an acid attack by witch hunters, one of whom is her husband. Myrtle is framed by Fiona, with Queenie 's help, and is burned at the stake. In 1919, witches of the Academy killed the notorious serial killer Axeman of New Orleans (Danny Huston), whose spirit has since been confined inside the Academy 's walls. He is freed when Zoe tries to contact the ghost of Madison via ouija board. He then begins a twisted romance with Fiona. Misty revives Myrtle and Madison, both of whom return with vengeful notions; Madison seduces Kyle behind Zoe 's back, and Myrtle slaughters the Council of Witchcraft. Queenie joins the voodoo tribe and gives over Delphine, who is tortured and beheaded but remains alive. Cordelia 's husband, Hank (Josh Hamilton), slaughters the tribe and nearly kills Marie, before Queenie uses her powers on Hank by shooting herself in the head, killing him. A hopeless Marie joins the Academy, and she and Fiona drown Nan in order to fulfill a deal with Legba and remove a Supreme candidate. Queenie returns with a reattached Delphine. Marie, Fiona, and the Axeman slaughter the witch hunters. Spalding 's ghost helps Delphine dissect Marie. Madison attempts to eliminate Supreme competition by entombing Misty, but she is brought back by Queenie and Cordelia. Queenie kills Delphine after making a deal with Legba to return her mortality. Marie and Delphine are banished to hell for eternity due to their actions in life. Fiona makes the Axeman believe he has murdered her, and the witches kill him in return. The Coven sets out to find the next Supreme with the test of Seven Wonders. Misty and Zoe die while attempting different tests. Queenie is disqualified when she is unable to revive Zoe. Madison can but refuses, and angrily leaves after she fails a test. Kyle then kills her for not saving Zoe. Cordelia enters the competition and successfully brings Zoe back. She becomes the new Supreme, regains her sight, and reveals the Coven to the world. Myrtle is burned once again for murdering the Council. Zoe and Queenie are appointed seats on the Council, and Kyle becomes the new butler. Fiona returns to the Coven alive but withered from cancer. She makes amends with Cordelia, before dying in her arms. Fiona is then banished to hell with the Axeman. Cordelia, Zoe, Queenie, and Kyle open the doors to the Academy, welcoming the new recruitment of witches. In January 2013, series co-creator Ryan Murphy hinted that a clue about the third season would be hidden in the tenth episode of the second season. In a later interview discussing that episode, he stated, "I sorta feel like for the third version I want to do something that 's a little bit more ' evil glamour. ' Just something that 's a little bit more... one of the things that I missed this season was I really loved having that Romeo and Juliet youth story with Violet and Tate (from the first season). I want something like that again and we 're doing something like that in the third season. And we 're contemplating shooting the show in a different place. We 're contemplating shooting it in a place in the country where true horror has been. '' In another interview, Murphy added that the season would be set in the modern day. Executive producer Tim Minear has stated that, while this season 's tone might be lighter with more humor, the global themes of it will be "oppression of minorities of all kinds, and within that idea, minority groups going after each other and doing the work of the larger culture. '' He added, "While there is a strong feminist theme that runs throughout Coven, there are themes of race and themes of oppression, and themes of family -- especially mothers and daughters. '' In October 2016, Murphy stated that a future season of the show will feature a return / continuation of Coven. However, that season is to be determined. He stated that this is not the theme for season 7, but a later season. He also confirmed that Lady Gaga 's character from Roanoke is the first Supreme. Later that month, Murphy announced that the season would be a Coven and Murder House crossover continuation. Merging stories, themes and characters. He also stated that he had begun reaching out to actors from both seasons to reprise their respective roles. However, in January 5, 2018, it was previously confirmed that the Murder House and Coven crossover will be in the ninth season, but in July 14, 2018 that the crossover season is moved from the ninth season to eighth. In the series ' fifth cycle, Hotel, Gabourey Sidibe reprised her role as Queenie in the eleventh episode of the season. Series executive producers and co-creators Ryan Murphy and Brad Falchuk stated that, as with the second season, "many actors '' would return for the third season in different roles. Jessica Lange, Evan Peters and Sarah Paulson all confirmed their returns. Murphy added that Lange would portray a "real glamour - cat lady '', whose name was later revealed to be Fiona Goode. Paulson said in an interview that her character would "definitely (be) different (to her season two character). '' She added, "Basically, she 's going to look different, and my relationship to Lange is going to be quite different this time. At the beginning of last season, no one knew that Lana would be the hero, so it 's possible I could end up the evil one this year. As of right now, there will be some of Lana Winters ' qualities in my character, but I do n't know for sure. '' Taissa Farmiga, who played a lead role in the first season, starred as Zoe Benson, a character involved in a prominent romance with Peters ' character. Lily Rabe and Frances Conroy portrayed series regulars Misty Day and Myrtle Snow, respectively. Kathy Bates co-starred as Delphine LaLaurie, an evil woman from the past who tortures her slaves. Murphy stated that Bates ' character would be "five times worse than (her) Misery character '' and is also inspired by a "true event ''. It was reported on May 22, 2013 that Emma Roberts would co-star as Madison Montgomery, a difficult Hollywood starlet. In May 2013, Murphy announced via Twitter that Angela Bassett and Patti LuPone had joined the cast. Bassett later confirmed she would be playing voodoo priestess, Marie Laveau. In an interview, LuPone said that her character, Joan Ramsey, would not be a witch but "the personification of the religious right, ' like Piper Laurie in Carrie. ' '' Gabourey Sidibe appeared in 12 episodes of the season portraying Queenie, a young witch, whose prominent ability allows her to become a human voodoo doll. First season actress Jamie Brewer recurred as Nan, a young witch who is clairvoyant. In July and August 2013, Murphy announced through Twitter that first season alums Denis O'Hare and Alexandra Breckenridge had joined the cast in unknown roles, later known as Spalding and Kaylee, respectively. Also in August, Murphy announced that Christine Ebersole would be playing a "Glinda the Good Witch - type of gal '', who is Fiona 's predecessor. In an interview, Jessica Lange revealed that Mare Winningham had joined the cast as Peters ' character 's mother, Alicia Spencer. Leslie Jordan announced that he had joined the cast as Quentin Fleming, a high - ranking witch. In September 2013, Alexander Dreymon was cast in the role of Luke Ramsey. Described as "the handsome young man who moves in next door to the Academy ''. Danny Huston, Josh Hamilton, and Lance Reddick all recurred throughout the season as the Axeman, Hank Foxx, and Papa Legba, respectively. Murphy also invited singer Stevie Nicks to be a part of the season. She appeared in two episodes, "The Magical Delights of Stevie Nicks '' and "The Seven Wonders ''. Principal photography for the season began on July 23, 2013, in New Orleans, Louisiana. The casting call reads, "After two seasons shooting in Los Angeles, the series moves to (New Orleans) for its third season. Filming begins July 23, 2013 in New Orleans, Louisiana and (will be) completed on January 17, 2014. '' Despite Ryan Murphy stating that the third season would take place in multiple cities, New Orleans is the primary setting of the third installment. Witches are humans gifted with the power to affect change by supernatural or paranormal means, a practice known as "witchcraft ''. Witches are generally female, though there are a few male witches. Because of their unnatural abilities and supposed connections with dark forces, witches have historically been feared, persecuted, and hunted. Many escaped the Salem witch trials and sought refuge in New Orleans. Among the population of witches, there is always one witch per generation who possesses a class of seven powers considered to be advanced acts of magic. This witch is known as the "Supreme ''. As the witches settled in their new territory, a rivalry between them and the native Voodoo practitioners arose. The feud is still ongoing in present - day New Orleans. A group of witches are the focus of Coven, in which magic is a genetic heredity that connects a person to the elements and forces of nature in order to practice witchcraft. It has been attested that the witches of Salem received their power from the Voodoo slave girl Tituba, though evidently, their abilities stem from a genetic affliction that is passed down through bloodlines. During the Salem witch trials in 1692, witches faced persecution and decided to flee south in the midst of the hysteria. However, their ailing Supreme, Prudence Mather, was unable to make the journey and decided to take her own life in a ritual known as the Sacred Taking. This selfless act allowed a new Supreme to take power and lead the Coven to safety, where they eventually settled in New Orleans. The generations of witches to follow would become known as the "Salem descendants ''. The governing body of the witches and warlocks, depicted as elders and known as the "Council of Wichcraft ''. They are responsible for policing witch crimes, the concealment of witchcraft to the uninitiated, and for the welcoming of potential students to Miss Robichaux 's Academy. The council only visits the Coven on very important cases, such as the death of another witch. The Supreme Witch, known more colloquially as the Supreme, is a worldwide recognized status among the witches descending from the Salem witch trials. While most witches possess only a handful of gifts, the Supreme is said to embody multiple, if not all, gifts. Historically, there is said to be only one Supreme per generation (approximately 30 -- 50 years). Part of being a Supreme means no ailments or diseases would harm them. The Supreme role comes with the responsibility of the entire Coven as a leader of the new generation. One of the most important tasks of the Supreme is to identify her successor, a task that was n't accomplished by former Supreme Fiona Goode, and, as a consequence, multiple girls were tested and one of them died trying to perform the Seven Wonders. As a new Supreme flowers, the life force of the current regnant gradually fades, which manifests as multiple organ failures, disease, and cancer due to the crippled immune system. In the cases where a new Supreme must rise before the natural death of the incumbent, a ritual known as "The Sacred Taking '' is employed; it is a stylized suicide blessed by Coven members. It was developed when the ailing Prudence Mather was not able to make the journey to relocate the Coven to New Orleans during the Salem Witch Trials, and allowed a potential to ascend to Supremacy. Fiona inherited her powers earlier than most Supremes (she was in her late teens to early twenties at the time) because she killed her generation 's Supreme and self - ascended. Fiona lived for a while after Cordelia became the Supreme, but had already become very weak and sickly. According to Ryan Murphy, the original Supreme is Scáthach, from Roanoke. Scáthach is an immortal English woman descending from the Druids and their Roman conqueror, and is a practitioner of prehistoric Celtic religion and a worshipper of the Old Gods. She was a stowaway on a British voyage destined for the colonies, but the ship 's occupants all died. The colonists discovered her upon landfall and blamed her presence for enraging the sea gods. She was subsequently imprisoned and sentenced to be burned at the stake for witchcraft. Using her darker powers, she massacred the soldiers. This was later blamed on Natives, and Scáthach escaped into the wild. Prudence Mather was the Supreme of Salem. Marion Warton, the purchaser of Miss Robichaux 's Academy and the predecessor of Mimi DeLongpre, was followed by Anna - Leigh Leighton, Fiona Goode and the current Supreme, Cordelia Foxx. A number of magical powers and abilities have been showcased in Coven. Some abilities are inherent or reflexive to certain witches, that is they do not need to focus or concentrate. It is not rare for a witch to manifest more than three powers, though a Supreme is required to have at least seven (the Seven Wonders), though not necessarily all possible powers. It is said that the reason that a Supreme is so powerful is because she is the physical embodiment of many or all powers. Witches are shown to be able to use their powers collectively. Certain abilities can also be triggered by certain events and substances. Voodoo and witchcraft practitioners share certain powers. All Supremes are assumed to have demonstrated these abilities during their ascension to Supremacy, despite not necessarily being depicted. The explicit depictions of the seven gifts are: Similar to the prior seasons, FX published mini teaser trailers for Coven on the show 's Facebook page. American Horror Story: Coven has received positive reviews. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 85 % approval rating, with an average rating of 7.24 / 10, based on 32 reviews. The site 's consensus reads, "A noteworthy ensemble cast combined with creepy storytelling and campy, outrageous thrills make American Horror Story: Coven a potently structured fright-fest. '' The season scored 71 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on 24 reviews. In contrast, Coven was also met with negative reviews from some critics. The A.V. Club gave the season a low rating of D+, with critic Todd VanDerWerff remarking, "It lurched drunkenly from idea to idea, never settling on one long enough to build anything of worth. '' In their post-season reviews, The Michigan Daily gave Coven a B+, saying, "And while its conclusion, appropriately titled "The Seven Wonders '', never quite matched the high standard it set for itself throughout the season, Coven 's reputation will nonetheless remain a solid one. '' Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly gave the season a B rating and said, "I ca n't deny my experience: Week to week, the excesses of Coven were wickedly amusing. Next year, I hope American Horror Story can be more than that, and with less. '' In its third season, the series was nominated for 73 awards, 13 of which were won. Coven 's premiere episode, "Bitchcraft '', was watched by 5.54 million viewers, which, at the time, was the highest total viewers of any American Horror Story episode. It was surpassed by the fourth season 's premiere, "Monsters Among Us '', which received 6.13 million viewers during its broadcast. The ratings slipped for the second episode, delivering 4.51 million viewers and a 2.5 rating among adults 18 - 49 -- down 17 % from the premiere. The rest of the season 's episodes remained relatively steady in ratings; the episode with the lowest viewing numbers was the penultimate episode, "Go to Hell ''. For the third season, see "American Horror Story: Coven: (Season Three) Ratings ''. TV Series Finale. January 30, 2014. Retrieved July 26, 2017. For the fourth season, see "American Horror Story: Freak Show Ratings ''. TV Series Finale. January 22, 2015. Retrieved July 26, 2017. For the fifth season, see "American Horror Story: Hotel (Season Five) Ratings ''. TV Series Finale. January 14, 2016. Retrieved July 26, 2017. For the sixth season, see "American Horror Story: Season Six Ratings ''. TV Series Finale. November 17, 2016. Retrieved July 26, 2017.

when is season 5 of chicago pd coming out

Chicago P.D. (Season 5) - wikipedia The fifth season of Chicago P.D., an American police drama television series with executive producer Dick Wolf, and producers Derek Haas, Michael Brandt, and Rick Eid, premiered on September 27, 2017. This season featured its 100th episode. A bombing in a TV studio where Sergeant Platt is being interviewed is broadcast live. The Intelligence unit investigates and discovers that this bomber is targeting members of the media. Voight goes to Firehouse 51 for help with the investigation. Meanwhile, Dawson discovers that his daughter has two social media accounts and lied about it. On May 25, 2017, it was announced that Sophia Bush would be departing the series, while Jon Seda is set to return after the cancellation of Chicago Justice. After recurring last season as Detective Hailey Upton, Tracy Spiridakos has been promoted to a series regular for this season. Mykelti Williamson reprises his role of Lieutenant Denny Woods in a recurring role, and Wendell Pierce will join the cast as Alderman Ray Price, in a recurring role. Wil Traval guest stars as Sergeant McGrady, who shares a history with Upton. Anabelle Acosta joins the cast in the recurring role of Camila, and began appearing from episode 7, while Zach Appelman will make his debut as Burgess ' boyfriend and federal prosecutor, Matt Miller from episode 8.

who's going to save my soul gnarls barkley

Who 's Gonna Save My Soul - wikipedia "Who 's Gonna Save My Soul '' is the third and final single taken from hip - hop duo Gnarls Barkley 's second studio album, The Odd Couple, released in late 2008. The song 's official music video was directed by Chris Milk and was released on July 25, 2008. The video featured work by character animator Keith Sintay. The single was only released physically in America, in a special limited edition CD + DVD single package. A couple sits at a booth in a diner, while the woman (Friday Night Lights star Aasha Davis) breaks up with her boyfriend (Saturday Night Live writer and The Lonely Island band member Jorma Taccone). After receiving the plate he requested from the waitress, the man stabs himself in the chest, and pulls out his heart, places it on the plate and gives it to the woman. He explains that his heart "is actually (hers) now, '' that he will never be able to get over her, and says "from now on every girl that I meet will be meticulously compared to the false memory of what you and I once ' had. ' '' The woman offers to return it after keeping it temporarily for a "shitty day '' or when she needs to move something heavy, but the man insists that he is now "heartless '' and thus will passively / aggressively ruin all his future relationships. The heart then comes to life, growing arms, legs and a mouth, and begins to sing the lyrics to the song on the counters of the diner using a piece of broccoli as a microphone before finally stabbing itself with a knife and pulling the man 's head out of its body. The head looks around, staring off into space. The scene cuts back to the man staring out the window as the woman speaks. The woman finally asks, "Are you even listening to me? '' The man simply replies "No. '' Cee - Lo and Danger Mouse also made cameos as chefs in the diner. The song found popular acclaim: Entertainment Weekly put the video on its "Must List '' and Rolling Stone on its "Hot List '' in August 2008. On December 3, 2008, the video was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video. Sintay won a 2009 D&AD Yellow Pencil Award for Music Video Animation. Billboard magazine said of the single, "Cee - Lo scorches the vocal hook -- '' Who 's gon na save my soul now? "-- and it stops the moderately paced dance cut dead in its tracks. '' The magazine also said it "might be his finest performance to date. '' Entertainment Weekly called the song "dolefully paced: and "nearly dirgelike, '' while People called it "a gritty, gospel - infused plea. '' Performing Songwriter praised the song as "a stark song with plucked strings and bass so heavy and distant it could be a psychic echo. '' USA Today said of the single, "Nobody lays bare their broken heart more painfully or more plaintively than Cee - Lo, '' and named the tune its "Pick of the Week '' in late January 2009. It was featured in the closing scene of the final episode of the first season of the AMC original series Breaking Bad and Detroit 1 - 8 - 7 in its 17th episode.

which female player won the gold medal of table tennis singles in 2016 olympics games

Table tennis at the 2016 Summer Olympics - wikipedia Table tennis at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro took place from 6 to 17 August 2016 at the third pavilion of Riocentro. Around 172 table tennis players (equally distributed between men and women) competed in both the singles and team events. Table tennis had appeared at the Summer Olympics on seven previous occasions beginning with the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. In addition to men 's and women 's singles, the team events were staged for the third time since replacing doubles events at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. As the host nation, Brazil had automatically qualified six athletes; a team of three men and women with one each competing in the singles. The top 22 male and top 22 female players on the International Table Tennis Federation 's Olympic ranking list as of January 1, 2016 were qualified for the singles event at the Games. No nation could have more than two players per gender in the singles at these Games, so some players below the twenty - eighth position were given a qualifying place based on ranking. Forty places were awarded to the table tennis players with a maximum of two per NOC and gender through the following continental qualification tournaments between July 1, 2015 and April 24, 2016: six each from Africa and Latin America, eleven each from Asia and Europe, and three each from North America and Oceania. One invitational place per gender was allocated by the International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF). For the team events, the highest - ranked NOC from each continent that already contained two qualified players for the singles added a quota place to form a team of three players and thereby secured a direct qualifying place for the Games based on the ITTF Olympic Team Ranking list. The remaining ten teams were allotted to the nine highest - ranked NOCs in any continent and to the host nation Brazil (if not qualified by any means) that have two players qualified for the singles. If less than nine nations, the next best teams with a single player would have secured a place for the Olympics.

will there be a season 2 of boy band

Produce 101 Season 2 - wikipedia Produce 101 Season 2 (Hangul: 프로듀스 101 시즌 2) is a 2017 boy group survival reality show on Mnet. It is a large - scale project in which the public (called ' national producers ') "produces '' a boy band by choosing 11 members among 101 trainees from 54 entertainment companies. The public also chooses the group 's concept, debut song, and group name. On June 16, 2017, the season finale was broadcast live, announcing the final 11 members who would debut, as well as the official group name Wanna One. Produce 101 Season 2 brings together 101 trainees from different entertainment companies in South Korea, and 11 trainees are selected through audience voting to form a boy band. The group will perform for 2 years together under YMC Entertainment (also the label of I.O.I from Produce 101). The top 35 also performed with the winning team at a finale concert. The winning group will disband after their contracts end, allowing the members of the final lineup to return to their agencies. Many agencies, including S.M., YG, and JYP opted not to send trainees to participate in the second season. YG Entertainment was, however, represented by four models under their subsidiary YGKPlus. The first season 's main director Han Dong - chul also withdrew from the show due to other commitments. For the boys ' training, several artists were recruited for the show. Singers Lee Seok - hoon and Shin Yoo - mi were in charge of vocal training. Rappers Cheetah and Don Mills were in charge of rap training. Kahi and Kwon Jae - seung were in charge of dance training. On February 23, Mnet announced that BoA would be taking the MC role for this season, replacing Jang Keun - suk. She would be "acting as a messenger and a representative of the viewers ''. Later on the same day, the trainers who would train the participants were also announced. The official broadcast of the show, which would replace High School Rapper 's time slot, was announced on March 8. Soon after they had moved to their dorms on February 26, the participants started filming. A teaser video of who would be taking "center '' (or lead role) for the first song was later revealed. The contestants of Produce 101 Season 2 appeared for the first time on Episode 514 of M! Countdown on March 9, 2017. The group was presented by BoA, and the members performed the EDM theme song "It 's Me (Pick Me) ''. The "center '' role was given to Brand New Music 's Lee Dae - hwi. Some known artists were also spotted including members from NU'EST, JJCC, HOTSHOT and Topp Dogg. Some other participants also gained attention from National Producers such as ONO Entertainment 's Jang Moon - bok, Maroo Entertainment 's Park Ji - hoon, Fantagio 's Ong Seungwoo and the youngest participant from Media Line Entertainment 's Lee Woojin. On March 31, the participants performed their single "It 's Me '' (Pick Me) '' at the Gocheok Sky Dome ahead of a baseball game between the LG Twins and the Nexen Heroes. In addition, Lee Dae - hwi threw the ceremonial first pitch to Brave Entertainment 's Arredondo Samuel, at bat. The trainees from each company enter the studio, where seats are arranged in a pyramid with chairs numbered from 1 to 101. Each contestant chooses his preferred seat in the pyramid. The contestants then perform in a group or individually for evaluation. Each trainee is judged on his talents and are graded and assigned into temporary groups for training: A being the highest and F the lowest. At the end of the episode, the popularity vote was shown with Maroo Entertainment 's Park Ji - hoon at 1st place. After being grouped and arranged in dorms according to the grade given to the trainees, BoA announces that they will be performing on M! Countdown with their titular single "It 's Me (Pick Me) ''; the lyrics and choreography are introduced, which they must learn in the following days. Their line distribution and overall participation in the performance are decided by their group ranking; A will have the most number of lines while F will be backup dancers. The trainees would be given a final re-evaluation prior to the filming of the performance to reassign to another grade. The trainees film themselves individually performing the song. Each video is then watched and evaluated by the mentors. After the re-evaluation, they are given their new grades and are asked to move to their new rooms by rank. Three F ranked trainees moved up from their grade: Jellyfish Entertainment 's Yoon Hee - seok and HF Music Company 's Jung Won - chol are moved to B rank while The Vibe Label 's Kim Tae - dong moves to the A rank. After the announcement of the new batch of A ranked trainees, A rankers individually appeal to the other trainees to be selected as center for "It 's Me (Pick Me) ''. The trainees have to vote for their center pick. They then start rehearsing for the stage: Brand New Music 's Lee Dae - hwi of group A is voted to be the center. After their live performance, BoA announced the departure of 3 trainees from the show and that the 37 contestants who would receive the lowest ranks would be eliminated in the first elimination. The trainees started their second mission: group performances in front of a live audience. 16 teams are formed to compete for 8 songs given: Super Junior 's "Sorry Sorry '', Shinee 's "Replay '', 2PM 's "10 out of 10 '', B2ST 's "Shock '', Infinite 's "Be Mine '', EXO 's "Call Me Baby '', BTS 's "Boy in Luv '', and SEVENTEEN 's "Mansae ''. Being the Center, Lee Dae - hwi chooses his team first. The remaining 15 team founders are chosen by random draw. Each group consists of 5 - 7 members. The team founders then compete for songs individually through a race: only 8 can secure their desired songs and choose their opponent from the remaining 8 teams who lose in the race. The episode later showed the groups rehearsing and assigning roles of the ' leader ', ' center ', ' main vocalist ', ' sub vocalists ', and ' rappers '. Each song is then performed live by the two groups and each member is voted on separately by the live audience. The winning team among the two is determined by combining the individual scores. Members of the winning group would gain an extra 3000 points each, to be included into the ranking announcement of the week after. The group with the highest overall points would later perform on M! Countdown. Only four teams covering "10 Out of 10 '' and "Call Me Baby '' were covered this week. The remaining 12 teams performed their respective songs and rehearsals for the groups are shown. After the last performance, the contestants are shown their ranking based purely on individual live votes and the additional 3000 points for the contestants of the winning teams: Park Woo - dam takes the 1st place. His "Mansae '' group (composed of Park Woo - dam, Ju Won - tak, Kim Yeon - kuk, Woo Jin - young, and Kim Tae - dong), also score the highest, and are able to perform a special stage on M! Countdown. For this episode, contestants from Produce 101 Kim So - hye, Choi Yoo - jung and Kim So - hee appear as special panelists. The episode opens with the remaining 98 contestants from each company entering the main studio by company. In between announcements of each trainee 's ranking, events leading up to the elimination are shown, such as their dorm life, exercise and a hidden camera prank. I.O.I 's Kim Do - yeon and Choi Yoo - jung met with the trainees and hosted a dance battle among the trainees, in which Hong Eun - ki was crowned "Dancing King ''. A poll for ' Top Visual ' was also conducted, in which Park Ji - hoon was ranked 1st. Park Ji - hoon also retained his first place in the rankings announcement. First center Lee Dae - hwi was ranked 7th, the shocking fall in his rank surprising everyone. After announcing the top 59 trainees, BoA announces that the last trainee to be saved from elimination is Kim Sang - bin, ranking 60th. At the end of the episode, BoA announces that the team formation for the 3rd mission, which is position evaluation, will be decided by online voting. This is a major difference to that of Season 1, where trainees got to choose the song they want. BoA once again meets with the trainees to announce the next challenge. The trainees are tasked to perform live in groups based on positions they want to debut in: vocal, dance or rap. There are five songs for vocals (I.O.I 's "Downpour '', BTS 's "Spring Day '', BoA 's "Amazing Kiss '', BLACKPINK 's "Playing With Fire '', and Jung Seung Hwan 's "If It Is You '') four songs for dance (Jason Derulo 's "Get Ugly '', NSYNC 's "Pop '', Ed Sheeran 's "Shape Of You '', and Flo Rida 's "Right Round '') and four songs for rap (Mino ft. Taeyang 's "Fear '', iKON 's "Rhythm Ta '', Zico 's "Boys and Girls '', and Simon Dominic, G2, BewhY, and One 's "Who You ''). Each song has a member limit and would be picked by each trainee based on their ranks: Park Ji - hoon who ranked 1st (center) from the first elimination round would have the privilege of choosing the song he wants to perform first. BoA also announces that only 35 trainees will remain in the next round and that the winner from each position category will receive 100,000 votes while the winner from each group will receive 10,000 votes. After each performance, they are ranked in their groups first and then overall in the category. On the day of the stage performances, Super Junior 's Leeteuk substituted BoA to host the show due to the latter 's prior commitment. Only six groups are covered this week, with "Shape of You '' group (composed of Roh Tae - hyun, Park Sung - woo, Kim Tae - dong, Justin, Kim Dong - han, and Lee Jun - woo) receiving the show 's first - ever encore call. The remaining seven teams perform their respective stages and rehearsals for the groups are shown. After the last performance, the contestants are shown their overall ranking based on their positions. The additional 10,000 points are given to 12 contestants for receiving the highest points on their respective group and the extra 100,000 points to Lee Gun - hee, Roh Tae - hyun, and Kim Jong - hyun for receiving the highest points in vocal, dance, and rap position respectively. The episode opens with BoA treating the contestants to pizza before she temporarily goes overseas during the Position Evaluation filming. Sometime after the performances and before the ranking announcement on May 12, BoA gathers the boys informing them about the coming elimination round (where contestants ranking 36 onwards would get eliminated). She then introduces the next challenge: Concept Evaluation. She introduces the five songs: Hyuk Shin 's "I Know You Know '' (Synth - pop / Funk), Veethoven, Oh Sunghwan, Kiggen and ASSBRASS 's "Oh Little Girl '' (Hip Hop), ASHTRAY & KINGMAKER 's "Show Time '' (Nu - disco), Devine - Channel 's "Open Up (열어 줘) '' (Future EDM), and Triple H 's "Never '' (Deep house). Group formations are based on the viewers ' poll which was first introduced at the end of Episode 5. The top 12 trainees voted for each song are assigned to the songs first. Due to voting manipulation controversies, however, Kang Daniel, Lee Ki - won, and Kim Dong - bin are banned from their alleged preferred songs. After they are given their designated songs, the formed groups started to rehearse. The second elimination round takes place during the second half of the episode with the remaining 58 contestants from each company are seen entering the main studio by company. Names of the top 35 trainees are called by BoA one by one starting from rank 34. In between the second elimination round, a mini contest of who punches the strongest is conducted. Kang Dong - ho is given the title "Punching King ''. Kim Jong - hyun receives the 1st place in the ranking announcement while Kim Dong - han ranks 35th, just escaping elimination. BoA announces that since there is an uneven distribution of members after the last elimination, groups with more than 7 people need to vote on who stays. The remaining groups, which have less than 7 people after the elimination, pick from the members who were voted out. All the composers for the concept evaluation songs visit the trainees and they perform in front of the composers. This episode shows the live performances for all five concept evaluations. "Open Up (열어 줘) '' group (composed of Kang Daniel, Kang Dong - ho, Kim Yong - guk, Joo Hak - nyeon, Yoo Seon - ho, Takada Kenta, and Im Young - min) received an encore call and afterwards was also declared the winner of the concept evaluation, resulting in at least 20,000 benefit votes for each member, with the person from that group with the most votes, winning 100,000 benefit votes, to be revealed in the next elimination (Kang Dong - ho and Kang Daniel are the two candidates for 1st place). In addition, the group will also perform on M! Countdown. The episode opens with the remaining 35 contestants from each company entering the main studio. Amidst the eliminations, the trainees participate in a question relay and a team game event where "Open Up (열어 줘) '' group emerges as the winner. They are also asked to vote for the top 6 pick for the debut team in the trainees among them, with MMO Entertainment 's Yoon Ji - sung taking 1st place and Kang Daniel, Jung Se - woon, Park Ji - hoon, Ong Sung - woo, and Park Woo - jin taking 2nd to 6th place respectively. At the elimination, BoA reveals that only 20 trainees will advance to the final stage. Kang Daniel is announced as the overall winner of the concept evaluation, winning 100,000 benefit votes. With ranks 19 to 3 revealed, Kang Daniel and Park Ji - hoon are called up as the contenders for 1st place, with Kang Daniel revealed to be 1st in the overall rank as well. The contenders for 20th place are then called up, Choon Entertainment 's Kim Yong - guk and Cube Entertainment 's Lai Guan - lin, with Lai Guan - lin, whose massive rank drop surprised everyone, surviving the elimination. With the top 20 confirmed, BoA announces the next and final mission -- the debut song evaluation. She introduces "Hands on Me '' (produced by The Underdogs and Deez) and "Super Hot '' (produced by Ryan Jhun) as the final line - up 's debut songs. She explains that they will be split into two teams of 10, each team composed of one main vocal, six to seven sub vocals, and two to three rappers. The trainees choose their positions beginning with rank 20 up to 1, with the higher ranked trainees being given the advantage of replacing the lower ranked trainees and bumping them into another position. Due to voting manipulation controversies, 17th place Im Young - min had to choose his position first as a penalty. After positions are confirmed, the trainees begin practicing the choreography and memorizing the lyrics in preparation for the final stage. The episode begins showing the boy 's audition tapes, as well as their final confessional interviews. An announcement is then made that viewers will now be able to send SMS votes for one trainee only, which will be added to the online votes in order to determine the final line - up. The debut evaluation starts off with the eliminated trainees joining the top 20 trainees for a performance of "It 's Me (Pick Me) ''. BoA then reveals that the debut group will be named Wanna One (Hangul: 워너 원). The episode cuts to the boys performing in two groups. "Super Hot '' group (composed of Ha Sung - woon, Arredondo Samuel, Kang Dong - ho, Yoo Seon - ho, Ahn Hyung - seob, Lee Dae - hwi, Choi Min - ki, Lim Young - min, Kim Jong - hyun, and Lai Guan - lin) performs first with Ha Sung - woon as the center of the group, followed by "Hands on Me '' group (composed of Kim Jae - hwan, Kang Daniel, Ong Seung - woo, Bae Jin - young, Hwang Min - hyun, Jung Se - woon, Joo Hak - nyeon, Yoon Ji - Sung, Park Woo - jin, and Park Ji - hoon) with Bae Jin - young as the center of the group. After the performances, a segment is shown during which trainees watch videos left by their families, some of which surprise the trainees by visiting them in person. The top 20 trainees also perform together a special song titled "Always (이 자리 에) '' as a commemoration of their time throughout the competition. Voting comes to a close, and ranking announcements begin. Bae Jin - young, Hwang Min - hyun, Yoon Ji - sung, Lai Guan - lin, Park Woo - jin, Ong Sung - woo, Kim Jae - hwan, and Lee Dae - hwi are announced as 10th to 3rd place, respectively, confirming them for debut. The top 2 trainees are revealed to be Kang Daniel and Park Ji - hoon once again. Kang Daniel once again receives the most votes, confirming his position as the center for Wanna One, with Park Ji - hoon in 2nd place. Finally, 11th place Ha Sung - woon is announced as the final member. According to Ilgan Sports, the staff of Produce 101 Season 2 have tried to find a trainee who talked to the media about discrimination of the trainees by grade ranking. Ilgan Sports reported that trainees encountered discrimination, such as level - determined permission to go to the bathroom and eat different meals. Also, there are issues about boys who bullied other students and plagiarism of choreography. Maroo Entertainment 's Han Jong - youn left the show due to a serious bullying and sexual assault scandal. An alleged former classmate accused Han Jong - youn of making him masturbate in front of his friends, forcing him to fight with his friends, and locking him in the cleaning equipment room. YGKPLUS 's Kwon Hyun - bin deleted all of his Instagram posts after they were flooded with negative comments. This was in response to the show 's fourth episode, in which Kwon was seen as unmotivated and received harsh criticism from the trainers for a lack of practice, but despite this his team won the live performance battle and he received the highest score out of both teams. During the performance, the trainers commented that the group was "ready to debut ''. After the performance, Kwon Hyun - bin stated that "I 'm here because I really want to debut as a singer '' and "I 've put everything on the line for this ''. Despite having received the most votes, netizens criticized Kwon Hyun - bin for his "lack of sincerity ''. The Vibe Label 's Ha Min - ho allegedly tried to engage in sexual relationships with minors. Screenshots of Instagram and Facebook conversations between him and minor fans were posted online, and he was also accused of sexually harassing and bullying an ex-girlfriend in middle school. After discussing with Mnet, he left the show and canceled his contract with his label. In the concept song round of the show, four contestants were accused of cheating by trying to manipulate a vote to determine which song they would perform. MMO Entertainment 's Kang Daniel reportedly indicated which song he preferred by altering the number of cat emojis in his Instagram biography at the request of a fanpost on a community site. Mnet decided to penalize the trainees that failed to follow the rules by banning them from choosing the songs in question. 2Y Entertainment 's Lee Ki - won was accused of hinting at his song preference by posting "Oh Ki Won > Sa Ki Won Sam Ki Won Lee Ki Won '' on Instagram. His agency released a statement saying that Lee would be banned from using social media until the show was over. A subsequent statement said that the posts in question were made by the agency in an attempt to increase Lee 's popularity while he was allegedly sleeping and unaware. Kiwi Media Group 's Kim Dong - bin was also involved, through screenshots of KakaoTalk messages in which Kim 's father asked his fanclub 's president to promote "Never '' or "Open Up '' as the concept song for Kim Dong - bin. Brand New Music 's Im Young - min was later implicated through screenshots of a KakaoTalk chatroom of fans, which revealed that Im 's brother had asked his friend to inform the fans in the chatroom that Im wanted the songs "Never '' and "Oh Little Girl '' for his concept song. As this incident was not caught until after the recording of concept evaluation, Im was penalized with a different penalty during the following evaluation. The top 11 contestants were determined by online and onsite voting, the results of which were announced at the end of each episode. The top 11 contestants at the final vote determined the final group. For the first and second voting periods, viewers were allowed to select 11 trainees per vote. During the third round, the system changed to 2 trainees per vote. For the final round, the system changed to one trainee per vote. Unlike the previous season, only those with South Korean mobile phone numbers were allowed to vote under a CJ One or TMON account to prevent voting fraud. Notes Notes Notes During the last episode aired on June 16, 2017, BoA announced the unit boy band 's name: Wanna One (Hangul: 워너 원). Notes In the table below, the blue numbers represent the lowest ratings and the red numbers represent the highest ratings. In Japan, the first episode of Produce 101 Season 2 aired on Mnet Japan starting on May 25, 2017, followed by 11 episodes every Thursday night at 1: 00 AM (Friday dawn). In the Asia and Australia region, the first episode of Produce 101 Season 2 aired via tvN Asia on April 25, 2017, followed by 11 episodes every Tuesday at 23: 00.

where is the source of the loire river

Loire - wikipedia The Loire (French pronunciation: ​ (lwaʁ); Occitan: Léger; Breton: Liger) is the longest river in France and the 171st longest in the world. With a length of 1,012 kilometres (629 mi), it drains an area of 117,054 km (45,195 sq mi), or more than a fifth of France 's land area, while its average discharge is only half that of the Rhône. It rises in the highlands of the southeastern quarter of the Massif Central in the Cévennes range (in the department of Ardèche) at 1,350 m (4,430 ft) near Mont Gerbier de Jonc; it flows north through Nevers to Orléans, then west through Tours and Nantes until it reaches the Bay of Biscay (Atlantic Ocean) at Saint - Nazaire. Its main tributaries include the rivers Nièvre, Maine and the Erdre on its right bank, and the rivers Allier, Cher, Indre, Vienne, and the Sèvre Nantaise on the left bank. The Loire gives its name to six departments: Loire, Haute - Loire, Loire - Atlantique, Indre - et - Loire, Maine - et - Loire, and Saône - et - Loire. The central part of the Loire Valley, located in the Centre - Val de Loire region, was added to the World Heritage Sites list of UNESCO on December 2, 2000. Vineyards and châteaux are found along the banks of the river throughout this section. The human history of the Loire river valley begins with the Middle Palaeolithic period of 90 -- 40 kya (thousand years ago), followed by modern humans (about 30 kya), succeeded by the Neolithic period (6,000 to 4,500 BC), all of the recent Stone Age in Europe. Then came the Gauls, the historical tribes in the Loire during the Iron Age period 1500 to 500 BC; they used the Loire as a major riverine trading route by 600 BC, establishing trade with the Greeks on the Mediterranean coast. Gallic rule ended in the valley in 56 BC when Julius Caesar conquered the adjacent provinces for Rome. Christianity was introduced into this valley from the 3rd century AD, as missionaries (many later recognized as saints), converted the pagans. In this period, settlers established vineyards and began producing wines. The Loire Valley has been called the "Garden of France '' and is studded with over a thousand châteaux, each with distinct architectural embellishments covering a wide range of variations, from the early medieval to the late Renaissance periods. They were originally created as feudal strongholds, over centuries past, in the strategic divide between southern and northern France; now many are privately owned. The name "Loire '' comes from Latin Liger, which is itself a transcription of the native Gaulish (Celtic) name of the river. The Gaulish name comes from the Gaulish word liga, which means "silt, sediment, deposit, alluvium '', a word that gave French lie, as in sur lie, which in turn gave English lees. Liga comes from the Proto - Indo - European root * legh -, meaning "to lie, lay '' as in the Welsh word Lleyg which gave many words in English, such as to lie, to lay, ledge, law, etc. Studies of the palaeo - geography of the region suggest that the palaeo - Loire flowed northward and joined the Seine, while the lower Loire found its source upstream of Orléans in the region of Gien, flowing westward along the present course. At a certain point during the long history of uplift in the Paris Basin, the lower, Atlantic Loire captured the "palaeo - Loire '' or Loire séquanaise ("Seine Loire ''), producing the present river. The former bed of the Loire séquanaise is occupied by the Loing. The Loire Valley has been inhabited since the Middle Palaeolithic period from 40 -- 90 ka. Neanderthal man used stone tools to fashion boats out of tree trunks and navigated the river. Modern man inhabited the Loire valley around 30 ka. By around 5000 to 4000 BC, they began clearing forests along the river edges and cultivating the lands and rearing livestock. They built megaliths to worship the dead, especially from around 3500 BC. The Gauls arrived in the valley between 1500 and 500 BC, and the Carnutes settled in Cenabum in what is now Orléans and built a bridge over the river. By 600 BC the Loire had already become a very important trading route between the Celts and the Greeks. A key transportation route, it served as one of the great "highways '' of France for over 2000 years. The Phoenicians and Greeks had used pack horses to transport goods from Lyon to the Loire to get from the Mediterranean basin to the Atlantic coast. The Romans successfully subdued the Gauls in 52 BC and began developing Cenabum, which they named Aurelianis. They also began building the city of Caesarodunum, now Tours, from AD 1. The Romans used the Loire as far as Roanne, around 150 km (93 mi) downriver from the source. After AD 16, the Loire river valley became part of the Roman province of Aquitania, with its capital at Avaricum. From the 3rd century, Christianity spread through the river basin, and many religious figures began cultivating vineyards along the river banks. In the 5th century, the Roman Empire declined and the Franks and the Alemanni came to the area from the east. Following this there was ongoing conflict between the Franks and the Visigoths. In 408, the Iranian tribe of Alans crossed the Loire and large hordes of them settled along the middle course of the Loire in Gaul under King Sangiban. Many inhabitants around the present city of Orléans have names bearing witness to the Alan presence -- Allaines. In the 9th century, the Vikings began invading the west coast of France, using long ships to navigate the Loire. In 853 they attacked and destroyed Tours and its famous abbey, later destroying Angers in raids of 854 and 872. In 877 Charles the Bald died, marking an end to the Carolingian dynasty. After considerable conflict in the region, in 898 Foulques le Roux of Anjou gained power. During the Hundred Years ' War from 1337 to 1453, the Loire marked the border between the French and the English, who occupied territory to the north. One - third of the inhabitants died in the epidemic of the Black Death of 1348 -- 9. The English defeated the French in 1356 and Aquitaine came under English control in 1360. In 1429, Joan of Arc persuaded Charles VII to drive out the English from the country. Her successful relief of the siege of Orléans, on the Loire, was the turning point of the war. In 1477, the first printing press in France was established in Angers, and around this time the Chateau de Langeais and Chateau de Montsoreau were built. During the reign of François I from 1515 to 1547, the Italian Renaissance had a profound influence upon the region, as people adopted its elements in the architecture and culture, particularly among the elite who expressed its principles in their chateaus. In the 1530s, the Reformation ideas reached the Loire valley, with some people becoming Protestant. Religious wars followed and in 1560 Catholics drowned several hundred Protestants in the river. During the Wars of Religion from 1562 to 1598, Orléans served as a prominent stronghold for the Huguenots but in 1568, Protestants blew up Orléans Cathedral. In 1572 some 3000 Huguenots were slaughtered in Paris in the St. Bartholomew 's Day massacre. Hundreds more were drowned in the Loire by Catholics. For centuries local people used wooden embankments and dredging to try to maintain a navigable channel on the river, as it was critical to transportation. River traffic increased gradually, with a toll system being used in medieval times. Today some of these toll bridges still remain, dated to over 800 years. During the 17th century, Jean - Baptiste Colbert instituted the use of stone retaining walls and quays from Roanne to Nantes, which helped make the river more reliable, but navigation was still frequently stopped by excessive conditions during flood and drought. In 1707, floods were said to have drowned 50,000 people in the river valley, with the water rising more than 3 m (9.8 ft) in two hours in Orléans. Typically passenger travel downriver from Orléans to Nantes took eight days, with the upstream journey against the flow taking fourteen. It was also a dumping ground for prisoners in the War in the Vendee since they thought it was a more effective way of killing. Soon after the beginning of the 19th century, steam - driven passenger boats began to ply the river between Nantes and Orléans, making the upriver journey faster; by 1843, 70,000 passengers were being carried annually in the Lower Loire and 37,000 in the Upper Loire. But competition from the railway, beginning in the 1840s, caused a decline in trade on the river. Proposals to develop a fully navigable river up to Briare came to nothing. The opening of the Canal latéral à la Loire in 1838 enabled navigation between Digoin and Briare to continue, but the river level crossing at Briare remained a problem until the construction of the Briare aqueduct in 1896. At 662.69 metres (2,174.2 ft), this was the longest such structure in the world for quite some time. The Canal de Roanne à Digoin was also opened in 1838. It was nearly closed in 1971 but, in the early 21st century, it still provides navigation further up the Loire valley to Digoin. The 261 km (162 mi) Canal de Berry, a narrow canal with locks only 2.7 m (8.9 ft) wide, which was opened in the 1820s and connected the Canal latéral à la Loire at Marseilles - lès - Aubigny to the river Cher at Noyers and back into the Loire near Tours, was closed in 1955. Today the river is officially navigable as far as Bouchemaine, where the Maine joins it near Angers. Another short stretch much further upstream at Decize is also navigable, where a river level crossing from the Canal latéral à la Loire connects to the Canal du Nivernais. The monarchy of France ruled in the Loire Valley for several centuries, giving it the name of "The Valley of Kings ''. These rulers started with the Gauls, followed by the Romans, and the Frankish Dynasty. They were succeeded by the kings of France, who ruled from the late 14th century till the French Revolution; together these rulers contributed to the development of the valley. The chronology of the rulers is presented; in the table below. The source of the river lies in the eastern Massif Central, in springs to the south side of Mont Gerbier de Jonc at 44 ° 50 ′ 38 '' N 4 ° 13 ′ 12 '' E  /  44.84389 ° N 4.22000 ° E  / 44.84389; 4.22000. This lies in the north - eastern part of the southern Cévennes highlands, in the Ardèche commune of Sainte - Eulalie of southeastern France. It is originally a mere trickle of water located at 1,408 m (4,619 ft) above sea level. The presence of an aquifer under Mont Gerbier de Jonc gives rise to multiple sources, three of them located at the foot of Mount have been highlighted as river sources. The three streams converge to form the Loire, which descends the valley south of Mount through the village of Sainte - Eulalie itself. The Loire changed its course, due to tectonic deformations, from the original outfall into the English Channel to its new outfall into the Atlantic Ocean thereby creating the presently seen narrow terrain of gorges, the Loire Valley with alluvium formations and the long stretch of beaches along the Atlantic Ocean. The river can be divided into three main zones; the Upper Loire which is the area from the source to the confluence with the Allier, the middle Loire Valley which is the area from the Allier to the confluence with the Maine, about 280 km (170 mi), and the Lower Loire which is the area from Maine to the estuary. In the upper basin the river flows through a narrow, incised valley, marked by gorges and forests on the edges and a distinct low population. In the intermediate section, the alluvial plain broadens and the river meanders and forks into multi-channels. River flow is particularly high in the river area near Roanne and Vichy up to the confluence with the Allier. In the middle section of the river in the Loire Valley, numerous dikes built between the 12th and 19th century exist, providing mitigation against flooding. In this section the river is relatively straight, except for the area near Orléans and numerous sand banks and islands exist. The lower course of the river is characterized by wetlands and fens, which are of major importance to conservationists given that they form unique habitats for migratory birds. The Loire flows roughly northward through Roanne and Nevers to Orléans and thereafter westward through Tours to Nantes, where it forms an estuary. It flows into the Atlantic Ocean at 47 ° 16 ′ 44 '' N 2 ° 10 ′ 19 '' W  /  47.27889 ° N 2.17194 ° W  / 47.27889; - 2.17194 between Saint - Nazaire and Saint - Brevin - les - Pins, connected by a bridge over the river near its mouth. Several départements of France were named after the Loire. The Loire flows through the following départements and towns: Ardèche, Haute - Loire: Le Puy - en - Velay, Loire: Feurs, Roanne, Saône - et - Loire: Digoin, Allier, Nièvre: Decize, Nevers, La Charité - sur - Loire, Cosne - Cours - sur - Loire, Cher: Sancerre, Loiret: Briare, Gien, Orléans, Loir - et - Cher: Blois, Indre - et - Loire: Amboise, Tours, Maine - et - Loire: Saumur, Loire - Atlantique: Ancenis, Nantes, Saint - Nazaire. The Loire Valley in the Loire river basin, is a 300 km (190 mi) stretch in the western reach of the river starting with Orléans and terminating at Nantes, 56 km (35 mi) short of the Loire estuary and the Atlantic Ocean. The tidal stretch of the river extends to a length of 60 km (37 mi) and a width of 3 km (1.9 mi), which has oil refineries, the port of Saint - Nazaire and 40,000 hectares (99,000 acres) of wetland whose formation is dated to 7500 BC (caused by inundation by sea waters on the northern bank of the estuary), and the beaches of Le Croisic and La Baule along the coastline. Its main tributaries include the rivers Maine, Nièvre and the Erdre on its right bank, and the rivers Allier, Cher, Indre, Vienne, and the Sèvre Nantaise on the left bank. The largest tributary of the river is the Allier, 410 km (250 mi) in length, which joins the Loire near the town of Nevers at 46 ° 57 ′ 34 '' N 3 ° 4 ′ 44 '' E  /  46.95944 ° N 3.07889 ° E  / 46.95944; 3.07889. Downstream of Nevers lies the Loire Valley, a UNESCO World Heritage Site due to its fine assortment of castles. The second longest tributary is the 372 km (231 mi) Vienne which joins the Loire at Candes - Saint - Martin at 47 ° 12 ′ 45 '' N 0 ° 4 ′ 31 '' E  /  47.21250 ° N 0.07528 ° E  / 47.21250; 0.07528, followed by the 367.5 km (228.4 mi) Cher, which joins the Loire near Cinq - Mars - la - Pile at 47 ° 20 ′ 33 '' N 0 ° 28 ′ 49 '' E  /  47.34250 ° N 0.48028 ° E  / 47.34250; 0.48028 and the 287 km (178 mi) Indre, which joins the Loire near Néman at 47 ° 14 ′ 2 '' N 0 ° 11 ′ 0 '' E  /  47.23389 ° N 0.18333 ° E  / 47.23389; 0.18333. The geological formations in the Loire river basin can be grouped into two sets of formations, namely, the basement domain and the domain of sedimentary formations. The basement domain primarily consists of metamorphic and siliceous fragmented rocks with groundwater occurring in fissures. The sedimentary domain consists of limestone and carbonaceous rocks, that, where saturated, form productive aquifers. Rock outcrops of granite or basalt also are exposed in the river bed in several stretches. The middle stretches of the river have many limestone caves which were inhabited by humans in the prehistoric era; the caves are several types of limestone formations, namely tuffeau (a porous type of chalk, not to be confused with tufa) and Falun (formed 12 million years ago). The coastal zone shows hard dark stones, granite, schist and thick soil mantle. The river has a discharge rate of 863 m / s (30,500 cu ft / s), which is an average over the period 1967 -- 2008. The discharge rate varies strongly along the river, with roughly 350 m / s (12,000 cu ft / s) at Orléans and 900 m / s (32,000 cu ft / s) at the mouth. It also depends strongly on the season, and the flow of only 10 m / s (350 cu ft / s) is not uncommon in August -- September near Orléans. During floods, which usually occur in February and March but also in other periods, the flow sometimes exceeds 2,000 m / s (71,000 cu ft / s) for the Upper Loire and 8,000 m / s (280,000 cu ft / s) in the Lower Loire. The most serious floods occurred in 1856, 1866 and 1911. Unlike most other rivers in western Europe, there are very few dams or locks creating obstacles to its natural flow. The flow is no longer partly regulated by three dams: Grangent Dam and Villerest Dam on the Loire and Naussac Dam on the Allier. The Villerest dam, built in 1985 a few kilometres south of Roanne, has played a key - role in preventing recent flooding. As a result, the Loire is a very popular river for boating excursions, flowing through a pastoral countryside, past limestone cliffs and historic castles. Four nuclear power plants are located on the river: Belleville, Chinon, Dampierre and Saint - Laurent. In 1700 the port of Nantes numbered more inland waterway craft than any other port in France, testifying to the historic importance of navigation on France 's longest river. Shallow - draught gabares and other river craft continued to transport goods into the industrial era, including coal from Saint - Étienne loaded on to barges in Orléans. However, the hazardous free - flow navigation and limited tonnages meant that railways rapidly killed off the surviving traffic from the 1850s. In 1894 a company was set up to promote improvements to the navigation from Nantes to Briare. The works were authorised in 1904 and carried out in two phases from Angers to the limit of tides at Oudon. These works, with groynes and submersible embankments, survive and contribute to the limited navigability under present - day conditions. A dam across the Loire at Saint - Léger - des - Vignes provides navigable conditions to cross from the Canal du Nivernais to the Canal latéral à la Loire. As of 2017, the following sections are navigable: The French language adjective ligérien is derived from the name of the Loire, as in le climat ligérien ("the climate of the Loire Valley ''). The climate is considered the most pleasant of northern France, with warmer winters and, more generally, fewer extremes in temperatures, rarely exceeding 38 ° C (100 ° F). It is identified as temperate maritime climate, and is characterised by the lack of dry seasons and by heavy rains and snowfall in winter, especially in the upper streams. The number of sunny hours per year varies between 1400 and 2200 and increases from northwest to southeast. The Loire Valley, in particular, enjoys a pleasant temperate climate. The region experiences a rainfall of 690 mm (27.2 in) along the coast and 648 mm (25.5 in) inland. The Centre region of the Loire river valley accounts for the largest forest in France, the "Forêt d'Orléans '', covering an area of 38,234 hectares (94,480 acres), and the 5,440 - hectare (13,400 - acre) forested park known as the "Foret de Chambord ''. Other vegetation in the valley, mostly under private control, consists of tree species of oak, beech and pine. In the marshy lands, ash, alder and willows are grown with duckweed providing the needed natural fertilizing effect. The Atlantic coast is home to several aquatic herbs, the important species is Salicornia, which is used as a culinary ingredient on account of its diuretic value. Greeks introduced vines. Romans introduced melons, apples, cherries, quinces and pears during the Middle Ages, apart from extracting saffron from purple crocus species in the Orléans. Reine claude (Prunus domestica italica) tree species was planted in the gardens of the Château. Asparagus was also brought from northwestern France. The river flows through the continental ecoregions of Massif central and Bassin Parisien south and in its Lower course partly through South Atlantic and Brittany. With more than 100 alga species, the Loire has the highest phytoplankton diversity among French rivers. The most abundant are diatoms and green algae (about 15 % by mass) which mostly occur in the lower reaches. Their total mass is low when the river flow exceeds 800 m / s (28,000 cu ft / s) and become significant at flows of 300 m / s (11,000 cu ft / s) or lower which occur in summer. With decreasing flow, first species which appear are single - celled diatoms such as Cyclostephanos invisitatus, C. meneghiniana, S. Hantzschii and Thalassiosira pseudonana. They are then joined by multicellular forms including Fragilaria crotonensis, Nitzschia fruticosa and Skeletonema potamos, as well as green algae which form star - shaped or prostrate colonies. Whereas the total biomass is low in the upper reaches, the biodiversity is high, with more than 250 taxa at Orléans. At high flows and in the upper reaches the fraction of the green algae decrease and the phytoplankton is dominated by diatoms. Heterotrophic bacteria are represented by cocci (49 %), rods (35 %), colonies (12 %) and filaments (4 %) with a total density of up to 7010140000000000000 ♠ 1.4 × 10 cells per litre. Nearly every freshwater fish species of France can be found in the Loire river basin, that is, about 57 species from 20 families. Many of them are migratory, with 11 species ascending the river for spawning. The most common species are the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), sea trout (Salmo trutta), shads (Alosa alosa and Alosa fallax), sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) European river lamprey (Lampetra fluviatilis) and smelt (Osmerus eperlanus). The European eel (Anguilla anguilla) is common in the upper streams, whereas the flounder (Platichtys flesus) and flathead mullet (Mugil spp.) tend to stay near the river mouth. The tributaries host brown trout (Salmo trutta), European bullhead (Cottus gobio), European brook lamprey (Lampetra planeri), zander (Sander lucioperca), nase (Chondrostoma nasus and C. toxostoma) and wels catfish (Siluris glanis). The endangered species include grayling (Thymallus thymallus), burbot (Lota lota) and bitterling (Rhodeus sericeus) and the non-native species are represented by the rock bass (Ambloplites rupestris). Although only one native fish species has become extinct in the Loire, namely the European sea sturgeon (Acipenser sturio) in the 1940s, the fish population is declining, mostly due to the decrease in the spawning areas. The latter are mostly affected by the industrial pollution, construction of dams and drainage of oxbows and swamps. The loss of spawning grounds mostly affects the pike (Esox lucius), which is the major predator of the Loire, as well as eel, carp, rudd and salmon. The great Loire salmon, a subspecies of Atlantic salmon, is regarded as the symbolic fish of the river. Its population has decreased from about 100,000 in the 19th century to below 100 in the 1990s that resulted in the adoption of a total ban of salmon fishing in the Loire basin in 1984. A salmon restoration program was initiated in the 1980s and included such as measures as removal of two obsolete hydroelectric dams and introduction of juvenile stock. As a result, the salmon population increased to about 500 in 2005. Most amphibians of the Loire are found in the slow flow areas near the delta, especially in the floodplain, marshes and oxbows. They are dominated by the fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra), frogs and toads. The toads include Bufo bufo, Alytes obstetricans, Bombina variegata, Bufo calamita, Pelobates fuscus and Pelobates cultripes. The frogs are represented by the Parsley frog (Pelodites punctatus), European tree frog (Hyla arborea), Common Frog (Rana temporaria), Agile Frog (R. dalmatina), Edible Frog (R. esculenta), Perez 's Frog (R. perezi), marsh frog (R. ridubunda) and Pool Frog (R. lessonae). Newts of the Loire include the Marbled Newt (Triturus marmoratus), Smooth Newt (T. vulgaris), Alpine Newt (T. alpestris) and Palmate Newt (T. helveticus). The Loire hosts about 64 % of nesting bird species of France, that is 164 species, of which 54 are water birds, 44 species are common for managed forests, 41 to natural forests, 13 to open and 12 to rocky areas. This avifauna has been rather stable, at least between the 1980s and 2000s, with significant abundance variations observed only for 17 species. Of those, five species were growing in population, four declining, and other eight were fluctuating. Some of these variations had a global nature, such as the expansion of the Mediterranean gull in Europe. The Loire has been described as "constantly under threat of losing its status as the last wild river in France ''. The reason for this is its sheer length and possibility of extensive navigation, which severely limits the scope of river conservation. The Federation, a member of the IUCN since 1970, has been very important in the campaign to save the Loire river system from development. In 1986, the French government, the Loire - Brittany Water Agency and the EPALA settled an agreement on flood prevention and water storage programme in the basin, involving construction of four large dams, one on the Loire itself and three on the Allier and Cher. The French government proposed a construction of a dam at Serre de la Fare on the upper Loire which would have been an environmental catastrophe, as it would have inundated some 20 km (12 mi) of pristine gorges. As a result, the WWF and other NGOs established the Loire Vivante (Living Loire) network in 1988 to oppose the Serre de la Fare dam scheme and arranged an initial meeting with the French Minister of the Environment. The French government initially rejected the conservation concerns and in 1989 gave the dam projects the green light. This sparked public demonstrations by the WWF and conservation groups. In 1990, Loire Vivante met with the French Prime Minister and the government, this time successfully as the government later demanded that the EPALA embark upon major reforms in its approach to managing the river. Due to extensive lobbying, the proposal and the other dam proposals were eventually rejected in the 1990s and the Serre de la Fare area has since been protected as a ' Natura 2000 ' site under European Union environmental legislation. The WWF were particularly important in changing the perception of the French authorities in support for dam building to environmental protection and sustainable management of its river basin. In 1992, they aided the ' Loire Nature ' project, which received funds of some $ US 9 million under the EU 's ' LIFE ' programme until 1999, embarking upon restoration to the river 's ecosystems and wildlife. That year, the Upper Loire Valley Farmers Association was also established through a partnership between SOS Loire Vivante and a farmers ' union to promote sustainable rural tourism. The French government adopted the Natural Loire River Plan (Plan Loire Grandeur Nature) in January 1994, initiating the decommissioning of three dams on the river. The final dam was decommissioned by Électricité de France at a cost of 7 million francs in 1998. The basis of the decision was that the economic benefits of the dams did not outweigh their significant ecological impacts, so the intention was to restore the riverine ecosystems and replenish great Loire salmon stocks. The Loire is unique in this respect as the Atlantic salmon can swim as far as 900 km (560 mi) up the river and spawn in the upper reaches of the Allier. The French government undertook this major plan, chiefly because pollution and overfishing had reduced approximately 100,000 salmon migrating annually to their spawning grounds in the headwaters of the Loire and its tributaries to just 67 salmon in 1996 on the upper Allier. The WWF, BirdLife International, and local conservation bodies have also made considerable efforts to improve the conservation of the Loire estuary and its surroundings, given that they are unique habitats for migrating birds. The estuary and its shoreline are also important for fishing, shellfish farming and tourism. The major commercial port at Nantes has caused severe damage to the ecosystem of the Loire estuary. In 2002, the WWF aided a second Loire Nature project and expanded its scope to the entire basin, addressing some 4,500 hectares (11,000 acres) of land under a budget of US $ 18 million, mainly funded by government and public bodies, such as the Établissement Publique Loire (EPL), a public institution which had formerly advocated large - scale dam projects on the river. The Loire Valley (French: Vallée de la Loire) lies in the middle stretch of the river, extends for about 280 km (170 mi) and comprises an area of roughly 800 km (310 sq mi). It is also known as the Garden of France -- due to the abundance of vineyards, fruit orchards, artichoke, asparagus and cherry fields which line the banks of the river -- and also as the "cradle of the French language ''. It is also noteworthy for its architectural heritage: in part for its historic towns such as Amboise, Angers, Blois, Chinon, Nantes, Orléans, Saumur, and Tours, but in particular for its castles, such as the Château d'Amboise, Château d'Angers, Château de Chambord, Château de Montsoreau, Château d'Ussé, Château de Villandry and Chenonceau, and also for its many cultural monuments, which illustrate the ideals of the Renaissance and the Age of the Enlightenment on western European thought and design. On December 2, 2000, UNESCO added the central part of the Loire valley, between Bouchemaine in Anjou and Sully - sur - Loire in Loiret, to its list of World Heritage Sites. In choosing this area that includes the French départements of Loiret, Loir - et - Cher, Indre - et - Loire, and Maine - et - Loire, the committee said that the Loire Valley is: "an exceptional cultural landscape, of great beauty, comprised of historic cities and villages, great architectural monuments -- the Châteaux -- and lands that have been cultivated and shaped by centuries of interaction between local populations and their physical environment, in particular the Loire itself. '' Architectural edifices were created in Loire valley from the 10th century onwards with the defensive fortress like structures called the "keeps '' or "donjons '' built between 987 and 1040 by Anjou Count Foulques Nerra of Anjou (the Falcon). However, one of the oldest such structures in France is the Donjon de Foulques Nerra built in 944. This style was replaced by the religious architectural style in the 12th to 14th centuries when the impregnable château fortresses were built on top of rocky hills; one of the impressive fortresses of this type is the Château d'Angers, which has 17 gruesome towers. This was followed by aesthetically built châteaux (to also function as residential units), which substituted the quadrangular layout of the keep. However, the exterior defensive structures, in the form of portcullis and moats surrounding the thick walls of the châteaux ' forts were retained. There was further refinement in the design of the châteaux in the 15th century before the Baroque style came into prominence with decorative and elegantly designed interiors and which became fashionable from the 16th to the end of the 18th century. The Baroque style artists who created some of the exquisite château structures were: The Parisian, François Mansart (1598 -- 1662) whose classical symmetrical design is seen in the Château de Blois; Jacques Bougier (1635) of Blois whose classical design is the Château de Cheverny; Guillaume Bautru remodelled the Château de Serrant (at the extreme western end of the valley). In the 17th century, there was feverish pace in the design of châteaux for introducing exotic styles; a notable structure of this period is the Pagode de Chanteloup at Amboise, which was built between 1773 and 1778. The Neoclassical architectural style, was a revival of Classical style of architecture, which emerged in the mid 18th century; one such notable structure is the Château de Menars built by Jacques Ange Gabriel (1698 -- 1782) who was the royal architect in the court of Louis XV (1715 -- 74). This style was perpetuated during the reign of Louis XVI (1774 -- 92) but with more refinements; one such refined château seen close to Angers is the Château de Montgeoffroy. Furnishings inside the châteaux also witnessed changes to suit the living styles of its occupants. Gardens, both ornamental fountains, foot paths flower beds and tended grass) and kitchen type (to grow vegetables), also accentuated the opulence of the châteaux. During the French Revolution (1789), however, there was a radical change for the worst conditions in the scenarios of the chateaus, as monarchy ended in France. The châteaux, numbering more than three hundred, represent a nation of builders starting with the necessary castle fortifications in the 10th century to the splendour of those built half a millennium later. When the French kings began constructing their huge châteaux here, the nobility, not wanting or even daring to be far from the seat of power, followed suit. Their presence in the lush, fertile valley began attracting the very best landscape designers. Today, these privately owned châteaux serve as homes, a few open their doors to tourist visits, while others are operated as hotels or bed and breakfasts. Many have been taken over by a local government authority or the giant structures like those at Chambord are owned and operated by the national government and are major tourist sites, attracting hundreds of thousands of visitors each year. Some notable Châteaux on the Loire include Beaufort - Mareuil sur Cher -- Lavoûte - Polignac -- Bouthéon -- Montrond -- Bastie d'Urfé -- Château féodal des Cornes d'Urfé -- La Roche -- Château féodal de Saint - Maurice - sur - Loire -- Saint - Pierre - la - Noaille -- Chevenon -- Palais ducal de Nevers -- Saint - Brisson -- Gien -- La Bussière -- Pontchevron -- La Verrerie (near Aubigny - sur - Nère) -- Sully - sur - Loire -- Châteauneuf - sur - Loire -- Boisgibault -- Meung - sur - Loire -- Menars -- Talcy -- Château de la Ferté -- Chambord -- Blois -- Villesavin -- Cheverny -- Beauregard -- Troussay -- Château de Chaumont -- Amboise -- Clos - Lucé -- Langeais -- Gizeux -- Les Réaux -- Montsoreau -- Montreuil - Bellay -- Saint - Loup - sur - Thouet -- Saumur -- Boumois -- Brissac -- Montgeoffroy -- Plessis - Bourré -- Château des Réaux Amboise on the banks of the Loire River Chateau de Langeais Château de Blois interior façades in Gothic, Renaissance and Classic styles (from right to left). Château de Valençay. Château de Montsoreau The Loire Valley wine region includes the French wine regions situated along the Loire River from the Muscadet region near the city of Nantes on the Atlantic coast to the region of Sancerre and Pouilly - Fumé just southeast of the city of Orléans in north central France. In between are the regions of Anjou, Saumur, Bourgueil, Chinon, and Vouvray. The Loire Valley itself follows the river through the Loire province to the river 's origins in the Cévennes but the majority of the wine production takes place in the regions noted above. The Loire Valley has a long history of winemaking dating back to the 1st century. In the High Middle Ages, the wines of the Loire Valley were the most esteemed wines in England and France, even more prized than those from Bordeaux. Archaeological evidence suggest that the Romans planted the first vineyards in the Loire Valley during their settlement of Gaul in the 1st century AD. By the 5th century, the flourishing viticulture of the area was noted in a publication by the poet Sidonius Apollinaris. In his work History of the Franks, Bishop Gregory of Tours wrote of the frequent plundering by the Bretons of the area 's wine stocks. By the 11th century the wines of Sancerre had a reputation across Europe for their high quality. Historically the wineries of the Loire Valley have been small, family owned operations that do a lot of estate bottling. The mid-1990s saw an increase in the number of négociant and co-operative to where now about half of Sancerre and almost 80 % of Muscadet is bottled by a négociant or co-op. The Loire river has a significant effect on the mesoclimate of the region, adding the necessary extra few degrees of temperature that allows grapes to grow when the areas to the north and south of the Loire Valley have shown to be unfavourable to viticulture. In addition to finding vineyards along the Loire, several of the river 's tributaries are also well planted -- including the Allier, Cher, Indre, Loir, Sèvre Nantaise and Vienne Rivers. The climate can be very cool with spring time frost being a potential hazard for the vines. During the harvest months rain can cause the grapes to be harvested under ripe but can also aid in the development of Botrytis cinerea for the region 's dessert wines. The Loire Valley has a high density of vine plantings with an average of 4,000 -- 5,000 vines per hectare (1,600 -- 2,000 per acre). Some Sancerre vineyards have as many as 10,000 plants per hectare. With more vines competing for the same limited resources in the soil, the density is designed to compensate for the excessive yields that some of the grape varieties, like Chenin blanc, are prone to have. In recent times, pruning and canopy management have started to limit yields more effectively. The Loire Valley is often divided into three sections. The Upper Loire includes the Sauvignon blanc dominated areas of Sancerre and Pouilly - Fumé. The Middle Loire is dominated by more Chenin blanc and Cabernet franc wines found in the regions around Touraine, Saumur, Chinon and Vouvray. The Lower Loire that leads to the mouth of the river 's entrance to the Atlantic goes through the Muscadet region which is dominated by wines of the Melon de Bourgogne grape. Spread out across the Loire Valley are 87 appellation under the AOC, VDQS and Vin de Pays systems. There are two generic designation that can be used across the whole of the Loire Valley. The Crémant de Loire which refers to any sparkling wine made according to the traditional method of Champagne. The Vin de Pays du Jardin de la France refers to any varietally labelled wine, such as Chardonnay, that is produced in the region outside of an AOC designation. The area includes 87 appellations under the Appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC), Vin Délimité de Qualité Superieure (VDQS) and Vin de pays systems. While the majority of production is white wine from the Chenin blanc, Sauvignon blanc and Melon de Bourgogne grapes, there are red wines made (especially around the Chinon region) from Cabernet franc. In addition to still wines, rosé, sparkling and dessert wines are also produced. With Crémant production throughout the Loire valley, it is the second largest sparkling wine producer in France after Champagne. Among these different wine styles, Loire wines tend to exhibit characteristic fruitiness with fresh, crisp flavours - especially in their youth. The Loire has inspired many poets and writers, including: Charles d'Orléans, François Rabelais, René Guy Cadou (fr), Clément Marot, Pierre de Ronsard, Joachim du Bellay, Jean de La Fontaine, Charles Péguy, Gaston Couté; and painters such as: Raoul Dufy, J.M.W. Turner, Gustave Courbet, Auguste Rodin, Félix Edouard Vallotton, Jacques Villon, Jean - Max Albert, Charles Leduc (fr), Edmond Bertreux (fr), and Jean Chabot. Scène of the Loire, by J.M.W. Turner. La source de la Loire, by Gustave Courbet. Portrait of the Loire, by Jean - Max Albert, 1988. Les Rosiers - sur - Loire by Jean - Jacques Delusse (fr), 1800 Garrett, Martin, The Loire: a Cultural History. 2010, Signal Books. Pays de la Loire, waterways guide No. 10, Editions du Breil. pp 8 -- 27, for the navigable section (guide in English, French and German)

peter gibbons messes up his tps reports in the movie office space

Matrix management - wikipedia Strictly speaking, matrix management, which was "introduced in the 1970s in the context of competition '' is the practice of managing individuals with more than one reporting line (in a matrix organization structure), but it is also commonly used to describe managing cross functional, cross business group and other forms of working that cross the traditional vertical business units -- often silos - of function and geography. It is a type of organizational structure in which people with similar skills are pooled for work assignments, resulting in more than one manager (sometimes referred to as solid line and dotted line reports, in reference to traditional business organization charts). For example, all engineers may be in one engineering department and report to an engineering manager, but these same engineers may be assigned to different projects and report to a different engineering manager or a project manager while working on that project. Therefore, each engineer may have to work under several managers to get his or her job done. A lot of the early literature on the matrix comes from the field of cross functional project management where matrices are described as strong, medium or weak depending on the level of power of the project manager. While some form of matrix management has become fairly common in certain industries, particularly among companies that have multiple business units and international operations, upon closer inspection, different organizations implement a matrix structure in different ways to support their needs. Some organizations fall somewhere between the fully functional and the pure matrix. These organizations are defined in A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge as ' composite '. For example, even a fundamentally functional organization may create a special project team to handle a critical project. Key advantages that organizations seek when introducing a matrix include: Key disadvantages of matrix organizations include: The advantages of a matrix for project management can include: The disadvantages for project management can include: Examples of using Matrix Management: As for why the term is not publicly and formally affiliated with large numbers of corporations, a 2007 book about how "matrix management made a big splash in the 1970s '' said that, "for the most part... companies using matrix structures tend to keep quiet about it. '' In 1990 Christopher A. Bartlett and Sumantra Ghoshal writing on matrix management in the Harvard Business Review, quoted a line manager saying "The challenge is not so much to build a matrix structure as it is to create a matrix in the minds of our managers ''. Despite this, most academic work has focused on structure, where most practitioners seem to struggle with the skills and behaviours needed to make matrix management a success. Most of the disadvantages are about the way people work together, not the structure. In "Designing Matrix Organizations That Actually Work '' Jay R. Galbraith says "Organization structures do not fail, but management fails at implementing them successfully. '' He argues that strategy, structure, processes, rewards and people all need to be aligned in a successful matrix implementation. In "Making the Matrix Work: How Matrix Managers Engage People and Cut through Complexity '', Kevan Hall identifies a number of specific matrix management challenges in an environment where accountability without control, and influence without authority, become the normal way of working: Paula K. Martin, in her books The Matrix Management 2.0 Body of Knowledge and Matrix Management Reinvented -- The New Game in Town, introduced the concept of Matrix Management 2.0, an organizational operating System that focuses on running a matrix organization from two dimensions -- the horizontal and the vertical. MM 2.0 is defined in Matrix Management Reinvented -- The New Game in Town as "A management operating system specifically designed to make a matrix organization function effectively and efficiently. '' This new system updates other organizational operating systems such as Vertical Management 1.0 which is a one - dimensional, authority based system invented in the 1950 's, and the Matrix Management (1.0) system that is focused on creating a specific matrix structure and authority based relationships with dual - reporting or dotted - line relationships on an Org Chart. Matrix Management 2.0 is based on a new set of assumptions that change how we look at the organization as a system and matrix leadership. MM 2.0 Organizational Assumptions, as defined in Matrix Management Reinvented -- The New Game in Town: MM 2.0 Leadership Assumptions, as defined in Matrix Management Reinvented -- The New Game in Town: The MM 2.0 system is broken up into five SPARC Keys that cover the different aspects organizations address when they apply matrix management -- Structure, Productivity, Accountability, Relationship Management and Collaborative Leadership. With MM 2.0, each Key follows the premises and principles based upon the new assumptions. SPARC Keys, as defined in Matrix Management Reinvented -- The New Game in Town: Representing matrix organizations visually has challenged managers ever since the matrix management structure was invented. Most organizations use dotted lines to represent secondary relationships between people, and charting software such as Visio and OrgPlus supports this approach. Until recently, enterprise resource planning (ERP) and human resource management systems (HRMS) software did not support matrix reporting. Late releases of SAP software support matrix reporting, and Oracle eBusiness Suite can also be customized to store matrix information. Matrix management should not be confused with "tight matrix ''. Tight matrix, or co-location, refers to locating offices for a project team in the same room, regardless of management structure.

where was the mummy with tom cruise filmed

The Mummy (2017 film) - wikipedia The Mummy is a 2017 American action - adventure film directed by Alex Kurtzman and written by David Koepp, Christopher McQuarrie and Dylan Kussman, with a story by Kurtzman, Jon Spaihts and Jenny Lumet. It is a reboot of The Mummy franchise and the first installment in Universal 's planned Dark Universe franchise. The film stars Tom Cruise as a US soldier who accidentally unearths the ancient tomb of an entrapped Egyptian princess (Sofia Boutella). Annabelle Wallis, Jake Johnson, Courtney B. Vance and Russell Crowe also star. The Mummy premiered at the State Theatre in Sydney, Australia on May 22, 2017, and was theatrically released in the United States on June 9, 2017, in 2D, 3D and IMAX 3D. The film received generally negative reviews from critics and eight nominations at the 38th Golden Raspberry Awards, including Worst Picture, Worst Director for Kurtzman, Worst Actor for Cruise, Worst Supporting Actor for Crowe and Worst Supporting Actress for Boutella. Also, despite grossing $409 million worldwide, it was labeled a box office bomb given its high production and marketing costs, with projected losses up to $95 million. In 1157 A.D., several English crusader knights bury an Egyptian ruby within the tomb of one of their members. In present - day London, a construction crew discovers the tomb and a mysterious man is authorized to investigate the site. In a flashback to the New Kingdom era, Princess Ahmanet is first in line to succeed her father Menehptre until his second wife gives birth to a son. Determined to claim the throne for herself, Ahmanet summons Set, who agrees to help her if she uses a mystical dagger known as the Dagger of Set to transfer his spirit into a physical form. After murdering her father, his wife, and their child, Ahmanet attempts to sacrifice her lover to Set but is captured by her father 's priests and condemned to be mummified alive for eternity. Her sarcophagus is buried in Mesopotamia and submerged in a pool of mercury so that her monstrous form will not escape. In present - day Iraq, Sergeant Nick Morton and Corporal Chris Vail, while on Long Range Reconnaissance for the U.S. Army, discover the tomb of Ahmanet after calling in an airstrike on an insurgent stronghold. Jenny Halsey, an archaeologist who had a one - night stand with Nick and had her map stolen by him, arrives and investigates the tomb, correctly concluding that it is a prison. After Nick extracts Ahmanet 's sarcophagus from the pool of mercury, Nick 's superior, Colonel Greenway, places it on a transport plane headed to England. During the flight, Vail becomes possessed by Ahmanet 's power after being bitten by a camel spider while inside the tomb. After attempting to open the sarcophagus, he stabs Greenway and tries to attack the group, forcing Nick to kill him. A huge number of crows then assault the plane, causing it to crash and kill everyone on board except for Jenny, who is parachuted off the plane by Nick. Nick awakens a day later in a morgue in Oxford, discovering that he has been brought back to life by unknown means, and he learns from Vail 's sardonic ghost that he has been cursed by Ahmanet, who seeks to use him as a replacement vessel for Set. Ahmanet 's mummy escapes from the sarcophagus and begins feeding on rescue workers to regenerate her decomposed body. Turning the workers into zombie minions, she lures Nick and Jenny into a trap, forcing the two to fight off the minions as they unsuccessfully try to escape. Ahmanet also recovers the Dagger of Set from a reliquary in a nearby church. At the last moment, however, unknown soldiers appear and subdue Ahmanet. Their leader, Dr. Henry Jekyll, explains that Jenny is an agent of Prodigium, a secret society dedicated to hunting supernatural threats. He reveals much of his own history and confirms that Nick was cursed when Ahmanet 's tomb was opened. Although first welcoming Dr. Jekyll 's help, Nick (as well as Jenny) becomes horrified to discover the doctor 's intention to complete the ritual, allowing Set to possess Nick completely, in the belief that this will render Set vulnerable and allow his evil to be ended forever. Meanwhile, Ahmanet summons a spider to possess a Prodigium technician and frees herself from captivity, wreaking havoc, death, and destruction in the process. After verbally sparring with Nick, Jekyll succumbs to his own dark impulses and transforms into Edward Hyde, his sadistic and murderous alternate personality, even as Ahmanet wreaks havoc outside unbeknownst to them. Nick rebuffs the repulsive Hyde 's offer of an alliance between them, and Hyde attacks him. However, Nick manages to stop him with the serum Jekyll uses to suppress his evil side. He and Jenny then escape from Prodigium, but they run into Ahmanet once again. She steals back the dagger, summons an army of deceased crusaders to serve her, and creates a massive sandstorm that ravages London, with Nick and Jenny narrowly escaping her grasp. The undead knights slaughter the Prodigium soldiers in the tomb discovered during the film 's opening, and Ahmanet finally recovers the ruby and places it in the dagger 's pommel, granting her all that she needs to free Set aside from Nick himself. Guided by the spectral Vail, Nick and Jenny flee into the London Underground tunnels, but it is revealed that Vail is still under Ahmanet 's control and they are soon attacked by Ahmanet 's minions. Ahmanet captures Jenny and drowns her, hoping to break her hold over Nick. Nick is beaten up by Ahmanet until he gives up and lets himself embrace Ahmanet, using it as a ruse to steal the dagger and shatter the ruby. However, he sees the lifeless Jenny and bets on stabbing himself. Nick 's body is partially possessed by Set, who proceeds to join Ahmanet to uphold his end of the bargain. However, looking back at Jenny 's dead body, Nick regains control, using Set 's powers to overpower and suck the life out of Ahmanet. Once Ahmanet is transformed back into a shriveled mummy, Nick harnesses Set 's powers to resurrect Jenny, saying goodbye before succumbing to Set 's nature and disappearing. Soon, Jenny regroups with Dr. Jekyll, and they tensely discuss if Nick, now fused with Set in an uncertain way, will use his powers for good, evil, or something else entirely. Ahmanet 's corpse is lowered into a locked pool of mercury within the Prodigium base for safekeeping. Meanwhile, in the desert, Nick resurrects Vail, and the two set out on a new adventure. Additionally, Marwan Kenzari plays Malik, Jekyll 's chief of security and a member of Prodigium. Javier Botet plays Set, the ancient Egyptian god of death, who aids Princess Ahmanet in her quest to rule Egypt. Set has a connection with Nick Morton, as the latter is intended to be the human vessel for his resurrection. Universal Pictures first announced plans for a modern reboot of The Mummy franchise in 2012. The project went through multiple directors, with Len Wiseman leaving the project in 2013, and a second director, Andrés Muschietti, in 2014. Tom Cruise began talks about playing the lead in November 2015, with Sofia Boutella beginning talks that December. Kurtzman cast Boutella after seeing and being impressed by her largely mute performance in Kingsman: The Secret Service. Kurtzman noted that "if you look at her eyes, and this is what I got from watching Kingsman, there 's a whole performance going on here. And in not saying anything but conveying that much to me, I thought oh my god, no matter how much prosthetics we put on her, no matter how much CG we put on her face, if I see this, she 's going to convey something very emotional to me. '' Other casting news was announced between March and May, with Russell Crowe joining during the latter month. Shortly after the film opened, Variety reported that Cruise had excessive control over the film and firm control of nearly every aspect of production and post-production, including re-writing the script and editing to his specifications, telling Kurtzman how to direct on set, and enlarging his role while downplaying Boutella 's. Universal contractually guaranteed Cruise control of most aspects of the project, from script approval to post-production decisions. Principal photography on the film began on April 3, 2016, in Oxford, United Kingdom, and also took place in Surrey. Filming on the movie wrapped on July 17, 2016, in London. Production then moved to Namibia for two weeks, with principal photography on the film being completed on August 13, 2016. For the filming of the plane crash the production made use of The Vomit Comet and parabolic flight to simulate the illusion of weightlessness. The crew did a total of 64 takes with many of the crew becoming sick to their stomachs. Initially Kurtzman planned to shoot the scene entirely using wires and a rotating set, however Cruise 's insistence changed his mind. Composer Brian Tyler started work on the music for the movie early, writing about a half hour of music before filming even began. Working on the film for a year and half, Tyler recorded with an 84 - piece orchestra and 32 - voice choir at London 's Abbey Road. He ultimately wrote and recorded over two hours of music, which, given the length of the film (107 minutes), resulted in a soundtrack album longer than the film itself. Initially scheduled for a 2016 release, the film was released in the United States and Canada on June 9, 2017, with international roll out beginning the same day. The film was screened in various formats, such as 2D, 3D and IMAX 3D. On December 20, 2016, IMAX released a trailer with the wrong audio track attached; this unintentionally prompted the creation of memes and video montages featuring the mistakenly included audio track, which was missing most of the sound effects and instead featured Tom Cruise 's grunts and screams. IMAX reacted by taking down the trailer and issuing DMCA takedown notices in an attempt to stop it from spreading. Following the 2017 Manchester Arena bombing on May 22, Universal cancelled the film 's U.K. premiere, which had been scheduled to take place in London on June 1. A video game based on the film, The Mummy Demastered, was released on October 24, 2017. It is a Metroidvania featuring a stand - alone story, which takes place concurrently with the events of the film and follows Prodigium soldiers under the command of Dr. Jekyll who fight the forces of Princess Ahmanet; unlike the film, it received positive reviews. The Mummy grossed $80.2 million in the United States and Canada and $329 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $409.2 million, against a combined production and advertising budget of around $345 million. The film had a worldwide opening of $172.4 million, the biggest global debut of Tom Cruise 's career. In North America, the film was released alongside It Comes at Night and Megan Leavey, and was originally projected to gross $35 -- 40 million from 4,034 theaters in its opening weekend. However, after making $12 million on its first day (including $2.66 million from Thursday night previews), weekend projections were lowered to $30 million. It ended up debuting to $31.7 million, marking the lowest of the Mummy franchise and finishing second at the box office behind Wonder Woman ($58.2 million in its second week). Deadline.com attributed the film 's underperformance to poor critic and audience reactions, as well as "blockbuster fatigue. '' In its second weekend the film made $14.5 million (dropping 54.2 %), finishing 4th at the box office. It was pulled from 827 theaters in its third week and made $5.8 million, dropping another 60 % and finishing 6th at the box office. Outside North America, the film opened in 63 overseas territories, with China, the UK, Mexico, Germany, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Brazil and Russia receiving the film the same day as in North America, and was projected to debut to $125 -- 135 million. It opened on June 6, 2017 in South Korea and grossed $6.6 million on its first day, the biggest - ever debut for both Tom Cruise and Universal in the country. It ended up having a foreign debut of $140.7 million, the biggest of Cruise 's career. In its opening weekend the film made $52.4 million in China, $7.4 million in Russia, $4.9 million in Mexico and $4.2 million in the United Kingdom. As of July 9, 2017, The film other big markets are China ($91.5 million), South Korea ($26.2 million), Russia and the CIS ($15.9 million) and Brazil ($13.2 million). The Mummy received generally negative reviews from critics, with criticism aimed at its narrative, tone, acting, and plot points setting up the Dark Universe. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 16 % based on 261 reviews, with an average rating of 4.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Lacking the campy fun of the franchise 's most recent entries and failing to deliver many monster - movie thrills, The Mummy suggests a speedy unraveling for the Dark Universe. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 34 out of 100 based on 44 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B − '' on an A+ to F scale, while comScore reported filmgoers gave it a 70 % overall positive score. Vince Mancini of Uproxx gave the film a negative review, writing: "If you like incomprehensible collections of things that vaguely resemble other things you might 've enjoyed in the past, The Mummy is the movie for you. '' IndieWire 's David Ehrlich gave the film a D -, calling it the worst film of Cruise 's career and criticizing its lack of originality, saying: "It 's one thing to excavate the iconography of old Hollywood, it 's another to exploit it. This is n't filmmaking, it 's tomb - raiding. '' Owen Gleiberman of Variety wrote: "The problem at its heart is that the reality of what the movie is -- a Tom Cruise vehicle -- is at war with the material. The actor, at 54, is still playing that old Cruise trope, the selfish cocky semi-scoundrel who has to grow up... The trouble is that Cruise, at least in a high - powered potboiler like this one, is so devoted to maintaining his image as a clear and wholesome hero that his flirtation with the dark side is almost entirely theoretical. '' Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers gave the film one star out of four, saying: "How meh is The Mummy? Let me count the ways. For all the huffing and puffing and digital desperation from overworked computers, this reboot lands onscreen with a resounding thud. '' Glen Kenny of RogerEbert.com gave the film 1.5 / 4 stars, writing: I found something almost admirable about the film 's cheek. It 's amazingly relentless in its naked borrowing from other, better horror and sci - fi movies that I was able to keep occupied making a checklist of the movies referenced. Entertainment Weekly 's Chis Nashawaty wrote that the film "feels derivative and unnecessary and like it was written by committee. '' In BBC World News Culture, Nicholas Barber calls the film "a mish - mash of wildly varying tones and plot strands, from its convoluted beginning to its shameless non-end. Tom Cruise 's new film barely qualifies as a film at all. None of it makes sense. The film delivers all the chases, explosions, zombies and ghosts you could ask for, and there are a few amusing lines and creepy moments, but, between the headache - inducing flashbacks and hallucinations, the narrative would be easier to follow if it were written in hieroglyphics. '' Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian wrote that the film "has some nice moments but is basically a mess. The plot sags like an aeon - old decaying limb, a jumble of ideas and scenes from what look like different screenplay drafts. '' Empire film magazine was more positive, with Dan Jolin awarding the film three stars. "It 's running and jumping grin - flashing business as usual for Cruise, once more on safe character territory as an Ethan Hunt-esque action protagonist who couples up with a much younger woman, while another woman chases after him, '' he wrote. "And if the next installment - teasing conclusion is anything to go by, Cruise seemed to have enough fun making this that he may just return for more. '' The film is part of the Universal Pictures ' Dark Universe, an attempt to create a modern cinematic universe based on the classic Universal Monsters film series. A remake of Bride of Frankenstein was originally scheduled for release on February 14, 2019, but on October 5, 2017, Universal decided to postpone it to allow more work to be done on the script. The 2014 film Dracula Untold was originally considered to be the first film in the series; however, since the film 's release, the connection to Dark Universe was downplayed, and The Mummy was re-positioned as the first film in the series.

which province has the smallest population in south africa

List of South african provinces by population density - wikipedia Since the election of 27 April 1994, South Africa has been divided into nine provinces. They vary widely in population density, from the highly urbanized Gauteng with nearly 700 people per square kilometre, to the mostly - desert Northern Cape with less than four people per square kilometre. The following table shows the provincial population density according to the 2011 National Census. Since the creation of the current provinces in 1994 there have been three censuses, in 1996, 2001 and 2011.

who's running for governor of new york

New York gubernatorial election, 2018 - wikipedia Andrew Cuomo Democratic The 2018 New York gubernatorial election will take place on November 6, 2018, to elect the Governor of New York, as well as elections to the United States Senate in other states and elections to the United States House of Representatives and various state and local elections. Incumbent Democratic Governor Andrew Cuomo announced his intention to seek a third term on November 15, 2016. Former Libertarian Party vice presidential candidate Larry Sharpe announced his intent to unseat Gov. Cuomo on July 12, 2017. Incumbent Democratic Governor Andrew Cuomo decided to seek re-election in 2014 to a second term in office. Governor Cuomo defeated Zephyr Teachout in a primary election, 63 % to 33 %, and went on to defeat the Republican nominee, Westchester County Executive Rob Astorino, 54 % to 40 %, in the general election. In addition to the Democratic, Republican, and Libertarian Parties, six other political parties will have automatic ballot access, should they so choose to exercise it. In order of ballot appearance: Hypothetical polling

who wins the bet in the short story the bet

The bet (short story) - wikipedia "The Bet '' (Russian: "Пари '', translit. Pari) is an 1889 short story by Anton Chekhov about a banker and a young lawyer who make a bet with each other about whether the death penalty is better or worse than life in prison. On 17 December 1888 Nikolai Khudekov asked Chekhov to write a story for Peterburgskaya Gazeta which he was an editor of. Chekhov came up with "The Cobbler and the Devil '' (published on 25 December) and informed Alexey Suvorin of that. Suvorin, the Novoye Vremya 's editor, took it almost as an insult, so Chekhov promised to produce a similar kind of fable for this newspaper before the New Year Eve. He started writing it on 22 December, and on the 30th sent the story by post. Divided into three parts, it appeared in the 1 January 1889, No. 4613 issue of Novoye Vremya, titled "Fairytale '' (Сказка). With a new title, "The Bet '', revised and cut (part 3 of the original text now has gone) it was included into Volume 4 of Chekhov 's Collected Works, published in 1899 -- 1901 by Adolf Marks. "As I was reading the proofs, I came to dislike the end, it occurred to me that it was too cold and cruel, '' he explained the reason for the omission in 1903. As the story opens, the banker recalls the occasion of the bet fifteen years before. Guests at the party that he was hosting that day fell into a discussion of capital punishment; the banker argued that capital punishment is more humane than life imprisonment, while the young lawyer disagreed, insisting that he would choose life in prison rather than death. They agree to a bet of two million rubles that the lawyer can not spend fifteen years in solitary confinement. The bet was on, and the lawyer cast himself into isolation for fifteen years. The man spends his time in confinement reading books, writing, playing piano, studying, drinking wine, and educating himself. We find him continuously growing throughout the story. We see various phases in his term of imprisonment over the years. At first, the lawyer suffered from severe loneliness and depression. But soon he began studying vigorously. He begins with languages and other related subjects. Then, a mix of science, literature, philosophy and other seemingly random subjects. He ends up reading some six hundred volumes in the course of four years. Then, the Gospel followed by theology and histories of religion. In the final two years, the imprisoned lawyer read immensely on chemistry, medicine and philosophy, and sometimes works of Byron or Shakespeare. In the meantime, the banker 's fortune declines and he realizes that if he loses, paying off the bet will leave him bankrupt. The day before the fifteen - year period concludes, the banker resolves to kill the lawyer so as to not owe him the money. On his way to do so, however, the banker finds a note written by the lawyer. The note declares that in his time in confinement he has learned to despise material goods as fleeting things and he believes that knowledge is worth more than money. To this end he elects to renounce the reward of the bet. The banker was moved and shocked to his bones after reading the note, kisses the strange man on the head and leaves the lodge weeping, relieved not to have to kill anyone. The prison warden later reports that the lawyer has left the guest house, thus losing the bet but proving his point that solitary confinement is more humane than death punishment as it gives a chance to a person (the lawyer in this story) to develop himself. The lawyer also unwittingly saves his own life by writing the note. There are two major characters featured in "The Bet '': the lawyer and the banker, neither of which have official names in Chekhov 's short story. The lawyer is seen to be persistent, intelligent and self - motivating. He does not break down in the 15 years of imprisonment as the banker foretold. He is intelligent by the virtue of reading so many books, which reflects in his eagerness to associate with other men, rather than claiming the final prize. He starts as a young, impatient person, ready to spend 15 best years of his life for 2 million. His character of being a person with no interest in materialistic luxury is reflected when he renounces the 2 million and settles with just having proved his point. The banker likes to be in a position of authority and likes to wield power over others, especially those who happen to disagree with him. The character changes drastically from the beginning of the story when he seems to be very free handed as he easily bets to pay two million and later, his lack of wealth drives him to dishonesty and plan for murder. This also signifies the weak character of the banker. He is very attached to the materialistic luxuries of life and values human life less than his luxuries as he plans on killing the lawyer. He plans on killing the lawyer for money and nothing but money changes his mind.

how did women gain the right to vote

Women 's suffrage - wikipedia Women 's suffrage (also known as female suffrage, woman suffrage or women 's right to vote) is the right of women to vote in elections. Limited voting rights were gained by women in Finland, Iceland, Sweden and some Australian colonies and western U.S. states in the late 19th century. National and international organizations formed to coordinate efforts to gain voting rights, especially the International Woman Suffrage Alliance (founded in 1904, Berlin, Germany), and also worked for equal civil rights for women. In 1881, the Isle of Man gave women who owned property the right to vote. In 1893, the British colony of New Zealand, granted women the right to vote. The colony of South Australia, did the same in 1894 and women were able to vote in the next election, which was held in 1895. South Australia also permitted women to stand for election alongside men. In 1899 Western Australia enacted full women 's suffrage, enabling women to vote in the constitutional referendum of 31 July 1900 and the 1901 state and federal elections. In 1902 women in the remaining four colonies also acquired the right to vote and stand in federal elections after the six Australian colonies federated to become the Commonwealth of Australia. Discriminatory restrictions against Aboriginal people, including women, voting in national elections, were not completely removed until 1962. The first European country to introduce women 's suffrage was the Grand Duchy of Finland, then part of the Russian Empire, which elected the world 's first women Members of Parliament in the 1907 parliamentary elections. Norway followed, granting full women 's suffrage in 1913. Most independent countries enacted women 's suffrage in the interwar era, including Canada in 1917, Britain in 1918 and the United States in 1920. Leslie Hume argues that the First World War changed the popular mood: Late adopters in Europe were Spain in 1933, France in 1944, Italy in 1946, Greece in 1952, San Marino in 1959, Monaco in 1962, Andorra in 1970, Switzerland in 1971 at federal level, and at local canton level between 1959 in the cantons of Vaud and Neuchâtel and 1991 in the canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden, and Liechtenstein in 1984. In addition, although women in Portugal obtained suffrage in 1931, this was with stronger restrictions than those of men; full gender equality in voting was only granted in 1976. The United States gave women equal voting rights in all states with the Nineteenth Amendment ratified in 1920. Canada and a few Latin American nations passed women 's suffrage before World War II while the vast majority of Latin American nations established women 's suffrage in the 1940s (see table in Summary below). The last Latin American country to give women the right to vote was Paraguay in 1961. In December 2015, women were first allowed to vote in Saudi Arabia (municipal elections). Extended political campaigns by women and their supporters have generally been necessary to gain legislation or constitutional amendments for women 's suffrage. In many countries, limited suffrage for women was granted before universal suffrage for men; for instance, literate women or property owners were granted suffrage before all men received it. The United Nations encouraged women 's suffrage in the years following World War II, and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (1979) identifies it as a basic right with 189 countries currently being parties to this Convention. In ancient Athens, often cited as the birthplace of democracy, only adult, male citizens who owned land were permitted to vote. Through subsequent centuries, Europe was generally ruled by monarchs, though various forms of parliament arose at different times. The high rank ascribed to abbesses within the Catholic Church permitted some women the right to sit and vote at national assemblies -- as with various high - ranking abbesses in Medieval Germany, who were ranked among the independent princes of the empire. Their Protestant successors enjoyed the same privilege almost into modern times. Marie Guyart, a French nun who worked with the First Nations peoples of Canada during the seventeenth century, wrote in 1654 regarding the suffrage practices of Iroquois women, "These female chieftains are women of standing amongst the savages, and they have a deciding vote in the councils. They make decisions there like the men, and it is they who even delegated the first ambassadors to discuss peace. '' The Iroquois, like many First Nations peoples in North America, had a matrilineal kinship system. Property and descent were passed through the female line. Women elders voted on hereditary male chiefs and could depose them. The emergence of modern democracy generally began with male citizens obtaining the right to vote in advance of female citizens, except in the Kingdom of Hawai'i, where universal manhood and women 's suffrage was introduced in 1840; however, a constitutional amendment in 1852 rescinded female voting and put property qualifications on male voting. In Sweden, conditional women 's suffrage was in effect during the Age of Liberty (1718 -- 1772). Other possible contenders for first "country '' to grant women suffrage include the Corsican Republic (1755), the Pitcairn Islands (1838), the Isle of Man (1881), and Franceville (1889), but some of these operated only briefly as independent states and others were not clearly independent. In 1756, Lydia Taft became the first legal woman voter in colonial America. This occurred under British rule in the Massachusetts Colony. In a New England town meeting in Uxbridge, Massachusetts, she voted on at least three occasions. Unmarried white women who owned property could vote in New Jersey from 1776 to 1807. In the 1792 elections in Sierra Leone, then a new British colony, all heads of household could vote and one - third were ethnic African women. The female descendants of the Bounty mutineers who lived on Pitcairn Islands could vote from 1838. This right was transferred after they resettled in 1856 to Norfolk Island (now an Australian external territory). The seed for the first Woman 's Rights Convention in the United States in Seneca Falls, New York was planted in 1840, when Elizabeth Cady Stanton met Lucretia Mott at the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London. The conference refused to seat Mott and other women delegates from the U.S. because of their sex. In 1851, Stanton met temperance worker Susan B. Anthony, and shortly the two would be joined in the long struggle to secure the vote for women in the U.S. In 1868 Anthony encouraged working women from the printing and sewing trades in New York, who were excluded from men 's trade unions, to form Workingwomen 's Associations. As a delegate to the National Labor Congress in 1868, Anthony persuaded the committee on female labor to call for votes for women and equal pay for equal work. The men at the conference deleted the reference to the vote. In the U.S. women in the Wyoming Territory could vote as of 1869. Subsequent American suffrage groups often disagreed on tactics, with the National American Woman Suffrage Association arguing for a state - by - state campaign and the National Woman 's Party focusing on an amendment to the U.S. Constitution. In 1881 the Isle of Man, an internally self - governing dependent territory of the British Crown, enfranchised women property owners. With this it provided the first action for women 's suffrage within the British Isles. The Pacific colony of Franceville, declaring independence in 1889, became the first self - governing nation to adopt universal suffrage without distinction of sex or color. Of currently existing independent countries, New Zealand was the first to acknowledge women 's right to vote in 1893 when it was a self - governing British colony. Unrestricted women 's suffrage in terms of voting rights (women were not initially permitted to stand for election) was adopted in New Zealand in 1893. Following a successful movement led by Kate Sheppard, the women 's suffrage bill was adopted weeks before the general election of that year. The women of the British protectorate of Cook Islands obtained the same right soon after and beat New Zealand 's women to the polls in 1893. The self - governing British colony of South Australia enacted universal suffrage in 1895, also allowing women to stand for the colonial parliament that year. The Commonwealth of Australia federated in 1901, with women voting and standing for office in some states. The Australian Federal Parliament extended voting rights to all adult women for Federal elections from 1902 (with the exception of Aboriginal women in some states). The first European country to introduce women 's suffrage was the Grand Duchy of Finland in 1906. It was among reforms passed following the 1905 uprising. As a result of the 1907 parliamentary elections, Finland 's voters elected 19 women as the first female members of a representative parliament; they took their seats later that year. In the years before World War I, women in Norway (1913) also won the right to vote, as did women in the remaining Australian states. Denmark granted women 's suffrage in 1915. Near the end of the war, Canada, Russia, Germany, and Poland also recognized women 's right to vote. Propertied British women over 30 had the vote in 1918, Dutch women in 1919, and American women won the vote on 26 August 1920 with the passage of the 19th Amendment. Irish women won the same voting rights as men in the Irish Free State constitution, 1922. In 1928, British women won suffrage on the same terms as men, that is, for persons 21 years old and older. Suffrage of Turkish women introduced in 1930 for local elections and in 1934 for national elections. By the time French women were granted the suffrage in July 1944 by Charles de Gaulle 's government in exile, France had been for about a decade the only Western country that did not at least allow women 's suffrage at municipal elections. Voting rights for women were introduced into international law by the United Nations ' Human Rights Commission, whose elected chair was Eleanor Roosevelt. In 1948 the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights; Article 21 stated: "(1) Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives. (3) The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures. '' The United Nations General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Political Rights of Women, which went into force in 1954, enshrining the equal rights of women to vote, hold office, and access public services as set out by national laws. One of the most recent jurisdictions to acknowledge women 's full right to vote was Bhutan in 2008 (its first national elections). The suffrage movement was a broad one, encompassing women and men with a wide range of views. In terms of diversity, the greatest achievement of the twentieth - century woman suffrage movement was its extremely broad class base. One major division, especially in Britain, was between suffragists, who sought to create change constitutionally, and suffragettes, led by English political activist Emmeline Pankhurst, who in 1903 formed the more militant Women 's Social and Political Union. Pankhurst would not be satisfied with anything but action on the question of women 's enfranchisement, with "deeds, not words '' the organisation 's motto. There was also a diversity of views on a "woman 's place ''. Suffragist themes often included the notions that women were naturally kinder and more concerned about children and the elderly. As Kraditor shows, it was often assumed that women voters would have a civilizing effect on politics, opposing domestic violence, liquor, and emphasizing cleanliness and community. An opposing theme, Kraditor argues, held that had the same moral standards. They should be equal in every way and that there was no such thing as a woman 's "natural role ''. For black women, achieving suffrage was a way to counter the disfranchisement of the men of their race. Despite this discouragement, black suffragists continued to insist on their equal political rights. Starting in the 1890s, African American women began to assert their political rights aggressively from within their own clubs and suffrage societies. "If white American women, with all their natural and acquired advantages, need the ballot, '' argued Adella Hunt Logan of Tuskegee, Alabama, "how much more do black Americans, male and female, need the strong defense of a vote to help secure their right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness? '' Aboriginal men and women were not offered the right to vote until 1960. Previous to that they could only vote if they gave up their treaty status. It was n't until 1948 when Canada signed the UN 's Universal Declaration of Human Rights that Canada was forced to examine the issue of their discrimination against Aboriginal people. Women won the right to vote in Sierra Leone in 1930. The franchise was extended to white women 21 years or older by the Women 's Enfranchisement Act, 1930. The first general election at which women could vote was the 1933 election. At that election Leila Reitz (wife of Deneys Reitz) was elected as the first female MP, representing Parktown for the South African Party. The limited voting rights available to non-white men in the Cape Province and Natal (Transvaal and the Orange Free State practically denied all non-whites the right to vote, and had also done so to non-Afrikaner uitlanders when independent in the 1800s) were not extended to women, and were themselves progressively eliminated between 1936 and 1968. The right to vote for the Transkei Legislative Assembly, established in 1963 for the Transkei bantustan, was granted to all adult citizens of the Transkei, including women. Similar provision was made for the Legislative Assemblies created for other bantustans. All adult coloured citizens were eligible to vote for the Coloured Persons Representative Council, which was established in 1968 with limited legislative powers; the council was however abolished in 1980. Similarly, all adult Indian citizens were eligible to vote for the South African Indian Council in 1981. In 1984 the Tricameral Parliament was established, and the right to vote for the House of Representatives and House of Delegates was granted to all adult Coloured and Indian citizens, respectively. In 1994 the bantustans and the Tricameral Parliament were abolished and the right to vote for the National Assembly was granted to all adult citizens. Southern Rhodesian white women won the vote in 1919 and Ethel Tawse Jollie (1875 -- 1950) was elected to the Southern Rhodesia legislature 1920 -- 1928, the first woman to sit in any national Commonwealth Parliament outside Westminster. The influx of women settlers from Britain proved a decisive factor in the 1922 referendum that rejected annexation by a South Africa increasingly under the sway of traditionalist Afrikaner Nationalists in favor of Rhodesian Home Rule or "responsible government ''. Black Rhodesian males qualified for the vote in 1923 (based only upon property, assets, income, and literacy). It is unclear when the first black woman qualified for the vote. Women have been able to vote in Afghanistan since 1965 (except during Taliban rule, 1996 -- 2001, when no elections were held). As of 2009, women have been casting fewer ballots in part due to being unaware of their voting rights. In the 2014 election, Afghanistan 's elected president pledged to bring women equal rights. Bangladesh was (mostly) the province of Bengal in India until 1947, then it became part of Pakistan. It became an independent nation in 1971. Women have had equal suffrage since 1947, and they have reserved seats in parliament. Bangladesh is notable in that since 1991, two women, namely Sheikh Hasina and Begum Khaleda Zia, have served terms as the country 's Prime Minister continuously. Women have traditionally played a minimal role in politics beyond the anomaly of the two leaders; few used to run against men; few have been ministers. Recently, however, women have become more active in politics, with several prominent ministerial posts given to women and women participating in national, district and municipal elections against men and winning on several occasions. Choudhury and Hasanuzzaman argue that the strong patriarchal traditions of Bangladesh explain why women are so reluctant to stand up in politics. The Women 's Indian Association (WIA) was founded in 1917. It sought votes for women and the right to hold legislative office on the same basis as men. These positions were endorsed by the main political groupings, the Indian National Congress and the All - India Muslim League. British and Indian feminists combined in 1918 to publish a magazine Stri Dharma that featured international news from a feminist perspective. In 1919 in the Montagu -- Chelmsford Reforms, the British set up provincial legislatures which had the power to grant women 's suffrage. Madras in 1921 granted votes to wealthy and educated women, under the same terms that applied to men. The other provinces followed, but not the princely states (which did not have votes for men either, being monarchies). In Bengal province, the provincial assembly rejected it in 1921 but Southard shows an intense campaign produced victory in 1921. Success in Bengal depended on middle class Indian women, who emerged from a fast - growing urban elite. The women leaders in Bengal linked their crusade to a moderate nationalist agenda, by showing how they could participate more fully in nation - building by having voting power. They carefully avoided attacking traditional gender roles by arguing that traditions could coexist with political modernization. Whereas wealthy and educated women in Madras were granted voting right in 1921, in Punjab the Sikhs granted women equal voting rights in 1925 irrespective of their educational qualifications or being wealthy or poor. This happened when the Gurdwara Act of 1925 was approved. The original draft of the Gurdwara Act sent by the British to the Sharomani Gurdwara Prabhandak Committee (SGPC) did not include Sikh women, but the Sikhs inserted the clause without the women having to ask for it. Equality of women with men is enshrined in the Guru Granth Sahib, the sacred scripture of the Sikh faith. In the Government of India Act 1935 the British Raj set up a system of separate electorates and separate seats for women. Most women 's leaders opposed segregated electorates and demanded adult franchise. In 1931 the Congress promised universal adult franchise when it came to power. It enacted equal voting rights for both men and women in 1947. In the first half of the 20th century, Indonesia (known until 1945 as Dutch East Indies) was one of the slowest moving countries to gain women 's suffrage. They began their fight in 1905 by introducing municipal councils that included some members elected by a restricted district. Voting rights only went to males that could read and write, which excluded many non-European males. At the time, the literacy rate for males was 11 % and for females 2 %. The main group who pressured the Indonesian government for women 's suffrage was the Dutch Vereeninging voor Vrouwenkiesrecht (VVV - Women 's Suffrage Association) which was founded in the Netherlands in 1894. They tried to attract Indonesian membership, but had very limited success because the leaders of the organization had little skill in relating to even the educated class of the Indonesians. When they eventually did connect somewhat with women, they failed to sympathize with them and thus ended up alienating many well - educated Indonesians. In 1918 the colony gained its first national representative body, the Volksraad, which still excluded women from voting. In 1935, the colonial administration used its power of nomination to appoint a European woman to the Volksraad. In 1938, the administration introduced the right of women to be elected to urban representative institutions, which resulted in some Indonesian and European women entering municipal councils. Eventually, the law became that only European women and municipal councils could vote, which excluded all other women and local councils. September 1941 was when this law was amended and the law extended to women of all races by the Volksraad. Finally, in November 1941, the right to vote for municipal councils was granted to all women on a similar basis to men (with property and educational qualifications). In 1963, a referendum overwhelmingly approved by voters gave women the right to vote, a right previously denied to them under the Iranian Constitution of 1906 pursuant to Chapter 2, Article 3. Women have full suffrage since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948. Although women were allowed to vote in some prefectures in 1880, women 's suffrage was enacted at a national level in 1945. When voting was first introduced in Kuwait in 1985, Kuwaiti women had the right to vote. The right was later removed. In May 2005, the Kuwaiti parliament re-granted female suffrage. Pakistan was part of British Raj until 1947, when it became independent. Women received full suffrage in 1947. Muslim women leaders from all classes actively supported the Pakistan movement in the mid-1940s. Their movement was led by wives and other relatives of leading politicians. Women were sometimes organized into large - scale public demonstrations. In November 1988, Benazir Bhutto became the first Muslim woman to be elected as Prime Minister of a Muslim country. Suffrage for Filipinas was achieved following an all - female, special plebiscite held on 30 April 1937. 447,725 -- some ninety percent -- voted in favour of women 's suffrage against 44,307 who voted no. In compliance with the 1935 Constitution, the National Assembly passed a law which extending the right of suffrage to women, which remains to this day. In late September 2011, King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz al - Saud declared that women would be able to vote and run for office starting in 2015. That applies to the municipal councils, which are the kingdom 's only semi-elected bodies. Half of the seats on municipal councils are elective, and the councils have few powers. The council elections have been held since 2005 (the first time they were held before that was the 1960s). Saudi women did first vote and first run for office in December 2015, for those councils. Salma bint Hizab al - Oteibi became the first elected female politician in Saudi Arabia in December 2015, when she won a seat on the council in Madrakah in Mecca province. In all, the December 2015 election in Saudi Arabia resulted in twenty women being elected to municipal councils. The king declared in 2011 that women would be eligible to be appointed to the Shura Council, an unelected body that issues advisory opinions on national policy. ' "This is great news, '' said Saudi writer and women 's rights activist Wajeha al - Huwaider. "Women 's voices will finally be heard. Now it is time to remove other barriers like not allowing women to drive cars and not being able to function, to live a normal life without male guardians. '' ' Robert Lacey, author of two books about the kingdom, said, "This is the first positive, progressive speech out of the government since the Arab Spring... First the warnings, then the payments, now the beginnings of solid reform. '' The king made the announcement in a five - minute speech to the Shura Council. In January 2013, King Abdullah issued two royal decrees, granting women thirty seats on the council, and stating that women must always hold at least a fifth of the seats on the council. According to the decrees, the female council members must be "committed to Islamic Shariah disciplines without any violations '' and be "restrained by the religious veil. '' The decrees also said that the female council members would be entering the council building from special gates, sit in seats reserved for women and pray in special worshipping places. Earlier, officials said that a screen would separate genders and an internal communications network would allow men and women to communicate. Women first joined the council in 2013, occupying thirty seats. There are two Saudi royal women among these thirty female members of the assembly, Sara bint Faisal Al Saud and Moudi bint Khalid Al Saud. Furthermore, in 2013 three women were named as deputy chairpersons of three committees: Thurayya Obeid was named deputy chairwoman of the human rights and petitions committee, Zainab Abu Talib, deputy chairwoman of the information and cultural committee, and Lubna Al Ansari, deputy chairwoman of the health affairs and environment committee. Sri Lanka (at that time Ceylon) was one of the first Asian countries to allow voting rights to women over the age of 21 without any restrictions. Since then, women have enjoyed a significant presence in the Sri Lankan political arena. The zenith of this favourable condition to women has been the 1960 July General Elections, in which Ceylon elected the world 's first woman Prime Minister, Sirimavo Bandaranaike. Her daughter, Chandrika Kumaratunga also became the Prime Minister later in 1994, and the same year she was elected as the Executive President of Sri Lanka, making her the fourth woman in the world to hold the portfolio. It was only after the breakdown of the Habsburg Monarchy, that Austria would grant the general, equal, direct and secret right to vote to all citizens, regardless of sex, in 1919. Azerbaijan is known to be the first ever Muslim - majority country which enfranchised women. Universal voting rights were recognized in Azerbaijan in 1918 by the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic. A revision of the constitution in October 1921 (it changed art. 47 of the Constitution of Belgium of 1831) introduced the general right to vote according to the "one man, one vote '' principle. Art. 47 allowed widows of World War I to vote at the national level as well. The introduction of women 's suffrage was already put onto the agenda at the time, by means of including an article in the constitution that allowed approval of women 's suffrage by special law (meaning it needed a 2 / 3 majority to pass). This happened in March 1948. In Belgium, voting is compulsory but not enforced. In the former Bohemia, taxpaying women and women in "learned profession (s) '' were allowed to vote by proxy and made eligible to the legislative body in 1864. The first Czech female MP was elected to the Diet of Bohemia in 1912. Women were guaranteed equal voting rights by The constitution of the Czechoslovak Republic in 1920. In Denmark, the Danish Women 's Society (DK) debated, and informally supported, women 's suffrage from 1884, but it did not support it publicly until in 1887, when it supported the suggestion of the parliamentarian Fredrik Bajer to grant women municipal suffrage. In 1886, in response to the perceived overcautious attitude of DK in the question of women suffrage, Matilde Bajer founded the Kvindelig Fremskridtsforening (or KF, 1886 - 1904) to deal exclusively with the right to suffrage, both in municipal and national elections, and it 1887, the Danish women publicly demanded the right for women 's suffrage for the first time through the KF. However, as the KF was very much involved with worker 's rights and pacifist activity, the question of women 's suffrage was in fact not given full attention, which led to the establishment of the strictly women 's suffrage movement Kvindevalgretsforeningen (1889 - 1897). In 1890, the KF and the Kvindevalgretsforeningen united with five women 's trade worker 's unions to found the De samlede Kvindeforeninger, and through this form, an active women 's suffrage campaign was arranged through agitation and demonstration. However, after having been met by compact resistance, the Danish suffrage movement almost discontinued with the dissolution of the De samlede Kvindeforeninger in 1893. In 1898, an umbrella organization, the Danske Kvindeforeningers Valgretsforbund or DKV was founded and became a part of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance (IWSA). In 1907, the Landsforbundet for Kvinders Valgret (LKV) was founded by Elna Munch, Johanne Rambusch and Marie Hjelmer in reply to what they considered to be the much too careful attitude of the Danish Women 's Society. The LKV originated from a local suffrage association in Copenhagen, and like its rival LKV, it successfully organized other such local associations nationally. Women won the right to vote in municipal elections on April 20, 1908. However it was not until June 5, 1915 that they were allowed to vote in Rigsdag elections. Estonia gained its independence in 1918 with the Estonian War of Independence. However, the first official elections were held in 1917. These were the elections of temporary council (i.e. Maapäev), which ruled Estonia from 1917 -- 1919. Since then, women have had the right to vote. The parliament elections were held in 1920. After the elections, two women got into the parliament -- history teacher Emma Asson and journalist Alma Ostra - Oinas. Estonian parliament is called Riigikogu and during the First Republic of Estonia it used to have 100 seats. The area that in 1809 became Finland was a group of integral provinces of the Kingdom of Sweden for over 600 years. Thus, women in Finland were allowed to vote during the Swedish Age of Liberty (1718 -- 1772), during which suffrage was granted to tax - paying female members of guilds. The predecessor state of modern Finland, the Grand Duchy of Finland, was part of the Russian Empire from 1809 to 1917 and enjoyed a high degree of autonomy. In 1863, taxpaying women were granted municipal suffrage in the country side, and in 1872, the same reform was given to the cities. In 1906, it became the first country in the world to implement full universal suffrage, as women could also stand as candidates. It also elected the world 's first female members of parliament the following year. The 21 April 1944 ordinance of the French Committee of National Liberation, confirmed in October 1944 by the French provisional government, extended suffrage to French women. The first elections with female participation were the municipal elections of 29 April 1945 and the parliamentary elections of 21 October 1945. "Indigenous Muslim '' women in French Algeria had to wait until a 3 July 1958 decree. Women were granted the right to vote and be elected from the 12th November 1918. In Greece, women over 18 voted for the first time in April 1944 for the National Council, a legislative body set up by the National Liberation Front resistance movement. Ultimately, women won the legal right to vote and run for office on May 28, 1952. The first woman MP was Eleni Skoura, who was elected in 1953. In Italy, women 's suffrage was not introduced following World War I, but upheld by Socialist and Fascist activists and partly introduced by Benito Mussolini 's government in 1925. In April 1945, the provisional government decreed the enfranchisement of women allowing for the immediate appointment of women to public office, of which the first was Elena Fischli Dreher. In the 1946 election, all Italians simultaneously voted for the Constituent Assembly and for a referendum about keeping Italy a monarchy or creating a republic instead. Elections were not held in the Julian March and South Tyrol because they were under UN occupation. The new version of article 51 Constitution recognizes equal opportunities in electoral lists. In Liechtenstein, women 's suffrage was granted via referendum in 1984. Women were granted the right to vote in the Netherlands on August 9, 1919. Before that, women had the right to be an elected representative Liberal politician Gina Krog was the leading campaigner for women 's suffrage in Norway from the 1880s. She founded the Norwegian Association for Women 's Rights and the National Association for Women 's Suffrage to promote this cause. Members of these organisations were politically well - connected and well organised and in a few years gradually succeeded in obtaining equal rights for women. Middle class women won the right to vote in municipal elections in 1901 and parliamentary elections in 1907. Universal suffrage for women in municipal elections was introduced in 1910, and in 1913 a motion on universal suffrage for women was adopted unanimously by the Norwegian parliament (Stortinget). Norway thus became the first independent country to introduce women 's suffrage. Regaining independence in 1918 following the 123 - year period of partition and foreign rule, Poland immediately granted women the right to vote and be elected as of 28 November 1918. The first women elected to the Sejm in 1919 were: Gabriela Balicka, Jadwiga Dziubińska, Irena Kosmowska, Maria Moczydłowska, Zofia Moraczewska, Anna Piasecka, Zofia Sokolnicka, Franciszka Wilczkowiakowa., Carolina Beatriz Ângelo was the first Portuguese woman to vote, in the Constituent National Assembly election of 1911. In 1931 during the Estado Novo regime, women were allowed to vote for the first time, but only if they had a high school or university degree, while men had only to be able to read and write. In 1946 a new electoral law enlarged the possibility of female vote, but still with some differences regarding men. A law from 1968 claimed to establish "equality of political rights for men and women '', but a few electoral rights were reserved for men. After the Carnation Revolution, women were granted full and equal electoral rights in 1976. The timeline of granting women 's suffrage in Romania was gradual and complex, due to the turbulent historical period when it happened. The concept of universal suffrage for all men was introduced in 1918, and reinforced by the 1923 Constitution of Romania. Although this constitution opened the way for the possibility of women 's suffrage too (Article 6), this did not materialize: the Electoral Law of 1926 did not grant women the right to vote, maintaining all male suffrage. Starting in 1929, women who met certain qualifications were allowed to vote in local elections. After the Constitution from 1938 (elaborated under Carol II of Romania who sought to implement an authoritarian regime) the voting rights were extended to women for national elections by the Electoral Law 1939, but both women and men had restrictions, and in practice these restrictions affected women more than men (the new restrictions on men also meant that men lost their previous universal suffrage). Although women could vote, they could be elected only in the Senate and not in the Chamber of Deputies (Article 4 (c)). (the Senate was later abolished in 1940). Due to the historical context of the time, which included the dictatorship of Ion Antonescu, there were no elections in Romania between 1940 - 1946. In 1946, Law no. 560 gave full equal rights to men and women to vote and to be elected in the Chamber of Deputies; and women voted in the Romanian general election, 1946. The Constitution of 1948 gave women and men equal civil and political rights (Article 18). Until the collapse of communism in 1989, all the candidates were chosen by the communist party, and civil rights were merely symbolic under this authoritarian regime. Despite initial apprehension against enfranchising women for the right to vote for the upcoming Constituent Assembly election, the League for Women 's Equality and other suffragists rallied throughout the year of 1917 for the right to vote. After much pressure (including a 40,000 - strong march on the Tauride Palace), on July 20, 1917 the Provisional Government enfranchised women with the right to vote. San Marino introduced women 's suffrage in 1959, following the 1957 constitutional crisis known as Fatti di Rovereta. It was however only in 1973 that women obtained the right to stand for election. During the Miguel Primo de Rivera regime (1923 -- 1930) only women who were considered heads of household were allowed to vote in local elections, but there were none at that time. Women 's suffrage was officially adopted in 1931 despite the opposition of Margarita Nelken and Victoria Kent, two female MPs (both members of the Republican Radical - Socialist Party), who argued that women in Spain at that moment lacked social and political education enough to vote responsibly because they would be unduly influenced by Catholic priests. During the Franco regime in the "organic democracy '' type of elections called "referendums '' (Franco 's regime was dictatorial) women over 21 were allowed to vote without distinction. From 1976, during the Spanish transition to democracy women fully exercised the right to vote and be elected to office. During the Age of Liberty (1718 -- 1772), Sweden had conditional women suffrage. Until the reform of 1865, the local elections consisted of mayoral elections in the cities, and elections of parish vicars in the countryside parishes. The Sockenstämma was the local parish council who handled local affairs, in which the parish vicar presided and the local peasantry assembled and voted, an informally regulated process in which women are reported to have participated already in the 17th - century. The national elections consisted of the election of the representations to the Riksdag of the Estates. Suffrage was gender neutral and therefore applied to women as well as men if they filled the qualifications of a voting citizen. These qualifications were changed during the course of the 18th - century, as well as the local interpretation of the credentials, affecting the number of qualified voters: the qualifications also differed between cities and countryside, as well as local or national elections. Initially, the right to vote in local city elections (mayoral elections) was granted to every burgher, which was defined as a taxpaying citizen with a guild membership. Women as well as men were members of guilds, which resulted in women suffrage for a limited number of women. In 1734, suffrage in both national and local elections, in cities as well as countryside, was granted to every property owning taxpaying citizen of legal majority. This extended suffrage to all taxpaying property owning women whether guild members or not, but excluded married women and the majority of unmarried women, as married women were defined as legal minors, and unmarried women were minors unless they applied for legal majority by royal dispensation, while widowed and divorced women were of legal majority. The 1734 reform increased the participation of women in elections from 55 to 71 percent. Between 1726 and 1742, women voted in 17 of 31 examined mayoral elections. Reportedly, some women voters in mayoral elections preferred to appoint a male to vote for them by proxy in the city hall because they found it embarrassing to do so in person, which was cited as a reason to abolish women suffrage by its opponents. The custom to appoint to vote by proxy was however used also by males, and it was in fact common for men, who were absent or ill during elections, to appoint their wives to vote for them. In 1758, women were excluded from mayoral elections by a new regulation by which they could no longer be defined as burghers, but women suffrage was kept in the national elections as well as the country side parish elections. Women participated in all of the eleven national elections held up until 1757. In 1772, women suffrage in national elections was abolished by demand from the burgher estate. Women suffrage was first abolished for taxpaying unmarried women of legal majority, and then for widows. However, the local interpretation of the prohibition of women suffrage varied, and some cities continued to allow women to vote: in Kalmar, Växjö, Västervik, Simrishamn, Ystad, Åmål, Karlstad, Bergslagen, Dalarna and Norrland, women were allowed to continue to vote despite the 1772 ban, while in Lund, Uppsala, Skara, Åbo, Gothenburg and Marstrand, women were strictly barred from the vote after 1772. While women suffrage was banned in the mayoral elections in 1758 and in the national elections in 1772, no such bar was ever introduced in the local elections in the country side, were women therefore continued to vote in the local parish elections of vicars. In a series of reforms in 1813 - 1817, unmarried women of legal majority, "Unmarried maiden, who has been declared of legal majority '', were given the right to vote in the sockestämma (local parish council, the predecessor of the communal and city councils), and the kyrkoråd (local church councils). In 1823, a suggestion was raised by the mayor of Strängnäs to reintroduce women suffrage for taxpaying women of legal majority (unmarried, divorced and widowed women) in the mayoral elections, and this right was reintroduced in 1858. In 1862, tax - paying women of legal majority (unmarried, divorced and widowed women) were again allowed to vote in municipal elections, making Sweden the first country in the world to grant women the right to vote. This was after the introduction of a new political system, where a new local authority was introduced: the communal municipal council. The right to vote in municipal elections applied only to people of legal majority, which excluded married women, as they were juridically under the guardianship of their husbands. In 1884 the suggestion to grant women the right to vote in national elections was initially voted down in Parliament. During the 1880s, the Married Woman 's Property Rights Association had a campaign to encourage the female voters, qualified to vote in accordance with the 1862 law, to use their vote and increase the participation of women voters in the elections, but there was yet no public demand to women suffrage among women. In 1888, the temperance activist Emilie Rathou became the first woman in Sweden to demand the right for women suffrage in a public speech. In 1899, a delegation from the Fredrika Bremer Association presented a suggestion of woman suffrage to prime minister Erik Gustaf Boström. The delegation was headed by Agda Montelius, accompanied by Gertrud Adelborg, who had written the demand. This was the first time the Swedish women 's movement themselves had officially presented a demand for suffrage. In 1902 the Swedish Society for Woman Suffrage was founded. In 1906 the suggestion of women 's suffrage was voted down in parliament again. In 1909, the right to vote in municipal elections were extended to include also married women. The same year, women were granted eligibility to municipal councils, and in the following 1910 -- 11 municipal elections, forty women were elected to different municipal councils, Gertrud Månsson being the first. In 1914 Emilia Broomé became the first woman in the legislative assembly. The right to vote in national elections was not returned to women until 1919, and was practised again in the election of 1921, for the first time in 150 years. After the 1921 election, the first women were elected to Swedish Parliament after the suffrage: Kerstin Hesselgren in the Upper chamber and Nelly Thüring (Social Democrat), Agda Östlund (Social Democrat) Elisabeth Tamm (liberal) and Bertha Wellin (Conservative) in the Lower chamber. Karin Kock - Lindberg became the first female government minister, and in 1958, Ulla Lindström became the first acting Prime Minister. A referendum on women 's suffrage was held on 1 February 1959. The majority of Switzerland 's men voted against it, but in some French - speaking cantons women obtained the vote. The first Swiss woman to hold political office, Trudy Späth - Schweizer, was elected to the municipal government of Riehen in 1958. Switzerland was the last Western republic to grant women 's suffrage; they gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1971 after a second referendum that year. In 1991 following a decision by the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland, Appenzell Innerrhoden became the last Swiss canton to grant women the vote on local issues. In Turkey, Atatürk, the founding president of the republic, led a secularist cultural and legal transformation supporting women 's rights including voting and being elected. Women won the right to vote in municipal elections on March 20, 1930. Women 's suffrage was achieved for parliamentary elections on December 5, 1934, through a constitutional amendment. Turkish women, who participated in parliamentary elections for the first time on February 8, 1935, obtained 18 seats. In the early republic, when Atatürk ran a one - party state, his party picked all candidates. A small percentage of seats were set aside for women, so naturally those female candidates won. When multi-party elections began in the 1940s, the share of women in the legislature fell, and the 4 % share of parliamentary seats gained in 1935 was not reached again until 1999. In the parliament of 2011, women hold about 9 % of the seats. Nevertheless, Turkish women gained the right to vote a decade or more before women in such Western European countries as France, Italy, and Belgium -- a mark of Atatürk 's far - reaching social changes. The campaign for women 's suffrage in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland gained momentum throughout the early part of the 19th century, as women became increasingly politically active, particularly during the campaigns to reform suffrage in the United Kingdom. John Stuart Mill, elected to Parliament in 1865 and an open advocate of female suffrage (about to publish The Subjection of Women), campaigned for an amendment to the Reform Act 1832 to include female suffrage. Roundly defeated in an all - male parliament under a Conservative government, the issue of women 's suffrage came to the fore. Until the 1832 Reform Act specified ' male persons ', a few women had been able to vote in parliamentary elections through property ownership, although this was rare. In local government elections, single women ratepayers received the right to vote in the Municipal Franchise Act 1869. This right was confirmed in the Local Government Act 1894 and extended to include some married women. By 1900, more than 1 million single women were registered to vote in local government elections in England. During the later half of the 19th century, a number of campaign groups for women 's suffrage in national elections were formed in an attempt to lobby Members of Parliament and gain support. In 1897, seventeen of these groups came together to form the National Union of Women 's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS), who held public meetings, wrote letters to politicians and published various texts. In 1907 the NUWSS organized its first large procession. This march became known as the Mud March as over 3,000 women trudged through the streets of London from Hyde Park to Exeter Hall to advocate women 's suffrage. In 1903 a number of members of the NUWSS broke away and, led by Emmeline Pankhurst, formed the Women 's Social and Political Union (WSPU). As the national media lost interest in the suffrage campaign, the WSPU decided it would use other methods to create publicity. This began in 1905 at a meeting in Manchester 's Free Trade Hall where Edward Grey, 1st Viscount Grey of Fallodon, a member of the newly elected Liberal government, was speaking. As he was talking, Christabel Pankhurst and Annie Kenney of the WSPU constantly shouted out, ' Will the Liberal Government give votes to women? '. When they refused to cease calling out, police were called to evict them and the two suffragettes (as members of the WSPU became known after this incident) were involved in a struggle which ended with them being arrested and charged for assault. When they refused to pay their fine, they were sent to prison for one week, and three days. The British public were shocked and took notice at this use of violence to win the vote for women. After this media success, the WSPU 's tactics became increasingly violent. This included an attempt in 1908 to storm the House of Commons, the arson of David Lloyd George 's country home (despite his support for women 's suffrage). In 1909 Lady Constance Lytton was imprisoned, but immediately released when her identity was discovered, so in 1910 she disguised herself as a working class seamstress called Jane Warton and endured inhumane treatment which included force - feeding. In 1913, suffragette Emily Davison protested by interfering with a horse owned by King George V during the running of The Derby; she was trampled and died four days later. The WSPU ceased their militant activities during World War I and agreed to assist with the war effort. The National Union of Women 's Suffrage Societies, which had always employed ' constitutional ' methods, continued to lobby during the war years, and compromises were worked out between the NUWSS and the coalition government. The Speaker 's Conference on electoral reform (1917) represented all the parties in both houses, and came to the conclusion that women 's suffrage was essential. Regarding fears that women would suddenly move from zero to a majority of the electorate due to the heavy loss of men during the war, the Conference recommended that the age restriction be 21 for men, and 30 for women. On 6 February 1918, the Representation of the People Act 1918 was passed, enfranchising women over the age of 30 who met minimum property qualifications. About 8.4 million women gained the vote, not only in Britain and Ireland. In November 1918, the Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act 1918 was passed, allowing women to be elected into Parliament. The Representation of the People Act 1928 extended the voting franchise in Great Britain and Northern Ireland to all women over the age of 21, granting women the vote on the same terms as men. In 1999, Time magazine, in naming Emmeline Pankhurst as one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century, states: "... she shaped an idea of women for our time; she shook society into a new pattern from which there could be no going back ''. Women 's political status without the vote was promoted by the National Council of Women of Canada from 1894 to 1918. It promoted a vision of "transcendent citizenship '' for women. The ballot was not needed, for citizenship was to be exercised through personal influence and moral suasion, through the election of men with strong moral character, and through raising public - spirited sons. The National Council position was integrated into its nation - building program that sought to uphold Canada as a White settler nation. While the women 's suffrage movement was important for extending the political rights of White women, it was also authorized through race - based arguments that linked White women 's enfranchisement to the need to protect the nation from "racial degeneration. '' Women had local votes in some provinces, as in Ontario from 1850, where women owning property (freeholders and householders) could vote for school trustees. By 1900 other provinces had adopted similar provisions, and in 1916 Manitoba took the lead in extending women 's suffrage. Simultaneously suffragists gave strong support to the Prohibition movement, especially in Ontario and the Western provinces. The Wartime Elections Act of 1917 gave the vote to British women who were war widows or had sons, husbands, fathers, or brothers serving overseas. Unionist Prime Minister Sir Robert Borden pledged himself during the 1917 campaign to equal suffrage for women. After his landslide victory, he introduced a bill in 1918 for extending the franchise to women. On 24 May 1918, women considered citizens (not Aboriginal women) became eligible to vote who were "age 21 or older, not alien - born and meet property requirements in provinces where they exist ''. Most women of Quebec gained full suffrage in 1940. The first woman elected to Parliament was Agnes Macphail in Ontario in 1921. Before the Nineteenth Amendment was passed in 1920, some individual U.S. states granted women suffrage in certain kinds of elections. Some allowed women to vote in school elections, municipal elections, or for members of the Electoral College. Some territories, like Washington, Utah, and Wyoming, allowed women to vote before they became states. The New Jersey constitution of 1776 enfranchised all adult inhabitants who owned a specified amount of property. Laws enacted in 1790 and 1797 referred to voters as "he or she '', and women regularly voted. A law passed in 1807, however, excluded women from voting in that state. Lydia Taft was an early forerunner in Colonial America who was allowed to vote in three New England town meetings, beginning in 1756, at Uxbridge, Massachusetts. The women 's suffrage movement was closely tied to abolitionism, with many suffrage activists gaining their first experience as anti-slavery activists. In June 1848, Gerrit Smith made women 's suffrage a plank in the Liberty Party platform. In July, at the Seneca Falls Convention in upstate New York, activists including Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony began a seventy - year struggle by women to secure the right to vote. Attendees signed a document known as the Declaration of Rights and Sentiments, of which Stanton was the primary author. Equal rights became the rallying cry of the early movement for women 's rights, and equal rights meant claiming access to all the prevailing definitions of freedom. In 1850 Lucy Stone organized a larger assembly with a wider focus, the National Women 's Rights Convention in Worcester, Massachusetts. Susan B. Anthony, a resident of Rochester, New York, joined the cause in 1852 after reading Stone 's 1850 speech. Stanton, Stone and Anthony were the three leading figures of this movement in the U.S. during the 19th century: the "triumvirate '' of the drive to gain voting rights for women. Women 's suffrage activists pointed out that black people had been granted the franchise and had not been included in the language of the United States Constitution 's Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments (which gave people equal protection under the law and the right to vote regardless of their race, respectively). This, they contended, had been unjust. Early victories were won in the territories of Wyoming (1869) and Utah (1870). John Allen Campbell, the first Governor of the Wyoming Territory, approved the first law in United States history explicitly granting women the right to vote. The law was approved on December 10, 1869. This day was later commemorated as Wyoming Day. On February 12, 1870, the Secretary of the Territory and Acting Governor of the Territory of Utah, S.A. Mann, approved a law allowing twenty - one - year - old women to vote in any election in Utah. Utah women were disenfranchised by provisions of the federal Edmunds -- Tucker Act enacted by the U.S. Congress in 1887. The push to grant Utah women 's suffrage was at least partially fueled by the belief that, given the right to vote, Utah women would dispose of polygamy. It was only after Utah women exercised their suffrage rights in favor of polygamy that the U.S. Congress disenfranchised Utah women. By the end of the 19th century, Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming had enfranchised women after effort by the suffrage associations at the state level; Colorado notably enfranchised women by an 1893 referendum. During the beginning of the 20th century, as women 's suffrage faced several important federal votes, a portion of the suffrage movement known as the National Woman 's Party led by suffragist Alice Paul became the first "cause '' to picket outside the White House. Paul had been mentored by Emmeline Pankhurst while in England, and both she and Lucy Burns led a series of protests against the Wilson Administration in Washington. Wilson ignored the protests for six months, but on June 20, 1917, as a Russian delegation drove up to the White House, suffragists unfurled a banner which stated: "We women of America tell you that America is not a democracy. Twenty million women are denied the right to vote. President Wilson is the chief opponent of their national enfranchisement ''. Another banner on August 14, 1917, referred to "Kaiser Wilson '' and compared the plight of the German people with that of American women. With this manner of protest, the women were subject to arrests and many were jailed. Another ongoing tactic of the National Woman 's Party was watchfires, which involved burning copies of President Wilson 's speeches, often outside the White House or in the nearby Lafayette Park. The Party continued to hold watchfires even as the war began, drawing criticism from the public and even other suffrage groups for being unpatriotic. On October 17, Alice Paul was sentenced to seven months and on October 30 began a hunger strike, but after a few days prison authorities began to force feed her. After years of opposition, Wilson changed his position in 1918 to advocate women 's suffrage as a war measure. The key vote came on June 4, 1919, when the Senate approved the amendment by 56 to 25 after four hours of debate, during which Democratic Senators opposed to the amendment filibustered to prevent a roll call until their absent Senators could be protected by pairs. The Ayes included 36 (82 %) Republicans and 20 (54 %) Democrats. The Nays comprised 8 (18 %) Republicans and 17 (46 %) Democrats. The Nineteenth Amendment, which prohibited state or federal sex - based restrictions on voting, was ratified by sufficient states in 1920. According to the article, "Nineteenth Amendment '', by Leslie Goldstein from the Encyclopedia of the Supreme Court of the United States, "by the end it also included jail sentences, and hunger strikes in jail accompanied by brutal force feedings; mob violence; and legislative votes so close that partisans were carried in on stretchers '' (Goldstein, 2008). Even after the Nineteenth Amendment was ratified, women were still facing problems. For instance, when women had registered to vote in Maryland, "residents sued to have the women 's names removed from the registry on the grounds that the amendment itself was unconstitutional '' (Goldstein, 2008). Before 1965, women of color, such as African Americans and Native Americans, were disenfranchised, especially in the South. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 prohibited racial discrimination in voting, and secured voting rights for racial minorities throughout the U.S. The female descendants of the Bounty mutineers who lived on Pitcairn Islands could vote from 1838, and this right transferred with their resettlement to Norfolk Island (now an Australian external territory) in 1856. Propertied women in the colony of South Australia were granted the vote in local elections (but not parliamentary elections) in 1861. Henrietta Dugdale formed the first Australian women 's suffrage society in Melbourne, Victoria in 1884. Women became eligible to vote for the Parliament of South Australia in 1895 and in 1897, Catherine Helen Spence became the first female political candidate for political office, unsuccessfully standing for election as a delegate to Federal Convention on Australian Federation. Western Australia granted voting rights to women in 1899. The first election for the Parliament of the newly formed Commonwealth of Australia in 1901 was based on the electoral provisions of the six pre-existing colonies, so that women who had the vote and the right to stand for Parliament at state level had the same rights for the 1901 Australian Federal election. In 1902, the Commonwealth Parliament passed the Commonwealth Franchise Act, which enabled all women to vote and stand for election for the Federal Parliament. Four women stood for election in 1903. The Act did, however, specifically exclude ' natives ' from Commonwealth franchise unless already enrolled in a state. In 1949, the right to vote in federal elections was extended to all Indigenous people who had served in the armed forces, or were enrolled to vote in state elections (Queensland, Western Australia, and the Northern Territory still excluded indigenous women from voting rights). Remaining restrictions were abolished in 1962 by the Commonwealth Electoral Act. Edith Cowan was elected to the West Australian Legislative Assembly in 1921, the first woman elected to any Australian Parliament. Dame Enid Lyons, in the Australian House of Representatives and Senator Dorothy Tangney became the first women in the Federal Parliament in 1943. Lyons went on to be the first woman to hold a Cabinet post in the 1949 ministry of Robert Menzies. Rosemary Follett was elected Chief Minister of the Australian Capital Territory in 1989, becoming the first woman elected to lead a state or territory. By 2010, the people of Australia 's oldest city, Sydney had female leaders occupying every major political office above them, with Clover Moore as Lord Mayor, Kristina Keneally as Premier of New South Wales, Marie Bashir as Governor of New South Wales, Julia Gillard as Prime Minister, Quentin Bryce as Governor - General of Australia and Elizabeth II as Queen of Australia. Women in Rarotonga won the right to vote in 1893, shortly after New Zealand. New Zealand 's Electoral Act of 19 September 1893 made this country the first in the world to grant women the right to vote in parliamentary elections. Although the Liberal government which passed the bill generally advocated social and political reform, the electoral bill was only passed because of a combination of personality issues and political accident. The bill granted the vote to women of all races. New Zealand women were denied the right to stand for parliament, however, until 1920. In 2005 almost a third of the Members of Parliament elected were female. Women recently have also occupied powerful and symbolic offices such as those of Prime Minister (Jenny Shipley and Helen Clark), Governor - General (Catherine Tizard and Silvia Cartwright), Chief Justice (Sian Elias), Speaker of the House of Representatives (Margaret Wilson), and from 3 March 2005 to 23 August 2006, all four of these posts were held by women, along with Queen Elizabeth as Head of State. Women in Latin America women lagged behind those in the U.S. and Canada in gaining the vote. Ecuador enfranchised women in 1929 and the last was Paraguay in 1961. By date of full suffrage: There were political, religious, and cultural debates about women 's suffrage in the various countries. Important advocates for women 's suffrage include Hermila Galindo (Mexico), Eva Perón (Argentina), Alicia Moreau de Justo (Argentina), Julieta Lanteri (Argentina), Celina Guimarães Viana (Brazil), Ivone Guimarães (Brazil), Henrietta Müller (Chile), Marta Vergara (Chile), Lucila Rubio de Laverde (Colombia), María Currea Manrique (Colombia), Josefa Toledo de Aguirre (Nicaragua), Elida Campodónico (Panama), Clara González (Panama), Gumercinda Páez (Panama), Paulina Luisi Janicki (Uruguay), Carmen Clemente Travieso, (Venezuela). The modern suffragist movement in Argentina arose partly in conjunction with the activities of the Socialist Party and anarchists of the early twentieth century. Women involved in larger movements for social justice began to agitate equal rights and opportunities on par with men; following the example of their European peers, Elvira Dellepiane Rawson, Cecilia Grierson and Alicia Moreau de Justo began to form a number of groups in defense of the civil rights of women between 1900 and 1910. The first major victories for extending the civil rights of women occurred in the Province of San Juan. Women had been allowed to vote in that province since 1862, but only in municipal elections. A similar right was extended in the province of Santa Fe where a constitution that ensured women 's suffrage was enacted at the municipal level, although female participation in votes initially remained low. In 1927, San Juan sanctioned its Constitution and broadly recognized the equal rights of men and women. However, the 1930 coup overthrew these advances. A great pioneer of women 's suffrage was Julieta Lanteri, the daughter of Italian immigrants, who in 1910 requested a national court to grant her the right to citizenship (at the time not generally given to single female immigrants) as well as suffrage. The Claros judge upheld her request and declared: "As a judge, I have a duty to declare that her right to citizenship is enshrined in the Constitution, and therefore that women enjoy the same political rights as the laws grant to male citizens, with the only restrictions expressly determined such laws, because no inhabitant is deprived of what they do not prohibit. '' In July 1911, Dr. Lanteri were enumerated, and on November 26 of that year exercised her right to vote, the first Ibero - American woman to vote. Also covered in a judgment in 1919 was presented as a candidate for national deputy for the Independent Centre Party, obtaining 1730 votes out of 154,302. In 1919, Rogelio Araya UCR Argentina had gone down in history for being the first to submit a bill recognizing the right to vote for women, an essential component of universal suffrage. On July 17, 1919, he served as deputy national on behalf of the people of Santa Fe. On February 27, 1946, three days after the elections that consecrated president Juan Perón and his wife First Lady Eva Perón 26 years of age gave his first political speech in an organized women to thank them for their support of Perón 's candidacy. On that occasion, Eva demanded equal rights for men and women and particularly, women 's suffrage: The woman Argentina has exceeded the period of civil tutorials. Women must assert their action, women should vote. The woman, moral spring home, you should take the place in the complex social machinery of the people. He asks a necessity new organize more extended and remodeled groups. It requires, in short, the transformation of the concept of woman who sacrificially has increased the number of its duties without seeking the minimum of their rights. The bill was presented the new constitutional government assumed immediately after the May 1, 1946. The opposition of conservative bias was evident, not only the opposition parties but even within parties who supported Peronism. Eva Perón constantly pressured the parliament for approval, even causing protests from the latter for this intrusion. Although it was a brief text in three articles, that practically could not give rise to discussions, the Senate recently gave preliminary approval to the project August 21, 1946, and had to wait over a year for the House of Representative to publish the September 9, 1947 Law 13,010, establishing equal political rights between men and women and universal suffrage in Argentina. Finally, Law 13,010 was approved unanimously. In an official statement on national television, Eva Perón announced the extension of suffrage to Argentina 's women: Women of my country, I get right now, from the government of the nation, the law that enshrines our civic rights. And the receipt with you, with the certainty that I do on behalf of all Argentine women, joyfully feeling my hands tremble contact Laurel proclaiming victory. My sister is here, in tight hay summary letter few items a long history of struggles and hopes smoothly. Therefore twitching in her indignation, shadows aucasos threatening, but also joyful awakening of triumphal auroras. And the latter that defame the victory of the woman on misunderstandings, denials and interests created caste repudiated by our national awakening. And UN Leader Molding paragraph Facing Fate victoriously the problems of the time, General Peron. The Centre and the vote will contribute to the perfection of democracy Argentina, my dear friends. On 23 September 1947, they enacted the Female Enrollment Act (No. 13,010) during the first presidency of Juan Domingo Perón, which was implemented in the elections of November 11, 1951, in which 3 816 654 women voted (63.9 % voted for the Justicialista Party and 30.8 % for the Radical Civic Union). Later in 1952, the first 23 senators and deputies took their seats, representing the Justicialista Party. Women were granted the right to vote and be elected in Electoral Code of 1932, followed by Brazilian Constitution of 1934. However, the law of Rio Grande do Norte State has allowed women to vote since 1926. The struggle for women 's suffrage was part of a larger movement to gain rights for women. Debate about women 's suffrage in Chile began in the 1920s. Women 's suffrage in municipal elections was first established in 1931 by decree (decreto con fuerza de ley); voting age for women was set at 25 years. In addition, the Chamber of Deputies approved a law on March 9, 1933 establishing women 's suffrage in municipal elections. Women obtained the legal right to vote in parliamentary and presidential elections in 1949. Women 's share among voters increased steadily after 1949, reaching the same levels of participation as men in 1970. The liberal Mexican Constitution of 1857 did not bar women from voting in Mexico or holding office, but "election laws restricted the suffrage to males, and in practice women did not participate nor demand a part in politics, '' with framers being indifferent to the issue. Years of civil war and the French intervention delayed any consideration of women 's role in Mexican political life, but during the Restored Republic and the Porfiriato (1876 - 1911), women began organizing to expand their civil rights, including suffrage. Socialist publications in Mexico began advocating changes in law and practice as early as 1878. The journal La Internacional articulated a detailed program of reform that aimed at "the emancipation, rehabilitation, and integral education of women. '' The era of the Porfiriato did not record changes in law regarding the status of women, but women began entering professions requiring higher education: law, medicine, and pharmacy (requiring a university degree), but also teaching. Liberalism placed great importance on secular education, so that the public school system ranks of the teaching profession expanded in the late nineteenth century, which benefited females wishing to teach and education for girls. The status of women in Mexico became an issue during the Mexican Revolution, with Francisco I. Madero, the challenger to the continued presidency of Porfirio Diaz interested in the rights of Mexican women. Madero was part of a rich estate - owning family in the northern state of Coahuila, who had attended University of California, Berkeley briefly and traveled in Europe, absorbing liberal ideas and practices. Madero 's wife as well as his female personal assistant, Soledad González, "unquestionably enhanced his interest in women 's rights. '' González was one of the orphans that the Maderos adopted; she learned typing and stenography, and traveled to Mexico City following Madero 's election as president in 1911. Madero 's brief presidential term was tumultuous, and with no previous political experience, Madero was unable to forward the cause of women 's suffrage. Following his ouster by military coup led by Victoriano Huerta and Madero 's assassination, those taking up Madero 's cause and legacy, the Constitutionalists (named after the liberal Constitution of 1857) began to discuss women 's rights. Venustiano Carranza, former governor of Coahuila, and following Madero 's assassination, the "first chief '' of the Constitutionalists. Carranza also had an influential female private secretary, Hermila Galindo, who was a champion of women 's rights in Mexico. In asserting his Carranza promulgated political plan Plan de Guadalupe in 1914, enumerating in standard Mexican fashion, his aims as he sought supporters. In the "Additions '' to the Plan de Guadalupe, Carranza made some important statements that affected families and the status of women in regards to marriage. In December 1914, Carranza issued a decree that legalized divorce under certain circumstances. Although the decree did not lead to women 's suffrage, it eased somewhat restrictions that still existed in the civil even after the nineteenth - century liberal Reforma established the State 's right to regulate marriage as a civil rather than an ecclesiastical matter. There was increased advocacy for women 's rights in the late 1910s, with the founding of a new feminist magazine, Mujer Moderna, which ceased publication in 1919. Mexico saw several international women 's rights congresses, the first being held in Mérida, Yucatán, in 1916. The International Congress of Women had some 700 delegates attend, but did not result in lasting changes. As women 's suffrage made progress in Great Britain and the United States, in Mexico there was an echo. Carranza, who was elected president in 1916, called for a convention to draft a new Mexican Constitution that incorporated gains for particular groups, such as the industrial working class and the peasantry seeking land reform. It also incorporated increased restrictions on the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico, an extension of the anticlericalism in the Constitution of 1857. The Constitution of 1917 did not explicitly empower women 's access to the ballot. In the northern Mexican state of Sonora, Mexican women pushed for more rights for women, including the vote. Emélida Carrillo and school teacher María de Jesús Váldez led the effort. Notably, the movement for Mexican women 's rights there was linked to the movement to exclude and expel Chinese in Mexico, racial essentialism that was also seen in the suffrage movement in the U.S., but generally not elsewhere in Latin America. In 1937, Mexican feminists challenged the wording of the Constitution concerning who is eligible for citizenship -- the Constitution did not specify "men and women. '' María del Refugio García ran for election as a Sole Front for Women 's Rights candidate for her home district, Uruapan. García won by a huge margin, but was not allowed to take her seat because the government would have to amend the Constitution. In response, García went on a hunger strike outside President Lázaro Cárdenas ' residence in Mexico City for 11 days in August 1937. Cárdenas responded by promising to change Article 34 in the Constitution that September. By December, the amendment had been passed by congress, and women were granted full citizenship. However, the vote for women in Mexico was not granted until 1953. The history and meaning of the women 's vote in Mexico has been examined. Women gained the right to vote in 1947 for some local elections and for national elections in 1953. After the 1928 Student Protests, women started participating more actively in politics. In 1935, women 's rights supporters founded the Feminine Cultural Group (known as ' ACF ' from its initials in Spanish), with the goal of tackling women 's problems. The group supported women 's political and social rights, and believed it was necessary to involve and inform women about these issues in order to ensure their personal development. It went on to give seminars, as well as founding night schools and the House of Laboring Women. Groups looking to reform the 1936 Civil Code of Conduct in conjunction with the Venezuelan representation to the Union of American Women called the First Feminine Venezuelan Congress in 1940. In this congress, delegates discussed the situation of women in Venezuela and their demands. Key goals were women 's suffrage and a reform to the Civil Code of Conduct. Around twelve thousand signatures were collected and handed to the Venezuelan Congress, which reformed the Civil Code of Conduct in 1942. In 1944, groups supporting women 's suffrage, the most important being Feminine Action, organized around the country. During 1945, women attained the right to vote at a municipal level. This was followed by a stronger call of action. Feminine Action began editing a newspaper called the Correo Cívico Femenino, to connect, inform and orientate Venezuelan women in their struggle. Finally, after the 1945 Venezuelan Coup d'État and the call for a new Constitution, to which women were elected, women 's suffrage became a constitutional right in the country. The right of women to vote has sometimes been denied in non-religious organizations; for example, it was not until 1964 that women in the National Association of the Deaf in the United States were first allowed to vote. The Pope is elected by the College of Cardinals. Women are not appointed as cardinals, and therefore women can not vote for the Pope. The female Catholic offices of Abbess or Mother Superior are elective, the choice being made by the secret votes of the nuns belonging to the community. In the United States, some mosques have constitutions prohibiting women from voting in board elections. In Conservative Judaism, Reform Judaism and other liberal Jewish movements women have the right to vote. Since the 1970s, more and more Modern Orthodox synagogues and religious organizations have been granting women the rights to vote and to be elected to their governing bodies. Women are denied the vote and the ability to be elected to positions of authority in some Ultra-Orthodox Jewish communities. States, edited by David S. Tanenhaus, vol. 3, Macmillan Reference USA, 2008, pp. 410 -- 413. U.S. History in Context, libraries.state.ma.us/login? gwurl = http://link.galegroup.com/ Apps / doc / CX3241200712 / UHIC? u = mlin_s_bristcc&xid = 7ccce78e. Accessed 19 Dec. 2016

what is the output of a pid controller

PID controller - Wikipedia A proportional -- integral -- derivative controller (PID controller or three term controller) is a control loop feedback mechanism widely used in industrial control systems and a variety of other applications requiring continuously modulated control. A PID controller continuously calculates an error value e (t) (\ displaystyle e (t)) as the difference between a desired setpoint (SP) and a measured process variable (PV) and applies a correction based on proportional, integral, and derivative terms (denoted P, I, and D respectively), hence the name. In practical terms it automatically applies accurate and responsive correction to a control function. An everyday example is the cruise control on a car; where external influences such as hills (gradients) would decrease speed. The PID algorithm restores from current speed to the desired speed in an optimal way, without delay or overshoot, by controlling the power output of the vehicle 's engine. The first theoretical analysis and practical application was in the field of automatic steering systems for ships, developed from the early 1920s onwards. It was then used for automatic process control in manufacturing industry, where it was widely implemented in pneumatic, and then electronic, controllers. Today there is universal use of the PID concept in applications requiring accurate and optimised automatic control. The distinguishing feature of the PID controller is the ability to use the three control terms of proportional, integral and derivative influence on the controller output to apply accurate and optimal control. The block diagram on the right shows the principles of how these terms are generated and applied. It shows a PID controller, which continuously calculates an error value e (t) (\ displaystyle e (t)) as the difference between a desired setpoint SP = r (t) (\ displaystyle (\ text (SP)) = r (t)) and a measured process variable PV = y (t) (\ displaystyle (\ text (PV)) = y (t)), and applies a correction based on proportional, integral, and derivative terms. The controller attempts to minimize the error over time by adjustment of a control variable u (t) (\ displaystyle u (t)), such as the opening of a control valve, to a new value determined by a weighted sum of the control terms. In this model: Tuning -- The balance of these effects is achieved by "loop tuning '' (see later) to produce the optimal control function. The tuning constants are shown below as "K '' and must be derived for each control application, as they depend on the response characteristics of the complete loop external to the controller. These are dependent on the behaviour of the measuring sensor, the final control element (such as a control valve), any control signal delays and the process itself. Approximate values of constants can usually be initially entered knowing the type of application, but they are normally refined, or tuned, by "bumping '' the process in practice by introducing a setpoint change and observing the system response. Control action -- The mathematical model and practical loop above both use a "direct '' control action for all the terms, which means an increasing positive error results in an increasing positive control output for the summed terms to apply correction. However, the output is called "reverse '' acting if it is necessary to apply negative corrective action. For instance, if the valve in the flow loop was 100 -- 0 % valve opening for 0 -- 100 % control output -- meaning that the controller action has to be reversed. Some process control schemes and final control elements require this reverse action. An example would be a valve for cooling water, where the fail - safe mode, in the case of loss of signal, would be 100 % opening of the valve; therefore 0 % controller output needs to cause 100 % valve opening. The overall control function can be expressed mathematically as where K p (\ displaystyle K_ (\ text (p))), K i (\ displaystyle K_ (\ text (i))), and K d (\ displaystyle K_ (\ text (d))), all non-negative, denote the coefficients for the proportional, integral, and derivative terms respectively (sometimes denoted P, I, and D). In the standard form of the equation (see later in article), K i (\ displaystyle K_ (\ text (i))) and K d (\ displaystyle K_ (\ text (d))) are respectively replaced by K p / T i (\ displaystyle K_ (\ text (p)) / T_ (\ text (i))) and K p T d (\ displaystyle K_ (\ text (p)) T_ (\ text (d))); the advantage of this being that T i (\ displaystyle T_ (\ text (i))) and T d (\ displaystyle T_ (\ text (d))) have some understandable physical meaning, as they represent the integration time and the derivative time respectively. Although a PID controller has three control terms, some applications use only one or two terms to provide the appropriate control. This is achieved by setting the unused parameters to zero and is called a PI, PD, P or I controller in the absence of the other control actions. PI controllers are fairly common, since derivative action is sensitive to measurement noise, whereas the absence of an integral term may prevent the system from reaching its target value. The use of the PID algorithm does not guarantee optimal control of the system or its control stability (See § Limitations of PID control, below.). Situations may occur where there are excessive delays: the measurement of the process value is delayed, or the control action does not apply quickly enough. In these cases lead -- lag compensation is required to be effective. The response of the controller can be described in terms of its responsiveness to an error, the degree to which the system overshoots a setpoint, and the degree of any system oscillation. But the PID controller is broadly applicable, since it relies only on the response of the measured process variable, not on knowledge or a model of the underlying process. Continuous control, before PID controllers were fully understood and implemented, has one of its origins in the centrifugal governor which uses rotating weights to control a process. This had been invented by Christian Huygens in the 17th century to regulate the gap between millstones in windmills depending on the speed of rotation, and thereby compensate for the variable speed of grain feed. With the invention of the low - pressure, stationary steam engine there was a need for automatic speed control, and James Watt 's self - designed, "conical pendulum '' governor, a set of revolving steel balls attached to a vertical spindle by link arms, came to be an industry standard. This was based on the mill stone gap control concept. Rotating governor speed control, however, was still variable under conditions of varying load, where the shortcoming of what is now known as proportional control alone was evident. The error between the desired speed and the actual speed would increase with increasing load. In the 19th century the theoretical basis for the operation of governors was first described by James Clerk Maxwell in 1868 in his now - famous paper On Governors. He explored the mathematical basis for control stability, and progressed a good way towards a solution, but made an appeal for mathematicians to examine the problem. The problem was examined further by Edward Routh in 1874, Charles Sturm and in 1895, Adolf Hurwitz, who all contributed to the establishment of control stability criteria. In practice, speed governors were further refined, notably by American scientist Willard Gibbs, who in 1872 theoretically analysed Watt 's conical pendulum governor. About this time, the invention of the Whitehead torpedo posed a control problem which required accurate control of the running depth. Use of a depth pressure sensor alone proved inadequate, and a pendulum which measured the fore and aft pitch of the torpedo was combined with depth measurement to become the pendulum - and - hydrostat control. Pressure control provided only a proportional control which, if the control gain was too high, would become unstable and go into overshoot, with considerable instability of depth - holding. The pendulum added what is now known as derivative control, which damped the oscillations by detecting the torpedo dive / climb angle and thereby the rate of change of depth. This development (named by Whitehead as "The Secret '' to give no clue to its action) was around 1868. Another early example of a PID - type controller was developed by Elmer Sperry in 1911 for ship - steering, though his work was intuitive rather than mathematically - based. It was not until 1922, however, that a formal control law for what we now call PID or three - term control was first developed using theoretical analysis, by Russian American engineer Nicolas Minorsky. Minorsky was researching and designing automatic ship steering for the US Navy and based his analysis on observations of a helmsman. He noted the helmsman steered the ship based not only on the current course error, but also on past error, as well as the current rate of change; this was then given a mathematical treatment by Minorsky. His goal was stability, not general control, which simplified the problem significantly. While proportional control provided stability against small disturbances, it was insufficient for dealing with a steady disturbance, notably a stiff gale (due to steady - state error), which required adding the integral term. Finally, the derivative term was added to improve stability and control. Trials were carried out on the USS New Mexico, with the controllers controlling the angular velocity (not angle) of the rudder. PI control yielded sustained yaw (angular error) of ± 2 °. Adding the D element yielded a yaw error of ± 1 / 6 °, better than most helmsmen could achieve. The Navy ultimately did not adopt the system due to resistance by personnel. Similar work was carried out and published by several others in the 1930s. The wide use of feedback controllers did not become feasible until the development of wide band high - gain amplifiers to use the concept of negative feedback. This had been developed in telephone engineering electronics by Harold Black in the late 1920s, but not published until 1934. Independently, Clesson E Mason of the Foxboro Company in 1930 invented a wide - band pneumatic controller by combining the nozzle and flapper high - gain pneumatic amplifier, which had been invented in 1914, with negative feedback from the controller output. This dramatically increased the linear range of operation of the nozzle and flapper amplifier, and integral control could also be added by the use of a precision bleed valve and a bellows generating the Integral term. The result was the "Stabilog '' controller which gave both proportional and integral functions using feedback bellows. Later the derivative term was added by a further bellows and adjustable orifice. From about 1932 onwards, the use of wideband pneumatic controllers increased rapidly in a variety of control applications. Compressed air was used both for generating the controller output, and for powering the process modulating device; such as a diaphragm operated control valve. They were simple low maintenance devices which operate well in a harsh industrial environment, and did not present an explosion risk in hazardous locations. They were the industry standard for many decades until the advent of discrete electronic controllers and distributed control systems. With these controllers, a pneumatic industry signalling standard of 3 -- 15 psi (0.2 -- 1.0 bar) was established, which had an elevated zero to ensure devices were working within their linear characteristic and represented the control range of 0 - 100 %. In the 1950s, when high gain electronic amplifiers became cheap and reliable, electronic PID controllers became popular, and 4 -- 20 mA current loop signals were used which emulated the pneumatic standard. However field actuators still widely use the pneumatic standard because of the advantages of pneumatic motive power for control valves in process plant environments. Most modern PID controls in industry are implemented in distributed control systems (DCS), programmable logic controllers (PLCs), computer - based controllers or as a compact controller. Software implementations have the advantages that they are relatively cheap and flexible with respect to the implementation of the PID algorithm in a particular control scenario. Electronic analog PID control loops were often found within more complex electronic systems, for example, the head positioning of a disk drive, the power conditioning of a power supply, or even the movement - detection circuit of a modern seismometer. Discrete electronic analogue controllers have been largely replaced by digital controllers using microcontrollers or FPGAs to implement PID algorithms. However, discrete analog PID controllers are still used in niche applications requiring high - bandwidth and low - noise performance, such as laser - diode controllers. Let 's take the example of a robotic arm, that can be moved and positioned by a control loop. An electric motor may lift or lower the arm, depending on forward or reverse power applied, but power can not be a simple function of position because of the inertial mass of the arm, forces due to gravity, external forces on the arm such as a load to lift or work to be done on an external object. By measuring the position (PV), and subtracting it from the setpoint (SP), the error (e) is found, and from it the controller calculates how much electric current to supply to the motor (MV). The obvious method is proportional control: the motor current is set in proportion to the existing error. However, this method fails if, for instance, the arm has to lift different weights: a greater weight needs a greater force applied for a same error on the down side, but a smaller force if the error is on the upside. That 's where the integral and derivative terms play their part. An integral term increases action in relation not only to the error but also the time for which it has persisted. So, if applied force is not enough to bring the error to zero, this force will be increased as time passes. A pure "I '' controller could bring the error to zero, however, it would be both slow reacting at the start (because action would be small at the beginning, needing time to get significant), brutal (the action increases as long as the error is positive, even if the error has started to approach zero), and slow to end (when the error switches sides, this for some time will only reduce the strength of the action from "I '', not make it switch sides as well), prompting overshoot and oscillations (see below). Moreover, it could even move the system out of zero error: remembering that the system had been in error, it could prompt an action when not needed. An alternative formulation of integral action is to change the electric current in small persistent steps that are proportional to the current error. Over time the steps accumulate and add up dependent on past errors; this is the discrete - time equivalent to integration. A derivative term does not consider the error (meaning it can not bring it to zero: a pure D controller can not bring the system to its setpoint), but the rate of change of error, trying to bring this rate to zero. It aims at flattening the error trajectory into a horizontal line, damping the force applied, and so reduces overshoot (error on the other side because too great applied force). Applying too much impetus when the error is small and is reducing will lead to overshoot. After overshooting, if the controller were to apply a large correction in the opposite direction and repeatedly overshoot the desired position, the output would oscillate around the setpoint in either a constant, growing, or decaying sinusoid. If the amplitude of the oscillations increase with time, the system is unstable. If they decrease, the system is stable. If the oscillations remain at a constant magnitude, the system is marginally stable. In the interest of achieving a controlled arrival at the desired position (SP) in a timely and accurate way, the controlled system needs to be critically damped. A well - tuned position control system will also apply the necessary currents to the controlled motor so that the arm pushes and pulls as necessary to resist external forces trying to move it away from the required position. The setpoint itself may be generated by an external system, such as a PLC or other computer system, so that it continuously varies depending on the work that the robotic arm is expected to do. A well - tuned PID control system will enable the arm to meet these changing requirements to the best of its capabilities. If a controller starts from a stable state with zero error (PV = SP), then further changes by the controller will be in response to changes in other measured or unmeasured inputs to the process that affect the process, and hence the PV. Variables that affect the process other than the MV are known as disturbances. Generally controllers are used to reject disturbances and to implement setpoint changes. A change in load on the arm constitutes a disturbance to the robot arm control process. In theory, a controller can be used to control any process which has a measurable output (PV), a known ideal value for that output (SP) and an input to the process (MV) that will affect the relevant PV. Controllers are used in industry to regulate temperature, pressure, force, feed rate, flow rate, chemical composition (component concentrations), weight, position, speed, and practically every other variable for which a measurement exists. The PID control scheme is named after its three correcting terms, whose sum constitutes the manipulated variable (MV). The proportional, integral, and derivative terms are summed to calculate the output of the PID controller. Defining u (t) (\ displaystyle u (t)) as the controller output, the final form of the PID algorithm is where Equivalently, the transfer function in the Laplace domain of the PID controller is where s (\ displaystyle s) is the complex frequency. The proportional term produces an output value that is proportional to the current error value. The proportional response can be adjusted by multiplying the error by a constant K, called the proportional gain constant. The proportional term is given by A high proportional gain results in a large change in the output for a given change in the error. If the proportional gain is too high, the system can become unstable (see the section on loop tuning). In contrast, a small gain results in a small output response to a large input error, and a less responsive or less sensitive controller. If the proportional gain is too low, the control action may be too small when responding to system disturbances. Tuning theory and industrial practice indicate that the proportional term should contribute the bulk of the output change. Because a non-zero error is required to drive it, a proportional controller generally operates with a so - called steady - state error. Steady - state error (SSE) is proportional to the process gain and inversely proportional to proportional gain. SSE may be mitigated by adding a compensating bias term to the setpoint AND output, or corrected dynamically by adding an integral term. The contribution from the integral term is proportional to both the magnitude of the error and the duration of the error. The integral in a PID controller is the sum of the instantaneous error over time and gives the accumulated offset that should have been corrected previously. The accumulated error is then multiplied by the integral gain (K) and added to the controller output. The integral term is given by The integral term accelerates the movement of the process towards setpoint and eliminates the residual steady - state error that occurs with a pure proportional controller. However, since the integral term responds to accumulated errors from the past, it can cause the present value to overshoot the setpoint value (see the section on loop tuning). The derivative of the process error is calculated by determining the slope of the error over time and multiplying this rate of change by the derivative gain K. The magnitude of the contribution of the derivative term to the overall control action is termed the derivative gain, K. The derivative term is given by Derivative action predicts system behavior and thus improves settling time and stability of the system. An ideal derivative is not causal, so that implementations of PID controllers include an additional low - pass filtering for the derivative term to limit the high - frequency gain and noise. Derivative action is seldom used in practice though -- by one estimate in only 25 % of deployed controllers -- because of its variable impact on system stability in real - world applications. Tuning a control loop is the adjustment of its control parameters (proportional band / gain, integral gain / reset, derivative gain / rate) to the optimum values for the desired control response. Stability (no unbounded oscillation) is a basic requirement, but beyond that, different systems have different behavior, different applications have different requirements, and requirements may conflict with one another. PID tuning is a difficult problem, even though there are only three parameters and in principle is simple to describe, because it must satisfy complex criteria within the limitations of PID control. There are accordingly various methods for loop tuning, and more sophisticated techniques are the subject of patents; this section describes some traditional manual methods for loop tuning. Designing and tuning a PID controller appears to be conceptually intuitive, but can be hard in practice, if multiple (and often conflicting) objectives such as short transient and high stability are to be achieved. PID controllers often provide acceptable control using default tunings, but performance can generally be improved by careful tuning, and performance may be unacceptable with poor tuning. Usually, initial designs need to be adjusted repeatedly through computer simulations until the closed - loop system performs or compromises as desired. Some processes have a degree of nonlinearity and so parameters that work well at full - load conditions do n't work when the process is starting up from no - load; this can be corrected by gain scheduling (using different parameters in different operating regions). If the PID controller parameters (the gains of the proportional, integral and derivative terms) are chosen incorrectly, the controlled process input can be unstable, i.e., its output diverges, with or without oscillation, and is limited only by saturation or mechanical breakage. Instability is caused by excess gain, particularly in the presence of significant lag. Generally, stabilization of response is required and the process must not oscillate for any combination of process conditions and setpoints, though sometimes marginal stability (bounded oscillation) is acceptable or desired. Mathematically, the origins of instability can be seen in the Laplace domain. The total loop transfer function is: where The system is called unstable where the closed loop transfer function diverges for some s (\ displaystyle s). This happens for situations where K (s) G (s) = − 1 (\ displaystyle K (s) G (s) = - 1). Typically, this happens when K (s) G (s) = 1 (\ displaystyle K (s) G (s) = 1) with a 180 degree phase shift. Stability is guaranteed when K (s) G (s) < 1 (\ displaystyle K (s) G (s) < 1) for frequencies that suffer high phase shifts. A more general formalism of this effect is known as the Nyquist stability criterion. The optimal behavior on a process change or setpoint change varies depending on the application. Two basic requirements are regulation (disturbance rejection -- staying at a given setpoint) and command tracking (implementing setpoint changes) -- these refer to how well the controlled variable tracks the desired value. Specific criteria for command tracking include rise time and settling time. Some processes must not allow an overshoot of the process variable beyond the setpoint if, for example, this would be unsafe. Other processes must minimize the energy expended in reaching a new setpoint. There are several methods for tuning a PID loop. The most effective methods generally involve the development of some form of process model, then choosing P, I, and D based on the dynamic model parameters. Manual tuning methods can be relatively time consuming, particularly for systems with long loop times. The choice of method will depend largely on whether or not the loop can be taken "offline '' for tuning, and on the response time of the system. If the system can be taken offline, the best tuning method often involves subjecting the system to a step change in input, measuring the output as a function of time, and using this response to determine the control parameters. If the system must remain online, one tuning method is to first set K i (\ displaystyle K_ (i)) and K d (\ displaystyle K_ (d)) values to zero. Increase the K p (\ displaystyle K_ (p)) until the output of the loop oscillates, then the K p (\ displaystyle K_ (p)) should be set to approximately half of that value for a "quarter amplitude decay '' type response. Then increase K i (\ displaystyle K_ (i)) until any offset is corrected in sufficient time for the process. However, too much K i (\ displaystyle K_ (i)) will cause instability. Finally, increase K d (\ displaystyle K_ (d)), if required, until the loop is acceptably quick to reach its reference after a load disturbance. However, too much K d (\ displaystyle K_ (d)) will cause excessive response and overshoot. A fast PID loop tuning usually overshoots slightly to reach the setpoint more quickly; however, some systems can not accept overshoot, in which case an overdamped closed - loop system is required, which will require a K p (\ displaystyle K_ (p)) setting significantly less than half that of the K p (\ displaystyle K_ (p)) setting that was causing oscillation. Another heuristic tuning method is formally known as the Ziegler -- Nichols method, introduced by John G. Ziegler and Nathaniel B. Nichols in the 1940s. As in the method above, the K i (\ displaystyle K_ (i)) and K d (\ displaystyle K_ (d)) gains are first set to zero. The proportional gain is increased until it reaches the ultimate gain, K u (\ displaystyle K_ (u)), at which the output of the loop starts to oscillate. K u (\ displaystyle K_ (u)) and the oscillation period T u (\ displaystyle T_ (u)) are used to set the gains as follows: These gains apply to the ideal, parallel form of the PID controller. When applied to the standard PID form, only the integral and derivative time parameters T i (\ displaystyle T_ (i)) and T d (\ displaystyle T_ (d)) are dependent on the oscillation period T u (\ displaystyle T_ (u)). Please see the section "Alternative nomenclature and PID forms ''. This method was developed in 1953 and is based on a first order + time delay model. Similar to the Ziegler - Nichols method, a set of tuning parameters were developed to yield a closed - loop response with a decay ratio of 1 / 4. Arguably the biggest problem with these parameters is that a small change in the process parameters could potentially cause a closed - loop system to become unstable. Published in 1984 by Karl Johan Åström and Tore Hägglund, the relay method temporarily operates the process using bang - bang control and measures the resultant oscillations. The output is switched (as if by a relay, hence the name) between two values of the control variable. The values must be chosen so the process will cross the setpoint, but need not be 0 % and 100 %; by choosing suitable values, dangerous oscillations can be avoided. As long as the process variable is below the setpoint, the control output is set to the higher value. As soon as it rises above the setpoint, the control output is set to the lower value. Ideally, the output waveform is nearly square, spending equal time above and below the setpoint. The period and amplitude of the resultant oscillations are measured, and used to compute the ultimate gain and period, which are then fed into the Ziegler -- Nichols method. Specifically, the ultimate period T u (\ displaystyle T_ (u)) is assumed to be equal to the observed period, and the ultimate gain is computed as K u = 4 b / π a, (\ displaystyle K_ (u) = 4b / \ pi a,) where a is the amplitude of the process variable oscillation, and b is the amplitude of the control output change which caused it. There are numerous variants on the relay method. Most modern industrial facilities no longer tune loops using the manual calculation methods shown above. Instead, PID tuning and loop optimization software are used to ensure consistent results. These software packages will gather the data, develop process models, and suggest optimal tuning. Some software packages can even develop tuning by gathering data from reference changes. Mathematical PID loop tuning induces an impulse in the system, and then uses the controlled system 's frequency response to design the PID loop values. In loops with response times of several minutes, mathematical loop tuning is recommended, because trial and error can take days just to find a stable set of loop values. Optimal values are harder to find. Some digital loop controllers offer a self - tuning feature in which very small setpoint changes are sent to the process, allowing the controller itself to calculate optimal tuning values. Other formulas are available to tune the loop according to different performance criteria. Many patented formulas are now embedded within PID tuning software and hardware modules. Advances in automated PID loop tuning software also deliver algorithms for tuning PID Loops in a dynamic or non-steady state (NSS) scenario. The software will model the dynamics of a process, through a disturbance, and calculate PID control parameters in response. While PID controllers are applicable to many control problems, and often perform satisfactorily without any improvements or only coarse tuning, they can perform poorly in some applications, and do not in general provide optimal control. The fundamental difficulty with PID control is that it is a feedback control system, with constant parameters, and no direct knowledge of the process, and thus overall performance is reactive and a compromise. While PID control is the best controller in an observer without a model of the process, better performance can be obtained by overtly modeling the actor of the process without resorting to an observer. PID controllers, when used alone, can give poor performance when the PID loop gains must be reduced so that the control system does not overshoot, oscillate or hunt about the control setpoint value. They also have difficulties in the presence of non-linearities, may trade - off regulation versus response time, do not react to changing process behavior (say, the process changes after it has warmed up), and have lag in responding to large disturbances. The most significant improvement is to incorporate feed - forward control with knowledge about the system, and using the PID only to control error. Alternatively, PIDs can be modified in more minor ways, such as by changing the parameters (either gain scheduling in different use cases or adaptively modifying them based on performance), improving measurement (higher sampling rate, precision, and accuracy, and low - pass filtering if necessary), or cascading multiple PID controllers. Another problem faced with PID controllers is that they are linear, and in particular symmetric. Thus, performance of PID controllers in non-linear systems (such as HVAC systems) is variable. For example, in temperature control, a common use case is active heating (via a heating element) but passive cooling (heating off, but no cooling), so overshoot can only be corrected slowly -- it can not be forced downward. In this case the PID should be tuned to be overdamped, to prevent or reduce overshoot, though this reduces performance (it increases settling time). A problem with the derivative term is that it amplifies higher frequency measurement or process noise that can cause large amounts of change in the output. It is often helpful to filter the measurements with a low - pass filter in order to remove higher - frequency noise components. As low - pass filtering and derivative control can cancel each other out, the amount of filtering is limited. So low noise instrumentation can be important. A nonlinear median filter may be used, which improves the filtering efficiency and practical performance. In some cases, the differential band can be turned off with little loss of control. This is equivalent to using the PID controller as a PI controller. The basic PID algorithm presents some challenges in control applications that have been addressed by minor modifications to the PID form. One common problem resulting from the ideal PID implementations is integral windup. Following a large change in setpoint the integral term can accumulate an error larger than the maximal value for the regulation variable (windup), thus the system overshoots and continues to increase until this accumulated error is unwound. This problem can be addressed by: For example, a PID loop is used to control the temperature of an electric resistance furnace where the system has stabilized. Now when the door is opened and something cold is put into the furnace the temperature drops below the setpoint. The integral function of the controller tends to compensate for error by introducing another error in the positive direction. This overshoot can be avoided by freezing of the integral function after the opening of the door for the time the control loop typically needs to reheat the furnace. A PI Controller (proportional - integral controller) is a special case of the PID controller in which the derivative (D) of the error is not used. The controller output is given by where Δ (\ displaystyle \ Delta) is the error or deviation of actual measured value (PV) from the setpoint (SP). A PI controller can be modelled easily in software such as Simulink or Xcos using a "flow chart '' box involving Laplace operators: where Setting a value for G (\ displaystyle G) is often a trade off between decreasing overshoot and increasing settling time. The lack of derivative action may make the system more steady in the steady state in the case of noisy data. This is because derivative action is more sensitive to higher - frequency terms in the inputs. Without derivative action, a PI - controlled system is less responsive to real (non-noise) and relatively fast alterations in state and so the system will be slower to reach setpoint and slower to respond to perturbations than a well - tuned PID system may be. Many PID loops control a mechanical device (for example, a valve). Mechanical maintenance can be a major cost and wear leads to control degradation in the form of either stiction or a deadband in the mechanical response to an input signal. The rate of mechanical wear is mainly a function of how often a device is activated to make a change. Where wear is a significant concern, the PID loop may have an output deadband to reduce the frequency of activation of the output (valve). This is accomplished by modifying the controller to hold its output steady if the change would be small (within the defined deadband range). The calculated output must leave the deadband before the actual output will change. The proportional and derivative terms can produce excessive movement in the output when a system is subjected to an instantaneous step increase in the error, such as a large setpoint change. In the case of the derivative term, this is due to taking the derivative of the error, which is very large in the case of an instantaneous step change. As a result, some PID algorithms incorporate some of the following modifications: The control system performance can be improved by combining the feedback (or closed - loop) control of a PID controller with feed - forward (or open - loop) control. Knowledge about the system (such as the desired acceleration and inertia) can be fed forward and combined with the PID output to improve the overall system performance. The feed - forward value alone can often provide the major portion of the controller output. The PID controller primarily has to compensate whatever difference or error remains between the setpoint (SP) and the system response to the open loop control. Since the feed - forward output is not affected by the process feedback, it can never cause the control system to oscillate, thus improving the system response without affecting stability. Feed forward can be based on the setpoint and on extra measured disturbances. Setpoint weighting is a simple form of feed forward. For example, in most motion control systems, in order to accelerate a mechanical load under control, more force is required from the actuator. If a velocity loop PID controller is being used to control the speed of the load and command the force being applied by the actuator, then it is beneficial to take the desired instantaneous acceleration, scale that value appropriately and add it to the output of the PID velocity loop controller. This means that whenever the load is being accelerated or decelerated, a proportional amount of force is commanded from the actuator regardless of the feedback value. The PID loop in this situation uses the feedback information to change the combined output to reduce the remaining difference between the process setpoint and the feedback value. Working together, the combined open - loop feed - forward controller and closed - loop PID controller can provide a more responsive control system. PID controllers are often implemented with a "bumpless '' initialization feature that recalculates the integral accumulator term to maintain a consistent process output through parameter changes. A partial implementation is to store the integral of the integral gain times the error rather than storing the integral of the error and postmultiplying by the integral gain, which prevents discontinuous output when the I gain is changed, but not the P or D gains. In addition to feed - forward, PID controllers are often enhanced through methods such as PID gain scheduling (changing parameters in different operating conditions), fuzzy logic, or computational verb logic. Further practical application issues can arise from instrumentation connected to the controller. A high enough sampling rate, measurement precision, and measurement accuracy are required to achieve adequate control performance. Another new method for improvement of PID controller is to increase the degree of freedom by using fractional order. The order of the integrator and differentiator add increased flexibility to the controller. One distinctive advantage of PID controllers is that two PID controllers can be used together to yield better dynamic performance. This is called cascaded PID control. In cascade control there are two PIDs arranged with one PID controlling the setpoint of another. A PID controller acts as outer loop controller, which controls the primary physical parameter, such as fluid level or velocity. The other controller acts as inner loop controller, which reads the output of outer loop controller as setpoint, usually controlling a more rapid changing parameter, flowrate or acceleration. It can be mathematically proven that the working frequency of the controller is increased and the time constant of the object is reduced by using cascaded PID controllers.. For example, a temperature - controlled circulating bath has two PID controllers in cascade, each with its own thermocouple temperature sensor. The outer controller controls the temperature of the water using a thermocouple located far from the heater where it accurately reads the temperature of the bulk of the water. The error term of this PID controller is the difference between the desired bath temperature and measured temperature. Instead of controlling the heater directly, the outer PID controller sets a heater temperature goal for the inner PID controller. The inner PID controller controls the temperature of the heater using a thermocouple attached to the heater. The inner controller 's error term is the difference between this heater temperature setpoint and the measured temperature of the heater. Its output controls the actual heater to stay near this setpoint. The proportional, integral, and differential terms of the two controllers will be very different. The outer PID controller has a long time constant -- all the water in the tank needs to heat up or cool down. The inner loop responds much more quickly. Each controller can be tuned to match the physics of the system it controls -- heat transfer and thermal mass of the whole tank or of just the heater -- giving better total response. The form of the PID controller most often encountered in industry, and the one most relevant to tuning algorithms is the standard form. In this form the K p (\ displaystyle K_ (p)) gain is applied to the I o u t (\ displaystyle I_ (\ mathrm (out))), and D o u t (\ displaystyle D_ (\ mathrm (out))) terms, yielding: where In this standard form, the parameters have a clear physical meaning. In particular, the inner summation produces a new single error value which is compensated for future and past errors. The addition of the proportional and derivative components effectively predicts the error value at T d (\ displaystyle T_ (d)) seconds (or samples) in the future, assuming that the loop control remains unchanged. The integral component adjusts the error value to compensate for the sum of all past errors, with the intention of completely eliminating them in T i (\ displaystyle T_ (i)) seconds (or samples). The resulting compensated single error value is scaled by the single gain K p (\ displaystyle K_ (p)). In the ideal form, shown in the controller theory section the gain parameters are related to the parameters of the standard form through K i = K p T i (\ displaystyle K_ (i) = (\ frac (K_ (p)) (T_ (i)))) and K d = K p T d (\ displaystyle K_ (d) = K_ (p) T_ (d) \,). This parallel form, where the parameters are treated as simple gains, is the most general and flexible form. However, it is also the form where the parameters have the least physical interpretation and is generally reserved for theoretical treatment of the PID controller. The standard form, despite being slightly more complex mathematically, is more common in industry. In many cases, the manipulated variable output by the PID controller is a dimensionless fraction between 0 and 100 % of some maximum possible value, and the translation into real units (such as pumping rate or watts of heater power) is outside the PID controller. The process variable, however, is in dimensioned units such as temperature. It is common in this case to express the gain K p (\ displaystyle K_ (p)) not as "output per degree '', but rather in the form of a temperature 1 / K p (\ displaystyle 1 / K_ (p)) which is "degrees per full output ''. This is the range over which the output changes from 0 to 1 (0 % to 100 %). In most commercial control systems, derivative action is based on process variable rather than error. That is, a change in the setpoint does not affect the derivative action. This is because the digitized version of the algorithm produces a large unwanted spike when the setpoint is changed. If the setpoint is constant then changes in the PV will be the same as changes in error. Therefore, this modification makes no difference to the way the controller responds to process disturbances. Most commercial control systems offer the option of also basing the proportional action solely on the process variable. This means that only the integral action responds to changes in the setpoint. The modification to the algorithm does not affect the way the controller responds to process disturbances. Basing proportional action on PV eliminates the instant and possibly very large change in output caused by a sudden change to the setpoint. Depending on the process and tuning this may be beneficial to the response to a setpoint step. King describes an effective chart - based method. Sometimes it is useful to write the PID regulator in Laplace transform form: Having the PID controller written in Laplace form and having the transfer function of the controlled system makes it easy to determine the closed - loop transfer function of the system. The PID equation can be written in this form: When this form is used it is easy to determine the closed loop transfer function. Then While this appears to be very useful to remove unstable poles, it is in practical application not the case. The closed loop transfer function from disturbance to output still contains the unstable poles. Another representation of the PID controller is the series, or interacting form where the parameters are related to the parameters of the standard form through with This form essentially consists of a PD and PI controller in series, and it made early (analog) controllers easier to build. When the controllers later became digital, many kept using the interacting form. The analysis for designing a digital implementation of a PID controller in a microcontroller (MCU) or FPGA device requires the standard form of the PID controller to be discretized. Approximations for first - order derivatives are made by backward finite differences. The integral term is discretised, with a sampling time Δ t (\ displaystyle \ Delta t), as follows, The derivative term is approximated as, Thus, a velocity algorithm for implementation of the discretized PID controller in a MCU is obtained by differentiating u (t) (\ displaystyle u (t)), using the numerical definitions of the first and second derivative and solving for u (t k) (\ displaystyle u (t_ (k))) and finally obtaining: s.t. T i = K p / K i, T d = K d / K p (\ displaystyle T_ (i) = K_ (p) / K_ (i), T_ (d) = K_ (d) / K_ (p)) Here is a simple software loop that implements a PID algorithm: In this example, two variables that will be maintained within the loop are initialized to zero, then the loop begins. The current error is calculated by subtracting the measured_value (the process variable, or PV) from the current setpoint (SP). Then, integral and derivative values are calculated, and these and the error are combined with three preset gain terms -- the proportional gain, the integral gain and the derivative gain -- to derive an output value. In the real world, this is D - to - A converted and passed into the process under control as the manipulated variable (MV). The current error is stored elsewhere for re-use in the next differentiation, the program then waits until dt seconds have passed since start, and the loop begins again, reading in new values for the PV and the setpoint and calculating a new value for the error. Note that for real code, the use of "wait (dt) '' would be inappropriate because it does n't account for time taken by the algorithm itself during the loop, or more importantly, any preemption delaying the algorithm. Bequette, B. Wayne. Process Control: Modeling, Design, and Simulation. Prentice Hall PTR, 2010. (1)

a period of heavy migration increases world population greatly

Human overpopulation - wikipedia Human overpopulation (or population overshoot) occurs when the ecological footprint of a human population in a specific geographical location exceeds the carrying capacity of the place occupied by that group. Overpopulation can further be viewed, in a long term perspective, as existing if a population can not be maintained given the rapid depletion of non-renewable resources or given the degradation of the capacity of the environment to give support to the population. Changes in lifestyle could reverse overpopulated status without a large population reduction. The term human overpopulation refers to the relationship between the entire human population and its environment: the Earth, or to smaller geographical areas such as countries. Overpopulation can result from an increase in births, a decline in mortality rates, an increase in immigration, or an unsustainable biome and depletion of resources. It is possible for very sparsely populated areas to be overpopulated if the area has a meagre or non-existent capability to sustain life (e.g. a desert). Advocates of population moderation cite issues like quality of life, carrying capacity, and risk of starvation as a basis to argue for population decline. Scientists suggest that the human impact on the environment as a result of overpopulation, profligate consumption and proliferation of technology has pushed the planet into a new geological epoch known as the Anthropocene. Human population has been rising continuously since the end of the Black Death, around the year 1350, although the most significant increase has been since the 1950s, mainly due to medical advancements and increases in agricultural productivity. The rate of population growth has been declining since the 1980s, while the absolute total numbers kept increasing. Recent rate increases in several countries previously enjoying steady declines are also apparently contributing to continued growth in total numbers. The United Nations has expressed concerns on continued population growth in sub-Saharan Africa. Recent research has demonstrated that those concerns are well grounded. As of December 30, 2017 the world 's human population is estimated to be 7.592 billion by the United States Census Bureau, and over 7 billion by the United Nations. Most contemporary estimates for the carrying capacity of the Earth under existing conditions are between 4 billion and 16 billion. Depending on which estimate is used, human overpopulation may or may not have already occurred. Nevertheless, the rapid recent increase in human population is causing some concern. The population is expected to reach between 8 and 10.5 billion between the years 2040 and 2050. In 2017, the United Nations increased the medium variant projections to 9.8 billion for 2050 and 11.2 billion for 2100. The recent rapid increase in human population over the past three centuries has raised concerns that the planet may not be able to sustain present or future numbers of inhabitants. The InterAcademy Panel Statement on Population Growth, circa 1994, stated that many environmental problems, such as rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, global warming, and pollution, are aggravated by the population expansion. Other problems associated with overpopulation include the increased demand for resources such as fresh water and food, starvation and malnutrition, consumption of natural resources (such as fossil fuels) faster than the rate of regeneration, and a deterioration in living conditions. Wealthy but highly populated territories like Britain rely on food imports from overseas. This was severely felt during the World Wars when, despite food efficiency initiatives like "dig for victory '' and food rationing, Britain needed to fight to secure import routes. However, many believe that waste and over-consumption, especially by wealthy nations, is putting more strain on the environment than overpopulation. Most countries have no direct policy of limiting their birth rates, but the rates have still fallen due to education about family planning and increasing access to birth control and contraception. Only China had imposed legal restrictions on having more than one child. Concern about overpopulation is an ancient topic. Tertullian was a resident of the city of Carthage in the second century CE, when the population of the world was about 190 million (only 3 -- 4 % of what it is today). He notably said: "What most frequently meets our view (and occasions complaint) is our teeming population. Our numbers are burdensome to the world, which can hardly support us... In very deed, pestilence, and famine, and wars, and earthquakes have to be regarded as a remedy for nations, as the means of pruning the luxuriance of the human race. '' Before that, Plato, Aristotle and others broached the topic as well. Throughout recorded history, population growth has usually been slow despite high birth rates, due to war, plagues and other diseases, and high infant mortality. During the 750 years before the Industrial Revolution, the world 's population increased very slowly, remaining under 250 million. By the beginning of the 19th century, the world population had grown to a billion individuals, and intellectuals such as Thomas Malthus predicted that humankind would outgrow its available resources, because a finite amount of land would be incapable of supporting a population with a limitless potential for increase. Mercantillists argued that a large population was a form of wealth, which made it possible to create bigger markets and armies. During the 19th century, Malthus 's work was often interpreted in a way that blamed the poor alone for their condition and helping them was said to worsen conditions in the long run. This resulted, for example, in the English poor laws of 1834 and in a hesitating response to the Irish Great Famine of 1845 -- 52. The UN Population Assessment Report of 2004 projects that the world population will plateau by 2050 and will remain stable until 2300. A 2014 study published in Science challenges this projection, asserting that population growth will continue into the next century. Adrian Raftery, a University of Washington professor of statistics and sociology and one of the contributors to the study, says: "The consensus over the past 20 years or so was that world population, which is currently around 7 billion, would go up to 9 billion and level off or probably decline. We found there 's a 70 percent probability the world population will not stabilize this century. Population, which had sort of fallen off the world 's agenda, remains a very important issue. '' A more recent UN projection suggests the population could grow to as many as 15 billion by 2100. In 2017, more than a third of 50 Nobel prize - winning scientists surveyed by the Times Higher Education at the Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings said that human overpopulation and environmental degradation are the two greatest threats facing humankind. In November that same year, a statement by 15,364 scientists from 184 countries indicated that rapid human population growth is the "primary driver behind many ecological and even societal threats. '' The human population has gone through a number of periods of growth since the dawn of civilization in the Holocene period, around 10,000 BCE. The beginning of civilization roughly coincides with the receding of glacial ice following the end of the last glacial period. It is estimated that between 1 -- 5 million people, subsisting on hunting and foraging, inhabited the Earth in the period before the Neolithic Revolution, when human activity shifted away from hunter - gathering and towards very primitive farming. Around 8000 BCE, at the dawn of agriculture, the population of the world was approximately 5 million. The next several millennia saw a steady increase in the population, with very rapid growth beginning in 1000 BCE, and a peak of between 200 and 300 million people in 1 BCE. The Plague of Justinian caused Europe 's population to drop by around 50 % between 541 and the 8th century. Steady growth resumed in 800 CE. However, growth was again disrupted by frequent plagues; most notably, the Black Death during the 14th century. The effects of the Black Death are thought to have reduced the world 's population, then at an estimated 450 million, to between 350 and 375 million by 1400. The population of Europe stood at over 70 million in 1340; these levels did not return until 200 years later. England 's population reached an estimated 5.6 million in 1650, up from an estimated 2.6 million in 1500. New crops from the Americas via the Spanish colonizers in the 16th century contributed to the population growth. In other parts of the globe, China 's population at the founding of the Ming dynasty in 1368 stood close to 60 million, approaching 150 million by the end of the dynasty in 1644. The population of the Americas in 1500 may have been between 50 and 100 million. Encounters between European explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced local epidemics of extraordinary virulence. Archaeological evidence indicates that the death of around 90 % of the Native American population of the New World was caused by Old World diseases such as smallpox, measles, and influenza. Europeans introduced diseases alien to the indigenous people, therefore they did not have immunity to these foreign diseases. After the start of the Industrial Revolution, during the 18th century, the rate of population growth began to increase. By the end of the century, the world 's population was estimated at just under 1 billion. At the turn of the 20th century, the world 's population was roughly 1.6 billion. By 1940, this figure had increased to 2.3 billion. Dramatic growth beginning in 1950 (above 1.8 % per year) coincided with greatly increased food production as a result of the industrialization of agriculture brought about by the Green Revolution. The rate of human population growth peaked in 1964, at about 2.1 % per year. For example, Indonesia 's population grew from 97 million in 1961 to 237.6 million in 2010, a 145 % increase in 49 years. In India, the population grew from 361.1 million people in 1951 to just over 1.2 billion by 2011, a 235 % increase in 60 years. There is concern over the sharp population increase in many countries, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, that has occurred over the last several decades, and that it is creating problems with land management, natural resources and access to water supplies. The population of Chad has, for example, grown from 6,279,921 in 1993 to 10,329,208 in 2009. Niger, Uganda, Nigeria, Tanzania, Ethiopia and the DRC are witnessing a similar growth in population. The situation is most acute in western, central and eastern Africa. Refugees from places like Sudan have further strained the resources of neighboring states like Chad and Egypt. Chad is also host to roughly 255,000 refugees from Sudan 's Darfur region, and about 77,000 refugees from the Central African Republic, while approximately 188,000 Chadians have been displaced by their own civil war and famines, have either fled to either the Sudan, the Niger or, more recently, Libya. According to projections, the world population will continue to grow until at least 2050, with the population reaching 9 billion in 2040, and some predictions putting the population as high as 11 billion in 2050. By 2100, the population could reach 15 billion. Walter Greiling projected in the 1950s that world population would reach a peak of about nine billion, in the 21st century, and then stop growing, after a readjustment of the Third World and a sanitation of the tropics. In 2000, the United Nations estimated that the world 's population was growing at the rate of 1.14 % (or about 75 million people) per year and according to data from the CIA 's World Factbook, the world human population currently increases by 145 every minute. According to the United Nations ' World Population Prospects report: In 1800 only 3 % of the world 's population lived in cities. By the 20th century 's close, 47 % did so. In 1950 there were 83 cities with populations exceeding one million; but by 2007 this had risen to 468 agglomerations of more than one million. If the trend continues, the world 's urban population will double every 38 years, according to researchers. The UN forecasts that today 's urban population of 3.2 billion will rise to nearly 5 billion by 2030, when three out of five people will live in cities. The increase will be most dramatic in the poorest and least - urbanised continents, Asia and Africa. Projections indicate that most urban growth over the next 25 years will be in developing countries. One billion people, one - seventh of the world 's population, or one - third of urban population, now live in shanty towns, which are seen as "breeding grounds '' for social problems such as unemployment, poverty, crime, drug addiction, alcoholism, and other social ills. In many poor countries, slums exhibit high rates of disease due to unsanitary conditions, malnutrition, and lack of basic health care. In 2000, there were 18 megacities -- conurbations such as Tokyo, Beijing, Guangzhou, Seoul, Karachi, Mexico City, Mumbai, São Paulo, London and New York City -- that have populations in excess of 10 million inhabitants. Greater Tokyo already has 35 million, more than the entire population of Canada (at 34.1 million). According to the Far Eastern Economic Review, Asia alone will have at least 10 ' hypercities ' by 2025, that is, cities inhabited by more than 19 million people, including Jakarta (24.9 million people), Dhaka (25 million), Karachi (26.5 million), Shanghai (27 million) and Mumbai (33 million). Lagos has grown from 300,000 in 1950 to an estimated 15 million today, and the Nigerian government estimates that city will have expanded to 25 million residents by 2015. Chinese experts forecast that Chinese cities will contain 800 million people by 2020. From a historical perspective, technological revolutions have coincided with population expansion. There have been three major technological revolutions -- the tool - making revolution, the agricultural revolution, and the industrial revolution -- all of which allowed humans more access to food, resulting in subsequent population explosions. For example, the use of tools, such as bow and arrow, allowed primitive hunters greater access to high energy foods (e.g. animal meat). Similarly, the transition to farming about 10,000 years ago greatly increased the overall food supply, which was used to support more people. Food production further increased with the industrial revolution as machinery, fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides were used to increase land under cultivation as well as crop yields. Today, starvation is caused by economic and political forces rather than a lack of the means to produce food. Significant increases in human population occur whenever the birth rate exceeds the death rate for extended periods of time. Traditionally, the fertility rate is strongly influenced by cultural and social norms that are rather stable and therefore slow to adapt to changes in the social, technological, or environmental conditions. For example, when death rates fell during the 19th and 20th century -- as a result of improved sanitation, child immunizations, and other advances in medicine -- allowing more newborns to survive, the fertility rate did not adjust downward, resulting in significant population growth. Until the 1700s, seven out of ten children died before reaching reproductive age. Today, more than nine out of ten children born in industrialized nations reach adulthood. There is a strong correlation between overpopulation and poverty. In contrast, the invention of the birth control pill and other modern methods of contraception resulted in a dramatic decline in the number of children per household in all but the very poorest countries. Agriculture has sustained human population growth. This dates back to prehistoric times, when agricultural methods were first developed, and continues to the present day, with fertilizers, agrochemicals, large - scale mechanization, genetic manipulation, and other technologies. Humans have historically exploited the environment using the easiest, most accessible resources first. The richest farmland was plowed and the richest mineral ore mined first. Ceballos, Ehrlich and Ehrlich said that overpopulation is demanding the use of ever more creative, expensive and / or environmentally destructive means in order to exploit ever more difficult to access and / or poorer quality natural resources to satisfy consumers. The theory of demographic transition held that, after the standard of living and life expectancy increase, family sizes and birth rates decline. However, as new data has become available, it has been observed that after a certain level of development (HDI equal to 0.86 or higher) the fertility increases again. This means that both the worry that the theory generated about aging populations and the complacency it bred regarding the future environmental impact of population growth are misguided. Factors cited in the old theory included such social factors as later ages of marriage, the growing desire of many women in such settings to seek careers outside child rearing and domestic work, and the decreased need for children in industrialized settings. The latter factor stems from the fact that children perform a great deal of work in small - scale agricultural societies, and work less in industrial ones; it has been cited to explain the decline in birth rates in industrializing regions. Many countries have high population growth rates but lower total fertility rates because high population growth in the past skewed the age demographic toward a young age, so the population still rises as the more numerous younger generation approaches maturity. "Demographic entrapment '' is a concept developed by Maurice King, Honorary Research Fellow at the University of Leeds, who posits that this phenomenon occurs when a country has a population larger than its carrying capacity, no possibility of migration, and exports too little to be able to import food. This will cause starvation. He claims that for example many sub-Saharan nations are or will become stuck in demographic entrapment, instead of having a demographic transition. For the world as a whole, the number of children born per woman decreased from 5.02 to 2.65 between 1950 and 2005. A breakdown by region is as follows: Excluding the observed reversal in fertility decrease for high development, the projected world number of children born per woman for 2050 would be around 2.05. Only the Middle East & North Africa (2.09) and Sub-Saharan Africa (2.61) would then have numbers greater than 2.05. Some groups (for example, the World Wide Fund for Nature and Global Footprint Network) have stated that the carrying capacity for the human population has been exceeded as measured using the Ecological Footprint. In 2006, WWF 's "Living Planet Report '' stated that in order for all humans to live with the current consumption patterns of Europeans, we would be spending three times more than what the planet can renew. Humanity as a whole was using, by 2006, 40 percent more than what Earth can regenerate. However, Roger Martin of Population Matters states the view: "the poor want to get rich, and I want them to get rich, '' with a later addition, "of course we have to change consumption habits,... but we 've also got to stabilise our numbers ''. Another study by the World Wildlife Fund in 2014 found that it would take the equivalent of 1.5 Earths of biocapacity to meet humanity 's current levels of consumption. But critics question the simplifications and statistical methods used in calculating Ecological Footprints. Therefore, Global Footprint Network and its partner organizations have engaged with national governments and international agencies to test the results -- reviews have been produced by France, Germany, the European Commission, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Japan and the United Arab Emirates. Some point out that a more refined method of assessing Ecological Footprint is to designate sustainable versus non-sustainable categories of consumption. However, if yield estimates were adjusted for sustainable levels of production, the yield figures would be lower, and hence the overshoot estimated by the Ecological Footprint method even higher. Other studies give particular attention to resource depletion and increased world affluence. In a 1994 study titled Food, Land, Population and the U.S. Economy, David Pimentel and Mario Giampietro estimated the maximum U.S. population for a sustainable economy at 200 million. And in order to achieve a sustainable economy and avert disaster, the United States would have to reduce its population by at least one - third, and world population would have to be reduced by two - thirds. Many quantitative studies have estimated the world 's carrying capacity for humans, that is, a limit to the world population. A meta - analysis of 69 such studies suggests a point estimate of the limit to be 7.7 billion people, while lower and upper meta - bounds for current technology are estimated as 0.65 and 98 billion people, respectively. They conclude: "recent predictions of stabilized world population levels for 2050 exceed several of our meta - estimates of a world population limit ''. Some more problems associated with or exacerbated by human overpopulation and over-consumption are: Many of these problems are explored in the dystopic science fiction film Soylent Green, where an overpopulated Earth suffers from food shortages, depleted resources and poverty and in the documentary "Aftermath: Population Overload ''. David Attenborough described the level of human population on the planet as a multiplier of all other environmental problems. In 2013, he described humanity as "a plague on the Earth '' that needs to be controlled by limiting population growth. Most biologists and sociologists see overpopulation as a serious threat to the quality of human life. Some deep ecologists, such as the radical thinker and polemicist Pentti Linkola, see human overpopulation as a threat to the entire biosphere. The effects of overpopulation are compounded by overconsumption. According to Paul R. Ehrlich: Rich western countries are now siphoning up the planet 's resources and destroying its ecosystems at an unprecedented rate. We want to build highways across the Serengeti to get more rare earth minerals for our cellphones. We grab all the fish from the sea, wreck the coral reefs and put carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. We have triggered a major extinction event... A world population of around a billion would have an overall pro-life effect. This could be supported for many millennia and sustain many more human lives in the long term compared with our current uncontrolled growth and prospect of sudden collapse... If everyone consumed resources at the US level -- which is what the world aspires to -- you will need another four or five Earths. We are wrecking our planet 's life support systems. Some economists, such as Thomas Sowell and Walter E. Williams argue that third world poverty and famine are caused in part by bad government and bad economic policies. Overpopulation does not depend only on the size or density of the population, but on the ratio of population to available sustainable resources. It also depends on how resources are managed and distributed throughout the population. The resources to be considered when evaluating whether an ecological niche is overpopulated include clean water, clean air, food, shelter, warmth, and other resources necessary to sustain life. If the quality of human life is addressed, there may be additional resources considered, such as medical care, education, proper sewage treatment, waste disposal and energy supplies. Overpopulation places competitive stress on the basic life sustaining resources, leading to a diminished quality of life. Directly related to maintaining the health of the human population is water supply, and it is one of the resources that experience the biggest strain. With the global population at about 7.5 billion, and each human theoretically needing 2 liters of drinking water, there is a demand for 15 billion liters of water each day to meet the minimum requirement for healthy living (United). Weather patterns, elevation, and climate all contribute to uneven distribution of fresh drinking water. Without clean water, good health is not a viable option. Besides drinking, water is used to create sanitary living conditions and is the basis of creating a healthy environment fit to hold human life. In addition to drinking water, water is also used for bathing, washing clothes and dishes, flushing toilets, a variety of cleaning methods, recreation, watering lawns, and farm irrigation. Irrigation poses one of the largest problems, because without sufficient water to irrigate crops, the crops die and then there is the problem of food rations and starvation. In addition to water needed for crops and food, there is limited land area dedicated to food production, and not much more that is suitable to be added. Arable land, needed to sustain the growing population, is also a factor because land being under or over cultivated easily upsets the delicate balance of nutrition supply. There are also problems with location of arable land with regard to proximity to countries and relative population (Bashford 240). Access to nutrition is an important limiting factor in population sustainability and growth. No increase in arable land added to the still increasing human population will eventually pose a serious conflict. Only 38 % of the land area of the globe is dedicated to agriculture, and there is not room for much more. Although plants produce 54 billion metric tons of carbohydrates per year, when the population is expected to grow to 9 billion by 2050, the plants may not be able to keep up (Biello). Food supply is a primary example of how a resource reacts when its carrying capacity is exceeded. By trying to grow more and more crops off of the same amount of land, the soil becomes exhausted. Because the soil is exhausted, it is then unable to produce the same amount of food as before, and is overall less productive. Therefore, by using resources beyond a sustainable level, the resource become nullified and ineffective, which further increases the disparity between the demand for a resource and the availability of a resource. There must be a shift to provide adequate recovery time to each one of the supplies in demand to support contemporary human lifestyles. David Pimentel has stated that "With the imbalance growing between population numbers and vital life sustaining resources, humans must actively conserve cropland, freshwater, energy, and biological resources. There is a need to develop renewable energy resources. Humans everywhere must understand that rapid population growth damages the Earth 's resources and diminishes human well - being. '' These reflect the comments also of the United States Geological Survey in their paper The Future of Planet Earth: Scientific Challenges in the Coming Century. "As the global population continues to grow... people will place greater and greater demands on the resources of our planet, including mineral and energy resources, open space, water, and plant and animal resources. '' "Earth 's natural wealth: an audit '' by New Scientist magazine states that many of the minerals that we use for a variety of products are in danger of running out in the near future. A handful of geologists around the world have calculated the costs of new technologies in terms of the materials they use and the implications of their spreading to the developing world. All agree that the planet 's booming population and rising standards of living are set to put unprecedented demands on the materials that only Earth itself can provide. Limitations on how much of these materials is available could even mean that some technologies are not worth pursuing long term... "Virgin stocks of several metals appear inadequate to sustain the modern ' developed world ' quality of life for all of Earth 's people under contemporary technology ''. On the other hand, some cornucopian researchers, such as Julian L. Simon and Bjørn Lomborg believe that resources exist for further population growth. In a 2010 study, they concluded that "there are not (and will never be) too many people for the planet to feed '' according to The Independent. Some critics warn, this will be at a high cost to the Earth: "the technological optimists are probably correct in claiming that overall world food production can be increased substantially over the next few decades... (however) the environmental cost of what Paul R. and Anne H. Ehrlich describe as ' turning the Earth into a giant human feedlot ' could be severe. A large expansion of agriculture to provide growing populations with improved diets is likely to lead to further deforestation, loss of species, soil erosion, and pollution from pesticides and fertilizer runoff as farming intensifies and new land is brought into production. '' Since we are intimately dependent upon the living systems of the Earth, some scientists have questioned the wisdom of further expansion. According to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, a four - year research effort by 1,360 of the world 's prominent scientists commissioned to measure the actual value of natural resources to humans and the world, "The structure of the world 's ecosystems changed more rapidly in the second half of the twentieth century than at any time in recorded human history, and virtually all of Earth 's ecosystems have now been significantly transformed through human actions. '' "Ecosystem services, particularly food production, timber and fisheries, are important for employment and economic activity. Intensive use of ecosystems often produces the greatest short - term advantage, but excessive and unsustainable use can lead to losses in the long term. A country could cut its forests and deplete its fisheries, and this would show only as a positive gain to GDP, despite the loss of capital assets. If the full economic value of ecosystems were taken into account in decision - making, their degradation could be significantly slowed down or even reversed. '' Another study was done by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) called the Global Environment Outlook. Although all resources, whether mineral or other, are limited on the planet, there is a degree of self - correction whenever a scarcity or high - demand for a particular kind is experienced. For example, in 1990 known reserves of many natural resources were higher, and their prices lower, than in 1970, despite higher demand and higher consumption. Whenever a price spike would occur, the market tended to correct itself whether by substituting an equivalent resource or switching to a new technology. Fresh water supplies, on which agriculture depends, are running low worldwide. This water crisis is only expected to worsen as the population increases. Potential problems with dependence on desalination are reviewed below, however, the majority of the world 's freshwater supply is contained in the polar icecaps, and underground river systems accessible through springs and wells. Fresh water can be obtained from salt water by desalination. For example, Malta derives two thirds of its freshwater by desalination. A number of nuclear powered desalination plants exist; however, the high costs of desalination, especially for poor countries, make impractical the transport of large amounts of desalinated seawater to interiors of large countries. The cost of desalination varies; Israel is now desalinating water for a cost of 53 cents per cubic meter, Singapore at 49 cents per cubic meter. In the United States, the cost is 81 cents per cubic meter ($3.06 for 1,000 gallons). According to a 2004 study by Zhou and Tol, "one needs to lift the water by 2000 m, or transport it over more than 1600 km to get transport costs equal to the desalination costs. Desalinated water is expensive in places that are both somewhat far from the sea and somewhat high, such as Riyadh and Harare. In other places, the dominant cost is desalination, not transport. This leads to somewhat lower costs in places like Beijing, Bangkok, Zaragoza, Phoenix, and, of course, coastal cities like Tripoli. '' Thus while the study is generally positive about the technology for affluent areas that are proximate to oceans, it concludes that "Desalinated water may be a solution for some water - stress regions, but not for places that are poor, deep in the interior of a continent, or at high elevation. Unfortunately, that includes some of the places with biggest water problems. '' Another potential problem with desalination is the byproduction of saline brine, which can be a major cause of marine pollution when dumped back into the oceans at high temperatures. '' The world 's largest desalination plant is the Jebel Ali Desalination Plant (Phase 2) in the United Arab Emirates, which can produce 300 million cubic metres of water per year, or about 2500 gallons per second. The largest desalination plant in the US is the one at Tampa Bay, Florida, which began desalinating 25 million gallons (95000 m3) of water per day in December 2007. A 17 January 2008, article in the Wall Street Journal states, "Worldwide, 13,080 desalination plants produce more than 12 billion gallons of water a day, according to the International Desalination Association. '' After being desalinated at Jubail, Saudi Arabia, water is pumped 200 miles (320 km) inland though a pipeline to the capital city of Riyadh. However, new data originating from the GRACE experiments and isotopic testing done by the IAEA show that the Nubian aquifer -- which is under the largest, driest part of the earth 's surface, has enough water in it to provide for "at least several centuries ''. In addition to this, new and highly detailed maps of the earth 's underground reservoirs will be soon created from these technologies that will further allow proper budgeting of cheap water. Some scientists argue that there is enough food to support the world population, and some dispute this, particularly if sustainability is taken into account. Many countries rely heavily on imports. Egypt and Iran rely on imports for 40 % of their grain supply. Yemen and Israel import more than 90 %. And just 6 countries -- Argentina, Australia, Canada, France, Thailand and the USA -- supply 90 % of grain exports. In recent decades the US alone supplied almost half of world grain exports. A 2001 United Nations report says population growth is "the main force driving increases in agricultural demand '' but "most recent expert assessments are cautiously optimistic about the ability of global food production to keep up with demand for the foreseeable future (that is to say, until approximately 2030 or 2050) '', assuming declining population growth rates. However, the observed figures for 2007 show an actual increase in absolute numbers of undernourished people in the world, 923 million in 2007 versus 832 million in 1995.; the more recent FAO estimates point to an even more dramatic increase, to 1.02 billion in 2009. The amounts of natural resources in this context are not necessarily fixed, and their distribution is not necessarily a zero - sum game. For example, due to the Green Revolution and the fact that more and more land is appropriated each year from wild lands for agricultural purposes, the worldwide production of food had steadily increased up until 1995. World food production per person was considerably higher in 2005 than 1961. As world population doubled from 3 billion to 6 billion, daily calorie consumption in poor countries increased from 1,932 to 2,650, and the percentage of people in those countries who were malnourished fell from 45 % to 18 %. This suggests that Third World poverty and famine are caused by underdevelopment, not overpopulation. However, others question these statistics. From 1950 to 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the world, grain production increased by over 250 %. The world population has grown by about four billion since the beginning of the Green Revolution and most believe that, without the Revolution, there would be greater famine and malnutrition than the UN presently documents. The number of people who are overweight has surpassed the number who are undernourished. In a 2006 news story, MSNBC reported, "There are an estimated 800 million undernourished people and more than a billion considered overweight worldwide. '' The U.S. has one of the highest rates of obesity in the world. However, studies show that wealthy and educated people are far likelier to eat healthy food, indicating obesity is a disease related to poverty and lack of education and excessive advertising of unhealthy eatables at cheaper cost, high in calories, with little nutritive value are consumed. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations states in its report The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2006, that while the number of undernourished people in the developing countries has declined by about three million, a smaller proportion of the populations of developing countries is undernourished today than in 1990 -- 92: 17 % against 20 %. Furthermore, FAO 's projections suggest that the proportion of hungry people in developing countries could be halved from 1990 -- 92 levels to 10 % by 2015. The FAO also states "We have emphasized first and foremost that reducing hunger is no longer a question of means in the hands of the global community. The world is richer today than it was ten years ago. There is more food available and still more could be produced without excessive upward pressure on prices. The knowledge and resources to reduce hunger are there. What is lacking is sufficient political will to mobilize those resources to the benefit of the hungry. '' As of 2008, the price of grain has increased due to more farming used in biofuels, world oil prices at over $100 a barrel, global population growth, climate change, loss of agricultural land to residential and industrial development, and growing consumer demand in China and India Food riots have recently taken place in many countries across the world. An epidemic of stem rust on wheat caused by race Ug99 is currently spreading across Africa and into Asia and is causing major concern. A virulent wheat disease could destroy most of the world 's main wheat crops, leaving millions to starve. The fungus has spread from Africa to Iran, and may already be in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Food security will become more difficult to achieve as resources run out. Resources in danger of becoming depleted include oil, phosphorus, grain, fish, and water. The British scientist John Beddington predicted in 2009 that supplies of energy, food, and water will need to be increased by 50 % to reach demand levels of 2030. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), food supplies will need to be increased by 70 % by 2050 to meet projected demands. The Population Reference Bureau in the US reported that the population of Sub-Saharan Africa -- the poorest region in the continent -- is rising faster than most of the rest of the world, and that "Rapid population growth makes it difficult for economies to create enough jobs to lift large numbers of people out of poverty. '' Seven of the 10 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa with the highest fertility rates also appear among the bottom 10 listed on the United Nations ' Human Development Index. Hunger and malnutrition kill nearly 6 million children a year, and more people are malnourished in sub-Saharan Africa this decade than in the 1990s, according to a report released by the Food and Agriculture Organization. In sub-Saharan Africa, the number of malnourished people grew to 203.5 million people in 2000 -- 02 from 170.4 million 10 years earlier says The State of Food Insecurity in the World report. In 2001, 46.4 % of people in sub-Saharan Africa were living in extreme poverty. According to a 2004 article from the BBC, China, the world 's most populous country, suffers from an "obesity surge ''. The article stated that, "Altogether, around 200 million people are thought to be overweight, 22.8 % of the population, and 60 million (7.1 %) obese ''. More recent data indicate China 's grain production peaked in the mid-1990s, due to increased extraction of groundwater in the North China plain. Japan may face a food crisis that could reduce daily diets to the austere meals of the 1950s, believes a senior government adviser. Thinkers from a wide range of academic fields and political backgrounds -- including agricultural scientist David Pimentel, behavioral scientist Russell Hopfenberg, right - wing anthropologist Virginia Abernethy, ecologist Garrett Hardin, ecologist and anthropologist Peter Farb, journalist Richard Manning, environmental biologist Alan D. Thornhill, cultural critic and writer Daniel Quinn, and anarcho - primitivist John Zerzan, -- propose that, like all other animal populations, human populations predictably grow and shrink according to their available food supply, growing during an abundance of food and shrinking in times of scarcity. Proponents of this theory argue that every time food production is increased, the population grows. Most human populations throughout history validate this theory, as does the overall current global population. Populations of hunter - gatherers fluctuate in accordance with the amount of available food. The world human population began increasing after the Neolithic Revolution and its increased food supply. This was, subsequent to the Green Revolution, followed by even more severely accelerated population growth, which continues today. Often, wealthier countries send their surplus food resources to the aid of starving communities; however, proponents of this theory argue that this seemingly beneficial notion only results in further harm to those communities in the long run. Peter Farb, for example, has commented on the paradox that "intensification of production to feed an increased population leads to a still greater increase in population. '' Daniel Quinn has also focused on this phenomenon, which he calls the "Food Race '' (comparable, in terms of both escalation and potential catastrophe, to the nuclear arms race). Critics of this theory point out that, in the modern era, birth rates are lowest in the developed nations, which also have the highest access to food. In fact, some developed countries have both a diminishing population and an abundant food supply. The United Nations projects that the population of 51 countries or areas, including Germany, Italy, Japan, and most of the states of the former Soviet Union, is expected to be lower in 2050 than in 2005. This shows that, limited to the scope of the population living within a single given political boundary, particular human populations do not always grow to match the available food supply. However, the global population as a whole still grows in accordance with the total food supply and many of these wealthier countries are major exporters of food to poorer populations, so that, "it is through exports from food - rich to food - poor areas (Allaby, 1984; Pimentel et al., 1999) that the population growth in these food - poor areas is further fueled. '' Regardless of criticisms against the theory that population is a function of food availability, the human population is, on the global scale, undeniably increasing, as is the net quantity of human food produced -- a pattern that has been true for roughly 10,000 years, since the human development of agriculture. The fact that some affluent countries demonstrate negative population growth fails to discredit the theory as whole, since the world has become a globalized system with food moving across national borders from areas of abundance to areas of scarcity. Hopfenberg and Pimentel 's findings support both this and Quinn 's direct accusation that "First World farmers are fueling the Third World population explosion. '' Additionally, the hypothesis is not so simplistic as to be rejected by any single case study, as in Germany 's recent population trends; clearly other factors are at work to limit the population in wealthier areas: contraceptive access, educational programs, cultural norms and, most influentially, differing economic realities from nation to nation. Water deficits, which are already spurring heavy grain imports in numerous smaller countries, may soon do the same in larger countries, such as China or India, if technology is not used. The water tables are falling in scores of countries (including Northern China, the US, and India) owing to widespread overdrafting beyond sustainable yields. Other countries affected include Pakistan, Iran, and Mexico. This overdrafting is already leading to water scarcity and cutbacks in grain harvest. Even with the overpumping of its aquifers, China has developed a grain deficit. This effect has contributed in driving grain prices upward. Most of the 3 billion people projected to be added worldwide by mid-century will be born in countries already experiencing water shortages. Desalination is also considered a viable and effective solution to the problem of water shortages. The World Resources Institute states that "Agricultural conversion to croplands and managed pastures has affected some 3.3 billion (hectares) -- roughly 26 percent of the land area. All totaled, agriculture has displaced one - third of temperate and tropical forests and one - quarter of natural grasslands. '' Forty percent of the land area is under conversion and fragmented; less than one quarter, primarily in the Arctic and the deserts, remains intact. Usable land may become less useful through salinization, deforestation, desertification, erosion, and urban sprawl. Global warming may cause flooding of many of the most productive agricultural areas. The development of energy sources may also require large areas, for example, the building of hydroelectric dams. Thus, available useful land may become a limiting factor. By most estimates, at least half of cultivable land is already being farmed, and there are concerns that the remaining reserves are greatly overestimated. High crop yield vegetables like potatoes and lettuce use less space on inedible plant parts, like stalks, husks, vines, and inedible leaves. New varieties of selectively bred and hybrid plants have larger edible parts (fruit, vegetable, grain) and smaller inedible parts; however, many of these gain of agricultural technology are now historic, and new advances are more difficult to achieve. With new technologies, it is possible to grow crops on some marginal land under certain conditions. Aquaculture could theoretically increase available area. Hydroponics and food from bacteria and fungi, like quorn, may allow the growing of food without having to consider land quality, climate, or even available sunlight, although such a process may be very energy - intensive. Some argue that not all arable land will remain productive if used for agriculture because some marginal land can only be made to produce food by unsustainable practices like slash - and - burn agriculture. Even with the modern techniques of agriculture, the sustainability of production is in question. Some countries, such as the United Arab Emirates and particularly the Emirate of Dubai have constructed large artificial islands, or have created large dam and dike systems, like the Netherlands, which reclaim land from the sea to increase their total land area. Some scientists have said that in the future, densely populated cities will use vertical farming to grow food inside skyscrapers. The notion that space is limited has been decried by skeptics, who point out that the Earth 's population of roughly 6.8 billion people could comfortably be housed an area comparable in size to the state of Texas, in the United States (about 269,000 square miles or 696,706.80 square kilometres). However, the impact of humanity extends over a far greater area than that required simply for housing. Population optimists have been criticized for failing to take into account the depletion of fossil fuels required for the production of fertilizers, tillage, transportation, etc. In his 1992 book Earth in the Balance, Al Gore wrote, "... it ought to be possible to establish a coordinated global program to accomplish the strategic goal of completely eliminating the internal combustion engine over, say, a twenty - five - year period... '' Approximately half of the oil produced in the United States is refined into gasoline for use in internal combustion engines. The report Peaking of World Oil Production: Impacts, Mitigation, and Risk Management, commonly referred to as the Hirsch report, was created by request for the US Department of Energy and published in February 2005. Some information was updated in 2007. It examined the time frame for the occurrence of peak oil, the necessary mitigating actions, and the likely impacts based on the timeliness of those actions. It concludes that world oil peaking is going to happen, and will likely be abrupt. Initiating a mitigation crash program 20 years before peaking appears to offer the possibility of avoiding a world liquid fuels shortfall for the forecast period. Optimists counter that fossil fuels will be sufficient until the development and implementation of suitable replacement technologies -- such as nuclear power or various sources of renewable energy -- occurs. Methods of manufacturing fertilizers from garbage, sewage, and agricultural waste by using thermal depolymerization have been discovered. With increasing awareness about global warming, the question of peak oil has become less relevant. According to many studies, about 80 % of the remaining fossil fuels must be left untouched because the bottleneck has shifted from resource availability to the resource of absorbing the generated greenhouse gases when burning fossil fuels. The United Nations indicates that about 850 million people are malnourished or starving, and 1.1 billion people do not have access to safe drinking water. Since 1980, the global economy has grown by 380 percent, but the number of people living on less than 5 US dollars a day increased by more than 1.1 billion. The UN Human Development Report of 1997 states: "During the last 15 -- 20 years, more than 100 developing countries, and several Eastern European countries, have suffered from disastrous growth failures. The reductions in standard of living have been deeper and more long - lasting than what was seen in the industrialised countries during the depression in the 1930s. As a result, the income for more than one billion people has fallen below the level that was reached 10, 20 or 30 years ago ''. Similarly, although the proportion of "starving '' people in sub-Saharan Africa has decreased, the absolute number of starving people has increased due to population growth. The percentage dropped from 38 % in 1970 to 33 % in 1996 and was expected to be 30 % by 2010. But the region 's population roughly doubled between 1970 and 1996. To keep the numbers of starving constant, the percentage would have dropped by more than half. As of 2004, there were 108 countries in the world with more than five million people. All of these in which women have, on the average, more than 4 children in their lifetime, have a per capita GDP of less than $5000. Only in two countries with per capita GDP above ~ $15,000 do women have, on the average, more than 2 children in their lifetime: these are Israel and Saudi Arabia, with average lifetime births per woman between 2 and 4. Overpopulation has substantially adversely impacted the environment of Earth starting at least as early as the 20th century. According to the Global Footprint Network, "today humanity uses the equivalent of 1.5 planets to provide the resources we use and absorb our waste ''. There are also economic consequences of this environmental degradation in the form of ecosystem services attrition. Beyond the scientifically verifiable harm to the environment, some assert the moral right of other species to simply exist rather than become extinct. Environmental author Jeremy Rifkin has said that "our burgeoning population and urban way of life have been purchased at the expense of vast ecosystems and habitats... It 's no accident that as we celebrate the urbanization of the world, we are quickly approaching another historic watershed: the disappearance of the wild. '' Says Peter Raven, former President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) in their seminal work AAAS Atlas of Population & Environment, "Where do we stand in our efforts to achieve a sustainable world? Clearly, the past half century has been a traumatic one, as the collective impact of human numbers, affluence (consumption per individual) and our choices of technology continue to exploit rapidly an increasing proportion of the world 's resources at an unsustainable rate... During a remarkably short period of time, we have lost a quarter of the world 's topsoil and a fifth of its agricultural land, altered the composition of the atmosphere profoundly, and destroyed a major proportion of our forests and other natural habitats without replacing them. Worst of all, we have driven the rate of biological extinction, the permanent loss of species, up several hundred times beyond its historical levels, and are threatened with the loss of a majority of all species by the end of the 21st century. '' Further, even in countries which have both large population growth and major ecological problems, it is not necessarily true that curbing the population growth will make a major contribution towards resolving all environmental problems. However, as developing countries with high populations become more industrialized, pollution and consumption will invariably increase. The Worldwatch Institute said in 2006 that the booming economies of China and India are "planetary powers that are shaping the global biosphere ''. The report states: The world 's ecological capacity is simply insufficient to satisfy the ambitions of China, India, Japan, Europe and the United States as well as the aspirations of the rest of the world in a sustainable way. According to Worldwatch Institute, if China and India were to consume as much resources per capita as the United States, in 2030 they would each require a full planet Earth to meet their needs. In the long term these effects can lead to increased conflict over dwindling resources and in the worst case a Malthusian catastrophe. Many studies link population growth with emissions and the effect of climate change. It has been suggested that overpopulation leads to increased levels of tensions both between and within countries. Modern usage of the term "lebensraum '' supports the idea that overpopulation may promote warfare through fear of resource scarcity and increasing numbers of youth lacking the opportunity to engage in peaceful employment (the youth bulge theory). The hypothesis that population pressure causes increased warfare has been recently criticized on the empirical grounds. Both studies focusing on specific historical societies and analyses of cross-cultural data have failed to find positive correlation between population density and incidence of warfare. Andrey Korotayev, in collaboration with Peter Turchin, has shown that such negative results do not falsify the population - warfare hypothesis. Population and warfare are dynamical variables, and if their interaction causes sustained oscillations, then we do not in general expect to find strong correlation between the two variables measured at the same time (that is, unlagged). Korotayev and Turchin have explored mathematically what the dynamical patterns of interaction between population and warfare (focusing on internal warfare) might be in both stateless and state societies. Next, they have tested the model predictions in several empirical case studies: early modern England, Han and Tang China, and the Roman Empire. Their empirical results have supported the population - warfare theory: that there is a tendency for population numbers and internal warfare intensity to oscillate with the same period but shifted in phase (with warfare peaks following population peaks). Furthermore, they have demonstrated that in the agrarian societies the rates of change of the two variables behave precisely as predicted by the theory: population rate of change is negatively affected by warfare intensity, while warfare rate of change is positively affected by population density. Several solutions and mitigation measures have the potential to reduce overpopulation. Some solutions are to be applied on a global planetary level (e.g., via UN resolutions), while some on a country or state government organization level, and some on a family or an individual level. Some of the proposed mitigations aim to help implement new social, cultural, behavioral and political norms to replace or significantly modify current norms. For example, in societies like China, the government has put policies in place that regulate the number of children allowed to a couple. Other societies have implemented social marketing strategies in order to educate the public on overpopulation effects. "The intervention can be widespread and done at a low cost. A variety of print materials (flyers, brochures, fact sheets, stickers) needs to be produced and distributed throughout the communities such as at local places of worship, sporting events, local food markets, schools and at car parks (taxis / bus stands). '' Such prompts work to introduce the problem so that new or modified social norms are easier to implement. Certain government policies are making it easier and more socially acceptable to use contraception and abortion methods. An example of a country whose laws and norms are hindering the global effort to slow population growth is Afghanistan. "The approval by Afghan President Hamid Karzai of the Shia Personal Status Law in March 2009 effectively destroyed Shia women 's rights and freedoms in Afghanistan. Under this law, women have no right to deny their husbands sex unless they are ill, and can be denied food if they do. '' Scientists and technologists including e.g. Huesemann, Huesemann, Ehrlich and Ehrlich caution that science and technology, as currently practiced, can not solve the serious problems global human society faces, and that a cultural - social - political shift is needed to reorient science and technology in a more socially responsible and environmentally sustainable direction. One option is to focus on education about overpopulation, family planning, and birth control methods, and to make birth - control devices like male and female condoms, contraceptive pills and intrauterine devices easily available. Worldwide, nearly 40 % of pregnancies are unintended (some 80 million unintended pregnancies each year). An estimated 350 million women in the poorest countries of the world either did not want their last child, do not want another child or want to space their pregnancies, but they lack access to information, affordable means and services to determine the size and spacing of their families. In the United States, in 2001, almost half of pregnancies were unintended. In the developing world, some 514,000 women die annually of complications from pregnancy and abortion, with 86 % of these deaths occurring in the sub-Saharan Africa region and South Asia. Additionally, 8 million infants die, many because of malnutrition or preventable diseases, especially from lack of access to clean drinking water. Women 's rights and their reproductive rights in particular are issues regarded to have vital importance in the debate. "The only ray of hope I can see -- and it 's not much -- is that wherever women are put in control of their lives, both politically and socially, where medical facilities allow them to deal with birth control and where their husbands allow them to make those decisions, birth rate falls. Women do n't want to have 12 kids of whom nine will die. '' -- David Attenborough Egypt announced a program to reduce its overpopulation by family planning education and putting women in the workforce. It was announced in June 2008 by the Minister of Health and Population, and the government has set aside 480 million Egyptian pounds (about $90 million US) for the program. Several scientists (including e.g. Paul and Anne Ehrlich and Gretchen Daily) proposed that humanity should work at stabilizing its absolute numbers, as a starting point towards beginning the process of reducing the total numbers. They suggested the following solutions and policies: following a small - family - size socio - cultural - behavioral norm worldwide (especially one - child - per - family ethos), and providing contraception to all along with proper education on its use and benefits (while providing access to safe, legal abortion as a backup to contraception), combined with a significantly more equitable distribution of resources globally. Business magnate Ted Turner proposed a "voluntary, non-imposed '' one - child - per - family cultural norm. A "pledge two or fewer '' campaign is run by Population Matters (a UK population concern organisation), in which people are encouraged to limit themselves to small family size. Population planning that is intended to reduce population size or growth rate may promote or enforce one or more of the following practices, although there are other methods as well: The method (s) chosen can be strongly influenced by the cultural and religious beliefs of community members. Overpopulation can be mitigated by birth control; some nations, like the People 's Republic of China, use strict measures to reduce birth rates. Religious and ideological opposition to birth control has been cited as a factor contributing to overpopulation and poverty. Sanjay Gandhi, son of late Prime Minister of India Indira Gandhi, implemented a forced sterilization programme between 1975 and 1977. Officially, men with two children or more had to submit to sterilization, but there was a greater focus on sterilizing women than sterilizing men. Some unmarried young men and political opponents may also have been sterilized. This program is still remembered and criticized in India, and is blamed for creating a public aversion to family planning, which hampered government programs for decades. Urban designer Michael E. Arth has proposed a "choice - based, marketable birth license plan '' he calls "birth credits ''. Birth credits would allow any woman to have as many children as she wants, as long as she buys a license for any children beyond an average allotment that would result in zero population growth. If that allotment was determined to be one child, for example, then the first child would be free, and the market would determine what the license fee for each additional child would cost. Extra credits would expire after a certain time, so these credits could not be hoarded by speculators. The actual cost of the credits would only be a fraction of the actual cost of having and raising a child, so the credits would serve more as a wake - up call to women who might otherwise produce children without seriously considering the long term consequences to themselves or society. Another choice - based approach, similar to Arth 's birth credits, is financial compensation or other benefits (free goods and / or services) by the state (or state - owned companies) offered to people who voluntarily undergo sterilization. Such compensation has been offered in the past by the government of India. In 2014 the United Nations estimated there is an 80 % likelihood that the world 's population will be between 9.6 billion and 12.3 billion by 2100. Most of the world 's expected population increase will be in Africa and southern Asia. Africa 's population is expected to rise from the current one billion to four billion by 2100, and Asia could add another billion in the same period. Because the median age of Africans is relatively low (e.g. in Uganda it is 15 years old) birth credits would have to limit fertility to one child per two women to reach the levels of developed countries immediately. For countries with a wide base in their population pyramid it will take a generation for the people who are of child bearing age to have their families. An example of demographic momentum is China, which added perhaps 400,000 more people after its one - child policy was enacted. Arth has suggested that the focus should be on the developed countries and that some combination of birth credits and additional compensation supplied by the developed countries could rapidly lead to zero population growth while also quickly raising the standard of living in developing countries. Various scientists and science fiction authors have contemplated that overpopulation on Earth may be remedied in the future by the use of extraterrestrial settlements. In the 1970s, Gerard K. O'Neill suggested building space habitats that could support 30,000 times the carrying capacity of Earth using just the asteroid belt, and that the Solar System as a whole could sustain current population growth rates for a thousand years. Marshall Savage (1992, 1994) has projected a human population of five quintillion (5 x 10) throughout the Solar System by 3000, with the majority in the asteroid belt. Freeman Dyson (1999) favours the Kuiper belt as the future home of humanity, suggesting this could happen within a few centuries. In Mining the Sky, John S. Lewis suggests that the resources of the solar system could support 10 quadrillion (10) people. In an interview, Stephen Hawking claimed that overpopulation is a threat to human existence and "our only chance of long - term survival is not to remain inward looking on planet Earth but to spread out into space. '' K. Eric Drexler, famous inventor of the futuristic concept of molecular nanotechnology, has suggested in Engines of Creation that colonizing space will mean breaking the Malthusian limits to growth for the human species. It may be possible for other parts of the Solar System to be inhabited by humanity at some point in the future. Geoffrey Landis of NASA 's Glenn Research Center in particular has pointed out that "(at) cloud - top level, Venus is the paradise planet '', as one could construct aerostat habitats and floating cities there easily, based on the concept that breathable air is a lifting gas in the dense Venusian atmosphere. Venus would, like also Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, in the upper layers of their atmospheres, even afford a gravitation almost exactly as strong as that on Earth (see colonization of Venus). Many science fiction authors, including Carl Sagan, Arthur C. Clarke, and Isaac Asimov, have argued that shipping any excess population into space is not a viable solution to human overpopulation. According to Clarke, "the population battle must be fought or won here on Earth ''. The problem for these authors is not the lack of resources in space (as shown in books such as Mining the Sky), but the physical impracticality of shipping vast numbers of people into space to "solve '' overpopulation on Earth. However, Gerard K. O'Neill 's calculations show that Earth could offload all new population growth with a launch services industry about the same size as the current airline industry. The StarTram concept, by James R. Powell (the co-inventor of maglev transport) and others, envisions a capability to send up to 4 million people a decade to space per facility. A hypothetical extraterrestrial colony could potentially grow by reproduction only (i.e., without any immigration), with all of the inhabitants being the direct descendants of the original colonists. Despite the increase in population density within cities (and the emergence of megacities), UN Habitat states in its reports that urbanization may be the best compromise in the face of global population growth. Cities concentrate human activity within limited areas, limiting the breadth of environmental damage. But this mitigating influence can only be achieved if urban planning is significantly improved and city services are properly maintained. Afghanistan shows a classic youth bulge. Angola shows the same, even more pronounced. China had an extreme youth bulge until the 1960s, when it sharply curbed partly as an effect of the one - child policy. Compare the population pyramid of the USA which was bulging until the 1960s and has steadily slimmed since. A population pyramid based on the 2011 Libyan population.

where are all of the great lakes located

Great Lakes - wikipedia The Great Lakes (French: les Grands - Lacs), also called the Laurentian Great Lakes and the Great Lakes of North America, are a series of interconnected freshwater lakes located primarily in the upper mid-east region of North America, on the Canada -- United States border, which connect to the Atlantic Ocean through the Saint Lawrence River. Consisting of Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron (or Michigan -- Huron), Erie, and Ontario, they form the largest group of freshwater lakes on Earth by total area, and second largest by total volume containing 21 % of the world 's surface fresh water by volume. The total surface is 94,250 square miles (244,106 km), and the total volume (measured at the low water datum) is 5,439 cubic miles (22,671 km). Due to their sea - like characteristics (rolling waves, sustained winds, strong currents, great depths, and distant horizons) the five Great Lakes have also long been referred to as inland seas. Lake Superior is the second largest lake in the world by area, and Lake Michigan is the largest lake that is entirely within one country. The southern half of the Great Lakes is bordered by the Great Lakes Megalopolis. The Great Lakes began to form at the end of the last glacial period around 14,000 years ago, as retreating ice sheets exposed the basins they had carved into the land which then filled with meltwater. The lakes have been a major highway for transportation, migration and trade, and they are home to a large number of aquatic species. Many invasive species have been introduced due to trade, and some threaten the region 's biodiversity. Though the five lakes reside in separate basins, they form a single, naturally interconnected body of fresh water, within the Great Lakes Basin. The lakes form a chain connecting the east - central interior of North America to the Atlantic Ocean. From the interior to the outlet at the Saint Lawrence River, water flows from Superior to Huron and Michigan, southward to Erie, and finally northward to Lake Ontario. The lakes drain a large watershed via many rivers, and are studded with approximately 35,000 islands. There are also several thousand smaller lakes, often called "inland lakes, '' within the basin. The surface area of the five primary lakes combined is roughly equal to the size of the United Kingdom, while the surface area of the entire basin (the lakes and the land they drain) is about the size of the UK and France combined. Lake Michigan is the only one of the Great Lakes that is located entirely within the United States; the others form a water boundary between the United States and Canada. The lakes are divided among the jurisdictions of the Canadian province of Ontario and the U.S. states of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. Both Ontario and Michigan include in their boundaries portions of four of the lakes: Ontario does not border Lake Michigan, and Michigan does not border Lake Ontario. New York and Wisconsin 's jurisdictions extend into two lakes, and the remaining states into one of the lakes. As the surfaces of Lakes Superior, Huron, Michigan, and Erie are all approximately the same elevation above sea level, while Lake Ontario is significantly lower, and because the Niagara Escarpment precludes all natural navigation, the four upper lakes are commonly called the "upper great lakes ''. This designation, however, is not universal. Those living on the shore of Lake Superior often refer to all the other lakes as "the lower lakes '', because they are farther south. Sailors of bulk freighters transferring cargoes from Lake Superior and northern Lake Michigan and Lake Huron to ports on Lake Erie or Ontario commonly refer to the latter as the lower lakes and Lakes Michigan, Huron, and Superior as the upper lakes. This corresponds to thinking of Lakes Erie and Ontario as "down south '' and the others as "up north ''. Vessels sailing north on Lake Michigan are considered "upbound '' even though they are sailing toward its effluent current. Lakes Huron and Michigan are sometimes considered a single lake, called Lake Michigan -- Huron, because they are one hydrological body of water connected by the Straits of Mackinac. The straits are 5 miles (8 km) wide and 120 feet (37 m) deep; the water levels -- currently at 577 feet (176 m) -- rise and fall together, and the flow between Michigan and Huron frequently reverses direction. Dispersed throughout the Great Lakes are approximately 35,000 islands. The largest among them is Manitoulin Island in Lake Huron, the largest island in any inland body of water in the world. The second - largest island is Isle Royale in Lake Superior. Both of these islands are large enough to contain multiple lakes themselves -- for instance, Manitoulin Island 's Lake Manitou is the world 's largest lake located on a freshwater island. The Saint Lawrence Seaway and Great Lakes Waterway make the Great Lakes accessible to ocean - going vessels. However, shifts in shipping to wider ocean - going container ships -- which do not fit through the locks on these routes -- have limited container shipping on the lakes. Most Great Lakes trade is of bulk material, and bulk freighters of Seawaymax - size or less can move throughout the entire lakes and out to the Atlantic. Larger ships are confined to working in the lakes themselves. Only barges can access the Illinois Waterway system providing access to the Gulf of Mexico via the Mississippi River. Despite their vast size, large sections of the Great Lakes freeze over in winter, interrupting most shipping from January to March. Some icebreakers ply the lakes, keeping the shipping lanes open through other periods of ice on the lakes. The Great Lakes are also connected by canal to the Gulf of Mexico by way of the Illinois River (from the Chicago River) and the Mississippi River. An alternate track is via the Illinois River (from Chicago), to the Mississippi, up the Ohio, and then through the Tennessee -- Tombigbee Waterway (a combination of a series of rivers and lakes and canals), to Mobile Bay and the Gulf. Commercial tug - and - barge traffic on these waterways is heavy. Pleasure boats can also enter or exit the Great Lakes by way of the Erie Canal and Hudson River in New York. The Erie Canal connects to the Great Lakes at the east end of Lake Erie (at Buffalo, New York) and at the south side of Lake Ontario (at Oswego, New York). In 2009, the lakes contained 84 % of the surface freshwater of North America; if the water were evenly distributed over the entire continent 's land area, it would reach a depth of 1.5 meters (5 feet). The source of water levels in the lakes is tied to what was left by melting glaciers when the lakes took their present form. Annually, only about 1 % is "new '' water originating from rivers, precipitation, and groundwater springs that drain into the lakes. Historically, evaporation has been balanced by drainage, making the level of the lakes constant. While the lake levels have been preserved, intensive human population growth only began in the region in the 20th century and continues today. At least two human water use activities have been identified as having the potential to affect the lakes ' levels: diversion (the transfer of water to other watersheds) and consumption (substantially done today by the use of lake water to power and cool electric generation plants, resulting in evaporation). The water level of Lake Michigan -- Huron had remained fairly constant over the 20th century, but has nevertheless dropped more than 6 feet from the record high in 1986 to the low of 2013. One newspaper reported that the long - term average level has gone down about 20 inches because of dredging and subsequent erosion in the St. Clair River. Lake Michigan -- Huron hit all - time record low levels in 2013; according to the US Army Corps of Engineers, the previous record low had been set in 1964. By April 2015 the water level had recovered to 7 inches (17.5 cm) more than the "long term monthly average ''. The Great Lakes contained 21 % of the world 's surface fresh water around the year 2000: 5,472 cubic miles (22,810 km), or 6.0 × 10 U.S. gallons (2.3 × 10 liters). This is enough water to cover the 48 contiguous U.S. states to a uniform depth of 9.5 feet (2.9 m). Although the lakes contain a large percentage of the world 's fresh water, the Great Lakes supply only a small portion of U.S. drinking water on a national basis. The total surface area of the lakes is approximately 94,250 square miles (244,100 km) -- nearly the same size as the United Kingdom, and larger than the U.S. states of New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Vermont, and New Hampshire combined. The Great Lakes coast measures approximately 10,500 miles (16,900 km); however, the length of a coastline is impossible to measure exactly and is not a well - defined measure (see Coastline paradox). Of the total 10,500 miles (16,900 km) of shoreline, Canada borders approximately 5,200 miles (8,400 km), while the remaining 5,300 miles (8,500 km) are bordered by the United States. Michigan has the longest shoreline of the United States, bordering roughly 3,288 miles (5,292 km) of shoreline, followed by Wisconsin (820 miles (1,320 km)), New York (473 miles (761 km)), and Ohio (312 miles (502 km)). Traversing the shoreline of all the lakes would cover a distance roughly equivalent to travelling half - way around the world at the equator. It has been estimated that the foundational geology that created the conditions shaping the present day upper Great Lakes was laid from 1.1 to 1.2 billion years ago, when two previously fused tectonic plates split apart and created the Midcontinent Rift, which crossed the Great Lakes Tectonic Zone. A valley was formed providing a basin that eventually became modern day Lake Superior. When a second fault line, the Saint Lawrence rift, formed approximately 570 million years ago, the basis for Lakes Ontario and Erie were created, along with what would become the Saint Lawrence River. The Great Lakes are estimated to have been formed at the end of the last glacial period (the Wisconsin glaciation ended 10,000 to 12,000 years ago), when the Laurentide Ice Sheet receded. The retreat of the ice sheet left behind a large amount of meltwater (see Lake Algonquin and Lake Chicago) that filled up the basins that the glaciers had carved, thus creating the Great Lakes as we know them today. Because of the uneven nature of glacier erosion, some higher hills became Great Lakes islands. The Niagara Escarpment follows the contour of the Great Lakes between New York and Wisconsin. See also Glacial Lake Iroquois and Champlain Sea. Land below the glaciers "rebounded '' as it was uncovered. Because the glaciers covered some areas longer than others, this glacial rebound occurred at different rates. The Great Lakes have a humid continental climate, Köppen climate classification Dfa (in southern areas) and Dfb (in northern parts) with varying influences from air masses from other regions including dry, cold Arctic systems, mild Pacific air masses from the West, and warm, wet tropical systems from the south and the Gulf of Mexico. The lakes themselves also have a moderating effect on the climate; they can also increase precipitation totals and produce lake effect snowfall. The most well - known winter effect of the Great Lakes on regional weather is the lake effect in snowfall, which is sometimes very localized. Even late in winter, the lakes often have no icepack in the middle. The prevailing winds from the west pick up the air and moisture from the lake surface, which is slightly warmer in relation to the cold surface winds above. As the slightly warmer, moist air passes over the colder land surface, the moisture often produces concentrated, heavy snowfall that sets up in bands or "streamers ''. This is similar to the effect of warmer air dropping snow as it passes over mountain ranges. During freezing weather with high winds, the "snow belts '' receive regular snow fall from this localized weather pattern, especially along the eastern shores of the lakes. Snow belts are found in Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York, United States; and Ontario, Canada. The lakes also moderate seasonal temperatures to some degree, but not with as large an influence as do large oceans; they absorb heat and cool the air in summer, then slowly radiate that heat in autumn. They protect against frost during transitional weather, and keep the summertime temperatures cooler than further inland. This effect can be very localized and overridden by offshore wind patterns. This temperature buffering produces areas known as "fruit belts '', where fruit can be produced that is typically grown much farther south. For instance, Western Michigan has apple and cherry orchards, and vineyards cultivated adjacent to the lake shore as far north as the Grand Traverse Bay and Nottawasaga Bay in central Ontario. The eastern shore of Lake Michigan and the southern shore of Lake Erie have many successful wineries because of the moderating effect, as does the Niagara Peninsula between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. A similar phenomenon allows wineries to flourish in the Finger Lakes region of New York, as well as in Prince Edward County, Ontario on Lake Ontario 's northeast shore. Related to the lake effect is the regular occurrence of fog over medium - sized areas, particularly along the shorelines of the lakes. This is most noticeable along Lake Superior 's shores. The Great Lakes have been observed to help intensify storms, such as Hurricane Hazel in 1954, and the 2011 Goderich, Ontario tornado, which moved onshore as a tornadic waterspout. In 1996 a rare tropical or subtropical storm was observed forming in Lake Huron, dubbed the 1996 Lake Huron cyclone. Rather large severe thunderstorms covering wide areas are well known in the Great Lakes during mid-summer; these Mesoscale convective complexs or MCCs can cause damage to wide swaths of forest and shatter glass in city buildings. These storms mainly occur during the night, and the systems sometimes have small embedded tornadoes, but more often straight - line winds accompanied by intense lightning. Historically, the Great Lakes, in addition to their lake ecology, were surrounded by various forest ecoregions (except in a relatively small area of southeast Lake Michigan where savanna or prairie occasionally intruded). Logging, urbanization, and agriculture uses have changed that relationship. In the early 21st century, Lake Superior 's shores are 91 % forested, Lake Huron 68 %, Lake Ontario 49 %, Lake Michigan 41 %, and Lake Erie, where logging and urbanization has been most extensive, 21 %. Some of these forests are second or third growth (i.e. they have been logged before, changing their composition). At least 13 wildlife species are documented as becoming extinct since the arrival of Europeans, and many more are threatened or endangered. Meanwhile, exotic and invasive species have also been introduced. The organisms living on the bottom of shallow waters are similar to those found in smaller lakes. The deep waters, however, contain organisms found only in deep, cold lakes of the northern latitudes. These include the delicate opossum shrimp (order mysida), the deepwater scud (a crustacean of the order amphipoda), two types of copepods, and the deepwater sculpin (a spiny, large - headed fish). The Great Lakes are an important source of fishing. Early European settlers were astounded by both the variety and quantity of fish; there were 150 different species in the Great Lakes. Throughout history, fish populations were the early indicator of the condition of the Lakes and have remained one of the key indicators even in the current era of sophisticated analyses and measuring instruments. According to the bi-national (U.S. and Canadian) resource book, The Great Lakes: An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book: "The largest Great Lakes fish harvests were recorded in 1889 and 1899 at some 67,000 tonnes (66,000 long tons; 74,000 short tons) (147 million pounds). '' By 1801, the New York Legislature found it necessary to pass regulations curtailing obstructions to the natural migrations of Atlantic salmon from Lake Erie into their spawning channels. In the early 19th century, the government of Upper Canada found it necessary to introduce similar legislation prohibiting the use of weirs and nets at the mouths of Lake Ontario 's tributaries. Other protective legislation was passed, as well, but enforcement remained difficult. On both sides of the Canada -- United States border, the proliferation of dams and impoundments have multiplied, necessitating more regulatory efforts. Concerns by the mid-19th century included obstructions in the rivers which prevented salmon and lake sturgeon from reaching their spawning grounds. The Wisconsin Fisheries Commission noted a reduction of roughly 25 % in general fish harvests by 1875. The states have removed dams from rivers where necessary. Overfishing has been cited as a possible reason for a decrease in population of various whitefish, important because of their culinary desirability and, hence, economic consequence. Moreover, between 1879 and 1899, reported whitefish harvests declined from some 24.3 million pounds (11 million kg) to just over 9 million pounds (4 million kg). By 1900, commercial fishermen on Lake Michigan were hauling in an average of 41 million pounds of fish annually. By 1938, Wisconsin 's commercial fishing operations were motorized and mechanized, generating jobs for more than 2,000 workers, and hauling 14 million pounds per year. The population of giant freshwater mussels was eliminated as the mussels were harvested for use as buttons by early Great Lakes entrepreneurs. Since 2000, the invasive quagga mussel has smothered the bottom of Lake Michigan almost from shore to shore, and their numbers are estimated at 900 trillion. The influx of parasitic lamprey populations after the development of the Erie Canal and the much later Welland Canal led to the two federal governments of the US and Canada working on joint proposals to control it. By the mid-1950s, the lake trout populations of Lakes Michigan and Huron were reduced, with the lamprey deemed largely to blame. This led to the launch of the bi-national Great Lakes Fishery Commission. The Great Lakes: An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book (1972) noted: "Only pockets remain of the once large commercial fishery. '' But, water quality improvements realized during the 1970s and 1980s, combined with successful salmonid stocking programs, have enabled the growth of a large recreational fishery. The last commercial fisherman left Milwaukee in 2011 because of overfishing and anthropogenic changes to the biosphere. Since the 19th century an estimated 160 new species have found their way into the Great Lakes ecosystem; many have become invasive; the overseas ship ballast and ship hull parasitism are causing severe economic and ecological impacts. According to the Inland Seas Education Association, on average a new species enters the Great Lakes every eight months. Introductions into the Great Lakes include the zebra mussel, which was first discovered in 1988, and quagga mussel in 1989. The mollusks are efficient filter feeders, competing with native mussels and reducing available food and spawning grounds for fish. In addition, the mussels may be a nuisance to industries by clogging pipes. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that the economic impact of the zebra mussel could be about $5 billion over the next decade. The alewife first entered the system west of Lake Ontario via 19th - century canals. By the 1960s, the small silver fish had become a familiar nuisance to beach goers across Lakes Michigan, Huron, and Erie. Periodic mass dieoffs result in vast numbers of the fish washing up on shore; estimates by various governments have placed the percentage of Lake Michigan 's biomass, which was made up of alewives in the early 1960s, as high as 90 %. In the late 1960s, the various state and federal governments began stocking several species of salmonids, including the native lake trout as well as non-native chinook and coho salmon; by the 1980s, alewife populations had dropped drastically. The ruffe, a small percid fish from Eurasia, became the most abundant fish species in Lake Superior 's Saint Louis River within five years of its detection in 1986. Its range, which has expanded to Lake Huron, poses a significant threat to the lower lake fishery. Five years after first being observed in the St. Clair River, the round goby can now be found in all of the Great Lakes. The goby is considered undesirable for several reasons: it preys upon bottom - feeding fish, overruns optimal habitat, spawns multiple times a season, and can survive poor water quality conditions. Several species of exotic water fleas have accidentally been introduced into the Great Lakes, such as the spiny waterflea, Bythotrephes longimanus, and the fishhook waterflea, Cercopagis pengoi, potentially having an effect on the zooplankton population. Several species of crayfish have also been introduced that may contend with native crayfish populations. More recently an electric fence has been set up across the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal in order to keep several species of invasive Asian carp out of the area. These fast - growing planktivorous fish have heavily colonized the Mississippi and Illinois river systems. The sea lamprey, which has been particularly damaging to the native lake trout population, is another example of a marine invasive species in the Great Lakes. Invasive species, particularly zebra and quagga mussels, may be at least partially responsible for the collapse of the deepwater demersal fish community in Lake Huron, as well as drastic unprecedented changes in the zooplankton community of the lake. Native habitats and ecoregions in the Great Lakes region include: Plant lists include: Logging Logging of the extensive forests in the Great Lakes region removed riparian and adjacent tree cover over rivers and streams, which provide shade, moderating water temperatures in fish spawning grounds. Removal of trees also destabilized the soil, with greater volumes washed into stream beds causing siltation of gravel beds, and more frequent flooding. Running cut logs down the tributary rivers into the Great Lakes also dislocated sediments. In 1884, the New York Fish Commission determined that the dumping of sawmill waste (chips and sawdust) had impacted fish populations. The first U.S. Clean Water Act, passed by a Congressional override after being vetoed by US President Richard Nixon in 1972, was a key piece of legislation, along with the bi-national Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement signed by Canada and the U.S. A variety of steps taken to process industrial and municipal pollution discharges into the system greatly improved water quality by the 1980s, and Lake Erie in particular is significantly cleaner. Discharge of toxic substances has been sharply reduced. Federal and state regulations control substances like PCBs. The first of 43 "Great Lakes Areas of Concern '' to be formally "de-listed '' due to successful cleanup was Ontario 's Collingwood Harbour in 1994; Ontario 's Severn Sound followed in 2003. Presque Isle Bay in Pennsylvania is formally listed as in recovery, as is Ontario 's Spanish Harbour. Dozens of other Areas of Concern have received partial cleanups such as the Rouge River (Michigan) and Waukegan Harbor (Illinois). Until 1970, mercury was not listed as a harmful chemical, according to the United States Federal Water Quality Administration. Within the past ten years mercury has become more apparent in water tests. Mercury compounds have been used in paper mills to prevent slime from forming during their production, and chemical companies have used mercury to separate chlorine from brine solutions. Studies conducted by the Environmental Protection Agency have shown that when the mercury comes in contact with many of the bacteria and compounds in the fresh water, it forms the compound methyl mercury, which has a much greater impact on human health than elemental mercury due to a higher propensity for absorption. This form of mercury is not detrimental to a majority of fish types, but is very detrimental to people and other wildlife animals who consume the fish. Mercury has been known for health related problems such as birth defects in humans and animals, and the near extinction of eagles in the Great Lakes region. The amount of raw sewage dumped into the waters was the primary focus of both the first Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement and federal laws passed in both countries during the 1970s. Implementation of secondary treatment of municipal sewage by major cities greatly reduced the routine discharge of untreated sewage during the 1970s and 1980s. The International Joint Commission in 2009 summarized the change: "Since the early 1970s, the level of treatment to reduce pollution from waste water discharges to the Great Lakes has improved considerably. This is a result of significant expenditures to date on both infrastructure and technology, and robust regulatory systems that have proven to be, on the whole, quite effective. '' The commission reported that all urban sewage treatment systems on the U.S. side of the lakes had implemented secondary treatment, as had all on the Canadian side except for five small systems. However, those treatment system upgrades have not, contrary to federal laws in both countries, yet eliminated Combined sewer Overflow events. This describes when older sewerage systems, which combine storm water with sewage into single sewers heading to the treatment plant, are temporarily overwhelmed by heavy rainstorms. Local sewage treatment authorities then must release untreated effluent, a mix of rainwater and sewage, into local water bodies. While enormous public investments such as the Deep Tunnel projects in Chicago and Milwaukee have greatly reduced the frequency and volume of these events, they have not been eliminated. The number of such overflow events in Ontario, for example, is flat according to the International Joint Commission. Reports about this issue on the U.S. side highlight five large municipal systems (those of Detroit, Cleveland, Buffalo, Milwaukee and Gary) as being the largest current periodic sources of untreated discharges into the Great Lakes. Phosphate detergents were historically a major source of nutrient to the Great Lakes algae blooms in particular in the warmer and shallower portions of the system such as Lake Erie, Saginaw Bay, Green Bay, and the southernmost portion of Lake Michigan. By the mid-1980s, most jurisdictions bordering the Great Lakes had controlled phosphate detergents, resulting in sharp reductions in the frequency and extent of the blooms. In 2013, news of a garbage patch of plastic pollution in the lakes was reported. Several Native American tribes inhabited the region since at least 1000 BC, after the end of the Wisconsin glaciation. The peoples of the Great Lakes traded with the Hopewell culture from around 1000 AD, as copper nuggets have been extracted from the region, and fashioned into ornaments and weapons in the mounds of Southern Ohio. The brigantine Le Griffon, which was commissioned by René - Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, was built at Cayuga Creek, near the southern end of the Niagara River, and became the first known sailing ship to travel the upper Great Lakes on August 7, 1679. The Rush -- Bagot Treaty signed in 1818, after the War of 1812 and the later Treaty of Washington eventually led to a complete disarmament of naval vessels in the Great Lakes. Nonetheless, both nations maintain coast guard vessels in the Great Lakes. During settlement, the Great Lakes and its rivers were the only practical means of moving people and freight. Barges from middle North America were able to reach the Atlantic Ocean from the Great Lakes when the Welland canal opened in 1824 and the later Erie Canal opened in 1825. By 1848, with the opening of the Illinois and Michigan Canal at Chicago, direct access to the Mississippi River was possible from the lakes. With these two canals an all - inland water route was provided between New York City and New Orleans. The main business of many of the passenger lines in the 19th century was transporting immigrants. Many of the larger cities owe their existence to their position on the lakes as a freight destination as well as for being a magnet for immigrants. After railroads and surface roads developed, the freight and passenger businesses dwindled and, except for ferries and a few foreign cruise ships, has now vanished. The immigration routes still have an effect today. Immigrants often formed their own communities and some areas have a pronounced ethnicity, such as Dutch, German, Polish, Finnish, and many others. Since many immigrants settled for a time in New England before moving westward, many areas on the U.S. side of the Great Lakes also have a New England feel, especially in home styles and accent. Since general freight these days is transported by railroads and trucks, domestic ships mostly move bulk cargoes, such as iron ore, coal and limestone for the steel industry. The domestic bulk freight developed because of the nearby mines. It was more economical to transport the ingredients for steel to centralized plants rather than try to make steel on the spot. Grain exports are also a major cargo on the lakes. In the 19th century and early 20th centuries, iron and other ores such as copper were shipped south on (downbound ships), and supplies, food, and coal were shipped north (upbound). Because of the location of the coal fields in Pennsylvania and West Virginia, and the general northeast track of the Appalachian Mountains, railroads naturally developed shipping routes that went due north to ports such as Erie, Pennsylvania and Ashtabula, Ohio. Because the lake maritime community largely developed independently, it has some distinctive vocabulary. Ships, no matter the size, are called boats. When the sailing ships gave way to steamships, they were called steamboats -- the same term used on the Mississippi. The ships also have a distinctive design (see Lake freighter). Ships that primarily trade on the lakes are known as lakers. Foreign boats are known as salties. One of the more common sights on the lakes has been since about 1950 the 1,000 ‐ by ‐ 105 - foot (305 - by - 32 - meter), 78,850 - long - ton (80,120 - metric - ton) self - unloader. This is a laker with a conveyor belt system that can unload itself by swinging a crane over the side. Today, the Great Lakes fleet is much smaller in numbers than it once was because of the increased use of overland freight, and a few larger ships replacing many small ones. During World War II, the risk of submarine attacks against coastal training facilities motivated the United States Navy to operate two aircraft carriers on the Great Lakes, USS Sable (IX - 81) and USS Wolverine (IX - 64). Both served as training ships to qualify naval aviators in carrier landing and takeoff. Lake Champlain briefly became the sixth Great Lake of the United States on March 6, 1998, when President Clinton signed Senate Bill 927. This bill, which reauthorized the National Sea Grant Program, contained a line declaring Lake Champlain to be a Great Lake. Not coincidentally, this status allows neighboring states to apply for additional federal research and education funds allocated to these national resources. Following a small uproar, the Senate voted to revoke the designation on March 24 (although New York and Vermont universities would continue to receive funds to monitor and study the lake). In the early years of the 21st century, water levels in the Great Lakes were a concern. Researchers at the Mowat Centre said that low levels could cost $19 bn by 2050. The Great Lakes are today used as a major water transport corridor for bulk goods. The Great Lakes Waterway connects all the lakes; the smaller Saint Lawrence Seaway connects the lakes to the Atlantic oceans. Some lake freighters are too large to use the Seaway, and only operate on the Waterway and lakes. In 2002, 162 million net tons of dry bulk cargo were moved on the Lakes. This was, in order of volume: iron ore, grain and potash. The iron ore and much of the stone and coal are used in the steel industry. There is also some shipping of liquid and containerized cargo but most container ships can not pass the locks on the Saint Lawrence Seaway because the ships are too wide. The Great Lakes are used to supply drinking water to tens of millions of people in bordering areas. This valuable resource is collectively administered by the state and provincial governments adjacent to the lakes, who have agreed to the Great Lakes Compact to regulate water supply and use. Tourism and recreation are major industries on the Great Lakes. A few small cruise ships operate on the Great Lakes including a couple of sailing ships. Sport fishing, commercial fishing, and Native American fishing represent a U.S. $4 billion a year industry with salmon, whitefish, smelt, lake trout, bass and walleye being major catches. Many other water sports are practiced on the lakes such as yachting, sea kayaking, diving, kitesurfing, powerboating, and lake surfing. The Great Lakes Circle Tour is a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River. From 1844 through 1857, palace steamers carried passengers and cargo around the Great Lakes. In the first half of the 20th century large luxurious passenger steamers sailed the lakes in opulence. The Detroit and Cleveland Navigation Company had several vessels at the time and hired workers from all walks of life to help operate theses vessels. Several ferries currently operate on the Great Lakes to carry passengers to various islands, including Isle Royale, Drummond Island, Pelee Island, Mackinac Island, Beaver Island, Bois Blanc Island (Ontario), Bois Blanc Island (Michigan), Kelleys Island, South Bass Island, North Manitou Island, South Manitou Island, Harsens Island, Manitoulin Island, and the Toronto Islands. As of 2007, four car ferry services cross the Great Lakes, two on Lake Michigan: a steamer from Ludington, Michigan, to Manitowoc, Wisconsin, and a high speed catamaran from Milwaukee to Muskegon, Michigan, one on Lake Erie: a boat from Kingsville, Ontario, or Leamington, Ontario, to Pelee Island, Ontario, then onto Sandusky, Ohio, and one on Lake Huron: the M.S. Chi - Cheemaun runs between Tobermory and South Baymouth, Manitoulin Island, operated by the Owen Sound Transportation Company. An international ferry across Lake Ontario Rochester, New York, to Toronto ran during 2004 and 2005, but is no longer in operation. The large size of the Great Lakes increases the risk of water travel; storms and reefs are common threats. The lakes are prone to sudden and severe storms, in particular in the autumn, from late October until early December. Hundreds of ships have met their end on the lakes. The greatest concentration of shipwrecks lies near Thunder Bay (Michigan), beneath Lake Huron, near the point where eastbound and westbound shipping lanes converge. The Lake Superior shipwreck coast from Grand Marais, Michigan, to Whitefish Point became known as the "Graveyard of the Great Lakes ''. More vessels have been lost in the Whitefish Point area than any other part of Lake Superior. The Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve serves as an underwater museum to protect the many shipwrecks in this area. The first ship to sink in Lake Michigan was Le Griffon, also the first ship to sail the Great Lakes. Caught in a 1679 storm while trading furs between Green Bay and Michilimacinac, it was lost with all hands aboard. Its wreck may have been found in 2004, but a wreck subsequently discovered in a different location was also claimed in 2014 to be Le Griffon. The largest and last major freighter wrecked on the lakes was the SS Edmund Fitzgerald, which sank on November 10, 1975, just over 17 miles (30 km) offshore from Whitefish Point on Lake Superior. The largest loss of life in a shipwreck out on the lakes may have been that of the Lady Elgin, wrecked in 1860 with the loss of around 400 lives on Lake Michigan. In an incident at a Chicago dock in 1915, the SS Eastland rolled over while loading passengers, killing 841. In August 2007, the Great Lakes Shipwreck Historical Society announced that it had found the wreckage of Cyprus, a 420 - foot (130 m) long, century - old ore carrier. Cyprus sank during a Lake Superior storm on October 11, 1907, during its second voyage while hauling iron ore from Superior, Wisconsin, to Buffalo, New York. The entire crew of 23 drowned, except one, a man named Charles Pitz, who floated on a life raft for almost seven hours. In June 2008, deep sea divers in Lake Ontario found the wreck of the 1780 Royal Navy warship HMS Ontario in what has been described as an "archaeological miracle ''. There are no plans to raise her as the site is being treated as a war grave. In June 2010, the L.R. Doty was found in Lake Michigan by an exploration diving team led by dive boat Captain Jitka Hanakova from her boat the Molly V. The ship sank in October 1898, probably attempting to rescue a small schooner, the Olive Jeanette, during a terrible storm. There are no plans to raise the ship as it would quickly deteriorate in open air. Still missing are the two last warships to sink in the Great Lakes, the French minesweepers, Inkerman and Cerisoles, which vanished in Lake Superior during a blizzard in 1918. 78 lives were lost making it the largest loss of life in Lake Superior and the greatest unexplained loss of life in the Great Lakes. Related articles In 1872, a treaty gave access to the St. Lawrence River to the United States, and access to Lake Michigan to the Dominion of Canada. The International Joint Commission was established in 1909 to help prevent and resolve disputes relating to the use and quality of boundary waters, and to advise Canada and the United States on questions related to water resources. Concerns over diversion of Lake water are of concern to both Americans and Canadians. Some water is diverted through the Chicago River to operate the Illinois Waterway but the flow is limited by treaty. Possible schemes for bottled water plants and diversion to dry regions of the continent raise concerns. Under the U.S. "Water Resources Development Act '', diversion of water from the Great Lakes Basin requires the approval of all eight Great Lakes governors through the Great Lakes Commission, which rarely occurs. International treaties regulate large diversions. In 1998, the Canadian company Nova Group won approval from the Province of Ontario to withdraw 158,000,000 U.S. gallons (600,000 m) of Lake Superior water annually to ship by tanker to Asian countries. Public outcry forced the company to abandon the plan before it began. Since that time, the eight Great Lakes Governors and the Premiers of Ontario and Quebec have negotiated the Great Lakes - Saint Lawrence River Basin Sustainable Water Resources Agreement and the Great Lakes - St. Lawrence River Basin Water Resources Compact that would prevent most future diversion proposals and all long - distance ones. The agreements strengthen protection against abusive water withdrawal practices within the Great Lakes basin. On December 13, 2005, the Governors and Premiers signed these two agreements, the first of which is between all ten jurisdictions. It is somewhat more detailed and protective, though its legal strength has not yet been tested in court. The second, the Great Lakes Compact, has been approved by the state legislatures of all eight states that border the Great Lakes as well as the U.S. Congress, and was signed into law by President George W. Bush on October 3, 2008. The Great Lakes Restoration Initiative, described as "the largest investment in the Great Lakes in two decades, '' was funded at $475 million in the U.S. federal government 's Fiscal Year 2011 budget, and $300 million in the Fiscal Year 2012 budget. Through the program a coalition of federal agencies is making grants to local and state entities for toxics cleanups, wetlands and coastline restoration projects, and invasive species - related projects. In 2006, the United States Coast Guard (USCG) proposed a plan to designate 34 areas in the Great Lakes, at least 5 mi (8 km) offshore, as permanent safety zones for live fire machine gun practice. In August 2006, the plan was published in the Federal Register. The USCG reserved the right to hold target practice whenever the weather allowed with a two - hour notice. These firing ranges would be open to the public when not in use. In response to requests from the public, the Coast Guard held a series of public meetings in nine U.S. cities to solicit comment. During these meetings many people voiced concerns about the plan and its impact on the environment. On December 18, 2006, the Coast Guard announced its decision to withdraw the entire proposal. Officials said they would look into alternative ammunition, modifying the proposed zones and have more public dialogue before proposing a new plan. Dynamically updated data Coordinates: 45 ° 45 ′ N 84 ° 0 ′ W  /  45.750 ° N 84.000 ° W  / 45.750; - 84.000

can you buy a car in wisconsin on sunday

Blue law - wikipedia Blue laws, also known as Sunday laws, are laws designed to restrict or ban some or all Sunday activities for religious reasons, particularly to promote the observance of a day of worship or rest. Blue laws may also restrict shopping or ban sale of certain items on specific days, most often on Sundays in the western world. Blue laws are enforced in parts of the United States and Canada as well as some European countries, particularly in Austria, Germany, Switzerland, and Norway, keeping most stores closed on Sundays. In the United States, the U.S. Supreme Court has held blue laws as constitutional numerous times, citing secular bases such as securing a day of rest for mail carriers, as well as protecting workers and families, in turn contributing to societal stability and guaranteeing the free exercise of religion. The origin of the blue laws also partially stems from religion, particularly the prohibition of Sabbath desecration in Christian Churches following the first - day Sabbatarian tradition. Both labour unions and trade associations have historically supported the legislation of blue laws. Most blue laws have been repealed in the United States, although Indiana banned the sale of alcoholic beverages on Sundays until repealed on February 28, 2018, and many states ban selling cars on Sundays. The very first known law regarding prohibition of Sunday labor for religious reasons was in 538 at the Third Council of Orléans. The first occurrence of the phrase blue laws so far found is in the New - York Mercury of March 3, 1755, where the writer imagines a future newspaper praising the revival of "our Connecticut 's old Blue Laws ''. In his 1781 book General History of Connecticut, the Reverend Samuel Peters (1735 -- 1826) used it to describe various laws first enacted by Puritan colonies in the 17th century that prohibited various activities, recreational as well as commercial, on Sunday (Saturday evening through Sunday night). Sometimes the sale of certain types of merchandise was prohibited, and in some cases all retail and business activity. Contrary to popular belief, there is no evidence that blue laws were originally printed on blue paper. Rather, the word blue was used in the 17th century as a disparaging reference to rigid moral codes and those who observed them, particularly in blue - stocking, a reference to Oliver Cromwell 's supporters in the parliament of 1653. Moreover, although Reverend Peters claimed that the term blue law was originally used by Puritan colonists, his work has since been found to be unreliable. In any event, Peters never asserted that the blue laws were originally printed on blue paper, and this has come to be regarded as an example of false etymology, another version of which is that the laws were first bound in books with blue covers. As Protestant moral reformers organized the Sabbath reform in nineteenth - century America, calls for the enactment and enforcement of stricter Sunday laws developed. Numerous Americans were arrested for working, keeping an open shop, drinking alcohol, traveling, and recreating on Sundays. Erwin Fahlbusch and Geoffrey William Bromiley write that throughout their existence, organizations advocating first - day Sabbatarianism, such as the Lord 's Day Alliance in North America and the Lord 's Day Observance Society in the British Isles, were supported by labor unions in lobbying "to prevent secular and commercial interests from hampering freedom of worship and from exploiting workers. '' For example, the United States Congress was supported by the Lord 's Day Alliance in securing "a day of rest for city postal clerks whose hours of labor, unlike those of city mail carriers, were largely unregulated. '' In Canada, the Ligue du Dimanche, a Roman Catholic Sunday league, supported the Lord 's Day Act in 1923 and promoted first - day Sabbatarian legislation. Beginning in the 1840s, workingmen, Jews, Seventh Day Baptists, free - thinkers, and other groups began to organize opposition. Throughout the century, Sunday laws served as a major source of church - state controversy and as an issue that drove the emergence of modern American minority - rights politics. On the other hand, the more recent Dies Domini, written by Pope John Paul II in 1998, advocates Sunday legislation in that it protects civil servants and workers; the North Dakota Catholic Conference in 2011 likewise maintained that blue laws, in accordance with the Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church, "ensure that, for reasons of economic productivity, citizens are not denied time for rest and divine worship. '' Similarly, Chief Justice Earl Warren, while acknowledging the partial religious origin of blue laws, acknowledged their "secular purpose they served by providing a benefit to workers at the same time that they enhanced labor productivity. '' Many European countries still place strong restrictions on store opening hours on Sundays, an example being Germany 's Ladenschlussgesetz. The Lord 's Day Act, which since 1906 had prohibited business transactions from taking place on Sundays, was declared unconstitutional in the 1985 case R. v. Big M Drug Mart Ltd. Calgary police officers witnessed several transactions at the Big M Drug Mart, all of which occurred on a Sunday. Big M was charged with a violation of the Lord 's Day Act. A provincial court ruled that the Lord 's Day Act was unconstitutional, but the Crown proceeded to appeal all the way to the Supreme Court of Canada. In a unanimous 6 -- 0 decision, the Lord 's Day Act was ruled an infringement of the freedom of conscience and religion defined in section 2 (a) of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. A Toronto referendum in 1950 allowed only team sports to be played professionally on Sunday. Theatre performances, movie screenings, and horse racing were not permitted until the 1960s. The Supreme Court later concluded, in R. v. Edwards Books and Art Ltd., (1986) (2 S.C.R. 713) that Ontario 's Retail Business Holiday Act, which required some Sunday closings, did not violate the Charter because it did not have a religious purpose. Nonetheless, as of today, virtually all provincial Sunday Closing laws have ceased to exist. Some were struck down by provincial courts, but most were simply abrogated, often due to competitive reasons where out - of - province or foreign merchants were open. In the Cook Islands, blue laws were the first written legislation, enacted by the London Missionary Society in 1827, with the consent of ariki (chiefs). In Tonga, the Vava'u Code (1839) was inspired by Methodist missionary teachings, and was a form of blue law. In Niue, certain activities remain forbidden on Sunday, reflecting the country 's history of observing Christian Sabbath tradition. In Denmark the closing laws restricting retail trade on Sundays have been abolished with effect from October 1, 2012. From then on retail trade is only restricted on public holidays (New Years Day, Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, Easter Sunday, Easter Monday, Day of Prayer, Ascension Day, Whit Sunday, Whit Monday, Christmas Day and Boxing Day) and on Constitution Day, Christmas Eve and New Year 's Eve (on New Year 's Eve from 3 pm only). On these days almost all shops will remain closed. Exempt are bakeries, DIYs, garden centres, gas stations and smaller supermarkets. Prior to 1994, trading laws forbade sale of certain products on a Sunday; the distinction between those that could and could not be sold was increasingly seen as arbitrary, and the laws were inadequately enforced and widely flouted. For example, some supermarkets would treat the relatively modest fines arising as a business cost and open nonetheless. The Sunday Trading Act 1994 relaxed restrictions on Sunday trading. This produced vocal opposition from bodies such as the Keep Sunday Special campaign, and the Lord 's Day Observance Society: on religious grounds, on the grounds that it would increase consumerism, and that it would reduce shop assistants ' weekend leisure time. The legislation permits large shops (those with a relevant floor area in excess of 280 square metres) to open for up to six hours on Sunday between the hours of 10 am and 6 pm. Small shops, those with an area of below 280 square metres, are free to set their own Sunday trading times. Some large shops, such as off - licences, service stations and garages, are exempt from the restrictions. Some very large shops (e.g. department stores) open for longer than 6 hours on a Sunday by allowing customers in to browse 30 minutes prior to allowing them to make a purchase, since the 6 hour restriction only applies to time during which the shop may make sales. Christmas Day and Easter Sunday are non-trading days. This applies even to garden centres, which earlier had been trading over Easter, but not to small shops (those with an area of below 280 square metres). Prior to 2008, no football was permitted to be played on Sundays by clubs affiliated to the Irish Football Association in Northern Ireland. Shops with a floor area of over 280 square metres may only open from 1 to 6pm on Sundays. Since 2007, blue laws were enacted and resulted in stores closing on the 13 state holidays in Poland - these are both religious and secular days of rest. In 2014, an initiative by the Law and Justice party failed to pass the reading in the Sejm to ban trading on Sundays and state holidays. However, since 2018, the ruling government and the President of Poland has signed a law that restricts store trading from 1st March 2018 to the first and last Sunday of the month, Palm Sunday, the 3rd and 4th Advent Sundays, as well as trading until 14.00 for Easter Saturday and Christmas Eve. This will change in 2019 to trading permitted solely on the last Sunday of the month, as well as Palm Sunday, the 3rd and 4th Advent Sundays, as well as trading until 14.00 for Easter Saturday and Christmas Eve. From 2020, stores may only be open on 7 Sundays in the year: Palm Sunday, the 3rd and 4th Advent Sundays, the last Sunday of January, April, June and August as well as trading until 14.00 for Easter Saturday and Christmas Eve. In the United States, judges have defended blue laws "in terms of their secular benefit to workers '', holding that "the laws were essential to social well - being ''. Chief Justice Stephen Johnson Field, with regard to Sunday blue laws, stated: Its requirement is a cessation from labor. In its enactment, the legislature has given the sanction of law to a rule of conduct, which the entire civilized world recognizes as essential to the physical and moral well - being of society. Upon no subject is there such a concurrence of opinion, among philosophers, moralists and statesmen of all nations, as on the necessity of periodical cessation from labor. One day in seven is the rule, founded in experience and sustained by science... The prohibition of secular business on Sunday is advocated on the ground that by it the general welfare is advanced, labor protected, and the moral and physical well - being of society promoted. Many states prohibit selling alcohol for on and off - premises sales in one form or another on Sundays at some restricted time, under the idea that people should be in church on Sunday morning, or at least not drinking. Another feature of blue laws in the United States restricts the purchase of particular items on Sundays. Some of these laws restrict the ability to buy cars, groceries, office supplies, and housewares among other things. Though most of these laws have been relaxed or repealed in most states, they are still enforced in some other states. In Texas, for example, blue laws prohibited selling housewares such as pots, pans, and washing machines on Sunday until 1985. In Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Maine, Minnesota, Missouri, Oklahoma, New Jersey, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin, car dealerships continue to operate under blue - law prohibitions in which an automobile may not be purchased or traded on a Sunday. Maryland permits Sunday automobile sales only in the counties of Charles, Prince George 's, Montgomery, and Howard; similarly, Michigan restricts Sunday sales to only those counties with a population of less than 130,000. Texas and Utah prohibit car dealerships from operating over consecutive weekend days. In some cases these laws were created or retained with the support of those whom they affected, to allow them a day off each week without fear of their competitors still being open. Blue laws may also prohibit retail activity on days other than Sunday. In Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Maine, for example, blue laws prohibit most retail stores, including grocery stores, from opening on Thanksgiving and Christmas. Research regarding the effect of the repeal of blue laws has been conducted, with Professor Elesha Coffman of Baylor University writing: Regarding culture, the impact of vanishing blue laws could be larger. A study in New Mexico in 2006 found a sharp increase in drunken driving on Sundays after that state dropped its Sunday ban on packaged alcohol sales. A broader study published by MIT and Notre Dame economists in 2008 found that the repeal of blue laws led to decreased church attendance, decreased donations to churches, and increased alcohol and drug use among religious individuals. These wide - ranging effects can not easily be pinpointed to specific causes, but one of the latter study 's authors, Daniel Hungerman, suggested to Christianity Today that blue laws might have been fulfilling their original intent, to keep people pious. Beginning in the mid-nineteenth century, religious and ethno - cultural minorities arrested for violating state and local blue laws appealed their convictions to state supreme courts. In Specht v. Commonwealth (1848), for example, German Seventh Day Baptists in Pennsylvania employed attorney Thaddeus Stevens to challenge the constitutionality of Pennsylvania 's Sunday law. As in cases in other states, litigants pointed to the provisions of state constitutions protecting religious liberty and maintained that Sunday laws were a blatant violation. Though typically unsuccessful (most state supreme courts upheld the constitutionality of Sunday laws), these constitutional challenges helped set a pattern by which subsequent moral minorities would seek to protect religious freedom and minority rights. The Supreme Court of the United States held in its landmark case, McGowan v. Maryland (1961), that Maryland 's blue laws violated neither the Free Exercise Clause nor the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. It approved the state 's blue law restricting commercial activities on Sunday, noting that while such laws originated to encourage attendance at Christian churches, the contemporary Maryland laws were intended to serve "to provide a uniform day of rest for all citizens '' on a secular basis and to promote the secular values of "health, safety, recreation, and general well - being '' through a common day of rest. That this day coincides with Christian Sabbath is not a bar to the state 's secular goals; it neither reduces its effectiveness for secular purposes nor prevents adherents of other religions from observing their own holy days. There were four landmark Sunday - law cases altogether in 1961. The other three were Gallagher v. Crown Kosher Super Market of Mass., Inc., 366 U.S. 617 (1961); Braunfeld v. Brown, 366 U.S. 599 (1961); Two Guys from Harrison vs. McGinley, 366 U.S. 582 (1961). Chief Justice Earl Warren declared that "the State seeks to set one day apart from all others as a day of rest, repose, recreation and tranquility -- a day which all members of the family and community have the opportunity to spend and enjoy together, a day on which there exists relative quiet and disassociation from the everyday intensity of commercial activities, a day on which people may visit friends and relative who are not available during working days. '' In March 2006, Texas judges upheld the state blue law that requires car dealerships to close either Saturday or Sunday each weekend.

what are 3 beliefs of the church of england

Church of England - wikipedia The Church of England (C of E) is the state church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury (currently Justin Welby) is the most senior cleric, although the monarch is the supreme governor. The Church of England is also the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. It traces its history to the Christian church recorded as existing in the Roman province of Britain by the third century, and to the 6th - century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury. The English church renounced papal authority when Henry VIII failed to secure an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon in 1534. The English Reformation accelerated under Edward VI 's regents, before a brief restoration of papal authority under Queen Mary I and King Philip. The Act of Supremacy 1558 renewed the breach and the Elizabethan Settlement charted a course enabling the English church to describe itself as both catholic and reformed: In the earlier phase of the English Reformation there were both Catholic martyrs and radical Protestant martyrs. The later phases saw the Penal Laws punish Roman Catholic and nonconforming Protestants. In the 17th century, the Puritan and Presbyterian factions continued to challenge the leadership of the Church which under the Stuarts veered towards a more catholic interpretation of the Elizabethan Settlement especially under Archbishop Laud and the rise of the concept of Anglicanism as the Via Media. After the victory of the Parliamentarians the Prayer Book was abolished and the Presbyterian and Independent factions dominated. The Episcopacy was abolished. The Restoration restored the Church of England, episcopacy and the Prayer Book. Papal recognition of George III in 1766 led to greater religious tolerance. Since the English Reformation, the Church of England has used a liturgy in English. The church contains several doctrinal strands, the main three known as Anglo - Catholic, Evangelical and Broad Church. Tensions between theological conservatives and progressives find expression in debates over the ordination of women and homosexuality. The church includes both liberal and conservative clergy and members. The governing structure of the church is based on dioceses, each presided over by a bishop. Within each diocese are local parishes. The General Synod of the Church of England is the legislative body for the church and comprises bishops, other clergy and laity. Its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament. According to tradition, Christianity arrived in Britain in the 1st or 2nd century, during which time southern Britain became part of the Roman Empire. The earliest historical evidence of Christianity among the native Britons is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as Tertullian and Origen in the first years of the 3rd century. Three Romano - British bishops, including Restitutus, are known to have been present at the Council of Arles in 314. Others attended the Council of Serdica in 347 and that of Ariminum in 360, and a number of references to the church in Roman Britain are found in the writings of 4th century Christian fathers. Britain was the home of Pelagius, who opposed Augustine of Hippo 's doctrine of original sin. While Christianity was long established as the religion of the Britons at the time of the Anglo - Saxon invasion, Christian Britons made little progress in converting the newcomers from their native paganism. Consequently, in 597, Pope Gregory I sent the prior of the Abbey of St Andrew 's (later canonised as Augustine of Canterbury) from Rome to evangelise the Angles. This event is known as the Gregorian mission and is the date the Church of England generally marks as the beginning of its formal history. With the help of Christians already residing in Kent, Augustine established his church at Canterbury, the capital of the Kingdom of Kent, and became the first in the series of Archbishops of Canterbury in 598. A later archbishop, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus, also contributed to the organisation of Christianity in England. The Church of England has been in continuous existence since the days of St Augustine, with the Archbishop of Canterbury as its episcopal head. Despite the various disruptions of the Reformation and the English Civil War, the Church of England considers itself to be the same church which was more formally organised by Augustine. While some Celtic Christian practices were changed at the Synod of Whitby, the Christian in the British Isles was under papal authority from earliest times. Queen Bertha of Kent was among the Christians in England who recognised papal authority before Augustine arrived, and Celtic Christians were carrying out missionary work with papal approval long before the Synod of Whitby. The Synod of Whitby established the Roman date for Easter and the Roman style of monastic tonsure in England. This meeting of the ecclesiastics with Roman customs with local bishops was summoned in 664 at Saint Hilda 's double monastery of Streonshalh (Streanæshalch), later called Whitby Abbey. It was presided over by King Oswiu, who did not engage in the debate but made the final ruling. In 1534, King Henry VIII separated the English Church from Rome. A theological separation had been foreshadowed by various movements within the English Church, such as Lollardy, but the English Reformation gained political support when Henry VIII wanted an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon so he could marry Anne Boleyn. Pope Clement VII, considering that the earlier marriage had been entered under a papal dispensation and how Catherine 's nephew, Emperor Charles V, might react to such a move, refused the annulment. Eventually, Henry, although theologically opposed to Protestantism, took the position of Supreme Head of the Church of England to ensure the annulment of his marriage. He was excommunicated by Pope Paul III. In 1536 -- 40 Henry VIII engaged in the Dissolution of the Monasteries, which controlled much of the richest land. He disbanded monasteries, priories, convents and friaries in England, Wales and Ireland, appropriated their income, disposed of their assets, and provided pensions for the former residents. The properties were sold to pay for the wars. Bernard argues: The population of England at the time is estimated to have been only 2.5 million. Henry maintained a strong preference for traditional Catholic practices and, during his reign, Protestant reformers were unable to make many changes to the practices of the Church of England. Indeed, this part of Henry 's reign saw trials for heresy of Protestants as well as Roman Catholics. Under his son, King Edward VI, more Protestant - influenced forms of worship were adopted. Under the leadership of the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, a more radical reformation proceeded. A new pattern of worship was set out in the Book of Common Prayer (1549 and 1552). These were based on the older liturgy but influenced by Protestant principles. The confession of the reformed Church of England was set out in the Forty - two Articles (later revised to thirty - nine). The reformation however was cut short by the death of the king. Queen Mary I, who succeeded him, returned England again to the authority of the papacy, thereby ending the first attempt at an independent Church of England. During her co-reign with her husband, King Philip, many leaders and common people were burnt for their refusal to recant of their reformed faith. These are known as the Marian martyrs and the persecution led to her nickname of "Bloody Mary ''. Mary also died childless and so it was left to the new regime of her half - sister Elizabeth to resolve the direction of the church. The settlement under Queen Elizabeth I (from 1558), known as the Elizabethan Settlement, tried to stir a middle way between radical Protestantism and Roman Catholicism, the via media, (a term that actually only became current in the 1620s), as the character of the Church of England, a church moderately Reformed in doctrine, as expressed in the Thirty - Nine Articles, but also emphasising continuity with the Catholic and Apostolic traditions of the Church Fathers. It was also an established church (constitutionally established by the state with the head of state as its supreme governor). The exact nature of the relationship between church and state would be a source of continued friction into the next century. For the next century, through the reigns of James I, who ordered the translation of the Bible known as the King James Version (Authorized to be used in parishes which does not mean it was the official version), and Charles I, culminating in the English Civil War and the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, there were significant swings back and forth between two factions: the Puritans (and other radicals) who sought more far - reaching Protestant reforms, and the more conservative churchmen who aimed to keep closer to traditional beliefs and Catholic practices. The failure of political and ecclesiastical authorities to submit to Puritan demands for more extensive reform was one of the causes of open warfare. By Continental standards the level of violence over religion was not high, since the Civil was mainly about politics, but the casualties included King Charles I and the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud and tens of thousands of civilians who died from the unsettled conditions. Under the Commonwealth and the Protectorate of England from 1649 to 1660, the bishops were dethroned and former practices were outlawed, and Presbyterian ecclesiology was introduced in place of the episcopate. The 39 Articles were replaced by the Westminster Confession, the Book of Common Prayer by the Directory of Public Worship. Despite this, about one quarter of English clergy refused to conform to this form of State Presbyterianism. With the Restoration of Charles II, Parliament restored the Church of England to a form not far removed from the Elizabethan version. One difference was that the ideal of encompassing all the people of England in one religious organisation, taken for granted by the Tudors, had to be abandoned. The religious landscape of England assumed its present form, with the Anglican established church occupying the middle ground, and those Puritans and Protestants who dissented from the Anglican establishment, and Roman Catholics, too strong to be suppressed altogether, having to continue their existence outside the national church rather than trying to influence or trying to gain control of it. One result of the restoration was the ousting of 2,000 parish ministers who had not been ordained by bishops in the Apostolic Succession or had been by presbyters (ministers in presbyter 's orders). Continuing official suspicion and legal restrictions continued well into the 19th century. By the Fifth Article of the Union with Ireland 1800, the Church of England and Church of Ireland were united into "one Protestant Episcopal church, to be called, the United Church of England and Ireland ''. Although this union was declared "an essential and fundamental Part of the Union '', the Irish Church Act 1869 separated the Irish part of the church again and disestablished it, the Act coming into effect on 1 January 1871. As the British Empire expanded, British colonists and colonial administrators took the established church doctrines and practices together with ordained ministry and formed overseas branches of the Church of England. As they developed or, beginning with the United States of America, became sovereign or independent states, many of their churches became separate organisationally but remained linked to the Church of England through the Anglican Communion. In Bermuda, the oldest remaining English colony (now designated a British Overseas Territory), the first Church of England services were performed by the Reverend Richard Buck, one of the survivors of the 1609 wreck of the Sea Venture which initiated Bermuda 's permanent settlement. The nine parishes of the Church of England in Bermuda, each with its own church and glebe land, rarely had more than a pair of ordained ministers to share between them until the Nineteenth Century. From 1825 to 1839, Bermuda 's parishes were attached to the See of Nova Scotia. Bermuda was then grouped into the new Diocese of Newfoundland and Bermuda from 1839. In 1879, the Synod of the Church of England in Bermuda was formed. At the same time, a Diocese of Bermuda became separate from the Diocese of Newfoundland, but both continued to be grouped under the Bishop of Newfoundland and Bermuda until 1919, when Newfoundland and Bermuda each received its own Bishop. The Church of England in Bermuda was renamed in 1978 as the Anglican Church of Bermuda, which is an extra-provincial diocese, with both metropolitan and primatial authority coming directly from the Archbishop of Canterbury. Among its parish churches is St Peter 's Church in the UNESCO World Heritage Site of St George 's Town, which is both the oldest Anglican and the oldest non-Roman Catholic church in the New World. Under the guidance of Rowan Williams and with significant pressure from clergy union representatives, the ecclesiastical penalty for convicted felons to be defrocked was set aside from the Clergy Discipline Measure 2003. The clergy union argued that the penalty was unfair to victims of hypothetical miscarriages of criminal justice, because the ecclesiastical penalty is considered irreversible. Although clerics can still be banned for life from ministry, they remain ordained as priests. The archbishops of Canterbury and York warned in January 2015 that the Church of England will no longer be able to carry on in its current form unless the downward spiral in membership is somehow reversed as typical Sunday attendances have halved to 800,000 in the last 40 years: The urgency of the challenge facing us is not in doubt. Attendance at Church of England services has declined at an average of one per cent per annum over recent decades and, in addition, the age profile of our membership has become significantly older than that of the population... Renewing and reforming aspects of our institutional life is a necessary but far from sufficient response to the challenges facing the Church of England... The age profile of our clergy has also been increasing. Around 40 per cent of parish clergy are due to retire over the next decade or so. However, Sarah Mullally, the fourth woman chosen to become a bishop in the Church of England, insisted in June 2015 that declining numbers at services should not necessarily be a cause of despair for churches because people will still "encounter God '' without ever taking their place in a pew, saying that people might hear the Christian message through social media sites such as Facebook or in a café run as a community project. Additionally, the church 's own statistics reveal that 9.7 million people visit an Anglican church every year and 1 million students are educated at Anglican schools. In 2015 the Church of England admitted that it was embarrassed to be paying staff under the living wage. The Church of England had previously campaigned for all employers to pay this minimum amount. The archbishop acknowledged it was not the only area where the church "fell short of its standards ''. The canon law of the Church of England identifies the Christian scriptures as the source of its doctrine. In addition, doctrine is also derived from the teachings of the Church Fathers and ecumenical councils (as well as the ecumenical creeds) in so far as these agree with scripture. This doctrine is expressed in the Thirty - Nine Articles of Religion, the Book of Common Prayer, and the Ordinal containing the rites for the ordination of deacons, priests, and the consecration of bishops. Unlike other traditions, the Church of England has no single theologian that it can look to as a founder. However, Richard Hooker 's appeal to scripture, church tradition, and reason as sources of authority continue to inform Anglican identity. The Church of England 's doctrinal character today is largely the result of the Elizabethan Settlement, which sought to establish a comprehensive middle way between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. The Church of England affirms the Protestant Reformation principle that scripture contains all things necessary to salvation and is the final arbiter in doctrinal matters. The Thirty - nine Articles are the church 's only official confessional statement. Though not a complete system of doctrine, the articles highlight areas of agreement with Lutheran and Reformed positions, while differentiating Anglicanism from Roman Catholicism and Anabaptism. While embracing some themes of the Protestant Reformation, the Church of England also maintains Catholic traditions of the ancient church and teachings of the Church Fathers, unless these are considered contrary to scripture. It accepts the decisions of the first four ecumenical councils concerning the Trinity and the Incarnation. The Church of England also preserves Catholic order by adhering to episcopal polity, with ordained orders of bishops, priests and deacons. There are differences of opinion within the Church of England over the necessity of episcopacy. Some consider it essential, while others feel it is needed for the proper ordering of the church. In sum these express the ' Via Media ' viewpoint that the first five centuries of doctrinal development and church order as approved as acceptable be a kind of yardstick by which to gauge authentic catholicity, as minimum and sufficient; Anglicanism, by comparison to other traditions which came about as a result of charismatic leaders with particular doctrines or which pursue more precise doctrinal explanations such as Roman Catholicism, is light on details. Indeed, not one major doctrinal development emerged from the English reformation, Diarmid MacCulloch, The Later Reformation in England, 1990, p. 55. The Reformation in England was initially much concerned about doctrine. The Elizabethan Settlement tried to put a stop to doctrinal contentions. However, the proponents of further changes tried to get their way by making changes in Church Order and Liturgy. They did not succeed because the monarchy and the majority resisted or were indifferent. Moreover "despite all the assumptions of the Reformation founders of that Church, it had retained a catholic character. The Elizabethan Settlement had created a cuckoo in a nest... '' a Protestant theology and program within a largely pre-Reformation Catholic structure whose continuing life would arouse a theological interest in the Catholicism that had created it; and would result in the rejection of predestinarian theology in favor of sacraments, especially the eucharist, ceremonial, and anti-Calvinist doctrine, pp. 78 - 86. The existence of cathedrals "without substantial alteration '' and "where the "old devotional world cast its longest for the future of the ethos that would become Anglicanism, '' p. 79, is "One of the great mysteries of the English Reformation, '' ibid. The whole story of the English reformation is the tale of retreat from the Protestant advance of 1550 which could not proceed further in the face of the opposition of the institution which was rooted in the medieval past, ibid. p. 142. The Church of England has, as one of its distinguishing marks, a breadth and "open - mindedness ''. This tolerance has allowed Anglicans who emphasise the Catholic tradition and others who emphasise the Reformed tradition to coexist. The three "parties '' (see Churchmanship) in the Church of England are sometimes called high church (or Anglo - Catholic), low church (or evangelical Anglican) and broad church (or liberal). The high church party places importance on the Church of England 's continuity with the pre-Reformation Catholic Church, adherence to ancient liturgical usages and the sacerdotal nature of the priesthood. As their name suggests, Anglo - Catholics maintain many traditional Catholic practices and liturgical forms. The low church party is more Protestant in both ceremony and theology. Historically, broad church has been used to describe those of middle - of - the - road ceremonial preferences who lean theologically towards liberal Protestantism. The balance between these strands of churchmanship is not static: in 2013, 40 % of Church of England worshippers attended evangelical churches (compared with 26 % in 1989), and 83 % of very large congregations were evangelical. Such churches were also reported to attract higher numbers of men and young adults than others. The Church of England 's official book of liturgy as established in English Law is the Book of Common Prayer. In addition to this book the General Synod has also legislated for a modern liturgical book, Common Worship, dating from 2000, which can be used as an alternative to the BCP. Like its predecessor, the 1980 Alternative Service Book, it differs from the Book of Common Prayer in providing a range of alternative services, mostly in modern language, although it does include some BCP - based forms as well, for example Order Two for Holy Communion. (This is a revision of the BCP service, altering some words and allowing the insertion of some other liturgical texts such as the Agnus Dei before communion.) The Order One rite follows the pattern of more modern liturgical scholarship. The liturgies are organised according to the traditional liturgical year and the calendar of saints. The sacraments of baptism and the Eucharist are generally thought necessary to salvation. Infant baptism is practised. At a later age, individuals baptised as infants receive confirmation by a bishop, at which time they reaffirm the baptismal promises made by their parents or sponsors. The Eucharist, consecrated by a thanksgiving prayer including Christ 's Words of Institution, is believed to be "a memorial of Christ 's once - for - all redemptive acts in which Christ is objectively present and effectually received in faith ''. The use of hymns and music in the Church of England has changed dramatically over the centuries. Traditional Choral evensong is a staple of most cathedrals. The style of psalm chanting harks back to the Church of England 's pre-reformation roots. During the 18th century, clergy such as Charles Wesley introduced their own styles of worship with poetic hymns. In the latter half of the 20th century, the influence of the Charismatic Movement significantly altered the worship traditions of numerous Church of England parishes, primarily affecting those of evangelical persuasion. These churches now adopt a contemporary worship form of service, with minimal liturgical or ritual elements, and incorporating contemporary worship music. Women were appointed as deaconesses from 1861 but they could not function fully as deacons and were not considered ordained clergy. Women have been lay readers for a long time. During the First World War, some women were appointed as lay readers, known as "bishop 's messengers '', who also led missions and ran churches in the absence of men. After that no more lay readers were appointed until 1969. Legislation authorising the ordination of women as deacons was passed in 1986 and they were first ordained in 1987. The ordination of women as priests was passed by the General Synod in 1992 and began in 1994. In 2010, for the first time in the history of the Church of England, more women than men were ordained as priests (290 women and 273 men). In July 2005, the synod voted to "set in train '' the process of allowing the consecration of women as bishops. In February 2006, the synod voted overwhelmingly for the "further exploration '' of possible arrangements for parishes that did not want to be directly under the authority of a bishop who is a woman. On 7 July 2008, the synod voted to approve the ordination of women as bishops and rejected moves for alternative episcopal oversight for those who do not accept the ministry of bishops who are women. Actual ordinations of women to the episcopate required further legislation, which was narrowly rejected in a vote at General Synod in November 2012. On 20 November 2013, the General Synod voted overwhelmingly in support of a plan to allow the ordination of women as bishops, with 378 in favour, 8 against and 25 abstentions. On 14 July 2014, the General Synod approved the ordination of women as bishops. The House of Bishops recorded 37 votes in favour, two against with one abstention. The House of Clergy had 162 in favour, 25 against and four abstentions. The House of Laity voted 152 for, 45 against with five abstentions. This legislation had to be approved by the Ecclesiastical Committee of the Parliament before it could be finally implemented at the November 2014 synod. In December 2014, Libby Lane was announced as the first woman to become a bishop in the Church of England. She was consecrated as a bishop in January 2015. In July 2015, Rachel Treweek was the first woman to become a diocesan bishop in the Church of England when she became the Bishop of Gloucester. She and Sarah Mullally, Bishop of Crediton, were the first women to be ordained as bishops at Canterbury Cathedral. Treweek later made headlines by calling for gender - inclusive language, saying that "God is not to be seen as male. God is God. '' In May, 2018, the Diocese of London consecrated Dame Sarah Mullally as the first woman to serve as the Bishop of London. Bishop Sarah Mullally occupies the third most senior position in the Anglican church. Mullally has described herself as a feminist and will ordain both men and women to the priesthood. She is also considered by some to be a theological liberal. On women 's reproductive rights, Mullally describes herself as pro-choice while also being personally pro-life. On marriage, she supports the current stance of the Church of England that marriage is between a man and a woman, but also said that "It is a time for us to reflect on our tradition and scripture, and together say how we can offer a response that is about it being inclusive love. '' After the consecration of the first women as bishops, Women and the Church (WATCH), a group supporting the ministries of women in the Church of England, called for language referring to God as "Mother ''. This call for more gender inclusive language has receive the outspoken support of the Rt Rev Alan Wilson, the Bishop of Buckingham. In 2015, the Rev Jody Stowell, from WATCH, expressed her support for female images saying "we 're not restricted to understanding God with one gender. I would encourage people to explore those kinds of images. They 're wholly Biblical. '' The Church of England has been discussing same - sex marriages and LGBT clergy. The church holds that marriage is a union of one man with one woman. However, the church teaches that "Same - sex relationships often embody genuine mutuality and fidelity. '' The church also officially supports civil partnerships; "We believe that Civil Partnerships still have a place, including for some Christian LGBTI couples who see them as a way of gaining legal recognition of their relationship. '' The "Church of England does not conduct Civil Partnership Ceremonies or Same Sex Marriages but individual churches can conduct a service of thanksgiving after a ceremony. '' The church has stated that "clergy in the Church of England are permitted to offer prayers of support on a pastoral basis for people in same - sex relationships; '' As such, many Anglican churches, with clergy open to it, "already bless same - sex couples on an unofficial basis. '' Civil Partnerships for clergy have been allowed since 2005. The General Synod also voted in favour of extending pensions to clergy in civil unions. In a missive to clergy, the church communicated that "there was a need for committed same - sex couples to be given recognition and ' compassionate attention ' from the Church, including special prayers. '' "There is no prohibition on prayers ' being said in church or there being a ' service '' '' after a civil union. Some congregations have published "Prayers for a Same Sex Commitment. '' After same - sex marriage was legalised, the church asked for the government to continue to offer civil unions saying "The Church of England recognises that same - sex relationships often embody fidelity and mutuality. Civil partnerships enable these Christian virtues to be recognised socially and legally in a proper framework. '' In 2014, the Bishops released guidelines that permit "more informal kind of prayer '' for couples. In the guidelines, "gay couples who get married will be able to ask for special prayers in the Church of England after their wedding, the bishops have agreed. '' In 2016, The Bishop of Grantham, the Rt Rev Nicholas Chamberlain, announced he is gay, in a same - sex relationship and celibate; becoming the first bishop to do so in the church. The church had decided in 2013 that gay clergy in civil partnerships could become bishops. "The House (of Bishops) has confirmed that clergy in civil partnerships, and living in accordance with the teaching of the church on human sexuality, can be considered as candidates for the episcopate. '' In 2017, the House of Clergy voted against the motion to ' take note ' of the Bishops ' report defining marriage as between a man and a woman. Due to passage in all three houses being required for passage, the motion was rejected. After General Synod rejected the motion, the Archbishops of Canterbury and York called for "radical new Christian inclusion '' that is "based on good, healthy, flourishing relationships, and in a proper 21st century understanding of being human and of being sexual. '' The Diocese of Hereford approved a motion calling for the church "to create a set of formal services and prayers to bless those who have had a same - sex marriage or civil partnership. '' Regarding transgender issues, the 2017 General Synod voted in favour of a motion saying that transgender people should be "welcomed and affirmed in their parish church... '' The motion also asked the Bishops "to look into special services for transgender people. '' The Diocese of Blackburn had already begun using a ceremony. The House of Bishops declined to create a new liturgy, but advised that clergy adapt the service for an affirmation of baptism to mark a gender transition. "The House notes that the Affirmation of Baptismal Faith, found in Common Worship, is an ideal liturgical rite which trans people can use to mark this moment of personal renewal. '' The church has ordained openly transgender clergy since 2005. Transgender people may marry in the Church of England after legally making a transition. "Since the Gender Recognition Act (2004), trans people legally confirmed in their gender identity under its provisions are able to marry someone of the opposite sex in their parish church. '' Since 2000, the church has allowed priests to undergo gender transition and remain in office. Just as the Church of England has a large conservative or "traditionalist '' wing, it also has many liberal members and clergy. Approximately one third of clergy "doubt or disbelieve in the physical resurrection ''. Others, such as the Revd Giles Fraser, a contributor to The Guardian, have argued for an allegorical interpretation of the virgin birth of Jesus. The Independent reported in 2014 that, according to a YouGov survey of Church of England clergy, "as many as 16 per cent are unclear about God and two per cent think it is no more than a human construct. '' Moreover, many congregations are seeker - friendly environments. For example, one report from the Church Mission Society suggested that the church open up "a pagan church where Christianity (is) very much in the centre '' to reach out to spiritual people. The Church of England is generally opposed to abortion but recognises that "there can be - strictly limited - conditions under which it may be morally preferable to any available alternative ''. The church also opposes euthanasia. Its official stance is that "While acknowledging the complexity of the issues involved in assisted dying / suicide and voluntary euthanasia, the Church of England is opposed to any change in the law or in medical practice that would make assisted dying / suicide or voluntary euthanasia permissible in law or acceptable in practice. '' It also states that "Equally, the Church shares the desire to alleviate physical and psychological suffering, but believes that assisted dying / suicide and voluntary euthanasia are not acceptable means of achieving these laudable goals. '' However, George Carey, a former Archbishop of Canterbury, announced that he had changed his stance on euthanasia in 2014 and now advocated legalising "assisted dying ''. On embryonic stem - cell research, the church has announced "cautious acceptance to the proposal to produce cytoplasmic hybrid embryos for research ''. The Church of England set up the Church Urban Fund in the 1980s to tackle poverty and deprivation. They see poverty as trapping individuals and communities with some people in urgent need. This leads to dependency, homelessness, hunger, isolation, low income, mental health problems, social exclusion and violence. They feel that poverty reduces confidence and life expectancy and that people born in poor conditions have difficulty escaping their disadvantaged circumstances. In parts of Liverpool, Manchester and Newcastle two - thirds of babies are born to poverty and have poorer life chances, also life expectancy 15 years lower than babies born in most fortunate communities. South Shore, Blackpool, has lowest life expectancy at 66 years for men. The deep - rooted unfairness in our society is highlighted by these stark statistics. Children being born in this country, just a few miles apart, could n't witness a more wildly differing start to life. In child poverty terms, we live in one of the most unequal countries in the western world. We want people to understand where their own community sits alongside neighbouring communities. The disparity is often shocking but it 's crucial that, through greater awareness, people from all backgrounds come together to think about what could be done to support those born into poverty. (Paul Hackwood, the Chair of Trustees at Church Urban Fund) Many prominent people in the Church of England have spoken out against poverty and welfare cuts in the United Kingdom. Twenty - seven bishops are among 43 Christian leaders who signed a letter which urged David Cameron to make sure people have enough to eat. We often hear talk of hard choices. Surely few can be harder than that faced by the tens of thousands of older people who must ' heat or eat ' each winter, harder than those faced by families whose wages have stayed flat while food prices have gone up 30 % in just five years. Yet beyond even this we must, as a society, face up to the fact that over half of people using food banks have been put in that situation by cutbacks to and failures in the benefit system, whether it be payment delays or punitive sanctions. Benefit cuts, failures and "punitive sanctions '' force thousands of UK citizens to use food banks. The campaign to end hunger considers this "truly shocking '' and called for a national day of fasting on 4 April 2014. Official figures from 2005 showed there were 25 million baptised Anglicans in England and Wales. Due to its status as the established church, in general, anyone may be married, have their children baptised or their funeral in their local parish church, regardless of whether they are baptised or regular churchgoers. Between 1890 and 2001, churchgoing in the United Kingdom declined steadily. In the years 1968 to 1999, Anglican Sunday church attendances almost halved, from 3.5 per cent of the population to 1.9 per cent. By the year 2014, Sunday church attendances had declined further to 1.4 per cent of the population. One study published in 2008 suggested that if current trends were to continue, Sunday attendances could fall to 350,000 in 2030 and just 87,800 in 2050. In 2011, the Church of England published statistics showing 1.7 million people attending at least one of its services each month, a level maintained since the turn of the millennium; approximately one million participating each Sunday and three million taking part in a Church of England service on Christmas Day or Christmas Eve. The church also claimed that 30 % attend Sunday worship at least once a year; more than 40 % attend a wedding in their local church and still more attend a funeral there. Nationally the Church of England baptises one child in ten (2011). In 2015, the church 's statistics showed that 2.6 million people attended a special Advent service, 2.4 million attended a Christmas service, 1.3 million attended an Easter service, and 980,000 attended service during an average week. In 2016, 2.6 million people attended a Christmas service, 1.2 million attended an Easter service, 1.1 million people attended a service in the Church of England each month, an average of 930,000 people attended a weekly service, an additional 180,000 attended a service for school each week, and an average of 740,000 people attended Sunday service. The Church of England has 18,000 active ordained clergy and 10,000 licensed lay ministers. In 2009, 491 people were recommended for ordination training, maintaining the level at the turn of the millennium, and 564 new clergy (266 women and 298 men) were ordained. More than half of those ordained (193 men and 116 women) were appointed to full - time paid ministry. In 2011, 504 new clergy were ordained, including 264 to paid ministry, and 349 lay readers were admitted to ministry; and the mode age - range of those recommended for ordination training had remained 40 -- 49 since 1999. Article XIX (' Of the Church ') of the 39 Articles defines the church as follows: The visible Church of Christ is a congregation of faithful men, in which the pure Word of God is preached, and the sacraments be duly ministered according to Christ 's ordinance in all those things that of necessity are requisite to the same. The British monarch has the constitutional title of Supreme Governor of the Church of England. The canon law of the Church of England states, "We acknowledge that the Queen 's most excellent Majesty, acting according to the laws of the realm, is the highest power under God in this kingdom, and has supreme authority over all persons in all causes, as well ecclesiastical as civil. '' In practice this power is often exercised through Parliament and the Prime Minister. The Church of Ireland and the Church in Wales separated from the Church of England in 1869 and 1920 respectively and are autonomous churches in the Anglican Communion; Scotland 's national church, the Church of Scotland, is Presbyterian but the Scottish Episcopal Church is in the Anglican Communion. In addition to England, the jurisdiction of the Church of England extends to the Isle of Man, the Channel Islands and a few parishes in Flintshire, Monmouthshire, Powys and Radnorshire in Wales which voted to remain with the Church of England rather than joining the Church in Wales. Expatriate congregations on the continent of Europe have become the Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe. The church is structured as follows (from the lowest level upwards): All rectors and vicars are appointed by patrons, who may be private individuals, corporate bodies such as cathedrals, colleges or trusts, or by the bishop or directly by the Crown. No clergy can be instituted and inducted into a parish without swearing the Oath of Allegiance to Her Majesty, and taking the Oath of Canonical Obedience "in all things lawful and honest '' to the bishop. Usually they are instituted to the benefice by the bishop and then inducted by the archdeacon into the possession of the benefice property -- church and parsonage. Curates (assistant clergy) are appointed by rectors and vicars, or if priests - in - charge by the bishop after consultation with the patron. Cathedral clergy (normally a dean and a varying number of residentiary canons who constitute the cathedral chapter) are appointed either by the Crown, the bishop, or by the dean and chapter themselves. Clergy officiate in a diocese either because they hold office as beneficed clergy or are licensed by the bishop when appointed, or simply with permission. The most senior bishop of the Church of England is the Archbishop of Canterbury, who is the metropolitan of the southern province of England, the Province of Canterbury. He has the status of Primate of All England. He is the focus of unity for the worldwide Anglican Communion of independent national or regional churches. Justin Welby has been Archbishop of Canterbury since the confirmation of his election on 4 February 2013. The second most senior bishop is the Archbishop of York, who is the metropolitan of the northern province of England, the Province of York. For historical reasons (relating to the time of York 's control by the Danes) he is referred to as the Primate of England. John Sentamu became Archbishop of York in 2005. The Bishop of London, the Bishop of Durham and the Bishop of Winchester are ranked in the next three positions. The process of appointing diocesan bishops is complex, due to historical reasons balancing hierarchy against democracy, and is handled by the Crown Nominations Committee which submits names to the Prime Minister (acting on behalf of the Crown) for consideration. The Church of England has a legislative body, the General Synod. Synod can create two types of legislation, measures and canons. Measures have to be approved but can not be amended by the British Parliament before receiving the Royal Assent and becoming part of the law of England. Although it is the established church in England only, its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament including the non-English members. Canons require Royal Licence and Royal Assent, but form the law of the church, rather than the law of the land. Another assembly is the Convocation of the English Clergy, which is older than the General Synod and its predecessor the Church Assembly. By the 1969 Synodical Government Measure almost all of the Convocations ' functions were transferred to the General Synod. Additionally, there are Diocesan Synods and deanery synods, which are the governing bodies of the divisions of the Church. Of the 42 diocesan archbishops and bishops in the Church of England, 26 are permitted to sit in the House of Lords. The Archbishops of Canterbury and York automatically have seats, as do the Bishops of London, Durham and Winchester. The remaining 21 seats are filled in order of seniority by consecration. It may take a diocesan bishop a number of years to reach the House of Lords, at which point he becomes a Lord Spiritual. The Bishop of Sodor and Man and the Bishop of Gibraltar in Europe are not eligible to sit in the House of Lords as their dioceses lie outside the United Kingdom. Although they are not part of England or the United Kingdom, the Church of England is also the Established Church in the Crown dependencies of the Isle of Man, the Bailiwick of Jersey and the Bailiwick of Guernsey. The Isle of Man has its own diocese of Sodor and Man, and the Bishop of Sodor and Man is an ex officio member of the Legislative Council of the Tynwald on the island. The Channel Islands are part of the Diocese of Winchester, and in Jersey the Dean of Jersey is a non-voting member of the States of Jersey. In Guernsey the Church of England is the Established Church, although the Dean of Guernsey is not a member of the States of Guernsey. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Justin Welby, has made some effort to prevent complaints of sex abuse cases being covered up. Independent investigators are examining files as far back as the 1950s and Welby hopes this independence will prevent any possibility of a cover - up. We will systematically bring those transparently and openly first of all working with the survivors where they are still alive and then seeing what they want. The rule is survivors come first, not our own interests, and however important the person was, however distinguished, however well - known, survivors come first. (Justin Welby) The personal files of all Anglican clergy since the 1950s are being audited in an effort to ensure no cover - up. Welby emphasised repeatedly that no cover - up would be acceptable. Despite such assurances there is concern that not enough may be done and historic abuse may still sometimes be covered up. Keith Porteous Wood of the National Secular Society stated: The problem was n't that bishops were n't trained in such matters, it is the institutional culture of denial and the bullying of the abused and whistleblowers into silence. One report suggests that 13 bishops ignored letters written in the 1990s warning of abuse by Ball on behalf of a victim who later committed suicide. I have seen evidence that such bullying persists to this day. I hope that the Archbishop 's review into the case of Peter Ball will deal with such bullying and what appears to be the undue influence exerted on the police and CPS by the Church in dealing with this case. The total failure of procedures, outlined by Ian Elliott, echoes that revealed in the totally damning Cahill Report about the conduct of the Archbishop Hope of York in respect of Robert Waddington. The current Archbishop of York has decided that this report should remain in printed form rather than be more widely available on the web. Bishop Peter Ball was convicted in October 2015 on several charges of indecent assault against young adult men. There are allegations of large - scale earlier cover - ups involving many British establishment figures which prevented Ball 's earlier prosecution. There have also been allegations of child sex abuse, for example Robert Waddington. A complainant, known only as "Joe '', tried for decades to have action taken over sadistic sex abuse which Garth Moore perpetrated against him in 1976 when "Joe '' was 15 years old. None of the high ranking clergy who "Joe '' spoke to recall being told about the abuse, which "Joe '' considers incredible. A representative of the solicitors firm representing "Joe '' said: The Church of England wants to bury and discourage allegations of non-recent abuse. They know how difficult it is for survivors to come forward, and it appears from this case that the Church has a plan of making it hard for these vulnerable people to come forward. This survivor has had the courage to press his case. Most do not. Most harbour the psychological fallout in silence. We need to find a way to make the system more approachable for survivors. Although an established church, the Church of England does not receive any direct government support. Donations comprise its largest source of income, and it also relies heavily on the income from its various historic endowments. In 2005, the Church of England had estimated total outgoings of around £ 900 million. The Church of England manages an investment portfolio which is worth more than £ 8 billion. The Church of England supports A Church Near You, an online directory of churches. A user - edited resource, it currently lists 16,400 churches and has 7,000 editors in 42 dioceses. The directory enables parishes to maintain accurate location, contact and event information which is shared with other websites and mobile apps. In 2012, the directory formed the data backbone of Christmas Near You and in 2014 was used to promote the church 's Harvest Near You initiative.

installed capacity of power in rajasthan as on 2017

States of India by installed power capacity - wikipedia This is a list of states and territories of India by allocated power capacity from power generation utilities. When a power station has entered into power purchase agreement to supply electricity to more than one state, the total power station capacity is divided among the beneficiary states. Other Renewable Energy Sources includes, wind, solar, tidal, biomass and urban & industrial waste power.

when did the rolling stones get their start

The Rolling Stones - wikipedia The Rolling Stones are an English rock band formed in London, England in 1962. The first stable line - up consisted of Brian Jones (guitar, harmonica), Mick Jagger (lead vocals), Keith Richards (guitar, backing vocals), Bill Wyman (bass), Charlie Watts (drums), and Ian Stewart (piano). Stewart was removed from the official line - up in 1963 but continued as a touring member until his death in 1985. Jones left the band less than a month before his death in 1969, having already been replaced by Mick Taylor, who remained until 1974. After Taylor left the band, Ronnie Wood took his place in 1975 and has been on guitar in tandem with Richards ever since. Following Wyman 's departure in 1993, Darryl Jones joined as their touring bassist. Touring keyboardists for the band have been Nicky Hopkins (1967 -- 1982), Ian McLagan (1978 -- 1981), Billy Preston (through the mid-1970s) and Chuck Leavell (1982 -- present). The band was first led by Brian Jones, but after developing into the band 's songwriters, Jagger and Richards assumed leadership when Jones was dealing with personal troubles and legal issues. The Rolling Stones were at the forefront of the British Invasion of bands that became popular in the United States in 1964, and identified with the youthful and rebellious counterculture of the 1960s. Rooted in blues and early rock and roll, the group began a short period of musical experimentation in the mid-1960s that peaked with the psychedelic album Their Satanic Majesties Request (1967). Subsequently, the group returned to its "bluesy '' roots with Beggars Banquet (1968) which along with its follow - ups Let It Bleed (1969), Sticky Fingers (1971) and Exile on Main St. (1972) is generally considered to be the band 's best work and is seen as their "Golden Age ''. During this period, they were first introduced on stage as "The Greatest Rock and Roll Band in the World ''. Musicologist Robert Palmer attributed the endurance of the Rolling Stones to their being "rooted in traditional verities, in rhythm - and - blues and soul music '', while "more ephemeral pop fashions have come and gone ''. The band continued to release commercially successful albums, including Some Girls (1978) and Tattoo You (1981), which were their most popular albums worldwide. From 1983 to 1987, tensions between Jagger and Richards almost caused the band to split. However, they managed to patch up their friendship after they separated temporarily to work on solo projects, and experienced a comeback with Steel Wheels (1989), which was followed by a large stadium and arena tour. Since the 1990s, new recorded material from the group has been less well - received and less frequent. Despite this, the Rolling Stones have continued to be a huge attraction on the live circuit, with stadium tours in the 1990s and 2000s. By 2007, the band had four of the top five highest - grossing concert tours of all time: Voodoo Lounge Tour (1994 -- 1995), Bridges to Babylon Tour (1997 -- 1998), Licks Tour (2002 -- 2003) and A Bigger Bang Tour (2005 -- 2007). The Rolling Stones were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1989 and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2004. Rolling Stone magazine ranked them fourth on the "100 Greatest Artists of All Time '' list and their estimated record sales are above 250 million. They have released 30 studio albums, 23 live albums and numerous compilations. Let It Bleed (1969) was their first of five consecutive No. 1 studio and live albums in the UK. Sticky Fingers (1971) was the first of eight consecutive No. 1 studio albums in the US. In 2008, the band ranked 10th on the Billboard Hot 100 All - Time Top Artists chart. In 2012, the band celebrated its 50th anniversary. Keith Richards and Mick Jagger became childhood friends and classmates in 1950 in Dartford, Kent, before the Jagger family moved to Wilmington, five miles (8.05 km) away, in 1954. In the mid-1950s, Jagger formed a garage band with his friend Dick Taylor; the group mainly played material by Muddy Waters, Chuck Berry, Little Richard, Howlin ' Wolf and Bo Diddley. Jagger met Richards again on 17 October 1961 on platform two of Dartford railway station and the Chuck Berry and Muddy Waters records that Jagger was carrying revealed a common interest. A musical partnership began shortly afterwards. Richards joined Jagger and Taylor at frequent meetings at Jagger 's house. The meetings switched to Taylor 's house in late 1961, where the three were joined by Alan Etherington and Bob Beckwith; the quintet called themselves the Blues Boys. In March 1962, the Blues Boys read about the Ealing Jazz Club in Jazz News newspaper, which mentioned Alexis Korner 's rhythm and blues band, Blues Incorporated. The group sent a tape of their best recordings to Korner, who was favourably impressed. On 7 April, Korner visited Ealing Jazz Club, where they met the members of Blues Incorporated, who included the slide guitarist Brian Jones, the keyboardist Ian Stewart and the drummer Charlie Watts. After a meeting with Korner, Jagger and Richards started jamming with the group. Jones, no longer in a band, advertised for bandmates in Jazz Weekly, while Stewart found them a practice space; together they decided to start a band playing Chicago blues. Soon after, Jagger, Taylor and Richards left Blues Incorporated to join Jones and Stewart. At the first rehearsal were also the guitarist Geoff Bradford and the vocalist Brian Knight, both of whom decided not to join the band, citing objections to playing the Chuck Berry and Bo Diddley songs preferred by Jagger and Richards. In June 1962 the line - up of Jagger, Richards, Jones, Stewart and Taylor was completed with the addition of the drummer Tony Chapman. According to Richards, Jones named the band during a phone call to Jazz News. When asked by a journalist for the band 's name, Jones saw a Muddy Waters LP lying on the floor; one of the tracks was "Rollin ' Stone ''. Jones, Jagger, Richards, Stewart and Taylor played a gig billed as "the Rollin ' Stones '' on 12 July 1962, at the Marquee Club in London. Shortly afterwards the band went on their first tour of the UK, which they called a "training ground '' tour, because it was a new experience for all of them. Their material included the Chicago blues as well as Chuck Berry and Bo Diddley songs. At that time, the line - up included neither bassist Bill Wyman, who joined in December 1962, nor drummer Charlie Watts, who joined in January 1963, thus completing the band 's original rhythm section. By 1963 they were finding their musical stride as well as popularity, and in 1964 two unscientific opinion polls rated them as Britain 's most popular group, even outranking the Beatles. The name of the band was changed shortly after their first gig to "The Rolling Stones ''. The group 's then acting manager Giorgio Gomelsky secured a Sunday afternoon residency at the Crawdaddy Club in Richmond in February 1963, which, Gomelsky claimed, triggered an "international renaissance for the blues ''. In May 1963, The Rolling Stones signed Andrew Loog Oldham as their manager; he was a former publicist who had been directed to the band by his previous clients, the Beatles. Because Oldham was only nineteen and had not reached the age of majority -- he was also younger than anyone in the band -- he could not get an agent 's licence nor sign any contracts without his mother also signing. By necessity he joined with booking agent Eric Easton in order to secure record financing and assistance booking venues. Gomelsky, who had no written agreement with the band, was not consulted. Initially, Oldham tried to apply the strategy used by Brian Epstein, the Beatles ' manager: making the band members wear suits. Later, he changed his mind and imagined a band which contrasted with the Beatles, featuring unmatched clothing, long hair, an unclean appearance. He later said he wanted to make the Stones "a raunchy, gamy, unpredictable bunch of undesirables '' and to "establish that the Stones were threatening, uncouth and animalistic ''. Stewart left the official line - up, but remained road manager and touring keyboardist. On Stewart 's decision, Oldham later said "Well, he just does n't look the part, and six is too many for (fans) to remember the faces in the picture. '' Later, Oldham reduced the ages of the band members in publicity to make them appear as teenagers. Decca Records, which had declined to enter into a deal with the Beatles, gave the Rolling Stones a recording contract with favourable terms. The band got three times a new act 's typical royalty rate, full artistic control of recordings and ownership of the recording master tapes. The deal also let the band use non-Decca recording studios. Regent Sound Studios, a mono facility equipped with egg boxes on the ceiling for sound treatment, became their preferred location. Oldham, who had no recording experience but made himself the band 's producer, said Regent had a sound that "leaked, instrument - to - instrument, the right way '' creating a "wall of noise '' that worked well for the band. Because of Regent 's low booking rates, the band could record for extended periods rather than the usual three - hour blocks then common at other studios. All tracks on the first Rolling Stones album were recorded there. Oldham contrasted the Rolling Stones ' independence with the Beatles ' obligation to record in EMI 's studios, saying it made them appear as "mere mortals... sweating in the studio for the man ''. He promoted the Rolling Stones as the nasty counterpoints to the Beatles by having the band pose unsmiling on the cover of their first album. He also encouraged the press to use provocative headlines such as "Would you let your daughter marry a Rolling Stone? '', although Wyman says "Our reputation and image as the Bad Boys came later, completely there, accidentally... (Oldham) never did engineer it. He simply exploited it exhaustively ''. In a 1972 interview, Wyman stated "We were the first pop group to break away from the whole Cliff Richard thing where the bands did little dance steps, wore identical uniforms and had snappy patter. '' A cover version of Chuck Berry 's "Come On '' was the Rolling Stones ' first single, released on 7 June 1963. The band refused to play it at live gigs, and Decca bought only one ad to promote the record. With Oldham 's direction, fan - club members bought copies at record shops polled by the charts, helping "Come On '' rise to No. 21 on the UK Singles Chart. Having a charting single gave the band entree to play outside London, starting with a booking at the Outlook Club in Middlesbrough on 13 July, sharing the billing with the Hollies. Later in 1963 Oldham and Easton arranged the band 's first big UK concert tour as a supporting act for American stars including Bo Diddley, Little Richard and the Everly Brothers. The tour gave the band the opportunity to hone their stagecraft. During the tour the band recorded their second single, a Lennon -- McCartney - penned number entitled "I Wanna Be Your Man ''; it reached No. 12 in the UK charts. "I Wanna Be Your Man '' was written and given to the Stones when John Lennon and Paul McCartney visited them in the studio as the two Beatles liked to give the copyrights to songs away to their friends. A Beatles version of the song was also recorded and released on the 1963 album With the Beatles. The third single by the Stones, Buddy Holly 's "Not Fade Away '', itself based on Bo Diddley 's style, was released in February 1964 and reached No. 3. Oldham saw little future for an act that lost significant songwriting royalties by playing songs of what he described as "middle - aged blacks '', limiting the appeal to teenage audiences. Jagger and Richards decided to write songs together, the first batch of which Oldham described as "soppy and imitative ''. Because the band 's songwriting developed slowly, songs on their first album The Rolling Stones (1964; issued in the US as England 's Newest Hit Makers), were primarily covers, with only one Jagger / Richards original -- "Tell Me (You 're Coming Back) '' -- and two numbers credited to Nanker Phelge, the pen name for songs written by the entire group. The Rolling Stones ' first US tour in June 1964 was, according to Wyman, "a disaster... When we arrived, we did n't have a hit record (there) or anything going for us. '' When the band appeared on the variety show The Hollywood Palace, that week 's guest host Dean Martin mocked both their hair and their performance. During the tour they recorded for two days at Chess Studios in Chicago, meeting many of their most important influences, including Muddy Waters. These sessions included what would become the Rolling Stones ' first No. 1 hit in the UK, their cover version of Bobby and Shirley Womack 's "It 's All Over Now ''. The Stones followed the Famous Flames -- featuring James Brown -- in the filmed theatrical release of the 1964 film T.A.M.I. Show, which showcased American acts with British Invasion artists. According to Jagger, "We were n't actually following James Brown because there was considerable time between the filming of each section. Nevertheless, he was still very annoyed about it... '' On 25 October the band also appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show. Because of the initial pandemonium the Rolling Stones caused, Sullivan banned the band from his show, though he booked them for subsequent appearances in the following years. Their second LP, 12 X 5, which was only available in the US, was released during the tour. During the early Stones releases, Richards was typically credited as ' Richard '. The Rolling Stones ' fifth UK single, a cover of Willie Dixon 's "Little Red Rooster '' -- with "Off the Hook '', credited to Nanker Phelge, as the B - side -- was released in November 1964 and became their second No. 1 hit in the UK. The band 's US distributors, London Records, declined to release "Little Red Rooster '' as a single. In December 1964, the distributor released the band 's first single with Jagger / Richards originals on both sides: "Heart of Stone '', with "What a Shame '' as the B - side; the single went to No. 19 in the US. The band 's second UK LP, The Rolling Stones No. 2, was released in January 1965 and reached No. 1 in the charts. The US version was released in February as The Rolling Stones, Now! and reached No. 5. The album was recorded at Chess Studios in Chicago and RCA Studios in Los Angeles. In January and February that year the band played 34 shows for around 100,000 people in Australia and New Zealand. The single "The Last Time '', released in February, was the first Jagger / Richards composition to reach No. 1 in the UK charts; it reached No. 9 in the US. It was later identified by Richards as "the bridge into thinking about writing for the Stones. It gave us a level of confidence; a pathway of how to do it. '' Their first international No. 1 hit was "(I Ca n't Get No) Satisfaction '', recorded in May 1965 during the band 's third North American tour. Richards recorded the guitar riff that drives the song with a fuzzbox, planning to be a scratch track to guide a horn section. Nevertheless, the final cut was without the planned horn overdubs. Issued in the summer of 1965, it was their fourth UK No. 1 and first in the US where it spent four weeks at the top of the Billboard Hot 100, establishing worldwide commercial success for the band. The US version of the LP Out of Our Heads, released in July 1965, also went to No 1; it included seven original songs, three Jagger / Richards numbers and four credited to Nanker Phelge. Their second international No. 1 single, "Get Off of My Cloud '' was released in the autumn of 1965, followed by another US - only LP, December 's Children. The album Aftermath, released in the late spring of 1966, was the first LP to be composed entirely of Jagger / Richards songs; it reached No. 1 in the UK and No. 2 in the US. On this album Jones ' contributions expanded beyond guitar and harmonica. To the Middle Eastern - influenced "Paint It, Black '' he added sitar, to the ballad "Lady Jane '' he added dulcimer and to "Under My Thumb '' he added marimbas. Aftermath also contained "Goin ' Home '', a nearly 12 - minute - long song that included elements of jamming and improvisation. The Stones ' success on the British and American singles charts peaked during the 1960s. "19th Nervous Breakdown '' was released in February 1966, and reached No. 2 in the UK and US charts; "Paint It, Black '' reached No. 1 in the UK and US in May 1966. "Mother 's Little Helper '', released in June 1966, reached No. 8 in the US; it was one of the first pop songs to address the issue of prescription drug abuse. "Have You Seen Your Mother, Baby, Standing in the Shadow? '' was released in September 1966 and reached No. 5 in the UK and No. 9 in the US. It had a number of firsts for the group: it was the first Stones recording to feature brass horns, the back - cover photo on the original US picture sleeve depicted the group satirically dressed in drag and the song was accompanied by one of the first official music videos, directed by Peter Whitehead. January 1967 saw the release of Between the Buttons (UK No. 3; US 2); the album was Andrew Oldham 's last venture as the Rolling Stones ' producer; Oldham 's role as the band 's manager was taken over by Allen Klein in 1965 to "get (them) out of the original English scene '' and due to Oldham 's fear, after the 12 February drug bust in Sussex, of being arrested. The US version included the double A-side single "Let 's Spend the Night Together '' and "Ruby Tuesday '', which went to No. 1 in the US and No. 3 in the UK. When the band went to New York to perform the numbers on The Ed Sullivan Show, they were ordered to change the lyrics of the refrain to "let 's spend some time together ''. In early 1967, Jagger, Richards and Jones began to be hounded by authorities over their recreational drug use, after News of the World ran a three - part feature entitled "Pop Stars and Drugs: Facts That Will Shock You ''. The series described alleged LSD parties hosted by the Moody Blues and attended by top stars including the Who 's Pete Townshend and Cream 's Ginger Baker, and alleged admissions of drug use by leading pop musicians. The first article targeted Donovan (who was raided and charged soon after); the second instalment (published on 5 February) targeted the Rolling Stones. A reporter who contributed to the story spent an evening at the exclusive London club Blaise 's, where a member of the Rolling Stones allegedly took several Benzedrine tablets, displayed a piece of hashish and invited his companions back to his flat for a "smoke ''. The article claimed that this was Mick Jagger, but it turned out to be a case of mistaken identity; the reporter had in fact been eavesdropping on Brian Jones. On the night the article was published Jagger appeared on the Eamonn Andrews chat show and announced that he was filing a writ for libel against the News of the World. A week later on 12 February, Sussex police, tipped off by the paper, who in turn were tipped off by Richards ' chauffeur, raided a party at Keith Richards ' home, Redlands. No arrests were made at the time but Jagger, Richards and their friend art dealer Robert Fraser were subsequently charged with drug offences. Richards said in 2003, "When we got busted at Redlands, it suddenly made us realize that this was a whole different ball game and that was when the fun stopped. Up until then it had been as though London existed in a beautiful space where you could do anything you wanted. '' On the treatment of the man responsible for the raid he later added: "As I heard it, he never walked the same again. '' In March 1967, while awaiting the consequences of the police raid, Jagger, Richards and Jones took a short trip to Morocco, accompanied by Marianne Faithfull, Jones ' girlfriend Anita Pallenberg and other friends. During this trip the stormy relations between Jones and Pallenberg deteriorated to the point that Pallenberg left Morocco with Richards. Richards said later: "That was the final nail in the coffin with me and Brian. He 'd never forgive me for that and I do n't blame him, but hell, shit happens. '' Richards and Pallenberg would remain a couple for twelve years. Despite these complications, the Rolling Stones toured Europe in March and April 1967. The tour included the band 's first performances in Poland, Greece, and Italy. On 10 May 1967, the same day Jagger, Richards and Fraser were arraigned in connection with the Redlands charges, Jones ' house was raided by police and he was arrested and charged with possession of cannabis. Three out of five Rolling Stones now faced drug charges. Jagger and Richards were tried at the end of June. On 29 June, Jagger received a three - month prison sentence for the possession of four amphetamine tablets; Richards was found guilty of allowing cannabis to be smoked on his property and sentenced to one year in prison. Both Jagger and Richards were imprisoned at that point, but were released on bail the next day pending appeal. The Times ran the famous editorial entitled "Who breaks a butterfly on a wheel? '' in which conservative editor William Rees - Mogg surprised his readers by his unusually critical discourse on the sentencing, pointing out that Jagger had been treated far more harshly for a minor first offence than "any purely anonymous young man ''. While awaiting the appeal hearings, the band recorded a new single, "We Love You '', as a thank - you for the loyalty shown by their fans. It began with the sound of prison doors closing, and the accompanying music video included allusions to the trial of Oscar Wilde. On 31 July, the appeals court overturned Richards ' conviction, and Jagger 's sentence was reduced to a conditional discharge. Jones ' trial took place in November 1967; in December, after appealing the original prison sentence, Jones received a £ 1,000 fine and was put on three years ' probation, with an order to seek professional help. December 1967 also saw the release of Their Satanic Majesties Request (UK No. 3; US No. 2), which received unfavourable reviews and was widely regarded as a poor imitation of the Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band. Satanic Majesties had been recorded in difficult circumstances while Jagger, Richards and Jones were dealing with their court cases. The band parted ways with Oldham during the sessions. The split was amicable, at least publicly, but in 2003 Jagger said: "The reason Andrew left was because he thought that we were n't concentrating and that we were being childish. It was not a great moment really -- and I would have thought it was n't a great moment for Andrew either. There were a lot of distractions and you always need someone to focus you at that point, that was Andrew 's job. '' Satanic Majesties thus became the first album the Rolling Stones produced on their own. Its psychedelic sound was complemented by the cover art, which featured a 3D photo by Michael Cooper, who had also photographed the cover of Sgt. Pepper. Bill Wyman wrote and sang a track on the album: "In Another Land '', which was also released as a single, the first on which Jagger did not sing lead. The band spent the first few months of 1968 working on material for their next album. Those sessions resulted in the song "Jumpin ' Jack Flash '', released as a single in May. The song and the subsequent album, Beggars Banquet (UK No. 3; US 5), an eclectic mix of country and blues - inspired tunes, marked the band 's return to their roots, and the beginning of their collaboration with producer Jimmy Miller. It featured the lead single "Street Fighting Man '' (which addressed the political upheavals of May 1968) and "Sympathy for the Devil ''. Beggars Banquet was delayed for nearly six months due to controversy over the design of the album cover, which featured a public toilet with graffiti covering the walls of the stall. Beggars Banquet was well received at the time of release. Richards said, "There is a change between material on Satanic Majesties and Beggars Banquet. I 'd grown sick to death of the whole Maharishi guru shit and the beads and bells. Who knows where these things come from, but I guess (the music) was a reaction to what we 'd done in our time off and also that severe dose of reality. A spell in prison... will certainly give you room for thought... I was fucking pissed with being busted. So it was, ' Right we 'll go and strip this thing down. ' There 's a lot of anger in the music from that period. '' The end of 1968 saw the filming of The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus, which originally started as an idea about "the new shape of the rock - and - roll concert tour ''. It featured John Lennon, Yoko Ono, the Dirty Mac, the Who, Jethro Tull, Marianne Faithfull, and Taj Mahal. The footage was shelved for twenty - eight years but was finally released officially in 1996, with a DVD version released in October 2004. By the release of Beggars Banquet, Brian Jones was only sporadically contributing to the band. Jagger said that Jones was "not psychologically suited to this way of life ''. His drug use had become a hindrance, and he was unable to obtain a US visa. Richards reported that, in a June meeting with Jagger, Richards, and Watts at Jones ' house, Jones admitted that he was unable to "go on the road again '', and left the band, saying, "I 've left, and if I want to I can come back ''. On 3 July 1969, less than a month later, Jones drowned in the swimming pool under mysterious circumstances at his home, Cotchford Farm, in Hartfield, East Sussex. The Rolling Stones were scheduled to play at a free concert for Blackhill Enterprises in London 's Hyde Park, two days after Jones ' death; they decided to proceed with the show as a tribute to him. The concert, their first with new guitarist Mick Taylor, was performed in front of an estimated 250,000 fans. The performance was filmed by a Granada Television production team, and was shown on British television as The Stones in the Park. The Blackhill Enterprises stage manager Sam Cutler introduced the Rolling Stones on to the stage by announcing; Let 's welcome the Greatest Rock and Roll Band in the World. Cutler repeated the description throughout their 1969 US tour, a label which has stuck to this day (Cutler left Blackhill Enterprises to become the Stones ' road manager following the Hyde Park concert). Jagger read an excerpt from Shelley 's poem Adonaïs, an elegy written on the death of his friend John Keats, and they released thousands of butterflies in memory of Jones before opening their set with "I 'm Yours and I 'm Hers '', a Johnny Winter number. Also performed, but previously unheard by the audience, were "Midnight Rambler '' and "Love in Vain '' from their forthcoming album Let It Bleed (released December 1969) and "Give Me A Drink '' which eventually appeared on Exile on Main St. (released May 1972). The show also included the concert debut of "Honky Tonk Women '', which the band had just released the previous day. Their last album of the sixties, Let It Bleed (UK No. 1; US 3) featured "Gimme Shelter '' with guest lead female vocals from Merry Clayton (sister of Sam Clayton, of the American rock band Little Feat). Other tracks include "You Ca n't Always Get What You Want '' (with accompaniment by the London Bach Choir, who initially asked for their name to be removed from the album 's credits after being apparently ' horrified ' by the content of some of its other material, but later withdrew this request), "Midnight Rambler '' as well as a cover of Robert Johnson 's "Love in Vain ''. Jones and Taylor are both featured on the album. Just after the US tour the band performed at the Altamont Free Concert at the Altamont Speedway, about 50 miles east of San Francisco. The biker gang Hells Angels provided security, and a fan, Meredith Hunter, was stabbed and beaten to death by the Angels after they realised that he was armed. Part of the tour and the Altamont concert were documented in Albert and David Maysles ' film Gimme Shelter. As a response to the growing popularity of bootleg recordings (in particular Live'r Than You 'll Ever Be, recorded during the 1969 tour), the album Get Yer Ya - Yas Out! (UK 1; US 6) was released in 1970; it was declared by critic Lester Bangs to be the best ever live album. At the end of the decade the band appeared on the BBC 's review of the sixties music scene Pop Go the Sixties, performing "Gimme Shelter '', which was broadcast live on 31 December 1969. That following year, the band wanted out of contracts with both Klein and Decca, but still owed them a Jagger / Richards credited single. To get back at the label, and fulfil their final contractual obligation, the band came up with the track "Schoolboy Blues '' -- deliberately making it as crude as they could in hopes of forcing Decca to keep it "in the vaults. '' Amid contractual disputes with Klein, they formed their own record company, Rolling Stones Records. Sticky Fingers (UK No. 1; US No. 1), released in March 1971, the band 's first album on their own label, featured an elaborate cover design by Andy Warhol. The cover of the album was an Andy Warhol photograph of a man in tight jeans (from the waist down) featuring a functioning zipper. When unzipped, it revealed the subject 's underwear, imprinted with a saying -- "This Is Not Etc. '' In some markets, an alternate cover was released due to the zippered cover 's offensive nature at the time. The Stones ' Decca catalogue is currently owned by Klein 's ABKCO label. In 1968, the Stones, following a suggestion by pianist Ian Stewart, put a control room in a van and created a mobile recording studio so that they would not be limited to the standard 9 -- 5 hours most recording studios operated by. The band lent the mobile studio out to other artists, including Led Zeppelin, which used it to record Led Zeppelin III (1970) and Led Zeppelin IV (1971). Deep Purple immortalized the mobile studio itself, in the song "Smoke on the Water '' with the line "the Rolling truck Stones thing just outside, making our music there ''. Sticky Fingers was the first to feature the logo of Rolling Stones Records, which effectively became the band 's logo. It consisted of a pair of lips with a lapping tongue. Designer John Pasche created the logo following a suggestion by Jagger to copy the outstuck tongue of the Hindu goddess Kali. Critic Sean Egan has said of the logo, "Without using the Stones ' name, it instantly conjures them, or at least Jagger, as well as a certain lasciviousness that is the Stones ' own... It quickly and deservedly became the most famous logo in the history of popular music. '' The tongue and lips design was part of a package that, in 2003, VH1 named the "No. 1 Greatest Album Cover '' of all time. The album contains one of their best known hits, "Brown Sugar '', and the country - influenced "Dead Flowers ''. Both were recorded at Alabama 's Muscle Shoals Sound Studio during the 1969 American tour. The album continued the band 's immersion into heavily blues - influenced compositions. The album is noted for its "loose, ramshackle ambience '' and marked Mick Taylor 's first full release with the band. Following the release of Sticky Fingers, the Rolling Stones left England after receiving financial advice from their financial manager at the time, Prince Rupert Loewenstein, recommending that they go into tax exile before the start of the next financial year. They had learned that despite promises made that taxes were taken care of, they had not been paid for seven years and that they owed the UK government a relative fortune that could have meant the end of the band. They moved to the South of France, where Richards rented the Villa Nellcôte and sublet rooms to band members and entourage. Using the Rolling Stones Mobile Studio, they held recording sessions in the basement; they completed the resulting tracks, along with material dating as far back as 1969, at Sunset Studios in Los Angeles. The resulting double album, Exile on Main St. (UK No. 1; US No. 1), was released in May 1972. Given an A+ grade by critic Robert Christgau and disparaged by Lester Bangs -- who reversed his opinion within months -- Exile is now accepted as one of the Stones ' best albums. The films Cocksucker Blues (never officially released) and Ladies and Gentlemen: The Rolling Stones (released in 1974) document the subsequent highly publicised 1972 North American Tour. The band 's double compilation, Hot Rocks 1964 -- 1971, was released in 1972; it reached number 3 in the UK charts and No. 4 in the US. It is certified Diamond in the US having sold over 12 million copies, and has spent over 264 weeks on the Billboard album chart. In 1974 Wyman released his first solo album, Monkey Grip, making him the first Rolling Stone to release solo material. As of 2017 Wyman has published five solo albums, with the most recent, Back to Basics, released in 2015. Members of the band set up a complex financial structure in 1972 to reduce payment of taxes. Their holding company, Promogroup, has offices in both The Netherlands and the Caribbean. The Netherlands was chosen because it does not directly tax royalty payments. The band has been tax exiles ever since, meaning they no longer can use Britain as their main residence. Due to the arrangements with the holding company, the band has reportedly paid a tax of just 1.6 % on their total earnings of £ 242 million over the past 20 years. In November 1972 the band began recording sessions in Kingston, Jamaica for the album Goats Head Soup; it was released in 1973 and reached No. 1 in both the UK and US. The album, which contained the worldwide hit "Angie '', proved to be the first in a string of commercially successful but tepidly received studio albums. The sessions for Goats Head Soup contained unused material, most notably an early version of the popular ballad "Waiting on a Friend '', which was not released until the LP Tattoo You eight years later. The making of Goats Head Soup was interrupted by another legal battle over drugs, dating back to their stay in France; a warrant for Richards ' arrest had been issued, and the other band members had to return briefly to France for questioning. This, along with Jagger 's 1967 and 1970 convictions on drug charges, complicated the band 's plans for their Pacific tour in early 1973: they were denied permission to play in Japan and almost banned from Australia. This was followed by a European tour in September and October 1973 which bypassed France, prior to which Richards had been arrested once more on drug charges, this time in England. The 1974 album It 's Only Rock ' n Roll was recorded in the Musicland studios in Munich, Germany; it reached No. 2 in the UK and No. 1 in the US. Miller was not invited, and Jagger and Richards produced the album under the credit of "the Glimmer Twins ''. Both the album and the single of the same name were hits. Near the end of 1974, Taylor began to lose patience with a number of band - related issues. The band 's situation made normal functioning complicated, with band members living in different countries, and legal barriers restricting where they could tour. In addition, drug use was starting to affect Richards ' productivity, and Taylor felt some of his own creative contributions were going unrecognised. At the end of 1974, with a recording session already booked in Munich to record another album, Taylor quit the Rolling Stones. Taylor said in 1980, "I was getting a bit fed up. I wanted to broaden my scope as a guitarist and do something else... I was n't really composing songs or writing at that time. I was just beginning to write, and that influenced my decision... There are some people who can just ride along from crest to crest; they can ride along somebody else 's success. And there are some people for whom that 's not enough. It really was n't enough for me. '' The Rolling Stones needed to find a new guitarist, and the recording sessions for the next album, Black and Blue (UK 2; US 1) (1976) in Munich provided an opportunity for some hopefuls to work while trying out for the band. Guitarists as stylistically disparate as Peter Frampton and Jeff Beck were auditioned as well as Robert A. Johnson and Shuggie Otis. Both Beck and Irish blues rock guitarist Rory Gallagher later claimed that they had played without realising they were being auditioned, and both agreed that they would never have joined. American session players Wayne Perkins and Harvey Mandel also tried out but Richards and Jagger had a preference for the band to remain purely British. When Ronnie Wood auditioned, everyone agreed that he was the right choice. He had already recorded and played live with Richards, and had contributed to the recording and writing of the track "It 's Only Rock ' n Roll ''. He had earlier declined Jagger 's offer to join the Stones, because of his commitment to the Faces, saying "that 's what 's really important to me ''. Faces ' lead singer Rod Stewart went so far as to say he would take bets that Wood would not join the Stones. Wood officially joined the Rolling Stones in 1975 for their upcoming Tour of the Americas, while the Faces disbanded. Unlike the other band members, however, Wood was paid an employee 's salary, and that remained the case until the early 1990s, when he finally joined the Rolling Stones ' business partnership. The 1975 Tour of the Americas kicked off in New York City with the band performing on a flatbed trailer being pulled down Broadway. The tour featured stage props including a giant phallus and a rope on which Jagger swung out over the audience. Jagger had booked live recording sessions at the El Mocambo club in Toronto to balance a long - overdue live album, 1977 's Love You Live (UK 3; US 5), the first Stones live album since Get Yer Ya - Ya 's Out!. Richards ' addiction to heroin delayed his arrival in Toronto; the other members had already arrived, waiting for him, and sent him a telegram asking him where he was. On 24 February 1977, when Richards and his family flew in from London, they were temporarily detained by Canada Customs after Richards was found in possession of a burnt spoon and hash residue. Three days later, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, armed with an arrest warrant for Pallenberg, discovered 22 grams of heroin in Richards ' room. Richards was charged with importing narcotics into Canada, an offence that carried a minimum seven - year sentence. Later the Crown prosecutor conceded that Richards had procured the drugs after arrival. Despite the incident, the band played two shows in Toronto, only to raise more controversy when Margaret Trudeau, then - wife of Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, was seen partying with the band after one show. The band 's two shows were not advertised to the public. Instead, the El Mocambo had been booked for the entire week by April Wine for a recording session. 1050 CHUM, a local radio station, ran a contest for free tickets to see April Wine. Contest winners who selected tickets for Friday or Saturday night were surprised to find the Rolling Stones playing. On 4 March, Richards ' partner Anita Pallenberg pleaded guilty to drug possession and incurred a fine in connection with the original airport incident. The drug case against Richards dragged on for over a year. Ultimately, Richards received a suspended sentence and was ordered to play two free concerts for the CNIB in Oshawa; both shows featured the Rolling Stones and the New Barbarians, a group that Wood had put together to promote his latest solo album, and which Richards also joined. This episode strengthened Richards ' resolve to stop using heroin. It also ended his relationship with Pallenberg, which had become strained since the death of their third child, Tara. Pallenberg was unable to curb her heroin addiction while Richards struggled to get clean. While Richards was settling his legal and personal problems, Jagger continued his jet - set lifestyle. He was a regular at New York 's Studio 54 disco club, often in the company of model Jerry Hall. His marriage to Bianca Jagger ended in 1977, although they had long been estranged. Although the Rolling Stones remained popular through the early 1970s, music critics had begun to grow dismissive of the band 's output, and record sales failed to meet expectations. By the mid-1970s, after punk rock became influential, many people had begun to view the Rolling Stones as an outdated band. The group 's fortunes changed in 1978, after the band released Some Girls (UK No. 2; US No. 1), which included the hit single "Miss You '', the country ballad "Far Away Eyes '', "Beast of Burden '', and "Shattered ''. In part as a response to punk, many songs, particularly "Respectable '', were fast, basic, guitar - driven rock and roll, and the album 's success re-established the Rolling Stones ' immense popularity among young people. Following the US Tour 1978, the band guested on the first show of the fourth season of the TV series Saturday Night Live. Following the success of Some Girls, the band released their next album Emotional Rescue (UK 1; US 1) in mid-1980. During the recording sessions of the album, a rift between Jagger and Richards was slowly beginning to form. Richards wanted to tour in summer or autumn of 1980 to promote the new album. Much to his disappointment, Jagger declined. Emotional Rescue hit the top of the charts on both sides of the Atlantic and the title track reached No. 3 in the US. In early 1981, the group reconvened and decided to tour the US that year, leaving little time to write and record a new album, as well as rehearse for the tour. That year 's resulting album, Tattoo You (UK 2; US 1), featured a number of outtakes, including lead single "Start Me Up '', which reached No. 2 in the US and ranked No. 22 on Billboard 's Hot 100 year - end chart. Two songs ("Waiting on a Friend '' (US No. 13) and "Tops '') featured Mick Taylor 's unused rhythm guitar tracks, while jazz saxophonist Sonny Rollins played on "Slave '' and "Waiting on a Friend ''. The Rolling Stones scored one more top 20 hit on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1982, the No. 20 hit "Hang Fire ''. The Stones ' American Tour 1981 was their biggest, longest and most colourful production to date, with the band playing from 25 September through 19 December. It was the highest - grossing tour of that year. The tour included a concert at Chicago 's Checkerboard Lounge with Muddy Waters, in what would be one of his last performances before his death in 1983. Some shows were recorded, resulting in the 1982 live album Still Life (American Concert 1981) (UK 4; US 5), and the 1983 Hal Ashby concert film Let 's Spend the Night Together, which was filmed at Sun Devil Stadium in Tempe, Arizona and the Brendan Byrne Arena in the Meadowlands, New Jersey. In mid-1982, to commemorate their 20th anniversary, the Rolling Stones took their American stage show to Europe. The European Tour 1982 was their first European tour in six years, with a similar format to the American tour. The band were joined by former Allman Brothers Band keyboardist Chuck Leavell, who continues to perform and record with the Rolling Stones. By the end of the year, the band had signed a new four - album recording deal with a new label, CBS Records, for a reported $50 million, then the biggest record deal in history. Before leaving Atlantic, the Rolling Stones released Undercover (UK 3; US 4) in late 1983. Despite good reviews and the Top Ten peak position of the title track, the record sold below expectations and there was no tour to support it. Subsequently, the Stones ' new marketer / distributor CBS Records took over distributing the Stones ' Atlantic catalogue. By this time, the Jagger / Richards rift had grown significantly. To Richards ' annoyance, Jagger had signed a solo deal with CBS Records, and he spent much of 1984 writing songs for his first album. He also declared his growing lack of interest in the Rolling Stones. By 1985, Jagger was spending more time on solo recordings, and much of the material on 1986 's Dirty Work was generated by Richards, with more contributions by Wood than on previous Rolling Stones albums. The album was recorded in Paris, and Jagger was often absent from the studio, leaving Richards to keep the recording sessions moving forward. In June 1985, Jagger teamed up with David Bowie for "Dancing in the Street '', which was recorded as part of the Live Aid charity movement. This was one of Jagger 's first solo performances, and the song reached No. 1 in the UK, and No. 7 in the US. In December 1985, Stewart died of a heart attack. The Rolling Stones played a private tribute concert for him at London 's 100 Club in February 1986, two days before they were presented with a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. Dirty Work (UK No. 4; US No. 4) was released in March 1986 to mixed reviews despite the presence of the US Top Five hit "Harlem Shuffle ''. With relations between Richards and Jagger at a low, Jagger refused to tour to promote the album, and instead undertook his own solo tour, which included Rolling Stones songs. As a result of the animosity within the band during this period, they almost broke up. Jagger 's solo records, She 's the Boss (UK 6; US 13) (1985) and Primitive Cool (UK 26; US 41) (1987), met with moderate success, and in 1988, with the Rolling Stones mostly inactive, Richards released his first solo album, Talk Is Cheap (UK 37; US 24). It was well received by fans and critics, going gold in the US. Richards has subsequently referred to this late - 80s period, where the two were recording solo albums with no obvious reunion of the Stones in sight, as "World War III ''. The following year 25x5: The Continuing Adventures of the Rolling Stones, a documentary spanning the career of the band was released for their 25th anniversary. In early 1989, the Rolling Stones, including Mick Taylor and Ronnie Wood as well as Brian Jones and Ian Stewart (posthumously), were inducted into the American Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Jagger and Richards set aside animosities and went to work on a new Rolling Stones album, Steel Wheels (UK 2; US 3). Heralded as a return to form, it included the singles "Mixed Emotions '' (US No. 5), "Rock and a Hard Place '' (US No. 23) and "Almost Hear You Sigh ''. The album also included "Continental Drift '', which the Rolling Stones recorded in Tangier, Morocco in 1989 with the Master Musicians of Jajouka led by Bachir Attar, coordinated by Tony King and Cherie Nutting. A BBC documentary film, The Rolling Stones in Morocco, was produced by Nigel Finch. The subsequent Steel Wheels / Urban Jungle Tours, encompassing North America, Japan, and Europe, saw the Rolling Stones touring for the first time in seven years and it was their biggest stage production to date. Opening acts included Living Colour and Guns N ' Roses; the onstage personnel included a horn section and backup singers Lisa Fischer and Bernard Fowler, both of whom continue to tour regularly with the band. Recordings from the Steel Wheels / Urban Jungle tours produced the 1991 concert album Flashpoint (UK 6; US 16), which also included two studio tracks recorded in 1991: the single "Highwire '' and "Sex Drive ''. The tour produced the IMAX concert film Live at the Max released in 1991. The tour was the last to feature Wyman, who left the band after years of deliberation, although his retirement was not made official until January 1993. He then published Stone Alone, an autobiography based on scrapbooks and diaries he had been keeping since the band 's early days. A few years later he formed Bill Wyman 's Rhythm Kings and began recording and touring again. After the successes of the Steel Wheels / Urban Jungle tours, the band took a break. Watts released two jazz albums; Wood recorded his fifth solo album, the first in 11 years, called Slide On This, Wyman released his fourth solo album, Richards released his second solo album in late 1992, Main Offender, and did a small tour including big concerts in Spain and Argentina. Jagger got good reviews and sales with his third solo album, Wandering Spirit (UK 12; US 11). The album sold more than two million copies worldwide, going gold in the US. After Wyman 's departure, the Rolling Stones ' new distributor / record label, Virgin Records, remastered and repackaged the band 's back catalogue from Sticky Fingers to Steel Wheels, except for the three live albums, and issued another hits compilation in 1993 entitled Jump Back. By 1993, the Rolling Stones were ready to start recording another studio album. Darryl Jones, former sideman of Miles Davis and Sting, was chosen by Charlie Watts as Wyman 's replacement for 1994 's Voodoo Lounge (UK 1; US 2). The album met strong reviews and sales, going double platinum in the US. Reviewers took note of the album 's "traditionalist '' sounds, which were credited to the Rolling Stones ' new producer Don Was. Voodoo Lounge would win the Stones the Grammy Award for Best Rock Album at the 1995 Grammy Awards. 1994 also brought the accompanying Voodoo Lounge Tour, which lasted into the following year. The tour grossed $320 million, becoming the world 's highest - grossing tour at the time. Numbers from various concerts and rehearsals (mostly acoustic) made up Stripped (UK 9; US 9), which featured a cover of Bob Dylan 's "Like a Rolling Stone '', as well as infrequently played songs like "Shine a Light '', "Sweet Virginia '' and "The Spider and the Fly ''. On 8 September 1994, the Stones performed their new song "Love Is Strong '' as well as "Start Me Up '' at the 1994 MTV Video Music Awards at Radio City Music Hall in New York. The band received the Lifetime Achievement Award at the ceremony. The Rolling Stones were the first major recording artists to broadcast a concert over the Internet; a 20 - minute video was broadcast on 18 November 1994 using the Mbone at 10 frames per second. The broadcast, engineered by Thinking Pictures and financed by Sun Microsystems, was one of the first demonstrations of streaming video; while it was not a true webcast, it introduced many to the technology. The Rolling Stones ended the 1990s with the album Bridges to Babylon (UK 6; US 3), released in 1997 to mixed reviews. The video of the single "Anybody Seen My Baby? '' featured Angelina Jolie as guest and met steady rotation on both MTV and VH1. Sales were reasonably equivalent to those of previous records (about 1.2 million copies sold in the US), and the subsequent Bridges to Babylon Tour, which crossed Europe, North America and other destinations, proved the band to be a strong live attraction. Once again, a live album was culled from the tour, No Security (UK 67; US 34), only this time all but two songs ("Live With Me '' and "The Last Time '') were previously unreleased on live albums. In 1999, the Rolling Stones staged the No Security Tour in the US and continued the Bridges to Babylon tour in Europe. In late 2001, Mick Jagger released his fourth solo album, Goddess in the Doorway (UK 44; US 39) which met with mixed reviews. A month after the September 11 attacks, Jagger and Richards took part in "The Concert for New York City '', performing "Salt of the Earth '' and "Miss You '' with a backing band. In 2002, the band released Forty Licks (UK 2; US 2), a greatest hits double album, to mark their forty years as a band. The collection contained four new songs recorded with the latter - day core band of Jagger, Richards, Watts, Wood, Leavell and Jones. The album has sold more than 7 million copies worldwide. The same year, Q magazine named the Rolling Stones as one of the "50 Bands To See Before You Die '', and the 2002 -- 2003 Licks Tour gave people that chance. The tour included shows in small theatres. The band headlined the Molson Canadian Rocks for Toronto concert in Toronto, Canada, to help the city -- which they have used for rehearsals since the Steel Wheels tour -- recover from the 2003 SARS epidemic. The concert was attended by an estimated 490,000 people. On 9 November 2003, the band played their first concert in Hong Kong as part of the Harbour Fest celebration, also in support of the SARS - affected economy. The same month, the band exclusively licensed the right to sell their new four - DVD boxed set, Four Flicks, recorded on the band 's most recent world tour, to the US Best Buy chain of stores. In response, some Canadian and US music retail chains (including HMV Canada and Circuit City) pulled Rolling Stones CDs and related merchandise from their shelves and replaced them with signs explaining the situation. In 2004, a double live album of the Licks Tour, Live Licks (UK 38; US 50), was released, going gold in the US. In November 2004, the Rolling Stones were among the inaugural inductees into the UK Music Hall of Fame. On 26 July 2005 (Jagger 's birthday), the band announced the name of their new album, A Bigger Bang (UK 2; US 3), their first album in almost eight years. It was released on 6 September to strong reviews, including a glowing write - up in Rolling Stone magazine. The single "Streets of Love '' reached the top 15 in the UK. The album included the political "Sweet Neo Con '', a criticism of American Neoconservatism from Jagger. The song was reportedly almost dropped from the album because of objections from Richards. When asked if he was afraid of political backlash such as the Dixie Chicks had endured, Richards responded that the album came first, and that, "I do n't want to be sidetracked by some little political ' storm in a teacup '. '' The subsequent A Bigger Bang Tour began in August 2005, and visited North America, South America and East Asia. In February 2006, the group played the half - time show of Super Bowl XL in Detroit, Michigan. By the end of 2005, the Bigger Bang tour set a record of $162 million in gross receipts, breaking the North American mark also set by the band in 1994. On 18 February 2006 the band played a free concert to over one million people at the Copacabana beach in Rio de Janeiro; one of the biggest rock concerts of all time. After performances in Japan, China, Australia and New Zealand in March / April 2006, the Rolling Stones tour took a scheduled break before proceeding to Europe; during this break Keith Richards was hospitalised in New Zealand for cranial surgery after a fall from a tree on Fiji, where he had been on holiday. The incident led to a six - week delay in launching the European leg of the tour. In June 2006 it was reported that Ronnie Wood was continuing his programme of rehabilitation for alcohol abuse, but this did not affect the rearranged European tour schedule. Two out of the 21 shows scheduled for July -- September 2006 were later cancelled due to Mick Jagger 's throat problems. The Rolling Stones returned to North America for concerts in September 2006, and returned to Europe on 5 June 2007. By November 2006, the Bigger Bang tour had been declared the highest - grossing tour of all time. The Rolling Stones performances at New York City 's Beacon Theatre on 29 October and 1 November 2006 were filmed by Martin Scorsese for a documentary film, Shine a Light, which was released in 2008. The film also features guest appearances by Buddy Guy, Jack White, and Christina Aguilera. An accompanying soundtrack, also titled Shine a Light (UK 2; US 11), was released in April 2008. The album 's debut at No. 2 in the UK charts was the highest position for a Rolling Stones concert album since Get Yer Ya - Ya 's Out! The Rolling Stones in Concert in 1970. At the Beacon Theater show, Music Executive, Ahmet Ertegun fell and ultimately succumbed to his injury. On 24 March 2007, the band announced a tour of Europe called the "Bigger Bang 2007 '' tour. 12 June 2007 saw the release of the band 's second four - disc DVD set: The Biggest Bang, a seven - hour document featuring their shows in Austin, Rio de Janeiro, Saitama, Shanghai and Buenos Aires, along with extras. On 10 June 2007, the band performed their first gig at a festival in 30 years, at the Isle of Wight Festival, to a crowd of 65,000, and were joined onstage by Amy Winehouse. On 26 August 2007, they played their last concert of the Bigger Bang tour at the O2 Arena in London. At the conclusion of the tour, the band had grossed a record setting $558 million and were listed in the latest edition of Guinness World Records. Mick Jagger released a compilation of his solo work called The Very Best of Mick Jagger (UK 57; US 77), including three unreleased songs, on 2 October 2007. On 12 November 2007, ABKCO released Rolled Gold: The Very Best of the Rolling Stones (UK 26), a double - CD remake of the 1975 compilation Rolled Gold. In March 2008, Richards sparked rumours that a new Rolling Stones studio album may be forthcoming, saying during an interview following the premiere of Shine a Light, "I think we might make another album. Once we get over doing promotion on this film ''. Watts remarked that he got ill whenever he stopped working. In July 2008 it was announced that the Rolling Stones were leaving EMI and signing with Vivendi 's Universal Music, taking with them their catalogue stretching back to Sticky Fingers. New music released by the band while under this contract will be issued through Universal 's Polydor label. Mercury Records will hold the US rights to the pre-1994 material, while the post-1994 material will be handled by Interscope Records (once a subsidiary of Atlantic). During the autumn, Jagger and Richards worked with producer Don Was to add new vocals and guitar parts to ten unfinished songs from the Exile on Main St. sessions. Jagger and Taylor also recorded a session together in London where Taylor added lead guitar to what would be the expanded album 's single, "Plundered My Soul ''. On 17 April 2010, the band released a limited edition 7 - inch vinyl single of the previously unreleased track "Plundered My Soul '' as part of Record Store Day. The track, part of the group 's 2010 re-issue of Exile on Main St., was combined with "All Down the Line '' as its B - side. The band appeared at Cannes Festival for the premiere of the documentary Stones in Exile (directed by Stephen Kijak) about the recording of the album Exile on Main St... On 23 May, the re-issue of Exile on Main St. reached No. 1 in the UK charts, almost 38 years to the week after it first occupied that position, with the band becoming the first act to see a classic work return to No. 1 decades after it was first released. In the US, the album re-entered the charts at No. 2. In October 2010, the Stones released Ladies and Gentlemen: The Rolling Stones to the cinemas and later on to DVD. A digitally remastered version of the film was shown in select cinemas across the United States. Although originally released to cinemas in 1974, it had never been available for home release apart from bootleg recordings. In October 2011, the Stones released The Rolling Stones: Some Girls Live In Texas ' 78 to the cinemas and later on to DVD. A digitally remastered version of the film was shown in select cinemas across the US. This live performance was recorded during one show in Ft. Worth, Texas in support of their US Tour 1978 and their album Some Girls. The film was released in (DVD / Blu - ray Disc) on 15 November 2011. On 21 November, the band reissued Some Girls as a 2 CD deluxe edition with a second CD of twelve previously unreleased tracks (except "So Young, '' which was a B - side to "Out of Tears '') from the sessions with mostly newly recorded vocals from Jagger. The Rolling Stones celebrated their 50th anniversary in the summer of 2012 by releasing the book The Rolling Stones: 50. A new take on the band 's lip - and - tongue logo, designed by Shepard Fairey, was also released and used during the celebrations. Jagger 's brother Chris performed a gig at The Rolling Stones Museum in Slovenia in conjunction with the celebrations. The documentary Crossfire Hurricane, directed by Brett Morgen, was released in October 2012. He conducted approximately fifty hours of interviews for the documentary, including extensive interviews with Wyman and Taylor. This would be the first official career - spanning documentary since 1989 's 25x5: The Continuing Adventures of the Rolling Stones, which was filmed for their 25th anniversary in 1988. A new compilation album, GRRR!, was released on 12 November, available in four different formats and including two new tracks, "Doom and Gloom '' and "One More Shot '', which were recorded at Studio Guillaume Tell in Paris, France, within the last few weeks of August 2012. The album debuted at No. 3 in the UK and No. 19 in the US and went to sell over 2 million copies worldwide. The music video for "Doom and Gloom '' featuring Noomi Rapace was released on 20 November. In November 2012, the Stones commenced their 50 & Counting... tour at London 's O2 Arena, where they were joined by Jeff Beck. At their second show in London the group was joined onstage by Eric Clapton and Florence Welch. Their third anniversary concert took place on 8 December at the Barclays Center, Brooklyn, New York. The last two dates were at the Prudential Center in Newark, New Jersey on 13 and 15 December, and the band were joined by Bruce Springsteen and blues rock band the Black Keys on the final night. They also played two songs at 12 - 12 - 12: The Concert for Sandy Relief. The Stones played nineteen shows in the US in spring 2013, before returning to the UK. The band announced a return to Hyde Park, though it would not be free like the 1969 concert. Jagger quipped, "I 'll try and keep the poetry to a minimum, '' and remarked, in respect of the white dress that he wore for the 1969 concert, "I can still just about get into the zippers. '' On 29 June, the band performed at the Glastonbury Festival 2013. Hyde Park Live, a live album recorded at the two Hyde Park gigs on 6 and 13 July, was released exclusively as a digital download through iTunes later that month and peaked at No. 16 in the UK and No. 19 in the US. A live DVD, Sweet Summer Sun: Live in Hyde Park, was released on 11 November. In February 2014, the band embarked on their 14 On Fire tour spanning Middle East, Asia, Australia and Europe, scheduled to last through to the summer. On 17 March, Jagger 's longtime partner L'Wren Scott died suddenly, resulting in the cancellation and rescheduling of the opening tour dates to October. On 4 June, The Rolling Stones performed for the first time in Israel with Haaretz describing the concert as being "Historic with a capital H ''. In a 2015 interview with Jagger, when asked if retirement crosses his mind he stated, "Nah, not in the moment. I 'm thinking about what the next tour is. I 'm not thinking about retirement. I 'm planning the next set of tours, so the answer is really, "No, not really. '' '' The Rolling Stones embarked on their Latin American tour in February 2016. On 25 March, the band played a bonus show, a free open air concert in Havana, Cuba. In June of that year, The Rolling Stones released, Totally Stripped, an expanded and reconceived edition of Stripped, available in multiple formats. The Rolling Stones announced on 28 July that their concert on 25 March 2016 in Cuba had been commemorated in the film Havana Moon, which premiered on 23 September for one night only in more than a thousand theatres worldwide. The Rolling Stones announced Olé Olé Olé: A Trip Across Latin America on 7 September, a documentary of their 2016 Latin America tour, which was shown in theatres on 12 December for one night only. Olé Olé Olé: A Trip Across Latin America came out on DVD and Blu - ray 26 May 2017. The band released Blue & Lonesome on 2 December 2016. The album consisted of 12 blues covers of artists such as Howlin ' Wolf, Jimmy Reed and Little Walter. Recording took place in British Grove Studios, London, in December 2015, and featured Eric Clapton on two tracks. The album reached No. 1 in the UK, the second - highest opening sales week for an album that year. It also debuted at No. 4 on the Billboard 200. In July 2017, it was reported that the Rolling Stones were getting ready to record their first album of original material in more than a decade. In early October 2017, the Rolling Stones announced the forthcoming release on 1 December 2017 of On Air, a collection of 18 recordings (plus 14 bonus tracks on the Deluxe edition) the band performed on the BBC between October 1963 and September 1965. The compilation featured eight songs the band has never recorded or released commercially. In February 2018, the Rolling Stones announced their first UK tour since 2006, with performances scheduled for May and June. The Rolling Stones have assimilated various musical genres into their own collective sound. Throughout the band 's career, their musical contributions have been marked by a continual reference and reliance on musical styles including blues, psychedelia, R&B, country, folk, reggae, dance, and world music, exemplified by Jones ' collaboration with the Master Musicians of Jajouka, as well as traditional English styles that use stringed instrumentation like harps. Brian Jones experimented with the use of non-traditional instruments such as the sitar and slide guitar in their early days. The group started out covering early rock ' n ' roll and blues songs, and have never stopped playing live or recording cover songs. Jagger and Richards shared an admiration of Jimmy Reed, Muddy Waters, Howlin ' Wolf, and Little Walter, which influenced Brian Jones, of whom Richards says, "He was more into T - Bone Walker and jazz blues stuff. We 'd turn him onto Chuck Berry and say, ' Look, it 's all the same shit, man, and you can do it. ' '' Charlie Watts, a traditional jazz drummer, was also introduced to the blues through his association with the pair. "Keith and Brian turned me on to Jimmy Reed and people like that. I learned that Earl Phillips was playing on those records like a jazz drummer, playing swing, with a straight four. '' Jagger, recalling when he first heard the likes of Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley, Muddy Waters, Fats Domino, and other major American R&B artists, said it "seemed the most real thing '' he had heard up to that point. Similarly, Keith Richards, describing the first time he listened to Muddy Waters, said it was the "most powerful music (he had) ever heard... the most expressive. '' He also stated, "when you think of some dopey, spotty seventeen year old from Dartford, who wants to be Muddy Waters -- and there were a lot of us -- in a way, very pathetic, but in another way, very... heartwarming ''. Despite the Rolling Stones ' predilection for blues and R&B numbers on their early live set lists, the first original compositions by the band reflected a more wide - ranging interest. The first Jagger / Richards single, "Tell Me (You 're Coming Back) '', has been described by critic Richie Unterberger as a "pop rock ballad... When (Jagger and Richards) began to write songs, they were usually not derived from the blues, but were often surprisingly fey, slow, Mersey - type pop numbers ''. "As Tears Go By '', the ballad originally written for Marianne Faithfull, was one of the first songs written by Jagger and Richards and also one of many written by the duo for other artists. Jagger said of the song, "It 's a relatively mature song considering the rest of the output at the time. And we did n't think of (recording) it, because the Rolling Stones were a butch blues group. '' The Rolling Stones did later record a version which became a top five hit in the US. On the early experience, Richards said, "The amazing thing is that although Mick and I thought these songs were really puerile and kindergarten - time, every one that got put out made a decent showing in the charts. That gave us extraordinary confidence to carry on, because at the beginning songwriting was something we were going to do in order to say to Andrew (Loog Oldham), ' Well, at least we gave it a try... ' '' Jagger said, "We were very pop - orientated. We did n't sit around listening to Muddy Waters; we listened to everything. In some ways it 's easy to write to order... Keith and I got into the groove of writing those kind of tunes; they were done in ten minutes. I think we thought it was a bit of a laugh, and it turned out to be something of an apprenticeship for us. '' The writing of "The Last Time '', the Rolling Stones ' first major single, proved a turning point. Richards called it "a bridge into thinking about writing for the Stones. It gave us a level of confidence; a pathway of how to do it. '' The song was based on a traditional gospel song popularised by the Staple Singers, but the Rolling Stones ' number features a distinctive guitar riff, played by Brian Jones. Prior to the emergence of Jagger / Richards as the Stones ' songwriters, the band members occasionally were given collective credit under the pseudonym Nanker Phelge. Some songs attributed to Nanker Phelge have been re-attributed to Jagger / Richards. Beginning with Jones and continuing with Wood, the Rolling Stones have developed what Richards refers to as the "ancient art of weaving '' responsible for part of their sound -- the interplay between two guitarists on stage. Unlike most bands, the Stones follow Richards ' lead rather than the drummer 's (Watts). Likewise, Watts is primarily a jazz player who was able to bring that genre 's influences to the style of the band 's drumming. The following of Richards ' lead has led to conflicts between Jagger and Richards and they have been known to annoy one another, but they have both agreed it makes a better record; Watts in particular has praised Jagger 's production skills. In the studio, the band have tended to use a fluid personnel for recordings and not use the same players for each song. Guest pianists were commonplace on recordings; several songs on Beggars Banquet are driven by Nicky Hopkins ' piano playing. On Exile on Main St., Richards plays bass on three tracks while Taylor plays on four. Richards started using open tunings for rhythm parts (often in conjunction with a capo), most prominently an open - E or open - D tuning in 1968. Beginning in 1969, he often used 5 - string open - G tuning (with the lower 6th string removed), as heard on the 1969 single "Honky Tonk Women '', "Brown Sugar '' (Sticky Fingers, 1971), "Tumbling Dice '' (capo IV), "Happy '' (capo IV) (Exile on Main St., 1972), and "Start Me Up '' (Tattoo You, 1981). The feuds between Jagger and Richards had some origin in the 1970s when Richards was a heroin addict, resulting in Jagger managing the band 's affairs for numerous years. When Richards got himself off heroin and became more present in the decision making, Jagger was not used to this and did not like his authority diminished, resulting in the period which Richards has referred to as "World War III ''. Musical collaboration between members of the band and supporting musicians was key, due to the fluid lineups typically experienced by the band in the studio, as tracks tended to be recorded "by whatever members of the group happened to be around at the time of the sessions. '' Over time, Jagger has developed into the template for rock frontmen and, with the help of the Stones, has, in the words of the Telegraph, "changed music '' through his contributions to it as a pioneer of the modern music industry. Since their formation in 1962, the Rolling Stones survived multiple feuds and have gone on to release 30 studio albums, 23 live albums, 25 compilation albums and 120 singles. According to OfficialCharts.com, the Stones are ranked the fourth bestselling group of all time, with their top single being "(I Ca n't Get No) Satisfaction '', regarded by many at the time as "the classic example of rock and roll. '' The Stones have also contributed to the blues lexicon, creating their own "codewords '' and slang, which they have used throughout their catalog of songs, including some of their more popular songs. The band has been viewed as the musical "vanguard of a major transfusion '' of various cultural attitudes, making them accessible to youth in both America and Britain. Muddy Waters was quoted as stating that the Rolling Stones and other English bands enhanced the interest of American youth into blues musicians; after they came to the United States, sales of Waters ' albums -- and those of other blues musicians -- increased with public interest, thus helping to reconnect the country with its own music. The Rolling Stones have sold over 240 million albums worldwide and have held over 48 tours of varying length. The Stones have also held three of the highest - grossing tours of all time, Bridges to Babylon, Voodoo Lounge, and A Bigger Bang. In May 2013, Rolling Stone declared them the "most definitional band that rock & roll has produced, '' with the Telegraph stating that Mick Jagger was "the Rolling Stone who changed music ''. The band has been the subject of numerous documentaries and were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame by Pete Townshend in 1989. The Rolling Stones have inspired and mentored new generations of musical artists both as a band and individually. They are also credited with changing the "whole business model of popular music. '' The band has received -- and been nominated for -- multiple awards during their 55 years as a band; including three Grammy awards (and 12 nominations), the Juno award for International Entertainer of the Year in 1991, U.K. 's Jazz FM Awards Album of the Year (2017) for their album Blue & Lonesome, and NME awards such as best live band and the NME award for best music film, for their documentary Crossfire Hurricane. The Rolling Stones ' first concert was on 12 July 1962 at the Marquee Club in London. The most documented of all the band 's concerts was the Altamont Free Concert at the Altamont Speedway in 1969. For this concert, the biker gang Hells Angels provided security, which resulted in a fan, Meredith Hunter, being stabbed and beaten to death by the Angels. Part of the tour and the Altamont concert were documented in Albert and David Maysles ' film Gimme Shelter. As a response to the growing popularity of bootleg recordings, the album Get Yer Ya - Yas Out! (UK 1; US 6) was released in 1970; it was declared by critic Lester Bangs to be the best live album ever. From small clubs and hotels in London with little room for Jagger to move around to selling out stadiums worldwide, Rolling Stones tours have significantly changed over the decades. Setups for the band started off simplistic compared to what they later became in the band 's career. with pyrotechnics, giant screens, and elaborate stage designs. By the Rolling Stones American tour of 1969, the band began to fill large halls and arenas, such as The Forum in Inglewood, California. They were also using more equipment, such as lighting rigs and better sound equipment compared to the clubs. The 1969 tour is considered a "great watershed tour '' by Mick Jagger due to the fact that they "started hanging the sound and therefore hanging the lights ''. Attributing the birth of arena rock to the Stones 1969 US tour, The Guardian ranked the tour number 19 on their list of the 50 key events in rock music history. Prior to the tour the loudest sound at big - capacity shows was often the crowd, so the Stones ensured they had lighting and sound systems that would allow them to be seen and heard in the biggest arenas, with The Guardian stating their "combination of front - of - house excellence and behind the scenes savvy took the business of touring to an entirely new level. '' During the 1972 tour, the Stones developed a complex light show in which they hung up giant mirrors and bounced the light off them. During the 1975 Tour of the Americas, arena shows became an industry for the band and the Stones hired a new lighting director, Jules Fisher. The props used on stage by the band increased in both size and sophistication, similar to things done on Broadway. The band started to use multiple stages, from which they would select for a particular show. On this tour they had two versions what Jagger referred to as the "lotus stage '' -- one version of the stage that had a large Venetian (cylindrical) curtain and the other has leaves that would start in the folded up position and lower during the beginning of the concert. This period also included a variety of props, including inflatables and other gimmicks ranging from inflatable penises "and things. '' The tour also incorporated a number of circus tricks. "... at the beginning of the show the stage was completely covered with a kind of sheath gauze. I had to get inside the lotus, climb up a ladder and hang on like grim death to one of the petals, which then opened to reveal the band playing. '' During the 1981 -- 1982 American tour, the Stones worked with Japanese designer Kazuhide Yamazari in constructing their stages for stadium sized locations and audiences. During this period, stages increased in size to include runways, movable sections of stage going out into the audience, and growing in all other aspects. This tour used coloured panels and was one of the last Stones tours to do so before switching to devices such as video screens. Stadium shows provided a new challenge for the band, the venues were large enough in size that the band became "like ants '' to audience members. This resulted in Jagger having to project himself "over the footlights '' and the band needing to employ more gimmicks, such as pyrotechnics, lights, and video screens. "When you 're out there in this vast stadium, you have to physically tiny up on stage, so that 's why on the 1981 - 2 tour we had those coloured panels and later we started using devices like video screens. We became very aware of not being seen, of just being there like ants. Mick is the one who really has to project himself over the footlights. And when the show gets that big, you need a little extra help, you need a couple of gimmicks, as we call it, in the show. You need fireworks, you need lights, you need a bit of theatre. '' As time went on, their props and stage equipment became increasingly sophisticated. When they started to fill stadium sized venues and bigger, they ran into the problem of the audience no longer being able to see them due to the increased seating capacity -- this problem was especially clear in their free 2006 concert in Rio de Janeiro on the A Bigger Bang tour, which used over 500 lights, hundreds of speakers, and a video screen almost 13 metres in length. Due to the vast size of the beach which the Stones performed on (2.5 km), sound systems had to be set up in a relay pattern down the length of the beach, in order to keep the sound in sync with music from the stage; for every 340 metres of beach, the sound had to be delayed an additional second. Current members Former members Early members Current touring members Former touring musicians Timeline Studio albums

when was the last pure silver dollar minted

Dollar coin (United States) - wikipedia The dollar coin is a United States coin worth one United States dollar. It is the third largest American coin currently minted in terms of physical size, with a diameter of 1.043 inches (26.5 mm) and a thickness of. 079 inches (2 mm), coming second to the half dollar. Dollar coins have been minted in the United States in gold, silver, and base metal versions. Dollar coins were first minted in the United States in 1794. The term silver dollar is often used for any large white metal coin issued by the United States with a face value of one dollar, whether or not it contains some of that metal. While true gold dollars are no longer minted, the Sacagawea and Presidential dollars are sometimes referred to as golden dollars due to their color. Dollar coins have never been very popular in the United States since the removal of specie coins from circulation. Despite efforts by the government to promote their use, such as the Presidential $1 Coin Program, most Americans currently use the one - dollar bill rather than dollar coins. For this reason, since December 11, 2011 the Mint has not produced dollar coins for general circulation, and all dollar coins produced after that date have been specifically for collectors and can be ordered directly from the Mint, and pre-2012 circulation dollar coins are able to be obtained from most U.S. banks. The gold dollar (1849 -- 89) was a tiny coin measuring only 13 mm making it difficult to grasp and easy to lose, a serious problem when a dollar was almost a day 's wage. Dollar coins have found little popular acceptance in circulation in the United States since the early 20th century, despite several attempts since 1971 to increase usage of dollar coins. This contrasts with currencies of most other developed countries, where denominations of similar value exist only in coin. These coins have largely succeeded because of a removal (or lack) of their corresponding paper issues, whereas the United States government has taken no action to remove the one - dollar bill. The United States Government Accountability Office (GAO) has stated that discontinuing the dollar bill in favor of the dollar coin would save the U.S. government approximately $5.5 billion over thirty years primarily through seigniorage. The Federal Reserve has refused to order the coin from the mint for distribution citing a lack of demand, according to ex-Mint director Philip Diehl in November 2012. Whatever the reason, a U.S. Mint official claimed in a November 2012 meeting that most of the 2.4 billion dollar coins minted in the previous five years were not in circulation. Although the distribution of the dollar coin is limited due to lack of popularity, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) in New York city and surrounding areas use dollar coins as change from ticket purchases from machines at stations. The mint marks are "C '', "CC '', "D '', "O '', "P '', "S '', and "W ''. Before the American Revolutionary War, coins from many European nations circulated freely in the American colonies, as did coinage issued by the various colonies. Chief among these was the Spanish silver dollar coins (also called pieces of eight or eight reales) minted in Mexico and other colonies with silver mined from Central and South American mines. These coins, along with others of similar size and value, were in use throughout the colonies, and later the United States, and were legal tender until 1857. In 1776, the Continental Congress authorized plans to produce a silver coin to prop up the rapidly failing Continental -- the first attempt by the fledgling U.S. at paper currency. Several examples were struck in brass, pewter, and silver, but a circulating coin was not produced, due in large part to the financial difficulties of running the Revolutionary War. The Continental Dollar bears a date of 1776, and while its true denomination is not known, it is generally the size of later dollars, and the name has stuck. The failure of the Continental exacerbated a distrust of paper money among both politicians and the populace at large. The letters of Thomas Jefferson indicate that he wished the United States to eschew paper money and instead mint coins of similar perceived value and worth to those foreign coins circulating at the time. The Coinage Act of 1792 authorized the production of dollar coins from silver. The United States Mint produced silver dollar coins from 1794 to 1803, then ceased regular production of silver dollars until 1836. The first silver dollars, precisely 1,758 of them, were coined on October 15, 1794 and were immediately delivered to Mint Director David Rittenhouse for distribution to dignitaries as souvenirs. Thereafter, until 1804, they were struck in varying quantities. There are two obverse designs: Flowing Hair (1794 -- 1795) and Draped Bust (1795 -- 1804). There are also two reverse designs used for the Draped Bust variety: small eagle (1795 -- 1798) and heraldic eagle (1798 -- 1804). Original silver dollars from this period are highly prized by coin collectors and are exceptionally valuable, and range from fairly common to incredibly rare. Due to the early practice of hand engraving each die, there are dozens of varieties known for all dates between 1795 -- 1803. It is also one of only two denominations (the other being the cent) minted in every year from its inception during the first decade of mint operation. However, the order was given by President Thomas Jefferson to halt silver dollar production due to the continued exportation of U.S. dollars. The Spanish 8 Reales, which was slightly heavier than the U.S. dollar, nonetheless traded at a 1 - to - 1 ratio. So U.S. dollars went to the Caribbean, were traded for heavier 8 Reales, and those were then brought back to the U.S., where they would be recoined for free into more U.S. dollars; the difference in silver, then, was kept by the exporter. This ensured that no dollars would circulate in the U.S., but would instead be exported for their heavier counterparts overseas, leaving little but old, foreign money to circulate in the United States in a process known as Gresham 's Law. The 1804 dollar is one of the rarest and most famous and popular coins in the world. Its creation was the result of a simple bookkeeping error, but its status as the king of coins has been established for nearly a century and a half. The silver dollars reported by the mint as being struck in 1804 were actually dated 1803. (With die steel being very expensive in the early 19th century, dies were used until they were no longer in working condition. This is why many early U.S. coins exhibit all kinds of die cracks, occlusions, cuds, clash marks, and other late state die wear. Nearly every coin the U.S. struck from 1793 to 1825 has an example that was struck in a year other than that which it bears.) No dollars bearing the date 1804 were ever struck in 1804, though this was unknown to mint officials at the time the 1804 dollar came to be. The 1804 silver dollar was actually produced in 1834, when the U.S. Department of State decided to produce a set of U.S. coins to be used as gifts to rulers in Asia in exchange for trade advantages. Since 1804 was the last recorded year of mintage for both the dollar and $10 Eagle, it was decided that the set would contain examples of those coins dated 1804, as well as the other denominations currently being produced. Mint officials, not realizing that the 19,000 + dollars recorded as being produced in 1804 were all dated 1803, proceeded to make new dies dated 1804. Little did they know the stunning rarity they were creating. Only 15 silver dollars with the date of 1804 are known to exist; in 1999, one of them sold at auction for more than $4 million. There are 8 Class I dollars, struck in 1834 for the aforementioned sets, 1 Class II dollar, struck over an 1857 Swiss Shooting Thaler (and now residing in the U.S. Coin Collection at the Smithsonian Institution), and 6 Class III dollars, struck surreptitiously sometime between 1858 and 1860 to meet collector demand for the coin. Seated Liberty dollars were introduced in 1836 and were minted in lesser quantities than the sparsely minted Gobrecht dollar that preceded it. The dollars were used in general circulation until 1873. The production of large numbers of U.S. gold coins (First $1 1848 and $20 in 1849) from the new California mines lowered the price of gold, thereby increasing the value of silver. By 1853, the value of a U.S. Silver Dollar contained in gold terms, $1.89 of silver. With the Mint Act of 1853, all U.S. silver coins, except for the U.S. silver dollar and new 3 cent coin, were reduced by 22.9 % as of weight with arrows on the date to denote reduction. The U.S. silver dollar was continued to be minted in very small numbers mainly as a foreign trade to the Orient. The international trading partners did not like the fact that U.S. coins were reduced in weight. The use of much more common half dollars became problematic since merchants would have to separate higher value pre-1853 coins from the newer reduced ones. From 1853 onwards, trade with Asia was typically done with Mexican coins that kept their weight and purity in the 19th Century. This ended in 1874 when the price of silver dropped so that a silver dollar has less than $1.00 worth of silver in it (huge amounts of silver coming from the Nevada Comstock Lode mines). By 1876, all silver coins were being used as money and by 1878, gold was at par with all U.S. paper dollars. Beginning in 1878, huge amounts of the Morgan silver dollars were produced but few were used as money. The size was too large to carry on business so Silver Certificates were used instead. The mint made the coins, placed them in their vaults and issued the Silver Certificates instead. This is the reason so many Morgan and Peace dollars can be purchased in AU or UNC condition (near perfect)... they sat in bank / U.S. Treasury vaults most of the time. Each coin is composed of 0.77344 troy oz of silver. They were minted at Philadelphia, New Orleans, Carson City, and San Francisco. A Silver dollar is worth $1 in silver at $1.31 per troy ounce. The current silver price (March 10, 2017) is $17.01 per troy ounce so a silver dollar is worth, in melt value of about $13.15 US. The gold dollar was produced from 1849 to 1889. 1849 to 1853 gold dollar coins were 13 mm across and are called Type I. Type II gold dollars were thinner but larger at 15 mm diameter and were produced from 1854 to 1855. The most common gold dollar are the Type III and started in 1856 until 1889. Production US $1 gold dollars was high until the Civil War and by 1863, only the larger value gold coins were produced in large quantities. Most gold coins produced from 1863 and onward were produced for imports to pay for enormous amounts of war material and interest on some U.S. Government bonds. Many of these coins from the Civil War and after (silver coins included) are in excellent condition since they saw very limited circulation with greenbacks and postage currency taking their place. Composed of 90 % pure gold, it was the smallest denomination of gold currency ever produced by the United States federal government. When the U.S. system of coinage was originally designed there had been no plans for a gold dollar coin, but in the late 1840s, two gold rushes later, Congress was looking to expand the use of gold in the country 's currency. The gold dollar was authorized by the Act of March 3, 1849, and the Liberty Head type began circulating soon afterward. Because of the high value of gold, the gold dollar is the smallest coin in the history of U.S. coinage. The trade dollar was produced in response to other Western powers, such as Great Britain, Spain, France, and particularly Mexico, to compete with these trade coins for use in trade in Asia. American trade dollars are 90 % silver and weigh 420 grains (27.2 g), which is about 0.5 g heavier than the regular circulation Seated Liberty Dollars and Morgan Dollars. Most trade dollars ended up in China during their first two years of production, where they were very successful. Many of them exhibit holes or chopmarks which are counterstamps from Asian merchants to verify the authenticity of the coins. Many trade coins of the western powers and large silver coins from China, Korea, and Japan also bear these chopmarks. While most chopmarked coins are generally worth less than those without, some of the more fascinating chopmarks can actually give the coin a modest premium. Trade dollars did not circulate in the United States initially, but were legal tender for up to $5. Things changed, however, in 1876, when the price of silver spiraled downward as western producers dumped silver on the market, making the trade dollar worth more at face value than its silver content. That resulted in trade dollars pouring back into the United States, as they were bought for as little as the equivalent of 80 US cents in Asia, and were then spent at $1 in the United States. This prompted Congress to revoke their legal tender status, and restrict their coinage to exportation demand only. However, this did not stop unscrupulous persons from buying trade dollars at bullion value, and using them for payment as $1 to unsuspecting workers and merchants. Production of the trade dollar was officially discontinued for business strikes in 1878, and thereafter from 1879 -- 1885, produced only as proof examples of the coin. The issues of 1884 and 1885 were produced surreptitiously, and were unknown to the collecting public until 1908. In February 1887, all non-mutilated outstanding trade dollars were made redeemable to the United States Treasury, and approximately 8 million of them were turned in. Morgan silver dollars, all composed of 90 % silver and 10 % copper (slightly less silver than sterling silver), were struck between 1878 and 1904, with a final minting in 1921. The 1921 - dated coins are the most common, and there exists a substantial collector market for pristine, uncirculated specimens of the rarer dates and mint marks. Morgan dollars are second only to Lincoln Cents in collector popularity. The coin is named after George T. Morgan, its designer. Morgan dollars were minted at Philadelphia (no mint mark), New Orleans ("O '' mint mark), San Francisco ("S '' mint mark), Carson City ("CC '' mint mark), and (in 1921 only) Denver ("D '' mint mark). The mint mark is found on the reverse below the wreath, above the "O '' in "DOLLAR ''. Introduced in December 1921 and having the same ratio of silver - to - copper as the Morgan dollar, the Peace dollar, designed by medalist Anthony de Francisci, was promulgated to commemorate the signing of formal peace treaties between the Allied forces and Germany and Austria. These treaties officially ended the Allies ' World War I hostilities with these two countries. In 1922 the Mint made silver dollar production its top priority, causing other denominations to be produced sparingly if at all that year. Production ceased temporarily after 1928; original plans apparently called for only a one - year suspension, but this was extended by the Great Depression. Mintage resumed in 1934, but for only two years. In May 1965, 316,000 + Peace dollars were minted, all at the Denver Mint and dated 1964 - D; however, plans for completing this coinage were abandoned, and most of those already minted were melted, with two known trial strike specimens being preserved (for assay purposes) until 1970, when they too were melted, and none released either for circulation or collection purposes. It is rumored that one or more pieces still exist, most notably any examples obtained by key members of Congress, the President, or mint officials. However, this coin, much like the 1933 $20 gold Double Eagle (aside from the "exception '', sold in 2002 for over $7 million and the 10 found later), is illegal to own and would be subject to confiscation. Because of the size and weight of the dollar coins, they circulated minimally throughout their history, except in the West (especially at casinos in the early - to - mid-20th century, where they were commonly used both at the tables and at slot machines.) As a result, the coins were generally shipped to Washington and stored in the vaults of the U.S. Treasury; at times these stores numbered into the hundreds of millions. They were very popular as Christmas gifts, however, and from the 1930s to the early 1960s, many bags were annually released to banks nationwide to be distributed as presents. In November 1962, during this annual distribution, it was discovered that there were some rare and valuable dates, still sealed in their original mint bags, all in uncirculated condition, among the millions of dollar coins still in the Treasury vaults. Collectors / investors / dealers lined up to purchase them in $1,000 bags, trading silver certificates for the coins. Before this event, the great rarity of the Morgan series was 1903 - O, which was by far the most expensive of the entire set. It was discovered that there were millions of this specific date and mint in the Treasury vaults; an estimated 84 % of the entire mintage sat in these bags, untouched for 60 years, all in uncirculated condition. While still relatively expensive in circulated grades, uncirculated examples can be had for a modest amount over common dates. On March 25, 1964, Secretary of the Treasury C. Douglas Dillon announced that Silver Certificates would no longer be redeemable for silver dollars. Subsequently, another act of Congress dated June 24, 1967, provided that Silver Certificates could be exchanged for silver bullion for a period of one year, until June 24, 1968. Following this, the Treasury inventoried its remaining stock of dollar coins, and found approximately 3,000 bags containing 3 million coins. Many of the remaining coins were Carson City mint dollars, which even then carried a premium. The coins were placed in special hard plastic holders and the General Services Administration (GSA) was given authorization to sell them to the public in a series of mail - bid sales. Five sales were conducted in 1973 and 1974, but sales were poor, and the results unspectacular. There was much complaining among the coin buying public, many stating that the United States government should not be in the "coin business '', especially considering that the government had spent little more than a dollar to mint and store each coin. After these sales, more than a million coins were still left unsold. These sat again until 1979 -- 1980, where, amidst an extraordinarily volatile precious metals market, the remaining coins were sold under chaotic conditions. The GSA, having published minimum bids in November 1979, announced on January 2, 1980, that those minimum bids were no longer valid, and that prospective bidders would have to "call in '' to a toll free number to get current minimum bids. Then, on February 21, 13 days after the bidding process officially began, the maximum number of coins per bidder was changed from 500 to 35. Many bidders, under these confusing conditions, ended up with no coins at all. Complaints again flooded in to Congress, but the damage had already been done, and the last silver dollars held by the United States Treasury were gone. Over the years, many of these GSA dollars have been broken out of their special holders for purposes of grading or otherwise, and now GSA dollars still in the unbroken original holders carry a small premium. Some third party grading companies have begun to grade coins still in their GSA holders, as a means of preservation, though this is not without controversy. From 1971 to 1978, the U.S. Mint issued dollar coins with the obverse depicting President Dwight David Eisenhower and the reverse the insignia of the Apollo 11 moon landing, both designed by Chief Engraver Frank Gasparro. The 1976 Bicentennial commemorative design, produced in 1975 and 1976, featured the Liberty Bell and the Moon on the reverse (designed by Dennis R. Williams), while retaining the Eisenhower obverse, and the dual dates 1776 -- 1976. The Eisenhower dollars minted for general circulation contained no silver or gold, but were instead composed of the same copper - nickel clad composition used for the dime, quarter, and half dollar. This made the circulation coins extremely resistant to wear and, like the smaller denominations, they still retain a good deal of shine even when subject to mass usage. From 1971 through 1976 the Mint also produced dollars composed of 40 % silver aimed at the collector market. The 1971 -- 74 issues appeared in brown boxes or blue packages, depending on whether they were proof or uncirculated. Somewhat different Bicentennial sets were produced in the following two years. All issues remain very common. The coins were never very popular, primarily due to their large size and weight which made them inconvenient to carry and the fact that very few vending machines were designed to accept them. They saw the greatest use in casinos, and one - dollar tokens in United States casinos still approximate the size and weight of the coins. Prior to the withdrawal of the coins, which remain legal tender (and are sometimes available at banks by request), many casinos did not strike their own tokens, but instead used the Eisenhower dollar. From 1979 to 1981, and again in 1999, the Mint produced Anthony Dollars depicting women 's suffrage activist Susan B. Anthony (also designed by Frank Gasparro). Anthony thus became the first historical female person portrayed on circulating U.S. coinage. Many earlier circulating coins had featured images of women via allegorical figures such as Peace or Liberty; Spain 's Queen Isabella appeared on the 1893 Columbian Exposition quarter dollar but the coin was not intended for general circulation. The Anthony dollars, like the Eisenhower dollars, were made from a copper - nickel clad. The 1981 coins were issued for collectors only but occasionally show up in circulation. The Anthony dollar, because of its color, size and design, was often confused with the quarter and was never popular. It was soon discontinued. In 1999 it made a brief reappearance when Treasury reserves were low and the Sacagawea dollar was still a year away from production. While reserves of the coins were high, the coins were most often seen in vending machines, transit systems and post offices. The American Silver Eagle is the official silver bullion coin of the United States. It was designed by Adolph A. Weinman and John Mercanti and it was first released by the United States Mint on November 24, 1986. It is struck only in the one troy ounce size, which has a nominal face value of one dollar and is guaranteed to contain one troy ounce of 99.9 % pure silver. It is authorized by Title II of Public Law 99 - 61 (Liberty Coin Act, approved July 9, 1985) and codified as 31 U.S.C. § 5112 (e) - (h). Its content, weight, and purity are certified by the United States Mint. In addition to the bullion version, the United States Mint has produced a proof version and an uncirculated version for coin collectors. The Silver Eagle has been produced at three mints: the Philadelphia Mint, the San Francisco Mint, and the West Point Mint. The American Silver Eagle bullion coin may be used to fund Individual Retirement Account investments. The Sacagawea dollar was authorized by Congress in 1997 because the supply of Anthony dollars, in inventory since their last mintage in 1981, was soon expected to be depleted. These coins have a copper core clad by manganese brass. Delays in increasing Sacagawea dollar production led to a final 1999 - dated mintage of Susan B. Anthony dollars. Dollar coins are used infrequently in general commerce. They used to be given as change by United States Postal Service (USPS) stamp vending machines, which created a relatively small but significant demand, but the USPS eliminated all those machines by 2011. They were also used in certain subway and public transit systems, such as the "T '' in Boston. In 1998 the U.S. Mint conducted a limited design competition for the new dollar, inviting 23 artists to submit designs portraying Sacagawea on the obverse ("heads '') side and American bald eagle on the reverse ("tails '') side. In November 1998, an exhibit of 123 submitted designs was held at the Casa Italiana Hall in Washington, D.C. to solicit public and private comment. Design concepts were submitted in the form of drawings, renderings, sculpture and die - struck prototypes. The obverse was designed by artist Glenna Goodacre. Since no verifiable image of Sacagawea exists, Goodacre used Randy'L He - dow Teton, a University of New Mexico college student and a Shoshone Indian, as a model for the coin. There are approximately 1 billion Sacagawea coins in circulation, and about 250 million in reserve. The U.S. Mint greatly reduced production of Sacagawea dollars after the 2001 minting, citing sufficient inventory. From 2002 to 2008 the Sacagawea dollar was still minted for collectors and was available in uncirculated rolls, mint sets, and proof sets, but it was not released for general circulation again until the introduction of the Native American series in 2009. The Mint took great care to create the coin with the same size, weight, and electromagnetic properties as the Anthony dollar, but with a golden color. Unlike most other coins in circulation, the selected alloy has a tendency to tarnish quite severely in circulation, as is the case with most brasses, resulting in a loss of the golden shine, except on raised areas where the "patina '' is more frequently rubbed off. While some consider the blackening an undesired quality, the Mint suggests the uneven tarnishing effect gives the coins an "antique finish '' that "accentuate (s) the profile and add (s) a dimension of depth to the depiction of Sacagawea and her child ''. The coin featured a plain edge through 2008, but starting in 2009 incused lettering was applied. The year and mint mark moved from the coin 's obverse (front) to its edge. As of 2017, dollar coins are not widely encountered in U.S. commerce, except in vending machines for rides on mass transit, some pay and display machines, some laundromats, and old - fashioned slot machines. On the other hand, the Sacagawea dollar has achieved popularity in El Salvador, Ecuador and Panama, where the U.S. dollar is also the official currency. With the passage of the Native American $1 Coin Act on September 20, 2007, the U.S. Mint began designing a series of Sacagawea dollars with modified reverses to further commemorate "Native Americans and the important contributions made by Indian tribes and individual Native Americans to the development of the United States and the history of the United States ''. Four designs were to be minted, each for one year from 2009 to 2012. The first Native American series coin was released in January 2009 and had a reverse that depicted a Native American woman sowing seeds of the Three Sisters, symbolizing the Indian tribes ' contributions to agriculture. Like the Presidential Dollar, the year of issue, mint mark, and motto E Pluribus Unum are found on the edge of the coin instead of on the obverse or reverse, which allows for more room for the design. Unlike the Presidential $1 coins from before 2009, "In God We Trust '' remains on the obverse and the vacant space on the edge lettering has been taken up by thirteen stars, symbolizing the Thirteen Colonies. Also, unlike any other denomination of circulating U.S. coinage (but in common with the Presidential $1 coins), the value is inscribed in numerals on the reverse. The act passed by Congress requires that 20 % of the total dollar coins minted in any year during the Presidential $1 Coin Program be Sacagawea dollars bearing the new design. In January 2010, the second reverse design in the series was released which has the theme of "Government '' and the "Great Tree of Peace ''. The 2010 Sacagawea reverse depicts the Hiawatha Belt and five arrows bound together representing unity with the inscription "Haudenosaunee '', a synonym for the Iroquois Confederacy meaning "People of the Longhouse ''. Another inscription is found along the lower edge of the reverse spelling "Great Law of Peace '' (an English translation of Gayanashagowa, the Iroquois Confederacy constitution). The Great Law of Peace was used as a model for the Constitution of the United States. The four links on the belt are meant to symbolize four of the five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, namely the Mohawk, Oneida, Cayuga and Seneca Nations. The Eastern White Pine tree in the middle of the belt represents the fifth Nation, the Onondaga, and is a depiction of the Tree of Peace. In December 2005, Congress decided to create a new series of $1 coins that would honor the former U.S. presidents. In 2007, Presidential coins of four different designs were produced. Another four designs will be produced each year, honoring the Presidents in order of service. (Grover Cleveland is on two coins, since he served two non-consecutive terms.) The Presidential $1 Coin Act is intended to create renewed interest in dollar coins, like that seen during the 50 State Quarters program. At least one third of all dollar coins produced are still Sacagawea coins, with the remaining coins making up the four presidential coins annually. Under federal law (31 U.S.C. § 5112), no coins may be issued featuring a living president, or a president who died less than two years earlier. The presidential dollar coin is the same size and composition as the Sacagawea dollar. "In God We Trust '', the issue year, and the mint mark appear on the edge. The fact that these national mottoes appear on the edge has caused some conservative commentators to decry the designs. The first dollar, honoring George Washington, was released into circulation on February 15, 2007. However, H.R. 2764 became law on December 26, 2007 which moved "In God We Trust '' from the edge to the obverse. A common minting error on this coin, estimated at 80,000, from a mintage of 300,000,000 coins, is the omission of the edge lettering causing a plain outside edge. Because the omission includes the words "In God We Trust '', some in the popular media have dubbed it the "godless '' coin. A false (although at one time widely reported) error is the report that the edge lettering is upside down. The edge lettering does not occur at the same time as the minting of the coins, allowing for the natural occurrence of the lettering in either orientation, except Proof Coins where the date and lettering are all "right - side - up ''. Because of budget constraints and increasing stockpiles of these relatively unpopular coins, the production of new Presidential dollar coins for circulation was suspended on December 11, 2011, by U.S. Treasury Secretary Timothy F. Geithner. Future minting of such coins has been reserved solely for collectors.

describe how the steve martin character meets the criteria of a romantic genius

Roxanne (film) - wikipedia Roxanne is a 1987 American romantic comedy film directed by Fred Schepisi and starring Steve Martin and Daryl Hannah. It is a modern retelling of Edmond Rostand 's 1897 verse play Cyrano de Bergerac, adapted by Steve Martin. C.D. "Charlie '' Bales, the fire chief of the small ski town of Nelson, Washington is intelligent, humorous, charismatic, athletic and skilled. Bales is sensitive about his large nose, which many in town have learned to not mention. He is unable to have it surgically altered because of a dangerous allergy to anesthetics. He is close to many in town, especially his godsister, Dixie, who owns the town diner and several rental homes. He becomes immediately attracted to beautiful newcomer Roxanne Kowalski, an astronomy graduate student renting from Dixie while searching for a new comet during the summer. She adores Bales, but only as a friend, preferring Chris, a handsome but dim fireman. Roxanne goes to Bales for help when Chris fails to advance their relationship further than curious glances. After seeing him pick up a book by Sartre for a friend, she falsely believes Chris is deeply intelligent. When Bales informs Chris of Roxanne 's interest, Chris gets sick, intimidated by intelligent women. Chris starts to write her a letter, but takes all day with little result. He convinces Bales to write the letter, with prose that soon woos Roxanne. When informed that Roxanne wants to meet him, Chris again gets sick and refuses to meet until Bales comes up with a plan to allow him to be as brilliant as his letter makes him appear. Chris arrives at Roxanne 's house with a hunter 's cap on, hiding the earphones that relay Bales ' words. When the equipment fails, Chris bungles the meeting by speaking his own crass thoughts. After Roxanne storms back into the house furious, Chris begs Bales to fix his mess again. At first he repeats what he is told from under a tree beneath Roxanne 's window, but soon also ruins that. Then they switch jackets and hats so Bales can speak the words as Chris. They achieve their goal, and she invites Chris in to make love. Roxanne gets word about the comet and has to go out of town for a week. Since she can not find Chris, she gives Bales the address of her hotel and asks him to tell Chris to write to her. Bales writes her several times a day, each letter more incredible than the last. They affect Roxanne so deeply that she returns early. Bales is writing a new letter to her in Dixie 's diner when he finds out that Chris (who knows nothing about the letters) is on his way to see Roxanne. He arrives at her home and warns Chris that Roxanne would be mentioning some letters that he supposedly wrote. She tries to get Chris to be the man in the letters, revealing that his looks are only secondary to her. Knowing that his looks are all he has, Chris runs out, leaving her confused. Dixie puts the last letter under her door and after reading it, Roxanne calls Bales over. Chris prepares to leave town with a bartender, Sandy, whom he met while Roxanne was away. When she asks if he has told Roxanne (the women are acquaintances), he replies that he will write her a letter since he has a history of it. Bales arrives, unaware that Roxanne knows the truth. She asks him to read one of the letters and then to look at the back, which shows that Dixie revealed its true author. She explodes in anger that he lied to her. He retorts that he simply wanted to tell her how he felt about her, but she was only interested in Chris 's attractiveness. When he reminds her that it only took a few nice words for Chris to get her into bed, she punches him in the face and throws him out. As he prepares to say more, he stops and sniffs the air. He slowly walks back to the firehouse and alerts his team, who then "follow his nose '' until they find and extinguish the fire. During their celebration afterwards, someone mentions his nose and although everyone thinks he will get upset, he does n't. Back home, sitting on his roof, Bales hears someone speaking his words to him. It 's Roxanne, declaring that she realizes now that it was everything from Bales that she loved, not Chris ' looks. Bales descends from the roof and they reconcile. During the credits, she reveals that she named the comet "Charlie '' -- after her father. Steve Martin had always been a fan of the Jose Ferrer version of Cyrano de Bergerac: I remember just thinking it was the greatest thing I ever saw. I think it 's because the character is so strong. He 's like a very smart version of what, coincidentally, is popular in movies today. He 's smarter than everybody else, quicker than everybody else, wittier than everybody else and tops everybody. That 's what the original Cyrano is like. And this just sort of takes that vicious edge off it. In the early 1980s Martin had the idea of updating the play, only with the difference that Cyrano would get the girl in the end. He decided to write the screenplay himself, doing 25 drafts over three years. The film was greenlit at Columbia by then - production chief Guy McElwaine. He was replaced by David Puttnam who liked the script, continued the studio 's support and suggested the casting of Daryl Hannah. It was the first film released under Puttnam 's auspices at Columbia. Roxanne was filmed in the summer of 1986 in the town of Nelson, British Columbia. Steve Martin chose to use the local fire hall on Ward Street as a primary set. Steve Martin 's nose make up took 90 minutes to apply every day and two minutes to take off. "God how I hated that thing, '' he said. Roxanne received an 89 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, with the consensus being: "Though its sweetness borders on sappiness, Roxanne is an unabashedly romantic comedy that remains one of Steve Martin 's funniest ''. Roger Ebert hailed the film as a "gentle, whimsical comedy '', giving it a 3 and half stars of four, also stating: "What makes "Roxanne '' so wonderful is not this fairly straightforward comedy, however, but the way the movie creates a certain ineffable spirit ". It is number # 71 on Bravo 's "100 Funniest Movies ''. It has also won and has been nominated for a number of awards, including:

who sings the song with or without you

With or Without You - wikipedia "With or Without You '' is a song by Irish rock band U2. It is the third track on their fifth studio album, The Joshua Tree (1987), and was released as the album 's lead single on 16 March 1987. The song was the group 's most successful single at the time, becoming their first number - one hit in both the United States and Canada by topping the Billboard Hot 100 for three weeks and the RPM national singles chart for one week, with a further three weeks at number two. "With or Without You '' features sustained guitar parts played by guitarist the Edge with a prototype of the Infinite Guitar, along with vocals by lead singer Bono and a bassline by bassist Adam Clayton. The song originated from a demo recorded in late 1985 that the group continued to work on throughout The Joshua Tree sessions. Ostensibly a troubled love song, the track 's lyrics were inspired by Bono 's conflicting feelings about the lives he led as a musician and domestic man. Critics praised the song upon its release. It is frequently performed on the band 's tours, and it has appeared on many of their compilation albums and concert films. "With or Without You '' is U2 's second most frequently covered song. In 2010, Rolling Stone magazine placed the song at number 132 on their list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''. In late 1985, U2 convened at a house that drummer Larry Mullen Jr. bought to review material the group had written during The Unforgettable Fire Tour. During this time, a rough demo of "With or Without You '' was written, with lead vocalist Bono composing the song 's chord sequence. The band continued to work on the song at STS Studios, creating many permutations of the track, but not making any progress. Guitarist the Edge considered the song at that point to be "awful ''. The track consisted of a Yamaha drum machine beat and a bass part played by bassist Adam Clayton using an Ibanez bass guitar with a short scale. According to Clayton, these early versions of the song sounded too sentimental and "very traditional because the chords just went round and round and round ''. The sessions for The Joshua Tree started in earnest in 1986, and U2 were recording at the Georgian mansion Danesmoate House in Dublin. The group attempted to take the song in a different direction, although Bono was reluctant. Under the direction of co-producers Brian Eno and Daniel Lanois, the Edge pursued more ambient guitar playing, Clayton turned up the volume on his bass, and Mullen experimented with an electronically enhanced drum kit. Despite the work they continued to put into the track, the group considered abandoning the song, as they could not find an arrangement they liked. Bono and his friend Gavin Friday continued to work on the song after Lanois and Eno declined to do so. Bono credits Friday with rescuing the song and rearranging it, believing it could be a hit. Eno added a keyboard arpeggio, similar to the one from "Bad ''. The song 's fate was still in doubt when the Edge was sent a prototype of the Infinite Guitar by Canadian musician Michael Brook, with whom he had collaborated for the Captive soundtrack. The instrument allowed sustained notes to be played, producing "a similar effect to the E-Bow '', but with the ability to provide all the "mid-points between no sustain and infinite sustain '' that the E-Bow can not provide. The prototype included elaborate assembly instructions and as the Edge recollects, "one wrongly placed wire and you could get a nasty belt of electricity. This piece of gear would have failed even the most basic of safety regulations. '' On subsequent tours, his guitar technician occasionally received electric shocks from the instrument when preparing it for performances. Listening to the backing track to "With or Without You '' in the control room, Bono and Friday heard the sustained effect that the Edge was creating with the Infinite Guitar in the other room. The combination of the two playing simultaneously caught their attention. According to Lanois, "I said, ' That sounded pretty cool, ' so we listened back and I said, ' Jesus it 's better than I thought. ' '' The Edge immediately recorded an Infinite Guitar part in two takes. The band considers the song 's recording to be one of the album sessions ' breakthrough moments, as it was recorded amidst concerns that they had run out of ideas. Eno sequenced the song 's electronic drum beat on the Yamaha DX7 synthesiser. Rather than connect it to the recording equipment via a DI unit and maintain the instrument 's pristine sound, the producers plugged it into a Mesa Boogie guitar amplifier and then miked it to give the sound more personality. As a result, Lanois said it sounded "more like people playing in a room ''. The sequenced beat was chosen to give the song a feeling of discipline, so that when Mullen 's acoustic drums enter the song, "they mean something '', in Lanois ' words. Producer Steve Lillywhite was hired by U2 in December 1986 to help mix some songs for The Joshua Tree; "With or Without You '' was one of them. While Lillywhite and engineer Mark Wallis were mixing it, Eno entered the room and told them that he wanted to change the introduction. Wallis said: "And it was kind of awe - inspiring because he said, ' Right, send this guitar through those ten effects over there and send that guitar through those ten effects over there and then feed them back to each other. ' So what started as a traditional bit of rhythm guitar, bass, and drums suddenly became something quite otherworldly and spiritual, and the sound of the music you were hearing started to give you a feeling of where the song was going to go prior to the lyric. I thought that was really visionary. '' Ultimately, "With or Without You '' was the most debated song of those on which Lillywhite worked, as Eno and Lanois each had ideas different from his. Lillywhite, who wanted a more mainstream approach to his mix, favoured "a little more crash, bang '' sound to Mullen 's drums that enter later in the song, while Eno preferred that the drums remain "more mysterious and more supportive ''. Bono wrote the lyrics during his first night visiting Côte d'Azur in 1986, while struggling to reconcile his responsibilities as both a married man and a musician. His wanderlust in belonging to a musical act was often at odds with his domestic life. While writing the lyrics, he realized that neither facet of his life defined him, but rather the tension between the two did. He explained that the final lyric is about torment and how repressing desires only makes them stronger. "With or Without You '' is written in a 4 / 4 time signature and is played at a tempo of 110 beats per minute. Although certain stanzas of lyrics are repeated, the song does not follow a traditional verse - chorus form. Lanois says of it, "It has tension and builds like one of those great Roy Orbison songs, where every section is unique and never repeats. I like that kind of sophistication (...). '' The song begins with a minimal drum beat of eighth notes played by Mullen, while a backing track -- Eno 's synthesiser -- plays a "rippling '' triplet arpeggio of the chord D major. A high sustained guitar part (played by The Edge 's Infinite Guitar) enters, played "dry '' in the left channel before reverberating on the right. At 0: 09, Clayton 's bass guitar begins to play eighth notes in time with the kick drum, and the song 's four - bar sequence of the chord progression D -- A -- Bm -- G, begins. This chord progression is never explicitly played but is "implied '' by the root notes played by Clayton and the guitar parts of The Edge. -- The Edge, on the song 's concluding guitar figure Bono 's vocals enter at 0: 28 in a low register, a stark contrast from Bono 's typical singing style to that point in the group 's career. He stays below the middle C for the first two and a half stanzas, centering his melody on the mediant F ♯. At the end of each of the first two stanzas, his vocals drop an octave, from A to A. Author Susan Fast called Bono 's vocals on "With or Without You '' the first occasion on which he "extended his vocal range downward in an appreciable way ''. At 0: 58, an additional sustained guitar part joins the mix. The drums increase in intensity at 1: 45, before The Edge begins playing the song 's signature guitar riff at 1: 53. The riff, a perfect fifth opening to a sixth, features a prominent use of delay. When the riff is played, it is answered by Bono singing "And you give yourself away '', a line on which backing vocals appear at 2: 06 and 2: 32. A stanza begins in which Bono sings the song 's title in a high, passionate voice as the drums get heavier. At 3: 03, the song bursts out in emotion as Bono begins open - throated "Oh - oh - oh - ohh '' vocals, which are double - tracked, and the rhythm increases to play sixteenth notes on the guitar, cymbals, and tambourine. After another stanza of Bono repeating the song 's title, the music dies down at 3: 38 to a similar state as it was at the beginning of the song. Ten seconds later, Bono sings in a falsetto while a bass synthesiser doubles the bass guitar. After the vocals complete, The Edge begins a simple guitar figure. He explained that its understated nature was meant to resist the temptation to play an intricate guitar solo as an ending. The second time the figure is played, the signature guitar riff from earlier re-appears and the song regains some of its intensity. The song concludes with a fade - out. The lyrics ostensibly describe a troubled relationship between two lovers, although the lyrics have been interpreted in religious contexts. The Washington Post interpreted the song as both an acerbic love song and a tune lamenting the moral contradictions one faces with their religious faith. Toby Creswell echoed these sentiments, saying it "can be read as a song about either marital romance or spiritual need ''. Bono explained that the lyrics had romantic intentions, saying, "there 's nothing more revolutionary than two people loving each other. One, ' cause it 's so uncommon these days, and two, ' cause it 's so difficult to do. '' In 1987, Bono explained that "And you give yourself away '' lyric refers to how he sometimes feels exposed being in U2, and that his openness, both to the public and music press, can do damage to the group. Author Niall Stokes interpreted the line as encompassing the theme of "surrendering the ego '' to one 's love and spiritual faith. According to Bono, the song was heavily influenced by Scott Walker 's album Climate of Hunter. The band 's manager Paul McGuinness was resistant to U2 releasing "With or Without You '' as a single, as he thought it was too sonically unusual for release. Gavin Friday, having helped the band complete the track, disagreed and thought it would be a "certain No. 1 ''. The song was selected as the lead single from The Joshua Tree. United States radio stations were allowed to play the song at 11: 30 a.m. on 4 March 1987, with strong warnings by Island Records against playing it earlier. The single was released on 16 March 1987, two weeks after the album was released. It was the group 's first single to be widely issued on compact disc. Clayton referred to the song 's nature as a challenge to radio, saying, "You do n't expect it there (on radio). In church perhaps. '' "With or Without You '' debuted at number 64 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, and on 16 May 1987, it topped the chart to become U2 's first number - one single in the US, proving Friday 's prediction true. The song spent three weeks atop the chart, and 18 weeks in total on the Hot 100. The song also topped Billboard 's Album Rock Tracks chart, Canada 's RPM Top 100, and the Irish Singles Chart. According to Billboard, the song was the group 's breakthrough with American audiences. The single peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart, spending 11 weeks in the top 75 of the chart. The single also peaked at number two on the Dutch MegaCharts Top 40. In 2009, the song re-entered the UK Singles Chart at number 43 on the week ending 31 May, based on download sales due to Shaun Smith 's performance of the song in the semi-final of Britain 's Got Talent. Two videos were shot in Dublin in February 1987 and were co-directed by Meiert Avis and Matt Mahurin. The first includes abstracts shots of dancer (and Edge 's future wife) Morleigh Steinberg edited in between shots of the band playing the song. A second alternative version can be found in the Super Deluxe version of the album. "With or Without You '' was first played live at the second show on the Joshua Tree Tour on 4 April 1987, and was a regular for the rest of that tour. It was played at most shows on 1989 's Lovetown Tour. During these tours, two extensions to the song not present on the studio version were played: an extra verse with lyrics that typically read "We 'll shine like stars in the summer night / We 'll shine like stars in the winter light / One heart, one hope, one love '' or modifications thereof, which appears on the Rattle and Hum movie; and a snippet of Joy Division 's "Love Will Tear Us Apart '' (along with the "shine like stars '' lyrics) which can be heard in the live album and concert film Live from Paris. Since the PopMart Tour, it has been more common for Bono to repeat the "Ohh '' at the climax of the song, with the "shine like stars '' verse sung rarely. "With or Without You '' was played at most Zoo TV Tour concerts and every concert on the PopMart Tour. It was dropped from the set list during the third leg of the Elevation Tour. It was initially a rare inclusion during the Vertigo Tour - over the two months of the tour 's first leg, it was only played four times. It became a regular concert inclusion during stadium concerts on the second leg in Europe and remained in the set list for the third leg. It has been played on every night of the U2 360 ° Tour, occasionally with the "shine like stars '' coda. The song regularly closed out the main set on the Innocence + Experience Tour, again occasionally with the "shine like stars '' coda. Live performances of the song also appear in the group 's concert films Zoo TV: Live from Sydney, PopMart: Live from Mexico City, Elevation 2001: Live from Boston, U2 Go Home: Live from Slane Castle, Vertigo 05: Live from Milan, U2 3D, and U2 360 ° at the Rose Bowl. Rolling Stone called it an "inventively arranged tune... that builds from a soothing beginning to a resounding climax ''. Bill Graham of Hot Press praised the song, suggesting it may be Bono 's "most controlled vocal, building from an almost conversational first verse over a bare rhythm section to a soul - baring confession ''. Graham suggested the lyric "And you give yourself away '' was essential to U2 's message. The Sunday Independent suggested that the song was proof the band could be commercially accessible, yet not resort to rock clichés. NME called it "some kind of love song '' and found musical and lyrical symmetry between the song and the group 's 1981 album October. Mike DeGagne of AllMusic praised the song for Eno 's and Lanois ' "gleaming '' production work, Bono 's vocals and "poetic deftness '', and for The Edge 's "astute but assertive '' guitar playing. DeGagne described Bono 's singing as "unleashing all his vocal power, moving from a soft, subtle intro and middle to an explosive burst of unyielding energy toward the end ''. He made religious comparisons to the musical arrangement, saying the "discerning air sounds almost church - like as it slowly unravels ''. Readers of Rolling Stone voted "With or Without You '' the "Best Single '' in a 1987 end - of - year poll, while it finished in 15th place on the "Best Singles '' list from The Village Voice 's 1987 Pazz & Jop critics ' poll. "With or Without You '' has become one of U2 's most well - known songs, and it often appears in music critics ' rankings of the best songs of all - time. In 2000, the song appeared at number eight on Rolling Stone 's list of "100 Greatest Pop Songs '', compiled by Rolling Stone and MTV music critics to rank songs released since The Beatles ' breakthrough. In 2005, Blender ranked the song at number 268 on its list of "The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born ''. The following year, readers of Q voted "With or Without You '' the 17th - greatest song in history. In 2012, Slant Magazine listed "With or Without You '' as the 40th best single of the 1980s. Music television network VH1 ranked the song number 13 on the "100 Greatest Songs of the 80s '' countdown in its series The Greatest. In 2010, Rolling Stone magazine placed the song at number 132 on its list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''. The song appeared as one of seven U2 songs in Toby Creswell 's 2006 music reference book 1001 Songs: The Great Songs of All Time and the Artists, Stories, and Secrets. Creswell said the song struck a perfect balance between the "vigour and spit and attitude '' of the group 's teenage years and their new - found appreciation for the "power of understatement ''. U2 have included the song on two of their compilation albums, The Best of 1980 -- 1990 and U218 Singles. U2 Additional personnel shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone Footnotes Bibliography

east west and north south corridor cross each other at

North -- South and East -- West Corridor - Wikipedia The North -- South -- East -- West Corridor (NS - EW) is the largest ongoing highway project in India. It is the second phase of the National Highways Development Project (NHDP), and consists of building 7300 kilometers of four / six lane expressways connecting Srinagar, Kanyakumari, Kochi, Porbandar and Silchar, at a cost of US $12.317 billion (at 1999 prices). As of 31 March 2018, 6875 of 7142 kilometers project has been completed. In combination with the Golden Quadrilateral network, and port connectivity highways, the NS - EW Corridor forms a key part of the Indian highway network, connecting many of its important manufacturing, commerce and cultural centers. As of May 2012, India has completed and placed in use some 15,800 kilometers of such 4 - lane highways. The NS -- EW project is managed by the National Highways Authority of India under the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways. Only National Highways are used in the two corridors. This is a 4,000 kilometres (2,500 mi) corridor via NH 44 (Srinagar -- Jalandhar -- Delhi -- Agra -- Gwalior -- Jhansi -- Narsinghpur - Lakhnadon -- Nagpur - Hyderabad - Bengaluru - Salem -- Madurai - Kanyakumari), branch road NH 544 (Salem -- Coimbatore -- Palakkad - Kochi) This is a 3,300 kilometres (2,100 mi) corridor via NH 27 (Porbandar -- Rajkot - Samakhiali -- Radhanpur -- Pindwara -- Shivpuri -- Lucknow -- Muzaffarpur -- Darbhanga - Purnia -- Galgalia -- Bijni -- Guwahati -- Nagaon -- Dabaka -- Silchar). There is popular demand for the extension of the East West Corridor from Silchar to Moreh via Jiribam and Imphal, and from Nagaon to Stilwell Road via Jorhat, Dibrugarh, Tinsukia and Ledo. These two extensions may increase the cross border trade with South East Asia. NH 8 - a section near Rajasthan, in western India, of NSEW Corridor highway NH 57 - a section near Darbhanga, Bihar, of NSEW Corridor highway A section of NH - 47 along the Erode Bypass of NSEW Corridor highway in Tamil Nadu Faizabad is part of the East - West Corridor via the NH 27

who used a question and answer format when teaching

Socratic method - wikipedia The Socratic method, also can be known as maieutics, method of elenchus, elenctic method, or Socratic debate, is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals, based on asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and to draw out ideas and underlying presumptions. It is a dialectical method, involving a discussion in which the defense of one point of view is questioned; one participant may lead another to contradict themselves in some way, thus weakening the defender 's point. This method is named after the Classical Greek philosopher Socrates and is introduced by him in Plato 's Theaetetus as midwifery (maieutics) because it is employed to bring out definitions implicit in the interlocutors ' beliefs, or to help them further their understanding. The Socratic method is a method of hypothesis elimination, in that better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. The Socratic method searches for general, commonly held truths that shape beliefs and scrutinizes them to determine their consistency with other beliefs. The basic form is a series of questions formulated as tests of logic and fact intended to help a person or group discover their beliefs about some topic, exploring definitions or logoi (singular logos) and seeking to characterize general characteristics shared by various particular instances. In the second half of the 5th century BC, sophists were teachers who specialized in using the tools of philosophy and rhetoric to entertain, impress, or persuade an audience to accept the speaker 's point of view. Socrates promoted an alternative method of teaching which came to be called the Socratic method. Socrates began to engage in such discussions with his fellow Athenians after his friend from youth, Chaerephon, visited the Oracle of Delphi, which confirmed that no man in Greece was wiser than Socrates. Socrates saw this as a paradox, and began using the Socratic method to answer his conundrum. Diogenes Laërtius, however, wrote that Protagoras invented the "Socratic '' method. Plato famously formalized the Socratic elenctic style in prose -- presenting Socrates as the curious questioner of some prominent Athenian interlocutor -- in some of his early dialogues, such as Euthyphro and Ion, and the method is most commonly found within the so - called "Socratic dialogues '', which generally portray Socrates engaging in the method and questioning his fellow citizens about moral and epistemological issues. But in his later dialogues, such as Theaetetus or Sophist, Plato had a different method to philosophical discussions, namely Dialectic. Elenchus (Ancient Greek: ἔλεγχος elengkhos "argument of disproof or refutation; cross-examining, testing, scrutiny esp. for purposes of refutation '') is the central technique of the Socratic method. The Latin form elenchus (plural elenchi) is used in English as the technical philosophical term. The most common adjectival form in English is elenctic; elenchic and elenchtic are also current. In Plato 's early dialogues, the elenchus is the technique Socrates uses to investigate, for example, the nature or definition of ethical concepts such as justice or virtue. According to Vlastos, it has the following steps: One elenctic examination can lead to a new, more refined, examination of the concept being considered, in this case it invites an examination of the claim: "Courage is wise endurance of the soul ''. Most Socratic inquiries consist of a series of elenchi and typically end in puzzlement known as aporia. Frede points out that Vlastos ' conclusion in step # 4 above makes nonsense of the aporetic nature of the early dialogues. Having shown that a proposed thesis is false is insufficient to conclude that some other competing thesis must be true. Rather, the interlocutors have reached aporia, an improved state of still not knowing what to say about the subject under discussion. The exact nature of the elenchus is subject to a great deal of debate, in particular concerning whether it is a positive method, leading to knowledge, or a negative method used solely to refute false claims to knowledge. W.K.C. Guthrie in The Greek Philosophers sees it as an error to regard the Socratic method as a means by which one seeks the answer to a problem, or knowledge. Guthrie claims that the Socratic method actually aims to demonstrate one 's ignorance. Socrates, unlike the Sophists, did believe that knowledge was possible, but believed that the first step to knowledge was recognition of one 's ignorance. Guthrie writes, "(Socrates) was accustomed to say that he did not himself know anything, and that the only way in which he was wiser than other men was that he was conscious of his own ignorance, while they were not. The essence of the Socratic method is to convince the interlocutor that whereas he thought he knew something, in fact he does not. '' (pg 74) Socrates generally applied his method of examination to concepts that seem to lack any concrete definition; e.g., the key moral concepts at the time, the virtues of piety, wisdom, temperance, courage, and justice. Such an examination challenged the implicit moral beliefs of the interlocutors, bringing out inadequacies and inconsistencies in their beliefs, and usually resulting in aporia. In view of such inadequacies, Socrates himself professed his ignorance, but others still claimed to have knowledge. Socrates believed that his awareness of his ignorance made him wiser than those who, though ignorant, still claimed knowledge. While this belief seems paradoxical at first glance, it in fact allowed Socrates to discover his own errors where others might assume they were correct. This claim was known by the anecdote of the Delphic oracular pronouncement that Socrates was the wisest of all men. (Or, rather, that no man was wiser than Socrates.) Socrates used this claim of wisdom as the basis of his moral exhortation. Accordingly, he claimed that the chief goodness consists in the caring of the soul concerned with moral truth and moral understanding, that "wealth does not bring goodness, but goodness brings wealth and every other blessing, both to the individual and to the state '', and that "life without examination (dialogue) is not worth living ''. It is with this in mind that the Socratic method is employed. The motive for the modern usage of this method and Socrates ' use are not necessarily equivalent. Socrates rarely used the method to actually develop consistent theories, instead using myth to explain them. The Parmenides dialogue shows Parmenides using the Socratic method to point out the flaws in the Platonic theory of the Forms, as presented by Socrates; it is not the only dialogue in which theories normally expounded by Plato / Socrates are broken down through dialectic. Instead of arriving at answers, the method was used to break down the theories we hold, to go "beyond '' the axioms and postulates we take for granted. Therefore, myth and the Socratic method are not meant by Plato to be incompatible; they have different purposes, and are often described as the "left hand '' and "right hand '' paths to good and wisdom. A Socratic Circle (also known as a Socratic Seminar) is a pedagogical approach based on the Socratic method and uses a dialogic approach to understand information in a text. Its systematic procedure is used to examine a text through questions and answers founded on the beliefs that all new knowledge is connected to prior knowledge, that all thinking comes from asking questions, and that asking one question should lead to asking further questions. A Socratic Circle is not a debate. The goal of this activity is to have participants work together to construct meaning and arrive at an answer, not for one student or one group to "win the argument ''. This approach is based on the belief that participants seek and gain deeper understanding of concepts in the text through thoughtful dialogue rather than memorizing information that has been provided for them. While Socratic Circles can differ in structure, and even in name, they typically involve the following components: a passage of text that students must read beforehand and two concentric circles of students: an outer circle and an inner circle. The inner circle focuses on exploring and analysing the text through the act of questioning and answering. During this phase, the outer circle remains silent. Students in the outer circle are much like scientific observers watching and listening to the conversation of the inner circle. When the text has been fully discussed and the inner circle is finished talking, the outer circle provides feedback on the dialogue that took place. This process alternates with the inner circle students going to the outer circle for the next meeting and vice versa. The length of this process varies depending on the text used for the discussion. The teacher may decide to alternate groups within one meeting, or they may alternate at each separate meeting. The most significant difference between this activity and most typical classroom activities involves the role of the teacher. In Socratic Circles the students lead the discussion and questioning. The teacher 's role is to ensure the discussion advances regardless of the particular direction the discussion takes. Teachers use Socratic Circles in different ways. The structure it takes may look different in each classroom. While this is not an exhaustive list, teachers may use one of the following structures to administer Socratic Seminar: No matter what structure the teacher employs, the basic premise of the seminar / circles is to turn partial control and direction of the classroom over to the students. The seminars encourage students to work together, creating meaning from the text and to stay away from trying to find a correct interpretation. The emphasis is on critical and creative thinking. A Socratic Circle text is a tangible document that creates a thought - provoking discussion. The text ought to be appropriate for the participants ' current level of intellectual and social development. It provides the anchor for dialogue whereby the facilitator can bring the participants back to the text if they begin to digress. Furthermore, the seminar text enables the participants to create a level playing field -- ensuring that the dialogical tone within the classroom remains consistent and pure to the subject or topic at hand. Some practitioners argue that "texts '' do not have to be confined to printed texts, but can include artifacts such as objects, physical spaces, and the like. Pertinent elements of an effective Socratic text Socratic seminar texts are able to challenge participants ' thinking skills by having these characteristics: 1. Ideas and values - The text must introduce ideas and values that are complex and difficult to summarize. Powerful discussions arise from personal connections to abstract ideas and from implications to personal values. 2. Complexity and challenge - The text must be rich in ideas and complexity and open to interpretation. Ideally it should require multiple readings, but should be neither far above the participants ' intellectual level nor very long. 3. Relevance to participants and curriculum - An effective text has identifiable themes that are recognizable and pertinent to the lives of the participants. Themes in the text should relate to the curriculum. 4. Ambiguity - The text must be approachable from a variety of different perspectives, including perspectives that seem mutually exclusive, thus provoking critical thinking and raising important questions. The absence of right and wrong answers promotes a variety of discussion and encourages individual contributions. Two different ways to select a text Socratic texts can be divided into two main categories: 1. Print texts (e.g. short stories, poems, and essays) and non-print texts (e.g. photographs, sculptures, and maps); and 2. Subject area, which can draw from print or non-print artifacts. As examples, language arts can be approached through poems, history through written or oral historical speeches, science through policies on environmental issues, math through mathematical proofs, health through nutrition labels, and physical education through fitness guidelines. Socratic Circles are based upon the interaction of peers. The focus is to explore multiple perspectives on a given issue or topic. Socratic questioning is used to help students apply the activity to their learning. The pedagogy of Socratic questions is open - ended, focusing on broad, general ideas rather than specific, factual information. The questioning technique emphasizes a level of questioning and thinking where there is no single right answer. Socratic circles generally start with an open - ended question proposed either by the leader or by another participant. There is no designated first speaker; as individuals participate in Socratic circles, they gain experience that enables them to be effective in this role of initial questioner. The leader keeps the topic focused by asking a variety of questions about the text itself, as well as questions to help clarify positions when arguments become confused. The leader also seeks to coax reluctant participants into the discussion, and to limit contributions from those who tend to dominate. She or he prompts participants to elaborate on their responses and to build on what others have said. The leader guides participants to deepen, clarify, and paraphrase, and to synthesize a variety of different views. The participants share the responsibility with the leader to maintain the quality of the Socratic circle. They listen actively in order to respond effectively to what others have contributed. This teaches the participants to think and speak persuasively using the discussion to support their position. Participants must demonstrate respect for different ideas, thoughts and values, and must not interrupt each other. Questions can be created individually or in small groups. All participants are given the opportunity to take part in the discussion. Socratic Circles specify three types of questions to prepare: The Socratic method, in the form of Socratic questioning, has been adapted for psychotherapy, most prominently in Classical Adlerian psychotherapy, Logotherapy, Cognitive Therapy and Reality Therapy. It can be used to clarify meaning, feeling, and consequences, as well as to gradually unfold insight, or explore alternative actions. The Socratic method has also recently inspired a new form of applied philosophy: socratic dialogue, also called philosophical counseling. In Europe Gerd B. Achenbach is probably the best known practitioner, and Michel Weber has also proposed another variant of the practice.

last person convicted of treason in the united states

List of people convicted of treason - wikipedia This is a list of people convicted of treason. Some countries have a high constitutional hurdle to conviction for treason, while many countries have less stringent definitions. The Republic of Hawaii government had one trial for treason after the failed 1895 Counter-Revolution in Hawaii. Those charged were found guilty, but pardoned after serving time in prison. For the betrayal of General Stefan Rowecki to the Gestapo: For betrayal of the Polish People 's Republic:

when is godzilla planet of the monsters part 2 coming out

Godzilla: Planet of the Monsters - wikipedia Godzilla: Planet of the Monsters (GODZILLA 怪獣 惑星, Gojira: Kaijū Wakusei, also known as Godzilla Part 1: Planet of the Monsters and Godzilla: Monster Planet for short) is a 2017 Japanese computer - animated science fiction kaiju film featuring Godzilla, produced by Toho Animation and animated by Polygon Pictures, in association with Netflix. It is the 32nd film in the Godzilla franchise, the 30th Godzilla film produced by Toho, and the first animated film in the franchise. It is the first film in the anime trilogy and is co-directed by Kōbun Shizuno and Hiroyuki Seshita. The film was released theatrically in Japan on November 17, 2017 and released worldwide on Netflix on January 17, 2018. In the last summer of the 20th century, giant monsters began appearing all over the world and wreaking havoc. A powerful creature called Godzilla appeared which destroyed humans and monsters alike. Two species of aliens, the Exif and the Bilusaludo, arrived with the former attempting to convert humanity to their religion and the latter seeking to emigrate to Earth with promises to defeat Godzilla with Mechagodzilla, should humanity accept them. However, the Bilusaludo were unable to activate Mechagodzilla, which forced the aliens and humanity to abandon Earth and emigrate to Tau Ceti e via the Aratrum. 20 years later and 11.9 light years away, Captain Haruo Sakaki locks himself in a shuttle, threatening to bomb the area unless the Aratrum leaves Planet Tau - e and abandons the emigration project. Haruo believes the planet is uninhabitable and the emigration crew only consists of the elderly, including his grandfather, because he believes the Aratrum 's committee are trying to reduce the population due to limited resources. Haruo fails, is arrested and thrown in a cell where he witnesses the emigration shuttle exploding upon entering the planet 's atmosphere. Metphies, an Exif priest, visits Haruo, where he hands him classified data regarding Godzilla. Haruo anonymously publishes an essay detailing Godzilla 's weak points, which convinces the central committee to return to Earth after concluding that finding another habitable planet seems unlikely. Upon returning to Earth, the Aratrum sends recon drones to scout the Earth which reveal that Godzilla is still alive. Metphies explains to the committee that they can not co-exist with Godzilla and suggests killing it. He also explains that the anonymous essay was the result of a thorough investigation, promising to reveal the author under the condition that Haruo is released. Haruo is released on bail and explains to the committee that a certain unknown organ in Godzilla 's body can emit a high frequency electromagnetic pulse that generates an asymmetrical permeable shield. Haruo proposes shoving an EMP probe within the cracked organ before it regenerates so Godzilla can implode. However, Haruo stresses that close quarters combat would be needed for accurately coordinated attacks in order to find its weak organ, as well as 600 people. The committee reluctantly accepts Haruo 's plan. However, upon landing two battalions on Earth, it is discovered that 20,000 years have passed and that Godzilla 's presence has radically altered Earth 's biosphere. The battalions are attacked by a group of flying creatures called Servums that exhibit biological similarities to Godzilla, causing critical damage to several of the landing ships. Leland, the company 's commander, orders a retreat but Metphies stresses that they would need to rendezvous with Companies D and E through a pass in an area Godzilla frequents. The group mobilizes and soon encounter Godzilla. Haruo proceeds with the original plan on his own and attacks Godzilla. Leland manages to provoke Godzilla to use its atomic breath, but at the cost of his life. Leland 's actions reveal that Godzilla 's weak point is its dorsal fins. Command falls to Metphies, who promotes Haruo to commander. In a speech, Haruo convinces the remaining survivors to continue with the plan and defeat Godzilla. The group attacks Godzilla and manage to trap it within a collapsed mountain pass. EMP probes are drilled into Godzilla 's dorsal fins which causes it to implode. Commenting after the apparent victory, the group 's environmental biologist Martin Lazzari theorizes that this Godzilla may be different from the one that drove humanity away, believing it to be an offspring. Subsequently, the original Godzilla, which has grown exponentially to 300m in height, emerges from beneath a nearby mountain and destroys most of the remaining crew. Trapped beneath rubble, Haruo watches Godzilla leave, vowing to kill it. In a post-credits scene, Haruo wakes up in a secluded area, finding an indigenous girl next to him. In August 2016, Toho announced that an animated Godzilla film was being developed, targeted for a 2017 release. Gen Urobuchi was announced as the writer, Kobun Shizuno and Hiroyuki Seshita as the directors, and Polygon Pictures was announced as the studio that would animate the film. In January 2017, Urobuchi announced the main cast on his Twitter account. On March 26, 2017, Toho announced that the film would be the first film in a new trilogy. About the production, co-director Shizuno stated, "From the start, we had the blessing of Toho to not be constrained by previous entries in the franchise, and with the freedom of imagination offered by animation I feel we have come up with a cool new form for Godzilla. '' On Godzilla 's new design, co-director Seshita stated, "With his masses of muscle fibers and unique body tissue to support his enormous bulk, this is an extraordinarily rugged - looking physique. It was an overwhelming presence that reverberated through the whole project, like a fearsome deity that even we who created it must prostrate ourselves before. That is our Godzilla. '' The English dub was produced by Post Haste Digital. A stage event for the film was held at AnimeJapan 2017 on March 26, 2017. The film 's directors are scheduled to attend the Annecy International Animation Film Festival to reveal more details regarding the film. In June 2017, a new poster detailing Godzilla 's design was revealed with the tagline "Despair Evolves ''. On August 16, 2017, a new trailer and poster were released with the tagline "Who will go extinct -- humans, or Godzilla? '' In March 2017, it was announced that the film will be streamed in 190 countries via Netflix following the film 's Japanese theatrical release. Greg Peters, President of Netflix Japan stated, "Working with the best creators such as Toho in bringing Godzilla to Netflix users in over 190 countries marks a major milestone for us ''. That same month, a teaser poster revealed that the film will be released theatrically in Japan on November 17, 2017. On January 7, 2018, Netflix announced that the film will be released worldwide on their platform on January 17, 2018. Godzilla: Planet of the Monsters reached # 3 at the box office on its opening weekend, earning ¥ 103 million from 71,200 admissions within two days and is projected to earn an additional ¥ 500 million. Brian Ashcraft of the Kotaku website felt that the characters "are n't all that interesting '' but did state that the "anime version of Godzilla is surprisingly effective and frightening '' and that despite his complaints, the "overall experience was good '' and "It 's not a perfect picture, but it was a powerful proof of concept: Godzilla works as an anime. '' Matt Schley from The Japan Times praised the film 's CG animation, stating, "even skeptics will admit the 3 - D version of the king of the monsters looks pretty darn cool '' but felt the film was n't "nearly as thematically ambitious as its predecessor '' and concluded by stating, "But still, with its impressive 3 - D animation and action sequences, ' Planet of the Monsters ' has the makings of something interesting. '' In Japan, the film was released on DVD and Blu - ray by Toho Video on May 16, 2018. Godzilla: Planet of the Monsters is the first film in the anime trilogy. The second film in the trilogy, titled Godzilla: City on the Edge of Battle was released on May 18, 2018. The third and final film in the trilogy, titled Godzilla: The Planet Eater is scheduled to be released on November 9, 2018.

national award for best film 2017 on social issue

National Film award for Best Film on other social Issues - wikipedia The National Film Award for Best Film on Other Social Issues is one of the category in the National Film Awards presented annually by the Directorate of Film Festivals, the organization set up by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting in India. It is one of several awards presented for feature films and is awarded with Rajat Kamal (Silver Lotus). The National Film Awards were established in 1954 to "encourage production of the films of a high aesthetic and technical standard and educational and culture value '' and also planned to included awards for regional films. In 1984, at the 32nd National Film Awards various new categories were instituted for Swarna Kamal and Rajat Kamal. Categories like the Best Supporting Actor, Best Supporting Actress, Best Costume Design along with the Best Film on Other Social Issues were introduced for the Rajat Kamal. This category was introduced to be awarded annually for films produced in the year across the country, in all Indian languages. As of 2016 since its inception, the award has been present thirty - three times to thirty - six films. It has been presented for films in seven languages with the highest being twelve in Hindi, followed by nine in Malayalam, five in Tamil, four in Marathi, three in Bengali, two in Kannada and one in Telugu. It was not presented on two occasion in 1985 (33rd ceremony) and 2011 (59th ceremony). The inaugural award was conferred upon production banner Sanket (Rajat Kamal and ₹ 30,000) and director Shankar Nag (Rajat Kamal and ₹ 15,000) for their Kannada film Accident for dealing with the bold topic of whistleblowing against political corruption and dealing with bad effects of alcoholism. On five occasion the award was shared by two films: in 1987 by Tamil films Ore Oru Gramathiley and Vedham Pudhithu, in 1993 by Janani (Bengali) and Naaraayam (Malayalam), in 1994 by Wheelchair (Bengali) and Parinayam (Malayalam), in 2000 by Munnudi (Kannada) and Vetri Kodi Kattu (Tamil), and in 2003 by Hindi films Koi... Mil Gaya and Gangaajal. The most recent recipient of the award, the production banner Rashmi Sharma Telefilms Limited and director Aniruddha Roy Chowdhury, have received Rajat Kamal and ₹ 1, 50,000 each for their Hindi courtroom drama film Pink. The film discusses the social issue of crimes against women and political meddling in a court case. The award includes ' Rajat Kamal ' (Silver Lotus) and cash prize to the producers and director each. The first award in 1984 had a monetary association of ₹ 30,000 to the producers and ₹ 15,000 to the directors. In 1995 at the 43rd award ceremony the Marathi film Doghi was honoured and the cash prices were revised to ₹ 30,000 each presented to the director duo Sumitra Bhave -- Sunil Sukthankar and co-producers National Film Development Corporation of India (NFDC) and Doordarshan. The monetary association was again revised to ₹ 1, 50,000 to both the producers and directors in 2006 at the 54th ceremony where producer Policherla Venkata Subbiah and director Satish Kasetty 's Telugu film Hope was the winner. This has remained same as of 2016. Following are the award winners over the years:

who went home on the worst cooks in america

Worst Cooks in America - Wikipedia Worst Cooks in America is an American reality television series that premiered on January 3, 2010, on the Food Network. The show takes 12 to 16 contestants (referred to as "recruits '') with very poor cooking skills through a culinary boot camp, to earn a cash prize of $25,000 and a Food Network cooking set. The recruits are trained on the various basic cooking techniques including: baking, knife skills, temperature, seasoning and preparation. The final challenge is to cook a restaurant quality three - course meal for three food critics. The show premiered on January 3, 2010. The show was initially hosted by chef Anne Burrell and chef Beau MacMillan in Season 1. MacMillan was replaced by chef Robert Irvine on Season 2, followed by chef Bobby Flay for Seasons 3 -- 5. On November 20, 2014, a Food Network press release announced that chef Tyler Florence will be paired with chef Burrell to host Season 6, to debut on January 4, 2015. Burrell was the winning instructor in seasons 1, 2, 3, 6, 7 and 8 with Flay winning in Seasons 4 -- 5. Rachael Ray and Burrell hosted the Season 7 special celebrity edition, which premiered September 23, 2015. During the finale of Season 7, a trailer previewing Season 8 was shown and was aired in January 2016 with the return of Tyler Florence. Chefs Beau MacMillan and Anne Burrell lead an intense culinary boot camp. They have six recruits each, and every week they must eliminate one recruit from each of their teams until there is only one from each team left. The final two create a three - course meal to fool a panel of restaurant critics into believing that the meal was created by the acclaimed chefs. Twelve chefs competed in the first season of Worst Cooks in America. Hometowns and occupations are available from the Food Network website. Chef Anne 's team was known as the Red Team and Chef Beau 's team was known as the Blue Team. Casting for season 2 of Worst Cooks in America was held at the LA Marriott Burbank Airport, Hotel & Convention Center on March 27, 2010. The Food Network also began accepting online video applications for season 2. Food Network 's website announced that Robert Irvine would replace Beau MacMillan for season 2. Season 2 debuted on January 2, 2011. In this season the chefs had eight recruits each. In the first episode, a group of selected novice cooks were to prepare a dish from scratch so the chefs would get an idea of how poor their skills were. After tasting all the items, the chefs took turns picking team members for their rival chef. The first season started off with 24 novice cooks but only the worst 12 were chosen for a team. In the second season, the first episode began with 16 amateurs and all took part for the remainder of that episode. In the penultimate episode of the season, the remaining four recruits learned and replicated a dessert. After this, in the first season, the recruits had to instruct a group of high school students how to replicate the dessert recipe. In the second one, the recruits were assigned the dessert to serve after both chefs, and a special guest enjoyed a main dish. After learning and replicating a dessert, the recruits had to prepare a meal for both chefs and a surprise guest, usually a spouse or other family member. The first season 's main dishes were an improved version of the recruits ' audition meal. The special guests in the second season got to choose what they wanted the students to make them. Two recruits remained in the final episode and had to prepare an appetizer, main dish, and dessert for a panel of three food critics. The critics in season 1 thought that the final meal was prepared by the chefs until after they sampled all the courses. In season 2, the critics learned their meal was prepared by the recruits immediately after entering the restaurant. Anne Burrell and Bobby Flay hosted season 3. ^ Note 1: In Episode 3, Team Bobby (blue team) won the first challenge, he therefore got to choose one person from Team Anne (red team) to go to his team, and then choose one person from his team to go to the other team. He chose David to go to Team Anne 's team and chose Melissa from Team Anne 's team to join his team. ^ Note 1: In Episode 3 Team Anne (red team) won the first challenge, she therefore got to choose one person from Team Bobby (blue team) to go to her team, and then chose one person from her team to go to the other team. She chose Stephanie to go to Team Bobby 's team and chose Carie from Team Bobby 's team to join her team. Tyler Florence joins Anne Burrell to host seasons 6, replacing Bobby Flay after 3 seasons. The season premiered on January 4, 2015 to 2,123,000 viewers. The second episode was lower at 1,456,000 viewers, with the third episode rising to 1,732,000 viewers and the fourth episode reached 1,689,000 viewers. the 5th episode reached 1,634,000 viewers. The sixth episode received 1.55 million viewers. Rachael Ray joins Anne Burrell to host season 7. The winner earns a $50,000 donation for their chosen charity. Because this season had only 7 total recruits, each team 's worst recruit from that week 's Main Dish challenge competed head to head in a quickfire elimination challenge instead of eliminating both recruits each week. This challenge involved more basic cooking techniques (e.g. knife skills) and the winner would be decided by a blind judging from both Anne and Rachael. The winning recruit stayed in the competition while the losing recruit was eliminated. Tyler Florence joins Anne Burrell to host season 8. Rachael Ray returns with Anne Burrell to host season 2 of the Celebrity Edition. The winner earns a $50,000 donation for their chosen charity. The season premiered on September 14, 2016 to 1,185,000 viewers. Rachael Ray joins Anne Burrell to host season 10. The season premiered on January 1, 2017. In Episode 6, Both Chef Anne and Chef Rachael decided not to send anyone from their teams home. Rachael Ray returns with Anne Burrell to host season 3 of the Celebrity Edition. The season premiered on August 23, 2017 Note: Vivica was originally eliminated on September 20. In Episode 7, airing on October 4, both Vivica and Sean returned to the competition for a redemption skill drill. Vivica won the drill, re-entered the competition and was then eliminated following the main challenge. Tyler Florence joins Anne Burrell to host season 12. Tyler Florence returns with Anne Burrell to host season 4 of the Celebrity Edition. The season will premiere on April 15, 2018

which lines in sonnet 2 form the couplet

Petrarchan sonnet - wikipedia The Petrarchan sonnet is a sonnet form not developed by Petrarch himself, but rather by a string of Renaissance poets. Because of the structure of Italian, the rhyme scheme of the Petrarchan sonnet is more easily fulfilled in that language than in English. The original Italian sonnet form divides the poem 's 14 lines into two parts, the first part being an octave and the second being a sestet. The rhyme scheme for the octave is typically abbaabb a. The sestet is more flexible. Petrarch typically used cdecde or cdcdcd for the sestet. Some other possibilities for the sestet include cddcdd, cddece, or cddccd (as in Wordsworth 's "Nuns Fret Not at Their Convents Narrow Room '' poem). This form was used in the earliest English sonnets by Wyatt and others. For background on the pre-English sonnet, see Robert Canary 's web page, The Continental Origins of the Sonnet. In a strict Petrarchan sonnet, the sestet does not end with a couplet (since this would tend to divide the sestet into a quatrain and a couplet). However, in Italian sonnets in English, this rule is not always observed, and cddcee and cdcdee are also used. The octave and sestet have special functions in a Petrarchan sonnet. The octave 's purpose is to introduce a problem, express a desire, reflect on reality, or otherwise present a situation that causes doubt or a conflict within the speaker 's soul and inside an animal and object in the story. It usually does this by introducing the problem within its first quatrain (unified four - line section) and developing it in the second. The beginning of the sestet is known as the volta, and it introduces a pronounced change in tone in the sonnet; the change in rhyme scheme marks the turn. The sestet 's purpose as a whole is to make a comment on the problem or to apply a solution to it. The pair are separate but usually used to reinforce a unified argument -- they are often compared to two strands of thought organically converging into one argument, rather than a mechanical deduction. Moreover, Petrarch 's own sonnets almost never had a rhyming couplet at the end as this would suggest logical deduction instead of the intended rational correlation of the form. Poets adopting the Petrarchan sonnet form often adapt the form to their own ends to create various effects. These poets do not necessarily restrict themselves to the metrical or rhyme schemes of the traditional Petrarchan form; some use iambic hexameter, while others do not observe the octave - sestet division created by the traditional rhyme scheme. Whatever the changes made by poets exercising artistic license, no "proper '' Italian sonnet has more than five different rhymes in it. Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey are both known for their translations of Petrarch 's sonnets from Italian into English. While Howard tended to use the English sonnet form in his own work, reserving the Petrarchan form for his translations of Petrarch, Wyatt made extensive use of the Italian sonnet form in the poems of his that were not translation and adaptation work. As a result, he is often credited for integrating the Petrarchan sonnet into English vernacular tradition. The form also gave rise to an ' anti-Petrarchan ' convention which may have revealed the mistress to be ugly and unworthy. The convention was also mocked, or adopted for alternative persuasive means by many of the Inns of Court writers during the Renaissance. The sonnet is split in two groups: the "octave '' (of 8 lines) and the "sestet '' (of 6 lines), for a total of 14 lines. The octave (the first 8 lines) typically introduces the theme or problem using a rhyme scheme of abba abba. The sestet (the last 6 lines) provides resolution for the poem and rhymes variously, but usually follows the schemes of cdecde or cdccdc. Octave - introduces the theme or problem Sestet - solves the problem

hannah montana episode choosing between jake and jesse

Miley Stewart - wikipedia Miley Ray Stewart is the fictional main character in the Disney Channel television series Hannah Montana, portrayed by Miley Cyrus. She first appeared on television in the pilot episode "Lilly, Do You Want to Know a Secret? '' on March 24, 2006, and made her final appearance on the series finale "Wherever I Go '' on January 16, 2011. The character also appeared in the 2009 feature film Hannah Montana: The Movie. Miley is a normal teenage girl who, as her alter ego Hannah Montana, secretly leads a double life as a world - famous pop star. The character was originally named Chloe Stewart but was changed to Miley Stewart. Cyrus learned about the casting for a new Disney show at the age of 11 through a Nashville talent agent. She sent in a tape auditioning for the show 's best friend role, but received a call asking her to audition for the lead. After she sent in a tape and was flown to Hollywood for further auditions, Cyrus was told that she was too young and too small for the role. However, Cyrus ' persistence and ability to sing in addition to act caused the show 's producers to invite her back for further auditions. Producers eventually narrowed the large pool of candidates down to three actresses, including Cyrus and Taylor Momsen, and gave the part to Cyrus, then twelve. According to Disney Channel president Gary Marsh, Cyrus was chosen because of her energetic and lively performance and was seen as a person who "loves every minute of life, '' with the "everyday relatability of Hilary Duff and the stage presence of Shania Twain. '' Cyrus ' casting also led to the casting of her real life father, Billy Ray Cyrus, as the father of her character on the show. Cyrus was initially wary; according to her mother and co-manager, Tish Cyrus, "Miley 's concern at the time was, oh my gosh, people are going to think I only got this part because of my dad. '' However, worried that her family would otherwise have to be separated as they had been when her father first landed the lead in the television series Doc, Cyrus relented and helped audition her father for the part. Miley was born on November 23, 1992 (Cyrus 's real birth date), in the fictional town of Crowley Corners in Tennessee, in Buford County, Tennessee, (probably located somewhere in southern Williamson or northern Maury Counties). Her family consisted of her parents Robby and Susan Stewart and an older brother named Jackson. She also has many relatives in her extended family including her grandmother Ruthie Stewart, Aunt Dolly (played by Dolly Parton), Uncle Earl and Aunt Pearl, and a cousin named Luann (who looks nearly identical and is also played by Cyrus). The characterizations given to most of her family members poke fun at country bumpkin stereotypes. She also had a pet pig named Luann and a pet hamster named Leslie. She has a horse named Blue Jeans, who came from Tennessee to Malibu to live with Miley and her family. Miley received a love for music from her father, who was a popular country music star. Her parents recognized Miley 's potential and gave her a guitar on December 25, 2000. This event is shown in the episode "I Am Hannah, Hear Me Croak '' when Miley views it on her laptop. By the time she was 12 years old, Miley had become a famous pop star under the stage name "Hannah Montana. '' She goes to great lengths to disguise herself as Hannah in order to keep her true identity a secret, because she is worried that if people knew her secret they would like her just because she 's famous. Before revealing her secret in I 'll Always Remember You, it is mentioned by Jackson, Sienna and Rico that the only people to now about her secret beside her family are Lilly and Oliver, her former bodyguard Roxy, her ex-boyfriend Jake, her current boyfriend Jesse, Sienna and all of Crowley Corners, Tennessee. However, in the episode "Hannah Montana to the Principal 's Office '' it is shown that the President of the United States knows her secret. Miley is especially close with her father, from whom she receives much good advice and emotional support. She also values her relationships with her best friends Lilly and Oliver. However Miley is shown to be very uncomfortable with the fact that they 're dating and even stops them from being a couple. Her relationship with Lilly occasionally suffers the occasional setback, but they always make up. In the episode ' What I Do n't Like About You ', Miley is asked to choose a side between a fight Lilly and Oliver had. But Miley, showing what a kind friend she was, made a mini-Indiana Joannie movie, which made Lilly and Oliver forgive each other. Miley 's relationship with her brother Jackson is often hostile. The two siblings constantly fight and trash talk each other. However, in a few private conversations, both Miley and Jackson say that they love and appreciate each other, but they are both unwilling to admit this in public. Miley also has several dating relationships, many of which are short lived. Oliver Oken (played by Mitchel Musso): Miley and Lilly 's best male friend. "In I Honestly Love You (No Not You) '', Miley believes that Oliver is in love with her when she overhears him (while asleep in the hospital because of a broken ankle) say "I love you ''. However, after a talk with her dad she thinks that Oliver will move on and so will Lilly but when Lilly announces that she is in love with Oliver, Miley ends up telling her the truth. Lilly and Miley hatch a plan to get Oliver back but only to find out that he was practicing saying "I love you '' so he could say it to Lilly. They both say that they love each other in the end of the episode. (It is mentioned in this episode that neither Oliver nor Miley have romantic feelings for each other). However, Oliver did used to have romantic feelings towards Hannah Montana before he knew she was Miley. Miley, at first, did n't want to tell him who she was, just in case he had romantic feelings for her as Miley, but when she eventually told him, he saw her as just a friend. Leslie "Jake '' Ryan (played by Cody Linley): Jake is a famous television star. Miley and Jake meet when he briefly attends Seaview Middle School. Jake is attracted to Miley because she is the only person at school who is not starstruck by his arrival. Miley at first denies having feelings for him, but she tries to "make him jealous '' by using another guy. It works in a fortunate result of her and Jake kissing, but Jake tells Miley he has to go shoot a movie in Romania and she stands him up. Jake then reappears in "Achy Jakey Heart '' Part 1 and tries to win Miley back. She decides to give him a chance, after Jake revealing feelings for her on live national TV. Miley soon tells Jake that she 's Hannah Montana, because Jake told his secret to Miley. Jake tries to play normal like Miley, but when he can not handle the pressure of not getting what he wants, the two decide to be just friends, although it is revealed to the audience in "Jake... Another Piece of My Heart, '' that both Jake and Miley still have feelings for each other, but neither one is willing to admit it. In "He Could Be The One '', Miley chooses Jake over Jesse (her guitarist) because they have so much history and she believes he could be the one. They then officially start dating. It was unknown whether they were still together or not because Jake had never been seen or mentioned since the episode "He could be the one ''. However, in the season 4 episode "California Screamin '' it is implied that the two are still together as Miley talks about Jake quite often in the episode suggesting that they have n't broken up. In the season 4 episode "It 's the End of Jake As We Know It '' Oliver gets a picture texted to his phone of Jake cheating on Miley, so Miley beats Jake up on the taping of a Christmas special with guest star Sheryl Crow. This ends their relationship for good. Travis Brody (played by Lucas Till): Travis is a childhood friend from Tennessee. It is said in the movie that they both used to like each other when they were younger. The two become reacquainted during Miley 's return to Tennessee in Hannah Montana: The Movie. He discovers that Miley is Hannah Montana and the two kiss, assuming that they get together. However, even though the movie does not show it, it is implied that they broke up due to the fact that Miley went back to California and their relationship would not work long distance. Also, he is not mentioned during the episodes following the movie. Jesse (played by Drew Roy): Is a part of Hannah 's band in episode "He Could Be The One ''. Hannah pretends to like Jesse, so that Robby will be thankful of Jake. But she starts to have real feelings for him. Miley then has to listen to her heart and chose the guy who could "be the one. '' She ends up choosing Jake over Jesse. In the season 4 episode "Been Here All Along '', She goes out on a date with Jesse (as Miley), but gets angry when he took a phone call from his father, since she blow off her "father - daughter day '' with her dad, but when Jesse tells her that he took the call because his dad is stationed in Afghanistan and they do n't get to talk often, Miley is inspired to hold a concert as Hannah for military families. In another episode in the 4th season Miley reveals to Jesse that she is Hannah. Yet to her surprise he already knows. Jesse ca n't take the pressure of dating Hannah and Miley and ends it with Miley. In the end of the episode, Jesse comes back to Miley and then she reveals her secret to the whole world. In the first season, Miley is an 8th grader at Seaview Middle School, and in the second season she enters Seaview High School. She became a sophomore in early episodes in Season 3 and later, a junior during the season before the beginning of Season 4. Despite her father offering her the option of homeschooling, Miley decided to attend Public School in order to be a "normal kid, '' a decision she sometimes finds herself regretting. Due to her double life, she is often in awkward positions and is forced to lie in order to keep her secret. Miley 's best friends are classmates Lilly Truscott (Emily Osment) and Oliver Oken (Mitchel Musso) who both learn her secret and help her keep it from their other classmates. Apart from her life as a pop star, Miley leads a very normal life. She is fond of camping and hanging out at the beach, but is not at all athletic. She has a fear of spiders and visiting the dentist. She also occasionally struggles with her school work and her self - confidence. She often goes through over-the - top schemes to deal with her problems. Although she never plays instruments while performing as Hannah, Miley can play the piano and the guitar. She owns several acoustic and electric guitars, including a black strat copy she nicknamed "Whammy Bar Wally '' and a pink sparkle electric acoustic Stardust Series Daisy Rock guitar. In Hannah Montana: The Movie, Miley plays a custom built Gibson acoustic guitar. While her father is her main songwriter, Miley has written a few of her own songs. In "She 's a Supersneak, '' Miley writes the song "I Miss You '' about her mother after learning her father is dating another woman. (In real life, the song was written by Miley Cyrus for her grandfather Ron Cyrus.) In Hannah Montana: The Movie, Stewart writes "Butterfly Fly Away '' and "The Climb ''. Stewart wrote "Butterfly Fly Away '' after an argument with Travis (Till) and her dad breaking off his relationship for her. In the story, "The Climb '' began when she was in the hen house writing. Travis (Till) told her that the song did n't represent who she is or how she feels. Later in a concert, she performs it live revealing the entire song with its new lyrics. Then, in the episode "He Could Be the One '' Miley wrote a song called "I 'm Just Having Fun ''. While practicing with her band, Miley decided the song needed lyrical innovation and revamping. Then, when she was mad at her father; Miley altered the lyrics to a "I do n't care what you say, I do n't care what you say, just ' cause your my daddy does n't mean you get it your way ''. She decided to give up on the song, but later with her guitar player she finally made it into "He Could Be the One '', inspired by Jake (Cody Linley) and Jesse (her guitar player). In the 4th season, Miley writes a bunch of new songs that are heard and played throughout the season. She made a song with Iyaz called "Gonna Get This ''. Hannah Montana is Miley Stewart 's alter ego. The character was originally going to be named Alexis Texas, but the name was changed to Hannah Montana. Hannah exists as a secret identity, an extremely popular and influential worldwide popstar. Hannah 's many fans are not aware that she is really just a normal teenage girl, and Miley tries to keep her two lives separate from each other. Keeping Miley 's secret involves a two sided effort. As Hannah, she must keep her fans unaware that she is really a normal kid, and as Miley, she must keep her friends unaware that she is really Hannah Montana. In interviews, Miley Cyrus spoke of the implausibility of being able to keep a secret such as Miley and her family do in the show in a world of intense media scrutiny. The show however, remains workable primarily based on suspension of disbelief. In the show, three other people (Robby, Lilly, and Oliver) also wear disguises when around Hannah to prevent anyone from drawing a connection to Miley (Jackson is himself, only as a childhood friend). Hannah also typically swaps limos as she leaves concert venues to keep the paparazzi from following her home. Miley must also rely on the silence of the people who know her secret. These include her family members, Robby, Jackson, Mammaw Ruthie, Aunt Dolly, Uncle Earl and Aunt Pearl, her cousin Luann, her friends Lilly Truscott and her parents, Oliver Oken and his mother, Jake Ryan, Farmine and Roxy, as well as Officer Diaria and his daughter Kelsey, Siena and the President of the United States. (This group grows exponentially at the end of Hannah Montana: The Movie.) Despite these careful efforts, her father seems to enjoy writing Hannah songs which explicitly speak of her double life, such as "The Best of Both Worlds, '' "Just Like You, '' "The Other Side of Me, '' "Rock Star, '' "Old Blue Jeans, '' "Just a Girl, '' "Supergirl, '' and "Ordinary Girl. '' In frustration of this, Miley once complained "You might as well tattoo ' I 'm really Miley Stewart ' on my forehead! '' Also, in the episode Get Down Study - udy - udy, Rico has almost discovered Miley 's secret according to the "Bone Dance '' which was created by Miley by rewritting the lyrics of "Nobody 's Perfect '' and her voice singing it In Hannah Montana: The Movie, Hannah reveals herself as Miley during a concert in her hometown of Crowley Corners, Tennessee, but her fans do not want her to stop being Hannah, and so they promise to keep her secret. This event is actually mentioned in For (Give) a Little Bit during an argument between Miley and Jackson, meaning that the movie would fit right in the middle of season 3 as if it were a part of the season. Near the end of the series, in I 'll Always Remember You, Miley reveals her secret on The Jay Leno Show by taking off her wig and singing a song called "Wherever I Go '' as Miley. She gets a standing ovation and the episode ends with Miley smiling. Lilly and Robby also take off their disguises. Miley has several reasons for creating Hannah. She is afraid that if the kids at school discover she is famous they wo n't treat her the same. While she enjoys the attention of her fame as Hannah, she equally enjoys the option of "stepping out '' of her role. Miley also values her privacy and does n't want fans or paparazzi photographers mobbing her when she goes out in public. In this way, Hannah Montana presents a unique inversion of typical celebrity experiences. While most celebrities become famous as themselves and later need disguises to not be noticed in public, Hannah Montana became famous while in disguise, and now has the freedom to be in public as herself. As a secondary benefit, Miley also sometimes uses Hannah for specific purposes such as spying. She also uses Hannah in other ways. In "Money for Nothing, Guilt for Free, '' Hannah raises money for a school charity drive in which Miley is competing. In "Bye Bye, Ball, '' Hannah performs at a restaurant in order to get a baseball autographed for Jackson. And in "Ready, Set, Do n't Drive, '' Hannah obtains a drivers license after Miley fails the test. Hannah also sometimes tries to use her dual personality as an excuse. For example, in "You Gotta Not Fight for Your Right to Party, '' Miley asks Robby to only ground Miley, not Hannah, because "Hannah did n't do anything wrong. '' Hannah 's blonde wig is the primary difference between her and the brunette Miley, although Hannah also wears more extravagant clothes, make - up, and sometimes large sunglasses. In the Hannah Montana story, the famous blonde wig was picked out for Miley by Roxy. (In real life, the wig was not chosen until the second episode. The original wig seen in the pilot was a slightly different style, though the famous blonde wig was first seen in Hannah 's concert footage of "This Is the Life '' in the first scene of the pilot). Miley Stewart also mentions that she intentionally patterned Hannah 's look after her godmother Aunt Dolly Parton, though it was never officially stated if Parton was the true inspiration behind the character 's wardrobe, Hannah 's look does draw heavy influence from the real - life Queen of Country as she is the real - life godmother of Cyrus. Miley previously experienced an image crisis in "Yet Another Side of Me '' in which she grew concerned that Hannah 's look might become outdated. After considering a "Techno Hannah, '' "Half - Dolla Hannah, '' (Hip hop) and the "Anti-Hannah, '' (Grunge) Miley decides that her fans like her for who she is. Starting in the third season, Hannah 's look changes slightly. Her wig is shorter and wavy and her fashion changes as well (more boldly coloured). This is discussed on the DVD Keeping It Real in the bonus feature "Miley 's Makeover -- Hannah Gets a New Look. '' Cyrus and her team describe the new look as an "' 80s flavored style with the glitz and glam of modern fashion. '' It is also revealed in Super (stitious) Girl, as part of Wizards on Deck With Hannah Montana, that she started wearing a single pink glove during concerts and it is also shown in music videos like It 's All Right Here and Let 's Get Crazy that she does. It symbolizes how Hannah Montana is growing up as well. In season 4, she gets a new wig that 's long again but curlier. Her style also is back to glam - country girlish style. Hannah Montana 's music career is very successful although there have been a few slips. In the pilot episode she is said to be continuing a "smash tour '' which was being sold out, yet the subsequent episodes show Miley still going to school (something that would n't be possible with a "smash tour ''). In "Yet Another Side of Me, '' Robby says that he has written 15 straight number ones for her. However, he may have been exaggerating since in "Miley Hurt the Feelings of the Radio Star '' he says he has written 14 number ones for her. Hannah also wins several awards including a Silver Boot "Booty '' award for best country pop crossover with the song "True Friend, '' and an International Music Award for Female Artist of the Year. She is also honored with her own diamond on the Hollywood Parade of Diamonds, a parody of the stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. She also sings for the Queen of England and the President of the United States (President Martinez in a crossover episode and mentioned performing for President Obama and Sasha and Malia Obama in season 4 's "Hannah Montana to the Principal 's Office ''). Hannah 's greatest rival is fellow pop star Mikayla (Selena Gomez) who is determined to steal Hannah 's fans. Beyond her music career, Hannah also does some acting. She guest stars on the television show Zombie High as Zaronda, Princess of the Undead. Jake Ryan 's character saves Zaronda from the portal to the underworld. Hannah later stars in her own feature film, Rob Reiner 's Indiana Joannie and the Curse of the Golden Cobra (a parody of the Indiana Jones film franchise), alongside Chace Crawford. Hannah also endorses perfume and skin care products. As a well known celebrity, Hannah makes regular appearances on tall shows and attends glamorous parties. Despite being fictional, Hannah knows many real life celebrities, including some who are friends of Miley Cyrus, such as Taylor Swift and the Jonas Brothers. Hannah Montana as a character has found fame beyond the television show, primarily as a recording artist and music performer. Three of the seven released soundtracks (Hannah Montana, Hannah Montana 2, and Hannah Montana: The Movie) topped the U.S. Billboard 200 chart as well as several singles credited to the character, charted on the Billboard Hot 100. From September to October 2006, Miley Cyrus performed several songs from Hannah Montana during The Party 's Just Begun Tour as an opening act for The Cheetah Girls. Then, from October 2007 to January 2008, Cyrus performed in a successful concert tour as Hannah Montana. The tour, called the Best of Both Worlds Tour, became a classic example of life imitating art as Hannah Montana 's fictional popularity seen in the television show became a real - life fan base which bought out every concert. The popularity of Hannah Montana has also given Cyrus the opportunity to become a pop star in her own right. Hannah also appears in Hannah Montana: The Movie, the Hannah Montana book series, and two other Disney Channel shows in cameo appearances. The character appeared in The Suite Life of Zack & Cody episode "That 's So Suite Life of Hannah Montana '' along with Raven Baxter, and The Suite Life on Deck episode "Wizards on Deck With Hannah Montana '' which also includes characters from Wizards of Waverly Place (although the characters from Wizards of Waverly Place and Hannah Montana never interact).

list of international centuries by ab de villiers

List of international Cricket centuries by AB de Villiers - wikipedia AB de Villiers is a South African international cricketer. He is widely regarded as one of the best batsmen in the world. A right - handed batsman, has scored centuries on 22 occasions in Test and 25 occasions in ODI. He reached the top of the ICC Test batting rankings in March 2012. De Villiers made his Test debut in December 2004 against England, scoring 28 and 15. He made his first Test century the following month, scoring 109 in the drawn fifth Test in the same series. De Villiers ' first double century came in April 2008 against India when he scored 217 not out in a man - of - the - match performance in Ahmedabad. As of October 2017, he has scored 21 Test centuries and holds the record for the second - highest individual score by a South African batsman, with 278 not out against Pakistan, after Hashim Amla 's 311 not out against England in 2012. As of October 2017, de Villiers has the fourth - highest number of centuries in Tests for South Africa. De Villiers ' ODI debut was in February 2005 against England, where he scored 20 in a tied match. It was over two years later that he made his first ODI century in a man - of - the - match performance, scoring 146 against the West Indies in Grenada at the 2007 Cricket World Cup. De Villiers ' third highest score of 149 runs off 44 balls in the format came against the West Indies in Johannesburg. During the course of the innings, he set the record for the fastest half - century (off 16 balls) and century (off 31 balls) in ODIs. In the same match, he hit 16 sixes and leveled Rohit Sharma 's record of most sixes by a batsman in an innings. As of October 2017, he has the sixth - highest number of centuries in ODIs. Making his first Twenty20 International appearance in 2006, de Villiers has yet to score a century in the format. As of October 2017, his highest score is 79 not out which he made in a 130 - run victory over Scotland in the 2009 ICC World Twenty20 tournament. As of April 2018, de Villiers ranks tenth (with 47 centuries) in the all - time list for most centuries in international cricket. Note: Italics denote the players who are currently active at international level

actress who played the bionic woman in the seventies

Lindsay Wagner - Wikipedia Lindsay Jean Wagner (born June 22, 1949) is an American film and television actress, model, author, singer, acting coach, and adjunct professor. Wagner is best known for her portrayal of the 1970s television leading female science fiction action character Jaime Sommers, who takes on special high - risk government missions using her superhuman bionic powers in the American television series The Bionic Woman (1976 -- 1978). She first played this role on the 1970s American television series The Six Million Dollar Man. The Jaime Sommers character also became a pop culture icon of the 1970s. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, she reprised the role in several bionic reunion television movies. Wagner earned an Emmy Award in 1977 for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Dramatic Role for her portrayal of Jaime Sommers in The Bionic Woman television series. Wagner began acting professionally in 1971, and has maintained a lengthy acting career in a variety of film and television productions to the present day. Wagner was born in Los Angeles, California, the daughter of Marilyn Louise (née Thrasher) and William Nowels Wagner. When she was seven years old, Wagner 's parents divorced and her mother moved with her to the northeast Los Angeles neighborhood of Eagle Rock, near Pasadena. Another relocation with her mother and stepfather, Ted Ball, brought Wagner to Portland, Oregon, where she attended David Douglas High School and appeared in a number of school plays. Wagner attended the University of Oregon for part of her freshman year before she transferred to Mount Hood Community College for a short period of time. Wagner worked as a model in Los Angeles and gained some television experience by appearing as a hostess in Playboy After Dark, and she was also a contestant on the game show The Dating Game in 1969 (one of her potential suitors, whom she did not choose, was TV actor Roger Ewing). In 1971, she signed a contract with Universal Studios and worked as a contract player in various Universal productions. Her primetime network television debut was in the series Adam - 12 ("Million Dollar Buff ''), and she went on to appear in a dozen other Universal shows, including Owen Marshall: Counselor at Law, The F.B.I., Sarge, and Night Gallery (1971, as the nurse in the episode: "The Diary ''). Between 1971 and 1975, she appeared in five episodes of Universal 's Marcus Welby, M.D. and two episodes of The Rockford Files. In 1973, Wagner branched into film roles when Universal cast her in Two People, which was her first feature film and her first lead role. She also co-starred in the 20th Century Fox film The Paper Chase the same year, playing the daughter of the stern law professor Kingsfield. In 1975, arranged under an extended contract with Universal Studios, Wagner played the role of Jaime Sommers, a former tennis professional who was the childhood sweetheart of "Six Million Dollar Man '' Colonel Steve Austin (played by Lee Majors). According to Kenneth Johnson, interviewed for a featurette included in the 2010 North American DVD release of The Bionic Woman season one, Wagner was cast in the role based upon her appeal and spontaneity after he saw her appearance in the pilot and a follow - up episode of The Rockford Files. In the second - season, two - part episode, her character is critically injured in a skydiving accident and equipped with bionic implants similar to Austin 's, but her body rejects them, ultimately leading to her death. This was intended to be Wagner 's last role under her Universal contract, but public response to the character was so overwhelming that the "death '' was retconned into a cover story for a near - death secret recovery, and Wagner appeared in a two - part episode which returned her character, followed by a spin - off series, The Bionic Woman, which debuted in January 1976. She made several crossover appearances in The Six Million Dollar Man during the series ' run. The role earned Wagner an Emmy Award for "Best Actress in a Dramatic Role '' in 1977. Following the cancellation of The Bionic Woman in 1978, Wagner continued to act, predominantly in television miniseries and television films. These included the highly rated 1980 miniseries Scruples, as well as three made - for - TV Bionic reunion movies with Lee Majors between 1987 and 1994. Also in the 1980s, Wagner co-starred alongside Sylvester Stallone as his ex-wife in his 1981 movie Nighthawks and starred in two more weekly television series, Jessie and A Peaceable Kingdom (1989), though both of these were short - lived. In 1983, she also appeared in an episode of Lee Majors ' series The Fall Guy. Wagner continued to act into the 1990s and 2000s, though in less prominent roles, such as a small part in the action movie Ricochet (1991). Her most recent projects have included the 2005 television film Thicker than Water with Melissa Gilbert, Buckaroo: The Movie (2005), and Four Extraordinary Women (2006). In 2010, Wagner began a recurring role as Dr. Vanessa Calder in the SyFy channel 's hit drama Warehouse 13 and played the character again in its Syfy sister show Alphas in 2011. In the fall semester of 2013, Wagner commenced teaching at San Bernardino Valley College in southern California (Acting and Directing for Television and Film, Motion Picture Production) as an adjunct faculty member. In 2015, Wagner appeared in the NCIS season 13, episode 10: "Blood Brothers '' in the role of Barbara Bishop, the mother of NCIS Probationary Agent Eleanor Bishop (Emily Wickersham). In 1987, Wagner wrote a series of books with Robert M. Klein about using acupressure to achieve results akin to a surgical facelift. In 1994, she wrote one of the first "celebrity '' vegetarian (and mainly vegan) cookbooks, High Road to Health. Wagner appeared in commercials as a spokesperson for Southern California 's regional Ford Motor Company dealerships from 1987 through 2000. She was also a spokesperson in infomercials for Select Comfort 's "Sleep Number '' bed from 2003 to 2009. In recent years, Wagner has given seminars and workshops for her self - help therapy, "Quiet the Mind and Open the Heart '', which promotes spirituality and meditation. In 2010, she participated in interviews and featurettes included in the long - delayed North American DVD releases of The Bionic Woman and the 2011 release of The Six Million Dollar Man. In 2016, she appeared in the film Change of Heart as the owner of a somewhat rundown bed and breakfast. Wagner earned an Emmy Award in 1977 for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Dramatic Role for her portrayal of Jaime Sommers in The Bionic Woman television series (1976 - 1978). On December 13, 1984, the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce presented Wagner with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, category ' Film ', located at the north side of the 6767 block of Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood, California. In 2012, a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs, California, Walk of Stars was dedicated to Wagner 's career. Prior to being married, Wagner lived with Captain Daniel M. Yoder (USAF) until he went to Vietnam. She has been married four times. From 1971 to 1973, she was married to music publisher Allan Rider. From 1976 to 1979, she was married to actor Michael Brandon. In 1981, she married stuntman Henry Kingi, whom she met on the set of The Bionic Woman. Wagner had two sons with Kingi, Dorian (b. 1982) and Alex (b. 1986), but the couple divorced in 1984. Wagner then married TV producer Lawrence Mortorff in 1990, but they, too, divorced a few years later.

top 10 most supported clubs in the world

Forbes ' list of The Most Valuable football clubs - wikipedia This is a list of the richest football clubs in the world as ranked by Forbes magazine on their worth in United States dollar. Rankings as of 1 June 2017. In millions Rankings as of 1 May 2016. Rankings as of 6 May 2015. Rankings as of 15 July 2014. Rankings as of 17 April 2013. Rankings as of 19 April 2012. Rankings as of 20 April 2011. Rankings as of April 2010. Rankings as of April 2009. This is the April 2008 list. This is the list released in March 2007.

who did andy murray beat at wimbledon 2014

Andy Murray - wikipedia US $ 60,807,644 Sir Andrew Barron Murray, OBE (born 15 May 1987) is a British professional tennis player from Scotland currently ranked No. 39 in men 's singles as of April 30, 2018. Murray represents Great Britain in his sporting activities and is a three - time Grand Slam tournament winner, two - time Olympic champion, Davis Cup champion and the winner of the 2016 ATP World Tour Finals. Murray defeated Novak Djokovic in the 2012 US Open final, becoming the first British player since 1977, and the first British man since 1936, to win a Grand Slam singles tournament. Murray is also the first British man to win more than one Wimbledon singles title since Fred Perry in 1935. Murray is the men 's singles 2012 and 2016 Olympic gold medallist, making him the only tennis player, male or female, to have won two Olympic singles titles. He featured in Great Britain 's Davis Cup - winning team in 2015, going 11 -- 0 in his matches (8 singles and 3 doubles) as they secured their first Davis Cup title since 1936. Andy Murray was born in Glasgow, Scotland, the son of Judy Murray (née Erskine) and William Murray. His maternal grandfather, Roy Erskine, was a professional footballer in the late 1950s. Murray is a supporter of Hibernian Football Club, one of the teams his grandfather represented. Murray began playing tennis at the age of three when his mother Judy took him to play on the local courts. He played in his first competitive tournament at age five and by the time he was eight he was competing with adults in the Central District Tennis League. Murray 's elder brother, Jamie, is also a professional tennis player, playing on the doubles circuit, and became a multiple Grand Slam winner in the discipline (both men 's and mixed). Murray grew up in Dunblane and attended Dunblane Primary School. He and his brother were present during the 1996 Dunblane school massacre, when Thomas Hamilton killed 16 children and a teacher before shooting himself; Murray took cover in a classroom. Murray says he was too young to understand what was happening and is reluctant to talk about it in interviews, but in his autobiography Hitting Back he states that he attended a youth group run by Hamilton, and that his mother gave Hamilton lifts in her car. Murray later attended Dunblane high school. Murray 's parents split up when he was 10, with the boys living with their father while being mentored in tennis by their mother. He believes the impact this had on him could be the reason behind his competitive spirit. At 15, he was asked to train with Rangers Football Club at their School of Excellence, but declined, opting to focus on his tennis career instead. He then decided to move to Barcelona, Spain. There he studied at the Schiller International School and trained on the clay courts of the Sánchez - Casal Academy, coached by Pato Alvarez. Murray described this time as "a big sacrifice ''. His parents had to find £ 40,000 to pay for his 18 - month stay there. While in Spain, he trained with Emilio Sánchez, formerly the world No. 1 doubles player. Murray was born with a bipartite patella, where the kneecap remains as two separate bones instead of fusing together in early childhood, but was not diagnosed until the age of 16. He has been seen holding his knee due to the pain caused by the condition and has pulled out of events because of it. In February 2013, Murray bought Cromlix House hotel near Dunblane, where his brother Jamie had celebrated his wedding in 2010 but which had since ceased trading, for £ 1.8 million; the venue re-opened as a 15 - room five - star hotel in April 2014. Later that month Murray was awarded freedom of Stirling and received an Honorary Doctorate from the University of Stirling in recognition of his services to tennis. Murray began dating Kim Sears, daughter of player - turned - coach Nigel Sears, in 2005. Their engagement was announced in November 2014, and they married on 11 April 2015 at Dunblane Cathedral in his home town, with the reception at his Cromlix House hotel (Murray 's father also remarried at the venue the following year). The couple live in Oxshott, Surrey with their two children. He identifies himself as a feminist. Leon Smith, Murray 's tennis coach from 11 to 17, described Murray as "unbelievably competitive '', while Murray attributes his abilities to the motivation gained from losing to his older brother Jamie. In 1999, at the age of 12, Murray won his age group at the Orange Bowl, a prestigious event for junior players. He won it again at the age of 14, and is one of only nine tennis players to win the Junior Orange Bowl championship twice in its 70 - year history, alongside the likes of Jimmy Connors, Jennifer Capriati, Monica Seles, and Yishai Oliel. In July 2003, Murray started out on the Challenger and Futures circuit. In his first tournament, he reached the quarterfinals of the Manchester Challenger. In September, Murray won his first senior title by taking the Glasgow Futures event. He also reached the semifinals of the Edinburgh Futures event. For the first six months of 2004, Murray had a knee injury and could n't play. In July 2004, Murray played a Challenger event in Nottingham, where he lost to future Grand Slam finalist Jo - Wilfried Tsonga in the second round. Murray then went on to win Futures events in Xàtiva and Rome. In September 2004, he won the Junior US Open and was selected for the Davis Cup World Group play - off match against Austria later that month; however, he was not selected to play. Later that year, he won BBC Young Sports Personality of the Year. As a junior, Murray reached as high as No. 6 in the world in 2003 (and No. 8 in doubles). In the 2004 - instated combined rankings, Murray reached No. 2 in the world. Junior Slam results: Australian Open: - French Open: SF (2005) Wimbledon: 3R (2004) US Open: W (2004) Murray began 2005 ranked No. 407, but when he was in South America in January, he hurt his back and had to take three months off. In March, he became the youngest Briton to play in the Davis Cup. Murray turned professional in April and was given a wild card entry to a clay - court tournament in Barcelona, the Open SEAT, where he lost in three sets to Jan Hernych. In April, Murray parted acrimoniously from his coach Pato Alvarez, complaining about his negative attitude. Murray then reached the semifinals of the boys ' French Open, where he lost in straight sets to Marin Čilić. Mark Petchey agreed to coach Murray for four weeks until the end of Wimbledon, but it metamorphosed into a full - time position. Given a wild card to Queen 's, Murray progressed past Santiago Ventura in straight sets for his first ATP match win. Following a second - round win against Taylor Dent, he played former Australian Open champion Thomas Johansson in the third round, losing in three sets after cramping and twisting his ankle. Following his performance at Queen 's, Murray received a wild card for Wimbledon. Ranked No. 312, Murray became the first Scot in the Open Era to reach the third round of the men 's singles tournament at Wimbledon. In the third round, Murray lost to 2002 Wimbledon finalist David Nalbandian due to cramping and fatigue, having led two sets to love. Following Wimbledon, Murray won Challenger events on the hard courts of Aptos and Binghamton, New York. He then experienced his first Masters event at Cincinnati, where he beat Taylor Dent, before losing in three sets to then - No. 4, Marat Safin. With a wild card entry, Murray played Andrei Pavel in the opening round of the US Open, where he recovered from down two sets to one to win his first five - set match. However, he lost in the second round to Arnaud Clément in another five - set contest. Murray was again selected for the Davis Cup match against Switzerland. He was picked for the opening singles rubbers, losing in straight sets to Stanislas Wawrinka. Murray made his first ATP final at the Thailand Open where he faced No. 1 Roger Federer. Murray lost in straight sets. Murray beat Tim Henman in their first meeting, at the Basel Swiss Indoors in the first round, and eventually reached the quarterfinals. In November, Murray captained Scotland at the inaugural Aberdeen Cup against England led by Greg Rusedski. This was an exhibition tournament and the only event where Murray played Rusedski, they never met on the Tour. Rusedski beat Murray in the first match, but Murray won the second. This was also the first time that Andy and his brother Jamie Murray played doubles as seniors. Scotland defeated England 41⁄2 -- 21⁄2. He completed the year ranked No. 64 and was named the 2005 BBC Scotland Sports Personality of the Year. The 2006 season saw Murray compete on the full circuit for the first time and split with his coach Mark Petchey and team up with Brad Gilbert. On 27 February, Murray became the British No. 1, ending Tim Henman 's seven - year run. Murray was now world No. 42, Greg Rusedski No. 43, and Tim Henman No. 49. Rusedski regained his British No. 1 status on 15 May for eight weeks, after which Murray became No. 1 again on 10 July. Murray suffered a straight sets defeat at the Australian Open, to Argentine Juan Ignacio Chela in the first round and to Gaël Monfils at the French Open, in five sets. Murray did reach the fourth round for the first time at both Wimbledon (beating 3rd seed Andy Roddick in the 3rd round) and the US Open. Murray played in Davis Cup ties against Serbia, Israel and Ukraine. Murray missed the opening singles matches before losing the doubles as Britain lost their tie against Serbia. During the tie with Israel, Murray won his rubber and lost the doubles before pulling out with a neck injury before the reverse singles, as Britain lost the tie. Against Ukraine, Murray won both his singles rubbers, but lost the doubles, as Britain won the tie. At the Masters, Murray lost in the first round in Miami, Monte Carlo and Rome. Murray went out of the tournaments in Indian Wells and Hamburg in the second round. Murray reached his first Masters semifinal in Toronto at the Rogers Cup, losing to Richard Gasquet. At Cincinnati, Murray became only one of two players, alongside Rafael Nadal, to defeat Roger Federer in 2006, breaking the Swiss star 's 55 match winning streak on hard courts. He lost two rounds later to Andy Roddick, but broke into the top 20 for the first time. In the final two Masters events in Madrid and Paris, Murray exited both tournaments at the last - 16 stage ending his season, with losses to Novak Djokovic and Dominik Hrbatý. When the tour reached San Jose, California; Murray defeated a top ten player for the first time, Andy Roddick. Murray went on to claim the SAP Open title defeating No. 11 Lleyton Hewitt. Murray was a finalist at the Legg Mason Tennis Classic. Playing doubles with his brother in Bangkok the pair reached the final. After the French Open, where Murray was injured again, he revealed that his bones had n't fully grown, causing him to suffer from cramps and back problems. In November, the Aberdeen Cup was held for the second time, with Murray leading the Scotland team and Greg Rusedski captaining England. Scotland won 61⁄2 -- 1. Murray reached the fourth round of the Australian Open, where he lost a five - set match against No. 2, Rafael Nadal. Following the Miami Masters, where he reached the semifinals, Murray reached the No. 10 ranking on 16 April. The British No. 1 sustained tendon damage during his first round match at the German Open in Hamburg. Murray was up 5 -- 1 when he hit a forehand from the back of the court and snapped the tendons in his wrist, leaving him out of action from 15 May until 7 August, thereby missing Wimbledon. During this rest period, Murray rose to No. 8, but by 7 August, he had dropped to No. 14. Murray suffered a third round loss at the US Open. At the Masters tournaments, Murray reached the semifinals of Indian Wells and Miami. At Rome and Cincinnati, Murray exited in the first round whilst going out in the second in Canada. In the final two masters tournaments, Murray exited in the third round in Madrid and he went out in the quarterfinals of Paris. Murray won titles in San Jose and St. Petersburg. He also reached the final of tournaments in Doha and Metz, finishing the season ranked 11th in the world. In November, Murray split with his coach Brad Gilbert and added a team of experts along with Miles Maclagan, his main coach. In 2008, Murray suffered a first round loss at the Australian Open to eventual runner - up Jo - Wilfried Tsonga, and a third round loss at the French Open to Nicolás Almagro. Murray then made his first Grand Slam quarterfinal at Wimbledon before making his first final at the US Open. During the tournament in New York, Murray claimed his first win over Nadal. That victory meant that he 'd become the first player from Britain since Greg Rusedski in 1997 to reach a major final. In his first Grand Slam final Murray suffered a straight sets loss to Federer. At the Beijing Olympics, Murray suffered one of the worst defeats of his career, losing his first round singles match to No. 77 Yen - hsun Lu of Taiwan in straight sets. That abject defeat was still on his mind in a BBC interview five years later -- despite an intervening Olympic gold medal and a head - to - head win -- when he met the same player (now ranked No. 75) in the second round of Wimbledon 2013. In the Masters tournaments Murray went out in round four in Indian Wells and the first round of Miami. In the clay Masters Murray made the third round of Monte Carlo and Hamburg and the second of Rome. On the American hard court swing Murray made the semifinals of Toronto before winning his first Masters shield in Cincinnati. He added another shield to his collection in Madrid; before losing in the quarterfinals of Paris. Now at No. 4 in the world, Murray qualified for the first time for the Masters Cup. He played well in defeating an injured Federer but lost to Davydenko in the semifinals. Murray ended 2008 ranked No. 4. Murray also won tournaments in Doha, Marseille and St Petersburg. Murray opened the 2009 season with a successful defence of his title at the Qatar Open in Doha, defeating Andy Roddick in straight sets. At the Australian Open, Murray made it to the fourth round, losing to Fernando Verdasco. Murray won his eleventh career title in Rotterdam, defeating No. 1, Nadal in the three sets. Murray next went to Dubai but withdrew before the quarterfinals with a re-occurrence of a virus that had affected him at the Australian Open. The virus caused Murray to miss a Davis Cup tie in Glasgow. Murray then lost in the finals to Nadal at Indian Wells, but won a week later in Miami over Djokovic for another masters title. In the lead - up to the French Open, Murray beat No. 9, Nikolay Davydenko at the Monte Carlo Masters, the first time he had beaten a top ten player on clay, though he lost to Nadal in the semifinals. Murray was upset in round two of the Rome Masters by qualifier Juan Mónaco, and he reached the quarterfinals of the Madrid Masters, losing to Juan Martín del Potro. During this time Murray achieved the highest ever ranking of a British male in the Open Era when he reached the No. 3 ranking on 11 May 2009. Murray reached the quarterfinals of the French Open, but was defeated by Fernando González in four sets. Murray won for the first time on grass at Queen 's and became the first British winner of the tournament since 1938. In the final Murray defeated American James Blake. At Wimbledon, against Stanislas Wawrinka, Murray 's fourth round match was the first match to be played entirely under Wimbledon 's retractable roof, also enabling it to be the latest finishing match ever at Wimbledon. However Murray lost a tight semifinal to Andy Roddick. Murray returned to action in Montreal, defeating del Potro in three sets to take the title. After this victory, he overtook Nadal in the rankings and held the number two position until the start of the US Open. Murray followed the Masters win playing at the Cincinnati Masters, where he lost to Federer. At the US Open, Murray was hampered by a wrist injury and suffered a straight - sets loss to Čilić. Murray won both his singles matches, and lost at doubles in the Davis Cup against Poland, but was then forced to miss six weeks with a wrist injury. In November, Murray won at Valencia, but bowed out in round two of the Paris Masters. To end the season, Murray did not make it out of the round robin at the World Tour Finals in London. Andy Murray during his runner 's up speech at the 2010 Australian Open. Murray and Laura Robson represented Britain at the Hopman Cup. The pair progressed to the final, where they were beaten by Spain. At the Australian Open Murray beat Nadal and Čilić before losing in the final to No. 1 Roger Federer. At the BNP Paribas Open in Indian Wells, Murray reached the quarterfinals, losing to Robin Söderling in straight sets. Murray next played at the 2010 Sony Ericsson Open, but lost his first match of the tournament to Mardy Fish, afterwards saying that his mind had n't been fully on tennis. At the Monte - Carlo Rolex Masters, Murray suffered another first match loss, this time to Philipp Kohlschreiber. He entered the doubles competition with Ross Hutchins; the duo lost to the Bryan Brothers on a champions tie - breaker. Murray reached the third round in the Rome Masters, and the quarterfinals at the Madrid Masters, losing both times to David Ferrer. After playing an exhibition match, Murray started the French Open with three tough wins, before losing in straight sets to Tomáš Berdych in the fourth round. In London, Murray progressed to the third round, where he faced Mardy Fish. At 3 -- 3 in the final set with momentum going Murray 's way (he had just come back from 3 -- 0 down), the match was called off for bad light, leaving Murray fuming. Coming back the next day, Murray was edged out by the eventual finalist in a tie - breaker for his second defeat by him in the year. At Wimbledon, Murray progressed to the semifinals, losing to Nadal in straight sets. On 27 July 2010, Murray and his coach Maclagan split, and Murray replaced him with Àlex Corretja. Starting the US hard - court season with the 2010 Farmers Classic, Murray reached the final but lost against Sam Querrey in three sets. This was his first loss to Querrey in five career meetings. In Canada, Murray became the first player since Andre Agassi in 1995 to defend the Canadian Masters. Murray defeated Nadal and then Federer in straight sets, ending his eight - month title drought. At the Cincinnati Masters, Murray first complained about the speed of the court, and then in a quarterfinal match with Fish, Murray complained that the organisers refused to put the match on later in the day With temperatures reaching 33 ° C in the shade, Murray won the first set in a tie - breaker but began to feel ill. The doctor was called on court to actively cool Murray down. Murray said after the match that he had considered retiring. He lost the second set, but forced a final - set tie - breaker, before Fish won. After losing to Stanislas Wawrinka in the third round of the US Open, questions about Murray 's conditioning arose, as he called the trainer out twice during the match. His next event was the China Open in Beijing, where Murray reached the quarterfinals, losing to Ivan Ljubičić. Murray then won the Shanghai Rolex Masters dismissing Roger Federer in straight sets. He did not drop a single set throughout the event. Murray returned to Spain to defend his title at the Valencia Open 500 but lost in the second round to Juan Mónaco. However, in doubles, Murray partnered his brother Jamie Murray to the final, where they defeated Mahesh Bhupathi and Max Mirnyi. The victory was Murray 's first doubles title and the second time he had reached a final with his brother. Murray reached the quarterfinals at the BNP Paribas Masters losing to Gaël Monfils in three sets. Combined with his exit and Söderling 's taking the title, Murray found himself pushed down a spot in the rankings, to No. 5 from No. 4. At the Tour finals in London, Murray went 2 -- 1 in round robin play before facing Nadal in the semifinal. They battled for over three hours, before Murray fell to the Spaniard in a final - set tie - breaker, bringing an end to his season. Murray and Laura Robson lost in the round - robin stage 2011 Hopman Cup, losing all three ties even though Murray won all of his singles matches. Then Murray, along with other stars such as Federer, Nadal, and Djokovic, participated in the Rally for Relief event to help raise money for the flood victims in Queensland. Seeded fifth in the 2011 Australian Open, Murray met former champion Novak Djokovic in the final and was defeated in straight sets. In Rotterdam, he was defeated by Marcos Baghdatis in the first round. Murray reached the semifinals of the doubles tournament with his brother Jamie. Murray lost to qualifiers in the first rounds at the Masters Series events in Indian Wells and Miami, after which he split with coach Àlex Corretja. Murray returned to form at the Monte - Carlo Rolex Masters, but lost to Nadal in the semifinals. Murray sustained an elbow injury before the match and subsequently withdrew from the 2011 Barcelona Open Banco Sabadell due to the injury. Murray lost in the third round at the Mutua Madrileña Madrid Open, but made it to the semifinals of the Rome Masters, where he lost to Novak Djokovic. At the French Open, Murray won two tough early matches, before losing in his first semifinal at Roland Garros, against Rafael Nadal. Murray defeated Jo - Wilfried Tsonga to win his second Queen 's Club title. At Wimbledon, Murray lost in the semifinal to Nadal, despite taking the first set. At the Davis Cup tie between Great Britain and Luxembourg, Murray led the British team to victory. Murray was the two - time defending 2011 Rogers Cup champion, but lost in the second round to South African Kevin Anderson. However, the following week, he won the 2011 Western & Southern Open after Novak Djokovic retired due to injury. At the 2011 US Open, Murray battled from two sets down to win a five - set second - round encounter with Robin Haase, but lost in the semifinals to Rafael Nadal in four sets. Murray easily won the small 250 - class Thailand Open, and the following week he won his third title in four tournaments at the Rakuten Japan Open Tennis Championships. His opponent in the final was Rafael Nadal, whom he beat for the first time in the year in three sets. Murray then won the doubles with his brother Jamie Murray, becoming the first person in the 2011 season to capture both singles and doubles titles at the same tournament. Murray then successfully defended his Shanghai Masters crown with a straight - sets victory over David Ferrer in the final. At the ATP World Tour Finals, Murray lost to David Ferrer in straight sets and withdrew from the tournament after the loss with a groin pull. Murray ended the year as No. 4 behind Djokovic, Nadal, and Federer. With Ivan Lendl as his new full - time coach, Murray began the season by playing in the 2012 Brisbane International. He overcame a slow start in his first two matches to win his 22nd title by beating Alexandr Dolgopolov in the final. In doubles, he lost in the quarterfinals against second seeds Jürgen Melzer and Philipp Petzschner in a tight match. After an exhibition tournament, Murray made it to the semifinals of the 2012 Australian Open, where he was defeated by Djokovic in a four - hour - and 50 - minute match. At the Dubai Duty Free Tennis Championships, Murray defeated Djokovic in the semifinals, but lost in the final to Roger Federer. After an early defeat at the BNP Paribas Open, Murray made the finals of the Miami Masters, losing to Djokovic. Murray then had quarterfinal losses at the Monte Carlo Masters and Barcelona Open, and a third round loss at the Italian Open. Murray battled back spasms all through the French Open, and in the quarterfinals he was beaten by David Ferrer. Murray lost in the opening round of the Queen 's Club Championships to No. 65 Nicolas Mahut. At Wimbledon, Murray set the record for the latest finish at the championships when he completed a four - set victory over Marcos Baghdatis at 23: 02 BST. Murray beat Jo - Wilfried Tsonga in the semifinal in four sets to become the first male British player to reach the final of Wimbledon since Bunny Austin in 1938. In the final, he faced Federer, but after taking the first set, he lost the match in four sets. Murray next competed at the London 2012 Summer Olympics in singles, doubles, and mixed doubles. He partnered his brother Jamie Murray in doubles and suffered a first - round exit to Austria (Jürgen Melzer and Alexander Peya) in three sets. In the mixed doubles, Murray was partnered by Laura Robson. They made it all the way to the finals where they lost to the Belarusian top seeds (Victoria Azarenka and Max Mirnyi) in three sets, settling for the silver medal. In singles, Murray lost only one set on his way to the finals where he met Federer, defeating him in straight sets, for the loss of just 7 games. By winning the Olympic gold medal, Murray became the first British man to win the Olympic singles gold medal in tennis since Josiah Ritchie in 1908, and only the 7th man in the open era to win two medals at the same Olympic Games. Murray retired early in the Rogers Cup due to a knee injury, and was beaten by unseeded Jérémy Chardy at the Cincinnati Masters in straight sets. He next competed in the final major of the season at the US Open. He cruised through his opening two rounds in straight sets against Alex Bogomolov and Ivan Dodig, before facing a tough four - set battle with Feliciano López, where Murray had to win three tie - breakers. In the fourth round, he defeated the Canadian Milos Raonic in straight sets, and then in the quarterfinals, had to come from a set and two breaks down against Marin Čilić to prevail in four. In the semifinals, he defeated Tomáš Berdych in a long - fought match that lasted almost four hours, to reach his second consecutive Grand Slam final. Murray defeated Djokovic in five sets, becoming the first British man to win a Grand Slam final since Fred Perry in 1936, and the first Scottish - born player to win a Grand Slam final since Harold Mahony in 1896. The win would also set several records for Murray: it involved the longest tiebreak in US Open final history at 12 -- 10 in the first set, it made Murray the first man ever to win an Olympic gold medal and the US Open in the same year, and it tied with the 1988 US Open final (in which Murray 's coach Lendl competed) as the longest final in the tournament 's history. By defeating Djokovic in the final, Murray achieved his 100th Grand Slam match win of his career. The victory made Murray part of the "Big Four '' according to many pundits, including Novak Djokovic. In his first tournament after the US Open, Murray reached the semifinals of the Rakuten Japan Open after entering as defending champion. He was beaten by Milos Raonic in a close three - set match. He was defending champion in the doubles with his brother Jamie. However, they were knocked out in the quarterfinals by top seeds Leander Paes and Radek Štěpánek. At the penultimate Masters 1000 tournament of the year in Shanghai, after receiving a bye into round two, Murray 's first match was due to be played against Florian Mayer. However, Mayer had to pull out due to injury, giving Murray a walkover into round three. After beating Alexandr Dolgopolov in the third round, he then overcame Radek Štěpánek in a three - set quarterfinal. Murray next faced Roger Federer in the semifinals, whom he defeated in straight sets to set up a second consecutive final against Djokovic, and his third consecutive Shanghai final. After failing to capitalise on five match points, Murray eventually lost in three sets, bringing to an end his 12 -- 0 winning streak at the competition. When Nadal pulled out of both the Paris Masters and the Year - End Championships, Murray finished the year at No. 3, after four years at No. 4. This was the first time Murray had finished the year higher than No. 4. At the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Murray found himself voted third overall, ahead of Mo Farah. Murray won the World Breakthrough of the Year at the Laureus World Sports Awards. Murray was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2013 New Year Honours for services to tennis. Murray began his 2013 season by retaining his Brisbane International title, defeating Grigor Dimitrov in the final in straight sets. Trying to win his second Major in a row, he began the 2013 Australian Open well with a straight sets victory over Dutchman Robin Haase. He followed this up with straight set victories over João Sousa, practice partner Ričardas Berankis and French No. 14 seed Gilles Simon. In the quarterfinals he cruised past Jérémy Chardy in straight sets to set up a semifinal clash with Roger Federer. After exchanging sets, Murray eventually prevailed in 5 sets, recording his first Grand Slam tournament triumph over Federer. With this victory, each member of the ATP 's most dominant quartet of the previous four years (Federer, Nadal, Djokovic and Murray) had beaten the other three at the Majors. This victory set up Murray 's third consecutive Major final appearance, and second in a row against Djokovic. After taking the first set in a tiebreak, Murray was eventually defeated in four sets. His defeat in this final meant that Murray became only the second man in the Open Era to achieve three runner - up finishes at the Australian Open, the other being Stefan Edberg. At the BNP Paribas Open in Indian Wells, Murray lost at the quarterfinal stage to Juan Martín del Potro in three sets. At the Miami Masters, Murray made it through his first four matches without dropping a set, and after overcoming Richard Gasquet in the semifinals, faced David Ferrer in the final. After losing the first set, and facing match point in the decider at 5 -- 6, Murray eventually took the match in a third - set tiebreaker to win his second Miami Masters title, and leapfrog Roger Federer into second place in the rankings, ending a near - decade long time period in which neither Federer or Rafael Nadal were ranked in the top two. Murray briefly fell back to No. 3, following a third round defeat by Stanislas Wawrinka in Monte - Carlo, but reclaimed the No. 2 ranking as a result of Federer failing to defend his title at the Mutua Madrid Open. Later, Murray lost at the quarterfinal stage to Tomáš Berdych in straight sets. At the Rome Masters, Murray retired due to a hip injury during his second round match against Marcel Granollers on his 26th birthday. Murray had just battled back to tie the match at one set all after winning the second set on a tiebreak. This left Murray with only eleven days to be fit for the start of the French Open. Speaking at a press conference after the match, Murray said, "As it is, I 'd be very surprised if I was playing in Paris. I need to make a plan as to what I do. I 'll chat with the guys tonight and make a plan for the next few days then make a decision on Paris after the next five days. '' He would go on to withdraw from Roland Garros later, citing a back injury. After a four - week break due to injury, Murray made his comeback at the 2013 Aegon Championships, where he was the top seed. After a rain delayed first day, Murray had to complete his second round match against Nicolas Mahut, and his subsequent match against Marinko Matosevic on the same day, both of which he won in straight sets. After beating Benjamin Becker in the quarterfinals, Murray next faced his first top ten opponent since losing to Tomáš Berdych in Madrid, taking on Jo - Wilfried Tsonga in the semifinals. After dropping the first set against the Frenchman, Murray eventually raised his level and won in three to set up a final against Marin Čilić of Croatia, his third consecutive final on grass courts. He came from behind again to beat Čilić in three sets to claim his third title at Queen 's Club. Going into Wimbledon, Murray had not lost a match on grass since the previous year 's final, and was on a winning streak of 11 matches on grass. In the first two rounds, Murray faced Benjamin Becker and Yen - hsun Lu respectively, defeating both in straight sets. His third round match was against 32nd seed Tommy Robredo, and despite a tour comeback over the past year, Murray overcame the Spaniard in straight sets to set up a clash with Mikhail Youzhny, the highest seed left in Murray 's half following the unexpectedly early exits of Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal. Despite facing a fightback in the second set, Murray won in straight sets to make it through to his tenth consecutive Grand Slam quarterfinal, in which he was to play Fernando Verdasco, the first left - handed player Murray had faced since the 2012 US Open. For the seventh time in his career, Murray had to come back from a deficit of two sets to ultimately come through in five, setting up a semifinal clash with 24th seed Jerzy Janowicz, the Polish player who beat Murray in their previous encounter. After Murray failed to break Janowicz 's serve, the Pole took the opening set in the tiebreak, following a double fault from Murray. However Murray managed to up his level of play, and won the next three sets, making it through to his second consecutive Wimbledon final, and third consecutive major final against Novak Djokovic. Despite the Serb being the favourite to win the title throughout the Championships, Murray overcame Djokovic in a straight sets match that lasted over three hours, to become the first British winner of the men 's singles title since Fred Perry in 1936, the first Scot of either sex to win a Wimbledon singles title since Harold Mahony in 1896, and to extend his winning streak on grass to 18 matches. With the win, he also became only the second man in the open era after Rafael Nadal to hold the Olympic singles gold medal and Wimbledon title simultaneously. At the US Open, Murray entered a Grand Slam tournament as defending champion for the first time, and started strongly with a straight sets win against Michaël Llodra. He backed this up with wins over Leonardo Mayer, Florian Mayer and Denis Istomin to reach the quarterfinals at a major for the 11th straight tournament. In the last 8, Murray faced Stanislas Wawrinka of Switzerland, but lost in straight sets, ending Murray 's streak of four consecutive major finals. Following his disappointing run of form on hard courts, Murray next joined the Great Britain Davis Cup team in their World Group Play - off tie on clay against Croatia, where he played in two singles and the doubles rubbers. After defeating 16 - year - old Borna Ćorić in straight sets, Murray teamed up with Colin Fleming to defeat Croatian number 1 Ivan Dodig and Mate Pavić in the doubles, and take a 2 -- 1 lead in the tie. Murray then sealed Britain 's return to the World Group by defeating Dodig in straight sets. Following the Davis Cup, Murray 's season was cut short by his decision to undergo surgery, in order to sort out the lower back problems that had caused him problems since the early stages of the previous season. After being forced to withdraw from the French Open in May, the injury flared up again during the US Open and later during the Davis Cup World Group Play - offs, Murray made the decision that surgery was the best way to sort the problem out for the long - term. Following the conclusion of the 2013 season, Murray was voted the 2013 BBC Sport Personality of the Year, after having been heavy favourite since the nominees were announced. Murray started his season at the Qatar Open in Doha. In the first round, he defeated Mousa Shanan Zayed in straight sets in 37 minutes without dropping a single game, but was defeated in three sets by No. 40 Florian Mayer in the second round, despite being a set and a break up three games into the second set. He then played a warm - up match at the 2014 AAMI Classic in Kooyong against No. 43 Lleyton Hewitt, losing in two close tiebreaks. He next headed to Melbourne for the 2014 Australian Open, where he drew the No. 112, Go Soeda of Japan. Despite worries that he was not match - fit, Murray got off to a strong start, dispatching the Japanese number 2 in under 90 minutes, losing just 5 games in the process. He next went on to defeat Vincent Millot and Feliciano López respectively in straight sets. In the fourth round, Murray dropped his first set of the tournament on his way to beating Stephane Robert in four sets to set up a meeting with long - standing rival Roger Federer in the quarterfinals. Despite saving two match points to take the third set, he ultimately went out in four, ending his streak of four consecutive Australian Open semifinals. As a result of losing before the final, Murray fell to No. 6, falling out of the top 5 for the first time since 2008. He next headed to the United States to compete in the Davis Cup World Group first round with Great Britain, who went into the tie as outsiders. Murray won both of his ties against Donald Young and Sam Querrey respectively, helping Britain to their first Davis Cup quarterfinal since 1986. Murray 's next tournament was the Rotterdam Open after receiving a late wild card, however he lost to Marin Čilić in straight sets in the quarterfinals. His following competition, the Mexican Open in Acapulco, ended in a semifinal defeat by Grigor Dimitrov in a thrilling three - setter that required two tiebreakers to decide the final two sets. At Indian Wells, Murray struggled in his first two matches against Lukáš Rosol and Jiří Veselý respectively, overcoming both in close three - set encounters to set up a fourth round clash with Canadian Milos Raonic, which he lost in three sets. Murray offered to play with 2012 Wimbledon Doubles champion Jonathan Marray, because Marray was unable to convince anyone to join him on court. For Murray and Marray 's first competitive match together, they won a doubles clash against Gaël Monfils and Juan Mónaco only to lose in the second round to the No 2 seeds Alexander Peya and Bruno Soares. In March, Murray split with coach Ivan Lendl, who had been widely praised for helping Murray achieve his goal of winning Grand Slam titles. At the 2014 Miami Masters, Murray defeated Matthew Ebden, Feliciano López and Jo Wilfried Tsonga but lost to Djokovic in the quarterfinals. In the Davis Cup quarterfinals against Italy, he beat Andreas Seppi in his first rubber, then teamed up with Colin Fleming to win the doubles rubber. Murray had only beaten one top ten player on clay, Nikolay Davydenko, back in 2009, and so in his final singles match, was stunned by Fabio Fognini in straight sets, which took Great Britain to the deciding final rubber. However, in this match his compatriot, James Ward was defeated by Andreas Seppi, also in straight sets, knocking Murray and Great Britain out of the Davis Cup. Murray next competed at the Madrid Open and following his opening win, over Nicolas Almagro, he dedicated the victory to former player Elena Baltacha. He then lost to qualifier Santiago Giraldo in the following round. Murray then reached the quarterfinals of the Rome Masters where he lost to No. 1 Rafael Nadal in a tight match in which he had been up a break in the final set. At the French Open, Murray defeated Andrey Golubev and Marinko Matosevic before edging out 28th seed Philipp Kohlschreiber 12 -- 10 in the final set. This was the first time Murray had ever gone beyond 7 -- 5 in a deciding set. He followed this up with a straight sets win over Fernando Verdasco and then recorded a five set victory over Frenchman Gaël Monfils in the quarterfinal, which saw Murray rise to No. 5 and equal his best ever French Open by reaching the semifinals. However, he subsequently lost to Nadal in straight sets, winning only 6 games in the match. After losing the 2014 French Open semifinals to Nadal, Murray appointed former women 's world No. 1, and two - times slam titlist, Amélie Mauresmo as his coach in a ' historic move ' which made Mauresmo the first woman to coach a top male tennis player. After strong grass court seasons in 2012 and 2013, Murray was seeded third for the 2014 Wimbledon Championship, behind Novak Djokovic and Rafael Nadal, who were seeded first and second respectively. He began his title defence with straight sets wins over David Goffin and Blaž Rola, defeating the latter for the loss of just two games. Murray continued his good form, defeating Roberto Bautista Agut and Kevin Anderson, the 27th and 20th seeds, again in straight sets to reach his seventh consecutive Wimbledon quarterfinal. Murray 's defence then came to a halt as Grigor Dimitrov ended his 17 match winning - streak on the grass of Wimbledon (this includes the 2012 Olympics) with a straight sets win, meaning Murray failed to reach the semifinals for the first time since 2008. After his defeat at the Championships, Murray dropped to No. 10, his lowest ranking since 2008. Prior to the North American hard court swing, Murray announced he was extending his partnership with Amélie Mauresmo until the end of the US Open, but was ideally looking for a long - term deal. He also revealed he had only just returned to a full training schedule following his back surgery last September. Murray reached back - to - back quarterfinals at the Canadian Open and Cincinnati Masters, losing to eventual champions Jo Wilfried Tsonga, after being a break up in the decider, and Roger Federer, after being two breaks up in the second set, respectively. He made it to the quarterfinals of the 2014 US Open, losing to Novak Djokovic, after earning his first top ten win of the year in the previous round against Jo Wilfried Tsonga. This was the first season since 2009 where Murray failed to reach a grand slam final. As a consequence Murray fell outside of the top 10 ranking places for the first time since June 2008. Murray took a wildcard into the inaugural Shenzhen Open in China, entering as the number 2 seed. Victories over Somdev Devvarman, Lukáš Lacko and Juan Mónaco saw Murray reach his first final of the season, breaking a drought of 14 months following his title at Wimbledon. In the final he faced Tommy Robredo of Spain, the second final between the two. After saving five championship points in the second set tie break, Murray went on to win the title in three sets, Robredo 's drop in fitness ultimately proving decisive. He then took his good form into Beijing, where he reached the semifinals before losing to Djokovic in straight sets, however he lost in the third round at the Shanghai Masters to David Ferrer despite being a set up. Following his early exit in Shanghai, Murray took a wildcard into the Vienna Open in an attempt to claim a place at the ATP World Tour Finals. He reached the final, where he once again faced Ferrer, and triumphed in three sets for his second title of the season, and the 30th of his career. Murray defeated Ferrer again in the semifinals of the Valencia Open to move into his third final in five weeks, and further strengthen his bid for a place at the season finale in London. In a repeat of the Shenzhen Open final, Murray again saved five championship points as he overcame Tommy Robredo in three sets. Murray then went on to reach the quarterfinals of the Paris Masters, where he was eliminated by Djokovic in what was his 23rd match in the space of only 37 days. However, his win over Dimitrov in the third round had already guaranteed him a spot at the ATP World Tour Finals. At the ATP World Tour Finals, Murray lost his opening round robin match to Kei Nishikori but won his second match against Milos Raonic. However, he lost his final group match against Federer in straight sets and only managed to win one game against him, marking his worst defeat since losing to Djokovic in the 2007 Miami Masters, eliminating him from the tournament. Following the conclusion of the season, Murray mutually agreed a split with long - term backroom staff, training partner Dani Vallverdu and fitness coach Jez Green. They had been with him for five and seven years respectively but were both reported to have been unhappy at the lack of consultation they had been given about the appointment of Mauresmo. Murray also took part in the inaugural season of the International Premier Tennis League, representing the Manila Mavericks, who had drafted him as an icon player in February. Murray took part in the first three matches of the tournament which were all played in Manila. Murray began his year by winning an exhibition event in Abu Dhabi. He then played the Hopman Cup with Heather Watson and, despite winning all his singles matches in straight sets, they finished second in their group behind Poland. His first competitive tournament of the year was the Australian Open. He won his opening three matches in straight sets before defeating 11th seed Grigor Dimitrov to reach the quarterfinal. Wins over Nick Kyrgios and Tomáš Berdych followed as Murray reached his fourth final at the tournament (three of which were against Djokovic) and the eighth grand slam final of his career. He lost the final to Novak Djokovic in four sets, however his run to the final saw his return to the top four in the world rankings for the first time in 12 months. Murray next participated in the Rotterdam Open as the top seed, but he lost in the quarterfinals to Gilles Simon who ended a 12 match losing streak against Murray. Murray then played in the Dubai Championships but suffered another quarterfinal defeat to 18 - year - old Borna Ćorić and as a result, Murray slipped to No. 5 behind Rafael Nadal and Kei Nishikori. Afterwards, Murray played the Davis Cup World Group in Glasgow against the United States. He won both his matches against Donald Young and John Isner, allowing Great Britain to progress to the quarterfinals for the second consecutive time with a 3 -- 2 lead over the United States. Murray then reached the semifinals of the 2015 Indian Wells, overtaking Tim Henman 's record of 496 career wins to have the most career wins for a British man in the Open Era. However, he suffered a 6th consecutive defeat to Djokovic in straight sets. Murray then reached the final of the 2015 Miami Open, recording his 500th career win along the way to become the first British player to have 500 or more wins in the Open Era. He went on to lose the final to Djokovic, this time in three sets. Murray added Jonas Björkman to his coaching staff in March initially on a five - week trail to help out in periods when Mauresmo was unavailable as she only agreed to work with him for 25 weeks. However, at the end of the Australian Open, Mauresmo had informed Murray that she was pregnant and he announced at the end of April, that Björkman would be his main coach for all of the grass court season and all of the US hard court swing, while Mauresmo would only be with the team for Wimbledon. Murray won his first ATP clay court title at the 2015 BMW Open. He defeated German Philipp Kohlschreiber in three close sets to become the first Briton since Buster Mottram in 1976 to win a tour level clay court event. The following week he reached his second final on clay, at the Madrid Open after recording only his second and third victories over top 10 opposition on clay, against Raonic and Nishikori. In the final, he defeated Rafael Nadal in straight sets for his first Madrid title on clay, and first ever clay court Masters 1000 title. The win was Murray 's first over Nadal, Federer or Djokovic since Wimbledon 2013, and his first over Nadal on a clay court. Murray continued his winning streak at the Italian Open, beating Jeremy Chardy in straight sets in his opening match, but then withdrew due to fatigue after having played nine matches in the space of 10 days. Murray then reached his third semifinal at the French Open, but lost to Djokovic in five sets after threatening a comeback from two sets to love down, ending his 15 match winning streak on clay. To start his grass court campaign, Murray went on to win a record tying fourth Queen 's Club title, defeating the big serving South African Kevin Anderson in straight sets in the final. At the third grand slam of the year, the 2015 Wimbledon Championships, Murray dropped only two sets on his way to setting up a semifinal clash with Roger Federer. Murray lost to the Swiss veteran in straight sets, gaining only one break point in the entire match. After Wimbledon, Murray returned to Queen 's Club, to play for Great Britain against France in their Davis Cup quarterfinal tie. Great Britain went 1 -- 0 down when James Ward lost to Gilles Simon in straight sets, however Murray levelled the tie with a victory against Jo - Wilfried Tsonga. Murray then teamed up with his brother Jamie to win the doubles rubber, coming back from a set down to defeat Tsonga and Nicolas Mahut in four sets, giving Britain a crucial 2 -- 1 lead going into the final day. He then faced Simon in the fourth rubber and after initially being a set and a break down, he suddenly found his form again towards the end of the second set and eventually won in four sets, winning 12 of the last 15 games in the process (with Simon struggling from an ankle injury). With a 3 -- 1 lead over France, this resulted in Great Britain reaching their first Davis Cup semi-final since 1981. Murray next participated at the Citi Open (for the first time since 2006), as the top seed and favourite to win the tournament. However, he suffered a defeat in his first match, losing to No. 53 Teymuraz Gabashvili in a final set tiebreak, despite serving for the match. In doubles, he partnered Daniel Nestor, however they lost in the first round to the fourth seeds, Rohan Bopanna and Florin Mergea, also in three sets. He bounced back from this defeat by winning the Montreal Masters Rogers Cup, defeating Tsonga and Nishikori in the quarterfinals and semifinals respectively. He then prevailed in the final against Djokovic in three sets. This broke his eight - match, two - year losing streak against Djokovic (his last win against him being in the final of Wimbledon in 2013). In winning the title he also surpassed Federer in terms of ranking, becoming the world No. 2 for the first time in over two years. In doubles, he partnered Leander Paes and they won their first match against Chardy and Anderson, but were then defeated by Murray 's brother Jamie and John Peers in two sets -- the first time the Murray brothers had competed against each other in a Tour - level match, a situation which Andy described as "awkward '' and Jamie as "a bit weird ''. In the second Master Series tournament of the US Hard Court season, the Cincinnati Masters, Murray defeated veteran Mardy Fish in the second round, and then beat both Grigor Dimitrov and Richard Gasquet in three - set matches, having to come from a set down on both occasions, while Dimitrov had served for the match in the deciding set. In the semifinal, he lost to defending champion Roger Federer in straight sets, and after Federer went on to win the tournament, this result saw Murray return to the No. 3 ranking and seeding for the US Open. At the US Open, Murray beat Nick Kyrgios in four sets before beating Adrian Mannarino in five sets after being two sets down, equaling Federer for winning eight matches from two sets to love down. He then beat Thomaz Bellucci in straight sets but suffered a defeat in the fourth round to Kevin Anderson in four sets. This ended Murray 's five - year run of 18 consecutive Grand Slam quarterfinals (not counting his withdrawal from the 2013 French Open) since his third round loss to Stan Wawrinka in the 2010 US Open. Playing against Australia in the semifinals of the Davis Cup World Group in Glasgow, Murray won both his singles rubbers in straight sets, against Thanasi Kokkinakis and Bernard Tomic. He also partnered his brother Jamie, and they won in five sets against the pairing of Sam Groth and Lleyton Hewitt, the results guiding Great Britain to the Davis Cup final for the first time since 1978 with a 3 -- 2 lead over Australia. After losing in the semifinals of the Shanghai Masters to Djokovic in straight sets, Murray reached the finals of the Paris Masters for the lost of just one set, with victories against Borna Ćorić, David Goffin and David Ferrer. After a three set win over Richard Gasquet, he joined Novak Djokovic, Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal as the only players to reach the semifinals (or better) at all nine of the ATP World Tour Masters 1000 tournaments, and also ensured that he compiled his best match record in a single season. He then lost the final to Djokovic again in straight sets. As the world No. 2, Murray participated in the ATP World Tour Finals in London, and was drawn into the Ilie Năstase group with David Ferrer, Rafael Nadal and Stan Wawrinka. He went out in the round - robin stage, after defeating Ferrer and losing to Nadal and Wawrinka. However, after Federer failed to win the tournament, he finished the season ranked No. 2 for the first time. In the Davis Cup final, Murray 's victory over Ruben Bemelmans in straight sets pulled Great Britain level in the final after Kyle Edmund had lost the first singles rubber in five sets, played on indoor clay courts at Ghent. He then partnered his brother Jamie in a four - set victory over the pairing of Steve Darcis and David Goffin, before defeating Goffin again in the reverse singles on Sunday, thus ensuring a 3 -- 1 victory for Great Britain, their first Davis Cup title since 1936 and their tenth overall. Murray also became only the third person since the current Davis Cup format was introduced to win all eight of his singles rubbers in a Davis Cup season, after John McEnroe and Mats Wilander. Murray began his 2016 season by playing in the Hopman Cup, pairing up with Heather Watson again. However, they finished second in their group after losing their tie to eventual champions Nick Kyrgios and Daria Gavrilova from Australia. Murray played his first competitive tournament of 2016 at the Australian Open where he was aiming to win his first title there after four runner - up finishes. He went on to reach his fifth Australian Open final with victories over Alexander Zverev, Sam Groth, João Sousa, Bernard Tomic, David Ferrer and Milos Raonic, dropping four sets along the way. However, in a rematch of the previous year final, he was unable to win his first title as he lost in the final to an in - form Novak Djokovic (who won a record - equalling sixth title) in straight sets. He became the second man in the Open Era (after Ivan Lendl) to lose five Grand Slam finals at one event, and the only one to have not won the title. Subsequently, in February, Murray appointed Jamie Delgado as an assistant coach. Murray then played at 2016 Davis Cup defeating Taro Daniel in straight sets and Kei Nishikori in five sets. Murray then competed at the first Masters 1000 of the year at the 2016 Indian Wells Masters. He defeated Marcel Granollers in the second round in straight sets but had an early loss to Federico Delbonis in the third round. Murray then played at the 2016 Miami Open as the 2nd seed. He defeated Denis Istomin in the second round in straight sets but had another early loss, to 26th seed Grigor Dimitrov, despite taking the first set. Murray began his clay court season at the 2016 Monte - Carlo Rolex Masters as the 2nd seed. Murray struggled in his second round match against Pierre - Hugues Herbert but Murray came through in 3 sets. Murray struggled again in his third round match against 16th seed Benoît Paire as Murray was down a set and two breaks. Paire also served for the match in the third set but Murray still came through in 3 sets. Murray then defeated 10th seed Milos Raonic in straight sets in the quarterfinals. In the semifinals Murray lost to 5th seed and eventual champion Rafael Nadal despite winning the first set. Murray then played at the 2016 Mutua Madrid Open as the 2nd seed and the defending champion. Murray defeated qualifier Radek Štěpánek in three sets. He then proceeded to the semifinals after defeating 16th seed Gilles Simon and 8th seed Tomáš Berdych both in straight sets. In the semifinals Murray defeated Nadal in straight sets who Murray had lost to earlier in the year. In the final Murray lost to number 1 seed Novak Djokovic in three sets. This loss dropped Murray from second to third in the ATP Rankings. Shortly afterwards Mauresmo and Murray issued a joint statement announcing that they had "mutually agreed '' to end their coaching partnership. Murray regained his number two ranking after he won the 2016 Internazionali BNL d'Italia for his 1st title of the season and 36th overall. He defeated Mikhail Kukushkin, Jérémy Chardy, 12th seed David Goffin, Lucas Pouille, and number 1 seed Djokovic all in straight sets. This was his first win over Djokovic on clay and became the first British player since Virginia Wade in 1971 to win the title and the first British man since George Patrick Hughes in 1931. Murray then moved on to the French Open where he struggled in the opening rounds coming through two five - set matches against Štěpánek and French wildcard Mathias Bourgue. He came through in straight sets against big servers Ivo Karlović and John Isner to reach the quarterfinals where he beat home favourite Richard Gasquet in four sets to set up a semifinal clash against defending champion Stanislas Wawrinka. Murray defeated Wawrinka in four sets to become the first male British player since Bunny Austin in 1937, to reach a French Open final. He was unable to win his maiden French Open final, losing to Djokovic in four sets. In June 2016, Ivan Lendl agreed to return to his former role as Murray 's coach. Murray started his grass season at the 2016 Aegon Championships as the 1st seed and the defending champion. Murray defeated Nicolas Mahut in straight sets despite facing a set point in the first set and three set points in the second set. He then defeated his countryman Aljaž Bedene in straight sets. He then had three set wins over Kyle Edmund, another countryman, and No. 5 seed Marin Čilić. In the final he was down a set and a break to 3rd seed Milos Raonic. Murray still managed to come back and win a record 5th Queen 's Club Championships and it was also his 2nd title in 2016. Murray then played at the third major of the year at the 2016 Wimbledon Championships as the 2nd seed. Murray had straight set wins over Liam Broady, Lu Yen - hsun, John Millman, and Nick Kyrgios in the first four rounds. Murray then defeated 12th seed Jo - Wilfried Tsonga in five sets in the quarterfinal and 10th seed Tomáš Berdych in straight sets to reach his third straight major final. In the final on 10 July, Murray defeated Raonic in straight sets to win his second Wimbledon title and third Major title overall. His Wimbledon crown was his 3rd title of the season and 38th career Tour title. Murray next played at the Rio Olympic Games. He became the first player, male or female, to win two gold medals in the tennis singles events by defeating Juan Martín del Potro in the final, which lasted over four hours. The win was his 3rd consecutive title and 4th title of the season. Murray then entered the US Open and beat Lukas Rosol, Marcel Granollers, Paolo Lorenzi and Grigor Dimitrov in the first four rounds. However his run came to an end when he lost to sixth seed Kei Nishikori in five sets despite holding a two sets to one lead. His next activity was the 2016 Davis Cup semifinal in Glasgow against Argentina. He lost the opening rubber against Juan Martín del Potro in five sets. After Great Britain lost the second rubber as well, he teamed up with his brother Jamie to beat del Potro and Leonardo Mayer in the third rubber in four sets. He then won the fourth rubber against Guido Pella in straight sets, though Great Britain eventually lost the tie. Murray then won the China Open for his fifth title of 2016 and 40th career tour title. He defeated Andreas Seppi, Andrey Kuznetsov, Kyle Edmund, David Ferrer, and Grigor Dimitrov all in straight sets. Murray then backed this up with a tournament win at the Shanghai Rolex Masters defeating Steve Johnson, Lucas Pouille, David Goffin, Gilles Simon, and Roberto Bautista Agut all in straight sets to capture his 13th masters title and 3rd title in Shanghai. This marked his 6th title of 2016 and drew him even with former No. 1 Stefan Edberg at No. 15 on the Open Era titles list with 41 Tour titles each. Murray brought his win streak to 15 consecutive match wins by winning the Erste Bank Open for his seventh tour title of the 2016 season. His tournament started slowly with three - set wins over Martin Klizan and Gilles Simon in the first two rounds. However, a decisive win over John Isner in the quarterfinal and a walkover due to David Ferrer 's withdrawal with a leg injury saw Murray reach the final. There he defeated Jo - Wilfried Tsonga, for his third title in succession. The result saw Murray win seven titles in a single season for the first time in his career, and move to solo 15th on the all - time list of singles titles in the Open Era, breaking a tie with former world No. 1 Stefan Edberg. Murray entered the Paris Masters knowing that in the event of Djokovic not reaching the final, winning the title would be enough to see him crowned world No. 1 for the first time. After reaching the quarterfinals, courtesy of wins over Fernando Verdasco and Lucas Pouille, Murray faced Berdych for a place in the semifinals, winning in straight sets. Meanwhile, Djokovic lost to Marin Cilic, meaning that Murray would replace Djokovic at the top of the rankings should he reach the final. He was due to face Milos Raonic in the semifinals. However, Raonic withdrew prior to the start of the match, giving Murray a walkover. As a result, Murray became the first British man to reach No. 1 since the introduction of the rankings in 1973. Murray then defeated John Isner in the final in 3 sets to win his fourth consecutive tournament and first Paris Masters title. In November 2016, Murray reached the final of the ATP World Tour Finals for the first time before winning against Novak Djokovic in two sets, thus reaching year - end No. 1 and in doing so, becoming the first player to win a Grand Slam, the ATP World Tour Finals, the men 's singles at the Olympic Games and a Masters 1000 titles in the same calendar year. The International Tennis Federation recognised Murray as their men 's 2016 ITF men 's world champion, the first time Murray has achieved this honour. Murray was knighted in the 2017 New Year Honours for services to tennis and charity. He opened the season with a loss in the semifinals of the Mubadala World Tennis Championship, to David Goffin, following which he won against Milos Raonic in the third - place play - off. Murray then reached the final of the Qatar Open, which he lost in the final to Novak Djokovic in three sets despite saving three championship points. At the Australian Open he lost in the fourth round against Mischa Zverev in four sets. Murray returned to action at the Dubai Duty Free Tennis Championships event in February. He won the tournament beating Fernando Verdasco in two sets, despite almost losing in the quarterfinals to Philipp Kohlschreiber where Murray had to save seven match points. The next week, Murray lost in the second round of the Indian Wells Masters to Vasek Pospisil. After missing a month due to an elbow injury, Murray returned to compete in the Monte - Carlo Masters in April, losing out in the third round to Albert Ramos - Vinolas. He then competed in Barcelona where he was beaten by Dominic Thiem in the semi-finals. Murray continued to struggle in his next two tournaments, losing to Borna Coric in the third round of Madrid, and to Fabio Fognini in second round of Rome, where he was defending champion. In both these defeats he failed to win a set. At the 2017 French Open following tough four - set victories over Andrey Kuznetsov and Martin Kližan in the opening rounds, Murray defeated Juan Martín del Potro and Karen Khachanov in straight sets. In the quarter - finals he defeated Kei Nishikori in four sets, but lost in the semi-finals to Stan Wawrinka in five sets. As the five - time champion at Queens, he pledged his prize money to the victims of the Grenfell Tower fire however he was defeated in straight sets by Jordan Thompson in the first round. Despite concerns over a lingering hip injury, Murray returned to Wimbledon as the defending champion and progressed to the third round with straight set wins against Alexander Bublik and Dustin Brown. He dropped his first set of the tournament to Fabio Fognini but proceeded to the fourth round in four sets. Murray continued to the quarter final with a straight set victory against Benoit Paire. However, he was defeated in the quarter - final by Sam Querrey in five sets. The hip injury later forced him to miss the Canadian Open and the Cincinnati Masters, which led to him losing his No. 1 ranking to Rafael Nadal. His injury then forced him to withdraw from the 2017 US Open two days before the start of the tournament, making it the first Grand Slam tournament he had missed since the 2013 French Open. Murray then withdrew from the Asian hard court swing and said it was "most likely '' that he would not play in a professional tournament again in 2017. Ultimately he did indeed not play again, withdrawing from Paris which left him unable to qualify for the 2017 ATP Finals; as a result of his inactivity, in November his ranking fell to No. 16, his lowest ranking since May 2008. Murray returned to the court to play a charity match against Federer in Glasgow and expressed his hope to return to the tour in Brisbane. The following week, he and Ivan Lendl announced that they had mutually ended their coaching arrangement for a second time. Murray withdrew from the Brisbane International and Australian Open due to hip injury. In a post on Instagram, Murray explained that rehab was one option for recovery. He added that hip surgery was also an option but that the chances of a successful outcome were not as high. On 8 January Murray announced on Instagram he had undergone hip surgery. In March, Murray lost his British number one ranking to Kyle Edmund for the first time since 2006. Later that month, Murray said he was making progress after several days of playing at the Mouratoglou Academy in Nice after posting pictures of himself practicing against Aidan McHugh, a British junior player, on Instagram. He then announced he would play his first ATP tournament since hip surgery at the Libéma Open in June. Murray made his Davis Cup debut for Great Britain in the Europe / Africa Zone Group 1 2nd Round against Israel in 2005 at 17 years of age, the youngest ever player for Great Britain. He teamed up with fellow debutant David Sherwood and came out victorious in the crucial doubles rubber against the experienced Jonathan Erlich and Andy Ram, helping Britain advance 3 -- 2. In September, Murray played his debut singles match for the Davis Cup in the World Group Play - off against Switzerland in Geneva on clay with Greg Rusedski, Alan Mackin and David Sherwood. Captain Jeremy Bates surprised everyone by naming Murray as the British No 1 and Alan Mackin as British No 2. Under the Davis Cup rules, this meant that for Friday 's singles, Murray played the Swiss No 2, Stan Wawrinka while Mackin played the Swiss No 1, Roger Federer. Both of them lost their rubbers, giving Switzerland a 2 -- 0 lead. Under the rules, for Sunday 's reverse singles, Bates would have been able to substitute Mackin with Greg Rusedski, so that Rusedski would play Wawrinka, while Murray played Federer. However, Bates believed that Federer was virtually unbeatable because he was on a winning streak and had n't lost since June, and consequently Britain gambled on beating Wawrinka twice, with Murray playing Wawrinka when he was freshest. In the doubles, Murray / Rusedski played Federer and Yves Allegro, leaving Rusedski to play only once. The British tactics came to nought as Switzerland won the doubles rubber as well, gaining an unassailable 3 -- 0 lead after two days. Alan Mackin and David Sherwood were consequently nominated for the dead singles rubbers losing both of them, resulting in a clean sweep for Switzerland. For the Europe / Africa Zone Group I tie against Serbia and Montenegro, Murray had been suffering with a bacterial infection, so he was restricted to playing the doubles alongside Greg Rusedski, which they lost. With Arvind Parmar also losing in the singles, Great Britain were beaten 3 -- 2. In the same week as the relegation 1st round play - off against Israel, Murray was officially entered for the ATP tournament in Indianapolis, sparking fears about his commitment. There was a controversial move by the Lawn Tennis Association to pay £ 500,000 towards the cost of Murray 's next coach, Brad Gilbert as a way of securing Murray 's long - term services for the Davis Cup team. In the event, Murray played, winning his first singles. However he lost the doubles with Jamie Delgado, during which Murray damaged his shoulder and neck. He was diagnosed with whiplash, causing him to sit out the final day 's singles, and eventually Great Britain were beaten 3 -- 2 to proceed to the relegation 2nd round play - off against Ukraine. With Murray and Greg Rusedski playing, Great Britain beat Ukraine 3 -- 2, to stay in Group I. In the tie against the Netherlands, Murray and Tim Henman won the opening singles, then Jamie Murray and Greg Rusedski won the doubles to secure victory. Rusedski announced his retirement on the doubles court. In the run up to World Group play - off against Croatia, Tim Henman had announced he would retire after this match. Murray said "I 'm not going to want to let the team down or let Tim down, I 'd feel terrible if I was the one that was responsible for losing Tim 's last tie. This means a lot to me and it 's definitely going to be the biggest Davis Cup match of my career. '' "Everyone is going to want to win for Tim. I 'm hoping the way I play will show him what his career meant to my development and me. '' Great Britain beat Croatia 4 -- 1 to qualify for the World Group in 2008. After the retirement of Tim Henman and Greg Rusedski, the Davis Cup team was now dependent on Murray having to win three matches, though Henman had told him how wearing and time consuming that can be. While the LTA was funding Brad Gilbert, Murray was obligated to play for his country, but in November, Murray finished with Brad Gilbert as his coach. Murray skipped the World Group 1st round tie against Argentina, over fears he could exacerbate a knee injury, leaving the British team in a hopeless situation -- they lost 4 -- 1. Jamie was furious that Andy was letting them down and the Murrays would not speak to each other for two weeks. Seven months later, as the brothers prepared for the tie against Austria, Andy declared that he had healed the rift with Jamie. When Jamie Murray and Ross Hutchins were beaten in the doubles, John Lloyd suffered criticism for not playing Andy. Great Britain lost their World Group play - off to Austria 3 -- 2 and were relegated to Europe / Africa Zone Group I. Murray withdrew from the tie against Ukraine after failing to shake off a virus, and Great Britain lost 4 -- 1. Murray suffered an injury to his left wrist at the US Open, and would have rested if his next event had not been the Davis Cup. At the Poland match, he won both his singles rubbers. For the doubles with Ross Hutchins, Murray began in the right - hand court, the side usually occupied by the less dominant partner, so as to afford more protection to his troublesome left wrist than when striking double - handed backhands from the left court., though allowed his partner to resume his usual role in the second set. However, the pair succumbed to the world - class Polish duo, and Poland won 3 -- 2; Great Britain were relegated to Europe / Africa Zone Group II for the first time since 1996. Murray had aggravated his wrist injury, so could n't play for another six weeks. Murray pulled out of the match against Lithuania, so younger players could gain more international experience, and to allow him to focus on trying to win Grand Slam titles. His absence was criticised by Davis Cup captain John Lloyd. The Lithuanian side entered the tie as underdogs; fielding a team of teenagers, but Lithuania won 3 -- 2. This was the first time that Great Britain had lost five ties in a row and was described as a humiliating Davis Cup defeat for Great Britain. It led to the resignation of John Lloyd as Davis Cup captain, with Britain now threatened with relegation to the lowest tier of the competition. Murray returned for the Europe / Africa Zone Group II tie versus Luxembourg. He beat Laurent Bram, a tennis coach, 6 -- 0, 6 -- 0, 6 -- 0, the last time a Briton had achieved this score line in Davis Cup was Alan Mills defeating Josef Offenheim in 1959, also against Luxembourg. Andy and Jamie Murray teamed up for the first time in Davis Cup doubles for a straight sets win. In his second singles match, Andy then recorded a third straight sets victory, over No. 81 Gilles Müller, with Great Britain eventually winning 4 -- 1. Three of Hungary 's top four players were not available for the Great Britain vs Hungary tie, so Murray defeated Sebo Kiss, a law student without a ranking, in his first singles rubber. Earlier, James Ward overcame sickness to beat the Hungarian No 1, then Colin Fleming and Ross Hutchins won the doubles, and Great Britain was promoted into Europe / Africa Zone Group I for the first time since 2009. Afterwards, Murray criticised the tournament schedule and cast doubt on his availability for next year 's Davis Cup. Murray intended to play in the Europe / Africa Zone Group I tie against Slovakia, but was prevented by injury concerns after the Australian Open. In any event, Great Britain won 3 -- 2. By 2013, Great Britain 's other tennis players had earned the team a chance to return to the World Group. Murray was suffering a vulnerable back and intended to have surgery after the US Open. Murray revealed that the fear of being branded "unpatriotic '' led him to delay the surgery until after the Davis Cup tie in Croatia in September, which jeopardised his place in the next Australian Open. With Croatia 's No 1 Marin Čilić absent for committing a doping offence, Murray won both his singles matches and the doubles with Colin Fleming, Great Britain eventually winning 4 -- 1, for their first victory on clay since Ukraine in 2006, and returning to the World Group for the first time since 2008. At the World Group first round tie against the United States in San Diego, Murray defeated Donald Young and James Ward unexpectedly beat Sam Querrey on the first day. On the last day, Murray beat Sam Querrey to put Great Britain into the quarterfinals of the Davis Cup for the first time since 1986. Britain 's only previous victory on American soil was 111 years ago. Murray had to recover from a virus to play in the Quarter Final tie against Italy in Naples after missing the Thursday draw ceremony. James Ward lost his rain delayed match, while Murray 's match against Andreas Seppi was halted on Friday evening due to fading light with the score at one set and 5 -- 5 to Murray. On Saturday morning, Murray finished his match, winning in three sets. Two hours later, Murray partnered Colin Fleming to win the doubles rubber. Murray had only beaten one top ten player on clay, Nikolay Davydenko, back in 2009, and was upset by No. 13 Fabio Fognini in straight sets, which took Great Britain to the deciding final rubber. However, James Ward was defeated by Andreas Seppi, also in straight sets, knocking Great Britain out of the Davis Cup. Murray helped lead Great Britain to the final of the World Group for the first time since 1978, winning both his singles rubbers in the matches against the USA, France and Australia. In the final against Belgium in Ghent, Murray beat Ruben Bemelmans and combined with brother Jamie to win the doubles rubber before defeating David Goffin to win the Davis Cup for Great Britain, 79 years after the national team 's last win. Murray led Britain against Japan in the first World Group match in Birmingham, before sitting out the quarter final in Belgrade against Serbia which fell just after Wimbledon. Murray represented Great Britain at his maiden Olympics in Beijing 2008. He competed in the singles and doubles competitions. Despite being seeded sixth in the singles competition, he was eliminated in the first round by Chinese Taipei 's Yen - hsun Lu. Along with his brother Jamie, he advanced to the second round of the doubles competition with a win over the Canadian pairing of Daniel Nestor and Frédéric Niemeyer. The Murray brothers were eliminated in the second round by France 's Arnaud Clément and Michael Llodra. In February, Murray pulled out of the Davis Cup tie against Argentina, because of a knee injury, so Argentina thrashed the under - strength British team. Jamie Murray scathingly criticised Andy and they did not speak to each other for a fortnight. Their rift continued in the Olympic doubles, over a perceived lack of effort from Andy. At the London 2012 Olympics, Murray competed in the singles, doubles (partnering his brother Jamie) and mixed doubles (partnering Laura Robson). In the singles, he won the Gold Medal, including straight - set victories over Novak Djokovic in the semifinals and Roger Federer in the final, four weeks after Federer had beaten him in on the same court in the Wimbledon final. He also won the silver medal in the mixed doubles, losing to the Belarusian pairing of Max Mirnyi and Victoria Azarenka. Murray was the Great Britain flag bearer during the opening ceremony for the 2016 Summer Olympics. He reached the gold medal match in the singles competition, whilst losing in the first and second rounds of the men 's doubles and mixed doubles competitions respectively. After a 4 - hour final, Murray defeated Juan Martín del Potro and successfully retained his title as Olympic champion, achieving a second Olympic gold medal -- a feat which no other singles player has achieved. Murray attributed the motivation of his win as coming from Mo Farah 's 10,000 m win. Novak Djokovic and Murray have met 36 times with Djokovic leading 25 -- 11. Djokovic leads 5 -- 1 on clay, 20 -- 8 on hard courts, and Murray leads 2 -- 0 on grass. The two are almost exactly the same age, with Murray being only a week older than Djokovic. They went to training camp together, and Murray won the first match they ever played as teenagers. The pair have met 19 times in finals, with Djokovic leading 11 -- 8. Ten of the finals were at ATP Masters 1000 events, and they are tied at 5 -- 5. They have met in seven Major finals: The 2011 Australian Open, the 2012 US Open, the 2013 Australian Open, the 2013 Wimbledon Championships, the 2015 Australian Open, the 2016 Australian Open, and the 2016 French Open. Djokovic has won in Australia four times and their single French open final, Murray emerged as the victor at the US Open and Wimbledon. The former of Murray 's victories was the longest ever final at the US Open, tying with the 1988 final played between Ivan Lendl and Mats Wilander at 4 hours and 53 minutes, while the latter was notable for being the first home triumph in men 's singles at Wimbledon since 1936. They also played a nearly five - hour long semifinal match in the 2012 Australian Open, which Djokovic won 7 -- 5 in the fifth set after Murray led 2 sets to 1. Murray and Djokovic met again in 2012 at the London 2012 Olympic Games, with Murray winning in straight sets. During the final of the 2012 Shanghai Masters, Murray held five championship points in the second set, however Djokovic saved each of them, forcing a deciding set. He eventually prevailed to win his first Shanghai Masters title, ending Murray 's 12 -- 0 winning streak at the event. The three set matches they played in Rome and Shanghai in 2011 and 2012 respectively were voted the ATP World Tour Match of the Year for each respective season. Due to the tight competition between 2008 and 2013, many saw this as the emerging rivalry. Djokovic went on to dominate the rivalry after the 2013 Wimbledon final, winning 13 of their last 16 matches. In 2016, Murray suffered his 4th loss (his 5th total) in the final of the Australian Open from Djokovic, then the Serbian defeated the British player in four sets in the Roland Garros final, where Djokovic won his first Roland Garros title and completed the Career Grand Slam. Murray and Djokovic met in the final at the year 's end final of the ATP World Tour Finals for the first time in their rivalry, where the winner would be granted the Year - end No. 1 status. Djokovic, dropped only one set en route to the final at the ATP World Tour Finals, but lost in straight sets to Murray, who finished the year at No. 1 and became the first British player to achieve this feat. Murray and Roger Federer have met 25 times with Federer leading 14 -- 11. Federer leads 12 -- 10 on hard courts, 2 -- 1 on grass, and they have never met on clay. After Federer won the first professional match they played, Murray dominated the first half of the rivalry, winning 8 of their first 13 matches from 2005 until 2010. The second half of the rivalry has been dominated by Federer, who since won 9 of their last 12 matches from 2010, and has led their rivalry since the 2014 ATP World Tour Finals. Federer leads 5 -- 3 in finals, having won each of their Grand Slam Final meetings at the 2008 US Open and 2010 Australian Open, both of which Federer won in straight sets, and the 2012 Wimbledon Championships, where Murray took the first set, but ended up losing in 4 sets. Murray leads 6 -- 3 in ATP 1000 tournaments and 2 -- 0 in finals. They have met five times at the ATP World Tour Finals, with Murray winning in Shanghai in 2008 and Federer coming out victorious in London in 2009, 2010, 2012, and in 2014. In August 2012, Murray met Federer in the final of the London 2012 Olympics at Wimbledon Centre Court, just four weeks after the 2012 Wimbledon Final, in which Federer had defeated Murray to win his record - tying 7th title at the All - England Club. Murray defeated Federer in straight sets to win the gold medal, denying Federer a Career Golden Slam. In 2013 Murray beat Federer for the first time in a Major in the semifinals of the Australian Open, prevailing in five sets after Federer had come back twice from a set down. Their last grand slam meeting was at the 2015 Wimbledon Championships semifinals, where a dominant Federer defeated Murray in straight sets, earning a place in his 10th Wimbledon final. Murray is one of only three players to have recorded 10 or more victories over Federer, the other two being Nadal and Djokovic. Their most recent meeting took place at the 2015 Cincinnati Masters semifinals, with Federer winning the match in two close sets, recording his fifth consecutive victory over Murray. Murray has played against Rafael Nadal on 24 occasions since 2007, with Nadal leading 17 -- 7. Nadal leads 7 -- 2 on clay, 3 -- 0 on grass and 7 -- 5 on hard courts. The pair regularly meet at Grand Slam level, with nine out of their twenty - four meetings coming in slams, with Nadal leading 7 -- 2 (3 -- 0 at Wimbledon, 2 -- 0 at the French Open, 1 -- 1 at the Australian Open and 1 -- 1 at the US Open). Eight of these nine appearances have been at quarterfinal and semifinal level. They have never met in a Slam final, however, Murray leads 3 -- 1 in ATP finals, with Nadal winning at Indian Wells in 2009 and Murray winning in Rotterdam the same year, Tokyo in 2011, and at Madrid in 2015. Murray lost three consecutive Grand Slam semifinals to Nadal in 2011 from the French Open to the US Open. Of the past 20 Grand Slam drawsheets, they have been drawn in the same half 16 times. The pair had not met for three years since the final of the 2011 Japan Open until the quarterfinals of the 2014 Rome Masters, although they were scheduled to meet in the semifinal of the 2012 Miami Masters before Nadal withdrew with injury. At the semifinal stage of the 2014 French Open, Nadal triumphed in a dominant straight sets win for the loss of just 6 games. In one of their most recent meetings, Murray beat Nadal for the first time on clay, and the first time in a Masters 1000 final, at the Madrid Open in 2015. Murray fell to Nadal in the semi-finals of the 2016 Monte Carlo Masters, despite taking the first set. Three weeks later they met again at the semi-final stage of the 2016 Madrid Open, this time Murray winning the match in straight sets. Murray and Stan Wawrinka have played 18 times with Murray leading 10 -- 8. Murray leads 7 -- 4 on hard courts and 2 -- 0 on grass courts while Wawrinka leads 4 -- 1 on clay courts. They have also met six times in Grand Slam tournaments with each player winning three matches. They have contested some close matches and one of their most notable matches was in the 2009 Wimbledon fourth round which Murray won in five sets and was the first men 's match to be played under the Wimbledon roof, having the latest finish for a Wimbledon match at the time. Wawrinka also ended Murray 's title defense at the 2013 US Open quarterfinals with a comfortable straight sets victory. Other close matches the two have contested include the 2010 US Open which Wawrinka won in four sets. Murray won the 2008 Canada Open and 2011 Shanghai Masters. While Murray has led the majority of the rivalry, Wawrinka won their first two matches and beat Murray three consecutive times between 2013 and 2015, winning all of them in straight sets, until Murray ended the losing streak at the 2016 French Open, beating the defending champion Wawrinka in four sets to reach his first ever French Open final and become the first British man to do so since 1937. Their most recent match was played in the semifinal of the 2017 French Open, which Wawrinka won in five sets. Due to this match - up and since both players each have three Grand Slam titles, Wawrinka has been identified by some, including Djokovic, as a potential contender to turn the Big Four tennis quartet into a "Big Five '', although Wawrinka himself has downplayed those suggestions, stating that he is still far behind them. Murray plays an all - court game with an emphasis on defensive baseline play, and professional tennis coach Paul Annacone stated that Murray "may be the best counterpuncher on tour today. '' His strengths include groundstrokes with low error rate, the ability to anticipate and react, and his transition from defence to offence with speed, which enables him to hit winners from defensive positions. His playing style has been likened to that of Miloslav Mečíř. Murray also has one of the best two - handed backhands on the tour, with dynamic stroke execution while he primarily uses his forehand, which is more passive, and a sliced backhand to let opponents play into his defensive game before playing more offensively. Tim Henman has stated that Murray may now have the best lob in the game, succeeding Lleyton Hewitt. Murray 's tactics often involve passive exchanges from the baseline. He is capable of injecting sudden pace into his groundstrokes to surprise his opponents who are used to the slow rally. Murray is also one of the top returners in the game, often able to block back fast serves with his excellent reach and ability to anticipate. For this reason, Murray is rarely aced. Murray is known for being one of the most intelligent tacticians on the court, often constructing points. Other strengths in his game, although not huge parts of his game, include a well - disguised drop shot and his net game. As he plays predominantly from the baseline, he usually approaches the net to volley when finishing points more quickly. Murray is most proficient on a fast surface, like grass, where he has won eight singles titles including the Wimbledon Championships and the 2012 Olympic Gold Medal, although hard courts are his preferred surface. He has worked hard since 2008 on improving his clay court game, ultimately winning his first clay titles during 2015 at Munich and Madrid, as well as reaching his first French Open final during 2016. While Murray 's serve is a major weapon for him, with his first serve reaching speeds of 130 mph or higher on some occasions and winning him many free points, it can become inconsistent when hit under pressure, especially with a more vulnerable and slower second serve. Since his 2011 season and Ivan Lendl 's coaching, Murray has played a more offensive game and has also worked to improve his second serve, forehand, consistency and mental game which have all been crucial to his further success. In 2009, German manufacturer Adidas and Murray signed a five - year - deal worth £ 30 million. This included wearing their range of tennis shoes. The contract with Adidas allowed Murray to keep his shirt sleeve sponsors Shiatzy Chen, Royal Bank of Scotland and Highland Spring. Before he was signed by Adidas in late 2009, he wore Fred Perry apparel. At the end of their contract together Adidas decided not to re-sign with Murray, and he began a 4 - year partnership with athletic apparel company Under Armour in December 2014, reportedly worth $25 million. Murray uses Head rackets, and regularly appears in advertisements for the brand. In June 2012, the Swiss watch manufacturer Rado announced that Murray had signed a deal to wear their D - Star 200 model. Murray 's coaching staff has changed through the years and are as follows: Leon Smith (1998 -- 2004), Pato Álvarez (2003 -- 2005), Mark Petchey (2005 -- 2006), Brad Gilbert (2006 -- 2007), Miles Maclagan (2007 -- 2010), Àlex Corretja (2010 -- 2011), Ivan Lendl (2011 -- 2014, 2016 -- 2017), Amélie Mauresmo (2014 -- 2016), Jonas Björkman (2015), Jamie Delgado (2016 --). Murray is a founding member of the Malaria No More UK Leadership Council and helped launch the charity in 2009 with David Beckham. Footage from the launch at Wembley Stadium can be seen on YouTube and the charity 's website. Murray also made ' Nets Needed ', a short public service announcement, for the charity to help raise awareness and funds to help in the fight against malaria. Murray has also taken part in several charity tennis events, including the Rally for Relief events that took place prior to the start of the 2011 Australian Open. In June 2013, Murray teamed up with former British No. 1 Tim Henman for a charity doubles match against Murray 's coach and eight - time grand slam champion Ivan Lendl, and No. 6 Tomáš Berdych at the Queen 's Club in London. The event named Rally Against Cancer was organised to raise money for Royal Marsden Cancer Charity after his best friend and fellow British player Ross Hutchins was diagnosed with Hodgkin 's lymphoma. The event took place following the final day of competitive play at the AEGON Championships, on Sunday 16 June. Subsequently, following his victory at the tournament, Murray donated his entire prize money pot to The Royal Marsden Cancer Charity. In June 2014, following the death of Elena Baltacha, Murray featured in an event known as ' Rally for Bally '. Murray played at Queen 's Club alongside Victoria Azarenka, Martina Hingis, Heather Watson and his brother Jamie. The event raised money for the Royal Marsden Cancer Charity and the Elena Baltacha Academy of Tennis. Children from Baltacha 's academy took to the court to play alongside Murray. As a result of his various charitable exploits, Murray was awarded the Arthur Ashe Humanitarian of the Year award for 2014. Murray identifies himself as Scottish and British. His national identity has often been commented on by the media. While making a cameo appearance on the comedy show Outnumbered, Murray was asked whether he was British or Scottish, to which he responded "Depends whether I win or not. '' Much of the discussion about Murray 's national identity began prior to Wimbledon 2006, when he was quoted as saying he would "support whoever England is playing '' at the 2006 World Cup. English ex-tennis player Tim Henman confirmed that the remarks had been made in jest and were only in response to Murray being teased by journalist Des Kelly and Henman about Scotland 's failure to qualify. Murray initially refused to endorse either side of the debate in the 2014 referendum on Scottish independence, citing the abuse he had received after his comments in 2006. Just before the referendum, Murray tweeted a message that was considered by the media to be supportive of independence. He received online abuse for expressing his opinion, including messages that were described as "vile '' by Police Scotland; one referred to the Dunblane massacre. A few days after the vote, in which a 55 % majority opposed Scottish independence, Murray said that he did not regret stating his view, but said that it was out of character and that he would concentrate on his tennis career in the future. After defeating Nikolay Davydenko at Wimbledon 2012, Murray pointed upwards with both hands and wagged them back and forth while looking to the sky. Murray declined to reveal the reason, and ever since, he has continued to celebrate his victories with this gesture. Murray marked his first Wimbledon title in 2013 with the same victory salute. Then in his book ' Seventy - Seven; My Path to Wimbledon Glory ', released in November 2013, Murray said: "The real reason is that around that time I had a few friends and family who had various issues affecting them... I knew that they would be watching and I wanted to let them know I was thinking of them. '' After winning the Brisbane International in January 2013, he dedicated the victory to his friend Ross Hutchins who had been diagnosed with cancer in December 2012. Hutchins confirmed that Murray 's victory salute after this win was a sign to him. In 2006, there was uproar after a match with Kenneth Carlsen. Having been given a warning for racket abuse, he went on in the post-match interview to state that he and Carlsen had "played like women '' during the first set. Murray was booed for the remark, but explained later that the comment had been intended as a jocular response to what Svetlana Kuznetsova had said at the Hopman Cup. A few months later, Murray was fined for swearing at the umpire during a Davis Cup doubles rubber with the Serbia and Montenegro Davis Cup team. Murray refused to shake hands with the umpire at the end of the match. In 2007, Murray suggested that tennis had a match - fixing problem, stating that everyone knows it goes on, in the wake of the investigation surrounding Nikolay Davydenko. Both Davydenko and Rafael Nadal questioned his comments, but Murray responded that his words had been taken out of context. In a June 2015 column written for the French sports newspaper L'Équipe Murray criticised what he described as a double standard applied by many in their attitudes towards Amélie Mauresmo in her role as Murray 's coach, highlighting how many observers attributed his poor performances during the early part of her tenure to her appointment, which Murray denied, before pointing out that his previous coaches had not been blamed by the media for other spells of poor form. He also lamented the lack of female coaches working in elite tennis, and concluded: "Have I become a feminist? Well, if being a feminist is about fighting so that a woman is treated like a man then yes, I suppose I have ''. Murray has corrected others a number of times on the subject of women 's tennis. After BBC host John Inverdale indirectly suggested Murray was the first person to win more than one tennis Olympic gold medal, Murray interjected; "I think Venus and Serena have won about four each. '' He has also said that female tennis players should have the same prize money as male.

lost art of keeping a secret song meaning

The Lost Art of Keeping a Secret - Wikipedia "The Lost Art of Keeping a Secret '' is the first single from Queens of the Stone Age 's second album, Rated R. It was released in the summer of 2000 through Interscope Records in Europe as a standard single, and in the US as only a promotional one. The track became arguably the band 's most recognizable and popular song at its time of release. Its music video received mild airplay on music television. It was also the only single from Rated R to get a chart position, reaching number 21 on the Mainstream Rock charts, number 36 on the Modern Rock charts and number 31 on the UK Singles Chart. The song was featured in the films Sound City and Smokin ' Aces 2: Assassins ' Ball, the TV series Numbers, Nip / Tuck, Entourage and Daria, and in the video games Tony Hawk: Ride, Driver: San Francisco and Gran Turismo 5. All tracks by Joshua Homme and Nick Oliveri, except where noted.

what year did beyonce do the super bowl

Super Bowl XLVII halftime show - wikipedia The Super Bowl XLVII halftime show occurred on February 3, 2013 at the Mercedes - Benz Superdome in New Orleans as part of Super Bowl XLVII and featured American entertainer Beyoncé with special guests Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams from Destiny 's Child. The show was produced by Ricky Kirshner and directed by Hamish Hamilton. It received acclaim from music critics who commented that Beyoncé once more proved her abilities during live performances. It became the then second most watched show in Super Bowl history by garnering 110.8 million viewers. The performance, and the stadium blackout that followed, generated more than 299,000 tweets per minute, making it the then second most tweeted moment in the history of Twitter. This would be the first Pepsi sponsored halftime show since Prince 's performance in Super Bowl XLI. In October 2012, news sources confirmed Beyoncé would headline the halftime show at the Super Bowl XLVII. Beyoncé made the announcement on her website prior to the National Football League 's confirmation by posting an image of her face with the date of the game stenciled into eye black. Lisa de Moraes of The Washington Post quipped that she would become the first "female solo artist under the age of AARP eligibility '' to headline the Super Bowl halftime show. Initial reports mentioned that Beyoncé 's husband, Jay - Z was a potential collaborator on the show. However, he did not appear during the show, and a source told to Us Weekly that he changed his decision at the last minute as he wanted the performance "to be her moment and did n't want to take away from it ''. The halftime show was produced by Ricky Kirshner and directed by Hamish Hamilton. During the performance Beyoncé was dressed in an oversized black jacket, lace - and - leather bodysuit and thigh - high stockings. Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams were also dressed in a matching "black - leather dominatrix - wear '', as stated by David Rooney of The Hollywood Reporter. Two logos of Beyoncé 's portraits opposite each other were put on stage and the show began with Beyoncé emerging from the floor between them while a blaze of flames also appeared on stage. Throughout the performance, she was backed by her all - female band, her back - up dancers as well as the Saintsations, a 32 - girl cheerleader troupe of host - city New Orleans team the Saints and a horn section made up of female musicians. Following Beyoncé 's performance of the American national anthem "The Star - Spangled Banner '' at President Obama 's second inauguration on January 21, 2013, she was accused for lip sync. During a news conference where she discussed her halftime performance, she admitted that she sang the song along with a pre-recorded track during the ceremony, but confirmed that she 's going to sing live during the Super Bowl halftime show, saying "I will absolutely be singing live... This is what I was born to do, what I was born for. I 've had a 16 - year career. All the things I 've done have prepared me for this. '' Following her performance at the halftime show, Jon Caramanica of The New York Times wrote that Beyoncé, who was n't "used to having her reputation impugned '', silenced the "doubters '' who criticized her after the performance at the inauguration. Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times also wrote in his review: "As she danced and asked that the crowd clap along, her microphone hand made an audible thump. It was loud and obvious. And it proved something true: The mike was live, and our singer was too. '' A countdown to the halftime show began under the music for "Countdown ''. It then opened with an instrumental portion of "Run the World (Girls) '' and Beyoncé ascended on a stage lift while a Vince Lombardi speech was heard in the background: "Excellence must be pursued, it must be wooed with all of one 's might and every bit of effort that we have; each day there 's a new encounter, each week is a new challenge. All of the noise and all of the glamour, all of the color all of the excitement, all of the rings and all of the money. These are the things that linger only in the memory. But the spirit, the will to excel, the will to win, these are the things that endure. '' Then Beyoncé started singing an a cappella version of the chorus of "Love on Top '' which later led to a performance of "Crazy in Love '' when as stated by Jon Caramanica of The New York Times Beyoncé was "virtually growling, giving that song a ferocity it has never before had ''. Beyoncé went on the perform "End of Time '' which began with stomping dance. A performance of "Baby Boy '' followed when Beyoncé danced while screens behind and below her projected clones of herself dancing the same choreography. Former Destiny 's Child members Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams joined her on stage, after being launched off the floor to perform "Bootylicious '' and "Independent Women Part I '' from the Charlie 's Angels soundtrack which they finished with a pose in the form of the film 's lead female characters. They continued with a version of Beyoncé 's "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It) ''. After they left the stage, Beyoncé said to the crowd, "Everybody put your hands toward me -- I want to feel your energy! '' and ended the show with an "emotional '' rendition of "Halo ''. After her last song, Beyoncé told the crowd, "Thank you for this moment. God bless y'all ''. -- Rob Sheffield, Rolling Stone Beyoncé 's performance was acclaimed by critics. Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times commented that Beyoncé 's performance at the half time show "reconfirms her skills as a live performer, silencing anyone who might have wondered about them in the wake of a certain revelation. '' David Rooney of The Hollywood Reporter wrote: "Continuing in the vein of Madonna in 2012, (Beyoncé) steered the Super Bowl halftime show away from dad rock to embrace girl power. '' Melinda Newman of the website HitFix commented: "In a Super Bowl half - time performance that was as frenetic as it was fierce, (Beyoncé) delivered a sexy segment that was part Victoria 's Secret fashion show, part tutorial on how to dazzle an audience. '' Jon Caramanica of The New York Times praised the performance at the show, commenting that "for 12 or so minutes... she balanced explosions and humanity, imperiousness with warmth, an arena - ready sense of scale with a microscopic approach to the details of her vocals. Amid all the loudness were small things to indicate Beyoncé was answering her skeptics, quietly but effectively. '' He finished his review with the conclusion that Beyoncé "the machine had made her point '' and that the performance was "proof of life ''. Jim Farber of Daily News wrote in his review of the performance that "It 's hard to think of a star better suited to the Super Bowl than she is ''. Dan Hyman of Rolling Stone magazine wrote in his review that Beyoncé "flaunted her supreme vocal and dancing chops throughout the halftime show '' and added that the set 's biggest moment was when she was joined on stage by her former bandmates. Rob Sheffield of the same publication praised the performance of Beyoncé 's guitarist Bibi McGil during the show, commenting that it was a "ready - made obligatory - Slash - cameo guitar solo ''. He finished his review by writing, "The actual game was n't bad, either. Sorry, 49ers. But there 's no question who the night belonged to: Beyoncé. '' In March 2013, Michael Hogan of The Observer put the performance in his list of "The 10 best Beyoncé moments -- in pictures ''. Beyoncé 's performance at the Super Bowl XLVII halftime show received three nominations for the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards which took place on September 22, 2013. It was nominated in the categories for Outstanding Special Class -- Short - Format Live - Action Entertainment Programs; Outstanding Technical Direction, Camerawork, Video Control for a Miniseries, Movie, or a Special; and Outstanding Lighting Design / Lighting Direction for a Variety Special eventually winning in the last category. In next year, the performance was nominated for Best Awards, Music, or Game Shows at 2014 Art Directors Guild. Nielsen ratings confirmed that the show was watched by 110.8 million viewers, thus becoming the fourth most watched halftime show in the history after Madonna 's performance at the Super Bowl XLVI halftime show which was watched by 112.5 million viewers, Bruno Mars ' performance at the Super Bowl XLVIII halftime show which attracted 115.3 million viewers and Katy Perry 's Super Bowl XLIX halftime show with 118.5 million viewers. Beyoncé 's performance at the Super Bowl XLVII halftime show became the most tweeted - about moment in Twitter history with 268,000 tweets per minute. In the week ending February 10, 2013, Beyoncé sold 220,000 digital song downloads in the US, while Destiny 's Child sold 60,000; up 80 % and 36 % on the previous week, respectively. Set list adapted from BBC.

i can hear your voice season 4 guest list

I Can See Your Voice - wikipedia I Can See Your Voice (abbreviated ICSYV), stylized as I Can See Your Voice: Mystery Music Game Show (Hangul: 너의 목소리 가 보여; RR: Neo-eui Moksori - ga Bo - yeo) is an international mystery music game show franchise originated in South Korea. The Korean original was created and produced under CJ E&M and its broadcasts on Mnet, premiered on February 26, 2015. Later, the show became an global success and adapted their local versions worldwide, mainly Asia. The program was nominated in the 44th International Emmy Awards for "Best Non-Scripted Entertainment Program '' category. I Can See Your Voice is a program where a number of people (from 6 to 7) are invited in each episode to lip - sync. Some participants are actual artists or a person who have their personal singing experiences, and some others are just ordinary people who ca n't actually sing well (called tone - deaf on the program). Judging panels including guest professional singers then look only at hints and the outward appearance of these people performing in lip - sync to guess whether the person can actually sing well or whether the performer is just an imposter and an ordinary individual. The last person standing will gets to sing a duet with their guest singer. If the one who can actually sing gets chosen, his / her joint performance is released as a digital single. If someone who ca n't sing well, he / she earns a monetary prize. The innovated format makes it possible to identify the mystery performers through various clues. It offers talented singers a chance to make their dreams of stardom to become a reality. The program invites guest artist (s) in every episode. A guest artist must attempt to guess whether the contestant is a skilled vocalist or a tone - deaf without hearing them sing. The guest, with the help and advice of Tone - deaf Detective Team then eliminates one to two contestants in each round. Eliminated contestants then reveal their singing ability on the Stage of Truth. The last contestant gets to sing a duet with the guest artist. If the last person standing is a skilled vocalist, he / she receives a chance to release a song with the guest artist as a digital single. If he / she is a tone - deaf person, he / she wins a monetary prize. There are six or seven participants (also called SEE - cret songers), each standing on a numbered platform. They do not speak until the final reveal. tvN (Simucast) tvN Asia (International)

who is the present prime minister of australia

Prime Minister of Australia - Wikipedia The Prime Minister of Australia (sometimes informally abbreviated to PM) is the head of government of Australia. The individual who holds the office is the most senior Minister of the Crown, the leader of the Cabinet and the chairperson of the National Security Committee. The Prime Minister also has the responsibility of administering the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. The office is not mentioned in the Constitution of Australia and exists only through longstanding political convention and tradition. The individual who holds the office is commissioned by the Governor - General of Australia and at the Governor - General 's pleasure subject to the Constitution of Australia. Almost always and according to convention, the Prime Minister is the leader of the majority party or largest party in a coalition of parties in the House of Representatives and continues to be so as long as they command the confidence of this House. Some commentators argue that the Governor - General may also dismiss a Prime Minister who is unable to pass the government 's supply bill through both houses of parliament, including the Australian Senate, where the government does n't normally command the majority, as happened in the 1975 constitutional crisis. Other commentators argue that the Governor General acted improperly in 1975 as Whitlam still retained the confidence of the House of Representatives, and there are no generally accepted conventions to guide the use of the Governor General 's reserve powers in this circumstance. However, there is no constitutional requirement that the Prime Minister sit in the House of Representatives, or even be a member of the federal parliament (subject to a constitutionally prescribed limit of three months), though by convention this is always the case. The only case where a member of the Senate was appointed Prime Minister was John Gorton, who subsequently resigned his Senate position and was elected as a member of the House of Representatives (Senator George Pearce was acting Prime Minister for seven months in 1916 while Billy Hughes was overseas, and Senator Mathias Cormann acted for a few days in February 2018 while Malcolm Turnbull was overseas). Malcolm Turnbull has held the office of Prime Minister since 15 September 2015. He received his commission after replacing Tony Abbott as the leader of the Liberal Party, the dominant party in the Coalition government, following the outcome of the September 2015 Liberal leadership ballot. The Prime Minister of Australia is appointed by the Governor - General of Australia under Section 64 of the Australian Constitution, which empowers the Governor - General, as the official representative of the monarch, to appoint government ministers of state and requires them to be members of the House of Representatives or the Senate, or become members within three months of the appointment. The Prime Minister and Treasurer are traditionally members of the House, but the Constitution does not have such a requirement. Before being sworn in as a Minister of the Crown, a person must first be sworn in as a member of the Federal Executive Council if they are not already a member. Membership of the Federal Executive Council entitles the member to the style of The Honourable (usually abbreviated to The Hon) for life, barring exceptional circumstances. The senior members of the Executive Council constitute the Cabinet of Australia. The Prime Minister is, like other ministers, normally sworn in by the Governor - General and then presented with the commission (Letters patent) of office. When defeated in an election, or on resigning, the Prime Minister is said to "hand in the commission '' and actually does so by returning it to the Governor - General. In the event of a Prime Minister dying in office, or becoming incapacitated, or for other reasons, the Governor - General can terminate the commission. Ministers hold office "during the pleasure of the Governor - General '' (s. 64 of the Constitution of Australia), so theoretically, the Governor - General can dismiss a minister at any time, by notifying them in writing of the termination of their commission; however, their power to do so except on the advice of the Prime Minister is heavily circumscribed by convention. Despite the importance of the office of Prime Minister, the Constitution does not mention the office by name. The conventions of the Westminster system were thought to be sufficiently entrenched in Australia by the authors of the Constitution that it was deemed unnecessary to detail them. The formal title of the portfolio has always been simply "Prime Minister '', except for the period of the Fourth Deakin Ministry (June 1909 to April 1910), when it was known as "Prime Minister (without portfolio) ''. If a government can not get its appropriation (budget) legislation passed by the House of Representatives, or the House passes a vote of "no confidence '' in the government, the Prime Minister is bound by convention to immediately advise the Governor - General to dissolve the House of Representatives and hold a fresh election. Following a resignation in other circumstances or the death of a Prime Minister, the governor - general will generally appoint as Prime Minister the person elected as leader by the governing party or, in the case of a coalition, the senior party in the coalition. There have been four notable exceptions to this: Excluding the brief transition periods during changes of government or leadership elections, there have only been a handful of cases where someone other than the leader of the majority party in the House of Representatives was Prime Minister: Most of the Prime Minister 's powers derive from being head of Government. In practice, the Federal Executive Council will act to ratify all decisions made by the cabinet and decisions of the cabinet will always require the support of the Prime Minister. The powers of the governor - general to grant Royal Assent to legislation, to dissolve and prorogue parliament, to call elections and to make appointments are exercised on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister is also the responsible minister for the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, which is tasked with supporting the policy agendas of the Prime Minister and Cabinet through policy advice and the coordination of the implementation of key government programs, to manage Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander policy and programs and to promote reconciliation, to provide leadership for the Australian Public Service alongside the Australian Public Service Commission, to oversee the honours and symbols of the Commonwealth, to provide support to ceremonies and official visits, to set whole of government service delivery policy, and to coordinate national security, cyber, counterterrorism, regulatory reform, cities, population, data, and women 's policy. The formal power to appoint the Governor - General lies with the Queen of Australia, but this appointment is done on the formal advice of the Prime Minister. By convention, this advice is provided by the Prime Minister alone, and thus the appointment is effectively the Prime Minister 's personal choice. The Prime Minister may also advise the monarch to dismiss the Governor - General, though it remains unclear how quickly the monarch would act on such advice in a constitutional crisis. This uncertainty, and the possibility of a "race '' between the Governor - General and Prime Minister to sack the other, was a key question in the 1975 constitutional crisis. The power of the Prime Minister is subject to a number of limitations. Prime Ministers removed as leader of their party, or whose government loses a vote of no - confidence in the House of Representatives, are expected to advise an election of the lower house or resign the office. If they fail to do this they will be dismissed by the Governor - General. The Prime Minister 's party will normally have a majority in the House of Representatives and party discipline is exceptionally strong in Australian politics, so passage of the government 's legislation through the House of Representatives is mostly a formality. Attaining the support of the Senate can be more difficult as government usually lacks an absolute majority because the Senate 's representation is based on the overall proportion of votes and often includes minor parties. On 1 July 2017, the Australian Government 's Remuneration Tribunal adjusted the Prime Ministerial salary, raising it to its current amount of $527,852, which was equivalent then to ten times the wage of the average Australian. As of May 2018, this made the Australian Prime Minister the highest paid leader in the OECD. Whilst in office, the Prime Minister has two official residences. The primary official residence is The Lodge in Canberra. Most Prime Ministers have chosen The Lodge as their primary residence because of its security facilities and close proximity to Parliament House. There have been some exceptions, however. James Scullin preferred to live at the Hotel Canberra (now the Hyatt Hotel) and Ben Chifley lived in the Hotel Kurrajong. More recently, John Howard used the Sydney Prime Ministerial residence, Kirribilli House, as his primary accommodation. On her appointment on 24 June 2010, Julia Gillard said she would not be living in The Lodge until such time as she was returned to office by popular vote at the next general election. (She became Prime Minister mid-term after replacing the incumbent, Kevin Rudd, who resigned in the face of an unwinnable party - room ballot.) Tony Abbott was never able to occupy The Lodge during his term (2013 - 15) as it was undergoing extensive renovations, which continued into the early part of his successor Malcolm Turnbull 's term. Instead, Abbott resided in dedicated rooms at the Australian Federal Police College when in Canberra. During his first term, Rudd had a staff at The Lodge consisting of a senior chef and an assistant chef, a child carer, one senior house attendant, and two junior house attendants. At Kirribilli House in Sydney, there is one full - time chef and one full - time house attendant. The official residences are fully staffed and catered for both the Prime Minister and their family. In addition, both have extensive security facilities. These residences are regularly used for official entertaining, such as receptions for Australian of the Year finalists. The Prime Minister receives a number of transport amenities for official business. The Royal Australian Air Force 's No. 34 Squadron transports the Prime Minister within Australia and overseas by specially converted Boeing Business Jets and smaller Challenger aircraft. The aircraft contain secure communications equipment as well as an office, conference room and sleeping compartments. The call - sign for the aircraft is "Envoy ''. For ground travel, the Prime Minister is transported in an armoured BMW 7 Series model. It is referred to as "C - 1 '', or Commonwealth One, because of its licence plate. It is escorted by police vehicles from state and federal authorities. The Lodge Kirribilli House Prime Ministerial car Official aircraft Politicians, including Prime Ministers, are usually granted certain privileges after leaving office, such as office accommodation, staff assistance, and a Life Gold Pass, which entitles the holder to travel within Australia for "non-commercial '' purposes at government expense. In 2018, Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull said the pass should be available only to former prime ministers, though he would not use it when he was no longer PM. Only one Prime Minister who had left the Federal Parliament ever returned. Stanley Bruce was defeated in his own seat in 1929 while Prime Minister but was re-elected to parliament in 1931. Other Prime Ministers were elected to parliaments other than the Australian federal parliament: Sir George Reid was elected to the UK House of Commons (after his term as High Commissioner to the UK), and Frank Forde was re-elected to the Queensland Parliament (after his term as High Commissioner to Canada, and a failed attempt to re-enter the Federal Parliament). From time to time Prime Ministers are required to leave the country on government business and a deputy acts in their place during that time. In the days before jet aircraft, such absences could be for extended periods. For example, William Watt was acting Prime Minister for 16 months, from April 1918 until August 1919, when Prime Minister Billy Hughes was away at the Paris Peace Conference, and Senator George Pearce was acting Prime Minister for more than seven months in 1916. An acting Prime Minister is also appointed when the prime minister takes leave. The Deputy Prime Minister most commonly becomes acting Prime Minister in those circumstances. Three Prime Ministers have died in office -- Joseph Lyons (1939), John Curtin (1945) and Harold Holt (1967) -- and Robert Menzies resigned as Prime Minister in 1941. In each of these cases, the Deputy Prime Minister (an unofficial office at the time) became an interim Prime Minister, pending an election of a new leader of the government party. In none of these cases was the interim Prime Minister successful at the subsequent election. As of July 2018, there are six living former Australian Prime Ministers. The greatest number of living former Prime Ministers at any one time was eight. This has occurred twice: Of the other Prime Ministers, Ben Chifley died only one year and six months after leaving the Prime Ministership and Alfred Deakin lived another nine years and five months. All the others who have left office have lived at least another 10 years. Nine of them (Bruce, Cook, Fadden, Forde, Fraser, Gorton, Hughes, Watson, and Whitlam) lived more than 25 years after leaving the office, and all but one of them have survived longer than 30 years (Hughes lived for 29 years and 8 months following service). Bob Hawke, who is, as of 2017, still alive, has also lived 25 years beyond the end of his prime ministership. The longest - surviving was Gough Whitlam, who lived 38 years and 11 months after office, surpassing Stanley Bruce 's previous record of 37 years and 10 months after leaving the office. The three youngest people when they first became Prime Minister were: The three oldest people when they first became Prime Minister were: The three youngest people to last leave the office of Prime Minister were: The three oldest people to last leave the office of Prime Minister were: The longest - serving Prime Minister was Sir Robert Menzies, who served in office twice: from 26 April 1939 to 28 August 1941, and again from 19 December 1949 to 26 January 1966. In total Robert Menzies spent 18 years, 5 months and 12 days in office. He served under the United Australia Party and the Liberal Party respectively. The shortest - serving Prime Minister was Frank Forde, who was appointed to the position on 6 July 1945 after the death of John Curtin, and served until 13 July 1945 when Ben Chifley was elected leader of the Australian Labor Party. Australian Labor Party Liberal Party of Australia Australian Country Party Nationalist Party of Australia United Australia Party Commonwealth Liberal Party National Labor Party Free Trade Party Protectionist Party MP for Higgins, Vic, 1968 -- 1975 (retired)

what team has won the most nba championships

List of NBA champions - wikipedia The National Basketball Association (NBA) (formerly Basketball Association of America (BAA) from 1946 -- 49) Finals is the championship series for the NBA and the conclusion of the NBA 's postseason. All Finals have been played in a best - of - seven format, and contested between the winners of the Eastern Conference and the Western Conference (formerly Divisions before 1970), except in 1950 in which the Eastern Division champion faced the winner between the Western and Central Division champions. Prior to 1949, the playoffs were instituted a three - stage tournament where the two semifinal winners played each other in the finals. The winning team of the series receives the Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy. The home - and - away format in the NBA Finals is in a 2 -- 2 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 format (the team with the better regular season record plays on their home court in Games 1, 2, 5 and 7) during 1947 -- 1948, 1950 -- 1952, 1957 -- 1970, 1972 -- 1974, 1976 -- 1977, 1979 -- 1984, 2014 -- present. It was previously in a 2 -- 3 -- 2 format (the team with the better regular season record plays on their home court in Games 1, 2, 6 and 7) during 1949, 1953 -- 1955, and 1985 -- 2013, in a 1 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 format during 1956 and 1971 and in a 1 -- 2 -- 2 -- 1 -- 1 format during 1975 and 1978. The Eastern Conference / Division leads the Western Conference / Division in series won (38 -- 32). The defunct Central Division won one championship. The Boston Celtics and the Minneapolis / Los Angeles Lakers alone own almost half of the titles, having won a combined 33 of 70 championships. The trophy was originally referred to as the NBA Finals trophy, but was renamed in 1964 after Walter A. Brown, the original owner of the Boston Celtics who was instrumental in merging the BAA and the National Basketball League into the NBA in 1949. The original trophy was awarded to the BAA / NBA champions from 1947 to 1976. The trophy was kept by the winning team for one year and given to the winning team of the following year 's finals, unless the previous team won again, much like the NHL 's Stanley Cup, which continues that tradition to this day. A new trophy design was created for the 1977 NBA Finals, although it retained the Walter A. Brown title. Unlike the original championship trophy, the new trophy was given permanently to the winning team and a new one was made every year. The inaugural winners of the trophy were the Philadelphia Warriors, who defeated the Chicago Stags. From 1957 to 1969, the Celtics won the NBA Finals 11 out of 13 times, including eight consecutive wins. The final winners of the trophy were the Philadelphia 76ers, who defeated the Los Angeles Lakers in the 1983 NBA Finals. In 1984, the trophy was renamed the Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy. In 1984, the trophy was renamed to the Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy, in honor of Larry O'Brien, who served as NBA commissioner from 1975 to 1984. The current trophy is made out of 14.5 pounds of sterling silver and vermeil with a 24 karat gold overlay and stands 2 feet (0.61 m) tall. It is designed to look like a basketball about to enter a net. The year and team names are engraved on the trophies, which are often prominently displayed in the winning team 's arena. The Boston Celtics were the inaugural winners of the renamed trophy, defeating the Los Angeles Lakers in seven games (4 -- 3) in the 1984 NBA Finals. Legend

who scored the most goals in group stage of this world cup

List of FIFA World Cup records - wikipedia This is a list of records of the FIFA World Cup and its qualification matches. See also: National team appearances in the FIFA World Cup. Teams having equal quantities in the tables below are ordered by the tournament the quantity was attained in (the teams that attained the quantity first are listed first). If the quantity was attained by more than one team in the same tournament, these teams are ordered alphabetically. Note: There are no official records for cautions issued in tournaments before the introduction of yellow cards in 1970. * one of the wins was after extra time * one of the wins was after extra time * one of the wins was after extra time Teams eliminated by any penalty shoot - outs are not considered as defeated. Continental Records Teams listed in bold won the tournament. Fewer than half of all World Cup tournaments have been won by the highest scoring team.

the indian wars on the great plains lasted from

American Indian Wars - wikipedia The American Indian Wars, or Indian Wars is the collective name for the various armed conflicts fought by European governments and colonists, and later the United States government and American settlers, against the native peoples of North America. These conflicts occurred within the current boundaries of the United States and Canada from the time of the earliest colonial settlements in the 17th century until the 1920s. The Indian Wars resulted from competition for resources and land ownership as European and later American and Canadian settlers encroached onto territory which had been traditionally inhabited by Native Americans. European powers and the United States also enlisted Native American tribes to help them conduct warfare against each other 's settlements and their Native American allies. After the American Revolution of 1776, many conflicts were local to specific states or regions, and frequently involved disputes over land use; some entailed cycles of violent reprisal. The British Royal Proclamation of 1763, now included in the Constitution of Canada, prohibiting white settlers from taking the lands of Indigenous peoples in Canada without signing a treaty with them. The Royal Proclamation was a major cause of the American Revolution since it prohibited American white settlers from seizing native land without signing a peace treaty with them. In Canada, it continued to be the law up until the present time, and the signing of eleven Numbered Treaties which covering most of the native lands, limited the number of such conflicts. In the United States in the 19th century, conflicts were spurred by ideologies such as Manifest Destiny, which held that the United States was destined to expand across the North American continent from coast to coast. As the population of white settlers on the continent continued to increase, the size, duration, and intensity of armed conflicts between settlers and Native Americans grew to unprecedented degrees. Some were resolved by treaty, often through sale or exchange of territory between federal governments and specific tribes; others only ended with the death or surrender of important leaders. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 authorized the U.S. government to enforce the large - scale removal of indigenous peoples who lived east of the Mississippi River to the sparsely populated western frontier. American citizens continued to migrate towards the Pacific for the rest of the century, and the Indian Wars persisted. The policy of removal was eventually refined to allow for the relocation of indigenous peoples to specially designated and federally protected reservations in the United States. From Europeans ' first contact with the native inhabitants of the Americas in the late 15th century, the colonization of North America by the English, French, Spanish, Dutch and Swedish was resisted by various indigenous tribes. The most significant conflicts of the early colonial period occurred in New Spain, mostly in the southern part of the continent in what is now Mexico and Central America, though brief violent contact did occur sporadically between natives and Spanish expeditions in the present - day southeastern and southwestern United States. Conflict north of the modern Mexican border did not begin in earnest until the first part of the 17th century, when the English established the first permanent settlement at Jamestown. Wars and other armed conflicts in the 17th and 18th centuries included the following: In several instances, warfare in North America was a reflection of European rivalries, with Native American tribes splitting their alliances among the powers, often their trading partners. For instance, in King William 's War, Queen Anne 's War, Dummer 's War, King George 's War, and the French and Indian War, various Native American tribes fought on each side of the wars, allying with British or French colonists according to their own self interests. Similarly, in the American Revolution and the War of 1812, Native American tribes in the territories of conflict differed in their alliances. Because the Cherokee supported the British in the Revolution and raided frontier American settlements, in the hopes of expelling the interlopers, rebel American forces mounted retaliations such as the Cherokee Expedition against them. The contributions of those Native American tribes who fought for the United States, such as the Oneida and Tuscarora nations of the Iroquois Confederacy in New York, who were among the founders of the nation, are often rendered invisible. In the period after the American Revolution, 1783 - 1812, British merchants and government agents supplied weapons to Indians living in the United States, in the hope that if a war broke out the Indians would fight with them. The British planned to set up an Indian nation in what is now the Ohio - Wisconsin area to block further American expansion. The U.S. protested and finally, in 1812, went to war. Most Indian tribes, especially those allied with Tecumseh, supported the British and were ultimately defeated by General William Henry Harrison. The War of 1812 became caught up in internal Native American rivalries as well; the Creek War was in part an internal conflict as well as one in which some of the nation allied with the United States and other bands allied with the British. The latter were defeated by General Andrew Jackson. During and after such warfare, many refugees from defeated tribes went over the border to Canada; those in the South went to Florida while it was under Spanish control. During the early 19th century, the federal government was under pressure by settlers in many regions to expel Native Americans from their areas. Under the Indian Removal Act of 1830, they offered Native Americans the choices of assimilation and giving up tribal membership, forced relocation to a controlled Indian reservation with an exchange or payment for lands, or movement west. Some resisted fiercely, most notably the Seminoles in a series of wars in Florida. They were never finally defeated, although some Seminole did remove to Indian Territory. The United States gave up on the remainder, by then living defensively deep in the swamps and Everglades. Others were moved to reservations west of the Mississippi River, most famously the Cherokee whose relocation was called the "Trail of Tears. '' For the Americans the American Revolutionary War was essentially two parallel wars: while the war in the east was a struggle against British rule, the war in the west was an "Indian War ''. The newly proclaimed United States competed with the British for control of the territory of Native American nations east of the Mississippi River. Some Native Americans who joined the struggle sided with the British, as they hoped to win the opportunity to reduce settlement and expansion onto their land. The Revolutionary War was "the most extensive and destructive '' Indian war in United States history. Some native communities were divided over which side to support in the war. For the Iroquois Confederacy, based in New York and Pennsylvania, the American Revolution resulted in civil war; the Six Nations split, with the Oneida and Tuscarora siding with the rebels, and Mohawk, Seneca, Cayuga, and Onondaga fighting with and for the British. While the Iroquois tried to avoid fighting directly against one another, the Revolution eventually forced intra-Iroquois combat. Both sides lost territory following the United States establishing its independence. The Crown aided the landless Iroquois by rewarding them with a reservation at Grand River in Ontario and some other lands. In the Southeast, the Cherokee split into a neutral (or pro-patriot) faction and a pro-British faction, whom the Americans referred to as the Chickamauga Cherokee; they were led by Dragging Canoe. Many other tribes were similarly divided. Both immigrant and native noncombatants suffered greatly during the war, and villages and food supplies were frequently destroyed during military expeditions. The largest of these expeditions was the Sullivan Expedition of 1779, which razed more than 40 Iroquois villages. When the British made peace with the Americans in the Treaty of Paris (1783), they ceded a vast amount of Native American territory (without the consent of the indigenous peoples) to the United States. The United States treated the Native Americans who had fought with the British as enemy allies, a conquered people who had lost their land. The federal government of the United States was eager to expand, and the national government did so by purchasing Native American land in treaties and through warfare. These frontier conflicts were almost nonstop, beginning with Cherokee involvement in the American Revolutionary War and continuing through late 1794. The so - called "Chickamauga Cherokee '', later called "Lower Cherokee, '' were those, at first from the Overhill Towns and later from the Lower Towns, Valley Towns, and Middle Towns, who followed the war leader Dragging Canoe southwest, first to the Chickamauga Creek area (near modern - day Chattanooga, Tennessee), then to the Five Lower Towns. There they were joined by groups of Muskogee, white Tories, runaway slaves, and renegade Chickasaw, as well as by more than a hundred Shawnee, in exchange for whom a hundred Chickamauga Cherokee warriors migrated north, along with another seventy a few years later. The primary objects of attack were the Washington District colonies along the Watauga, Holston, and Nolichucky rivers, and in Carter 's Valley in upper eastern Tennessee, as well as the settlements along the Cumberland River beginning with Fort Nashborough in 1780, even into Kentucky, plus against the colonies, the Franklin settlements, and later states of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. The scope of attacks by the Chickamauga / Lower Cherokee and their allies ranged from quick raids by small war parties of a handful of warriors to large campaigns by four or five hundred, and once over a thousand, warriors. The Upper Muskogee under Dragging Canoe 's close ally Alexander McGillivray frequently joined their campaigns as well as operated separately, and the settlements on the Cumberland came under attack from the Chickasaw, Shawnee from the north, and Delaware. Campaigns by Dragging Canoe and his successor, John Watts, were frequently conducted in conjunction with campaigns in the Northwest. The response by the colonists were usually attacks in which Cherokee towns in peaceful areas were completely destroyed, though usually without great loss of life on either side. The wars continued until the Treaty of Tellico Blockhouse in November 1794. In 1787, the Northwest Ordinance officially organized the Northwest Territory for white settlement. American settlers began pouring into the region. Violence erupted as indigenous tribes resisted this encroachment, and so the administration of President George Washington sent armed expeditions into the area to suppress native resistance. However, in the Northwest Indian War, a pan-tribal confederacy led by Blue Jacket (Shawnee), Little Turtle (Miami), Buckongahelas (Lenape), and Egushawa (Ottawa) crushed armies led by Generals Josiah Harmar and Arthur St. Clair. General St. Clair 's defeat was the most severe loss ever inflicted upon an American army by Native Americans. The Americans attempted to negotiate a settlement, but Blue Jacket and the Shawnee - led confederacy insisted on a boundary line that the Americans found unacceptable, and so a new expedition led by General Anthony Wayne was dispatched. Wayne 's army defeated the Indian confederacy at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. The Indians had hoped for British assistance; when that was not forthcoming, the indigenous people were compelled to sign the Treaty of Greenville in 1795, which ceded modern - day Ohio and part of Indiana to the United States. By 1800, the many millions of Native Americans had been reduced to 600,000 Native Americans in the area now comprising the continental United States. By 1890, their population had declined to about 250,000. The United States continued to gain title to Native American land after the Treaty of Greenville, at a rate that created alarm in Indian communities. In 1800, William Henry Harrison became governor of the Indiana Territory and, under the direction of President Thomas Jefferson, pursued an aggressive policy of obtaining titles to Indian lands. Two Shawnee brothers, Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa, organized Tecumseh 's War, another pan-tribal resistance to American expansion. While Tecumseh was in the South attempting to recruit allies among the Creeks, Cherokees, and Choctaws, Harrison marched against the Indian confederacy, defeating Tenskwatawa and his followers at the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811. The Americans hoped that the victory would end the militant resistance, but Tecumseh instead chose to ally openly with the British, who were soon at war with the Americans in the War of 1812. Like the Revolutionary War, the War of 1812 was also a massive war on the western front. Encouraged by Tecumseh, the Creek War (1813 -- 1814), which began as a civil war within the Creek (Muscogee) nation, became part of the larger struggle against American expansion. Although the war with the British was ultimately a stalemate, the United States was more successful on the western front. Tecumseh was killed by Harrison 's army at the Battle of the Thames, ending the resistance in the Old Northwest. The Creeks who fought against the United States were defeated. The First Seminole War in 1818 was in some ways a continuation of the Creek War and resulted in the transfer of Florida to the United States in 1819 from Spain. As in the Revolution and the Northwest Indian War, the British abandoned their Indian allies to the Americans after the War of 1812. This proved to be a major turning point in the Indian Wars, marking the last time that Native Americans would turn to a foreign power for assistance against the United States. Numerous Indian removal treaties were signed. Most American Indians reluctantly but peacefully complied with the terms of the removal treaties, often with bitter resignation. Some groups, however, went to war to resist the implementation of these treaties, e.g., two short wars (the Black Hawk War of 1832 and the Creek War of 1836), as well as the long and costly Second Seminole War (1835 -- 1842). American settlers began to push into Florida, which was now an American territory and had some of the most fertile lands in the nation. Some scholars have noted that covetousness, racism, and claims of "self - defense '' against Indian raids (real or imagined) became the order of the day in the 1820s, and played a major part in the settlers ' determination to "rid Florida of Indians once and for all ''. To compound the tension, runaway black slaves sometimes found refuge in Seminole camps. The inevitable result was clashes between white settlers and the Native Americans already residing there. Andrew Jackson sought to alleviate this problem by signing the Indian Removal Act, which stipulated forced relocation of Native Americans (if necessary) out of Florida. The Seminoles, led by such powerful leaders as Aripeka (Sam Jones), Micanopy, and Osceola, had little or no intention of leaving their ancestral homelands and quickly retaliated against settler theft, encroachment and attacks on their camps. This led to what is known as the Second Seminole War, the longest and most costly war ever waged against Indians. In May 1830, the Indian Removal Act was passed by Congress which stipulated forced removal of Native Americans to Oklahoma. Also in Florida in May 1832, the Treaty of Paynes Landing was signed by a few Seminole chiefs who later recanted the signing of this treaty, claimed that they were tricked or forced in to signing, and made it clear that they would not consent to relocating to a reservation out west. The Seminoles ' continued resistance to relocation led Florida to prepare for war. The St. Augustine Militia asked the U.S. War Department for the loan of 500 muskets. Five hundred volunteers were mobilized under Brig. Gen. Richard K. Call. Indian war parties raided farms and settlements, and families fled to forts, large towns, or out of the territory altogether. A war party led by Osceola captured a Florida militia supply train, killing eight of its guards and wounding six others. Most of the goods taken were recovered by the militia in another fight a few days later. Sugar plantations along the Atlantic coast south of St. Augustine were destroyed, with many of the slaves on the plantations joining the Seminoles. The U.S. Army had 11 companies (about 550 soldiers) stationed in Florida. Fort King (Ocala) had only one company of soldiers, and it was feared that they might be overrun by the Seminoles. Three companies were stationed at Fort Brooke (Tampa), with another two expected imminently, so the army decided to send two companies to Fort King. On December 23, 1835, the two companies, totaling 110 men, left Fort Brooke under the command of Major Francis L. Dade. Seminoles shadowed the marching soldiers for five days. On December 28, the Seminoles ambushed the soldiers, and wiped out the command. Only three men survived, and one, Edwin De Courcey, was hunted down and killed by a Seminole the next day. Two survivors, Ransome Clarke and Joseph Sprague, returned to Fort Brooke. Only Clarke, who died of his wounds later, left any account of the battle from the army 's perspective. Joseph Sprague was unharmed and lived quite a while longer, but was not able to give an account of the battle because he had sought immediate refuge in a nearby pond. The Seminoles lost just three men, with five wounded. On the same day as the Dade Massacre, Osceola and his followers shot and killed Agent Wiley Thompson and six others during an ambush outside of Fort King. Major Ethan Allen Hitchcock was subsequently among those who found the remains of the Dade party in February. In his journal he accounted for the discovery, then vented his bitter discontent with the conflict: "The government is in the wrong, and this is the chief cause of the persevering opposition of the Indians, who have nobly defended their country against our attempt to enforce a fraudulent treaty. The natives used every means to avoid a war, but were forced into it by the tyranny of our government. '' On December 29, General Clinch left Fort Drane (recently established on Clinch 's plantation, about twenty miles (32 km) northwest of Fort King) with 750 soldiers, including 500 volunteers on an enlistment due to end January 1, 1836. The group was traveling to a Seminole stronghold called the Cove of the Withlacoochee, an area of many lakes on the southwest side of the Withlacoochee River. When they reached the river, the soldiers could not find the ford, so Clinch ferried his regular troops across the river in a single canoe they had found. Once they were across and had relaxed, the Seminoles attacked. The troops only saved themselves by fixing bayonets and charging the Seminoles, at the cost of four dead and 59 wounded. The militia provided cover as the army troops then withdrew across the river. In another key skirmish known as the Battle of Lake Okeechobee, Colonel Zachary Taylor saw the first major action of the campaign. Leaving Fort Gardiner on the upper Kissimmee with 1,000 men on December 19, Taylor headed towards Lake Okeechobee. In the first two days ninety Seminoles surrendered. On the third day Taylor stopped to build Fort Basinger, where he left his sick and enough men to guard the Seminoles that had surrendered. Three days later, on Christmas Day, 1837, Taylor 's column caught up with the main body of the Seminoles on the north shore of Lake Okeechobee. The Seminoles, led by Alligator, Sam Jones, and the recently escaped Coacoochee, were well positioned in a hammock surrounded by sawgrass. The ground was thick mud, and sawgrass easily cuts and burns the skin. Taylor had about 800 men, while the Seminoles numbered fewer than 400. Taylor sent in the Missouri volunteers first, moving his troops squarely into the center of the swamp. His plan was to make a direct attack rather than encircle the Indians. All his men were on foot. Missouri volunteers formed the first line. As soon as they came within range, the Indians opened with heavy fire. The volunteers broke, and their commander, Colonel Gentry, fatally wounded, was unable to rally them. They fled back across the swamp. The fighting in the sawgrass was deadliest for five companies of the Sixth Infantry; every officer but one, and most of their non-commissioned officers, were either killed or wounded. When that part of the regiment retired a short distance to re-form, they found only four men of these companies unharmed. Only about a dozen Seminoles had been killed in the battle. Nevertheless, the Battle of Lake Okeechobee was hailed as a great victory for Taylor and the army. Twenty - six U.S. soldiers, including the majority of Taylor 's officers and NCOs, were killed, with 112 wounded, compared to only 11 Seminoles killed and 14 wounded. No Seminoles were captured, although Taylor did capture 100 ponies and 600 head of cattle. By 1842, the war was winding down, and most Seminoles, save a few hundred diehards, had left Florida for Oklahoma. Estimates of the true cost of the Seminole War range from $30 million to $40 million (about $1.5 billion to $2 billion in today 's prices), though no analysis of the actual cost has been made. Congress appropriated funds for the "suppression of Indian hostilities '', but the costs of the Creek War of 1836 are included in that. An inquiry into extravagance in naval operations found that the navy had spent about $511,000 on the war. The investigation did find questionable expenditures. Among other things, while the army had bought dugout canoes for $10 to $15 apiece, the navy spent an average of $226 per canoe. The number of army, navy and marine regulars who served in Florida is given as 10,169. About 30,000 militiamen and volunteers also served in the war. Sources agree that the U.S. Army officially recorded 1,466 deaths in the Second Seminole War, mostly from disease. The number killed in action is less clear. Mahon reports 328 regular army killed in action, while Missall reports that Seminoles killed 269 officers and men. Almost half of those deaths occurred in the Dade Massacre, Battle of Lake Okeechobee and Harney Massacre. Similarly, Mahon reports 69 deaths for the navy, while Missal reports 41 for the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps, but adds others may have died after being sent out of Florida as incurable. Mahon and the Florida Board of State Institutions agree that 55 volunteer officers and men were killed by the Seminoles, while Missall says the number is unknown. There is no figure for how many militiamen and volunteers died of disease or accident, however. The number of white civilians and Seminoles killed is also uncertain. A northern newspaper carried a report that more than eighty civilians were killed by Indians in Florida in 1839. Nobody kept a cumulative account of the number of Indians killed, or who died of starvation or other privations caused by the war. The Indians who were shipped west did not fare well either. By the end of 1843, 3,824 Indians had been shipped from Florida to what became the Indian Territory, but in 1844 only 3,136 remained. As of 1962 there were only 2,343 Seminoles in Oklahoma and perhaps some 1,500 in Florida. The series of conflicts in the western United States between Native Americans, American settlers, and the United States Army are generally known as the Indian Wars. Many of the most well - known of these conflicts occurred during and after the Civil War until the closing of the frontier in about 1890. However regions of the West that were settled before the Civil War, such as Texas, New Mexico, Utah, Oregon, California and Washington, saw significant conflicts prior to 1860. Various statistics have been developed concerning the devastation of these wars on the peoples involved. One notable study by Gregory Michno used records dealing with figures "as a direct result of '' engagements and concluded that "of the 21,586 total casualties tabulated in this survey, military personnel and civilians accounted for 6,596 (31 %), while Indian casualties totaled about 14,990 (69 %). '' for the period of 1850 -- 90. However, Michno says he "used the army 's estimates in almost every case '' and "the number of casualties in this study are inherently biased toward army estimations ''. His work includes almost nothing on "Indian war parties '', and that "army records are often incomplete ''; his work is a "workable '' number, not a definitive account of events, since it excluded other figures. According to Michno, more conflicts with Native Americans occurred in the states bordering Mexico than in the interior states. Arizona ranked highest, with 310 known battles fought within the state 's boundaries between Americans and the natives. Also, when determining how many deaths resulted from the wars, in each of the American states, Arizona again ranked highest. At least 4,340 people were killed, including both the settlers and the Indians, over twice as many as occurred in Texas, the second highest - ranking state. Most of the deaths in Arizona were caused by the Apache. Michno also says that fifty - one percent of the Indian war battles between 1850 and 1890 took place in Arizona, Texas and New Mexico, as well as thirty - seven percent of the casualties in the country west of the Mississippi River. The region that would later be the western United States had been penetrated by U.S. forces and settlers before this period, notably by fur trappers, the Santa Fe Trail, the Oregon Trail and the Mormon emigration to Utah, as well as by settlement of California and Oregon. Relations between American Immigrants and Native Americans were generally peaceful. In the case of the Santa Fe Trail, this was due to the friendly relationship of the Bents of Bent 's Fort with the Cheyenne and Arapaho, and in the case of the Oregon Trail, to the peace established by the Treaty of Fort Laramie. Signed in 1851 between the United States and the plains Indians and the Indians of the northern Rocky Mountains, the treaty allowed passage by immigrants and the building of roads and the stationing of troops along the Oregon Trail. The Pike 's Peak Gold Rush of 1859 introduced a substantial white population into the Front Range of the Rockies supported by a trading lifeline that crossed the central Great Plains. Advancing settlement following the passage of the Homestead Act and the building of the transcontinental railways following the Civil War further destabilized the situation, placing white settlers into direct competition for the land and resources of the Great Plains and the Rocky Mountain West. Further factors included discovery of gold in the Black Hills, resulting in the gold rush of 1875 -- 1878, and, earlier, in Montana during the Montana Gold Rush of 1862 -- 1863 and the opening of the Bozeman Trail, which led to Red Cloud 's War and later the Great Sioux War of 1876 -- 77. As in the East, expansion into the plains and mountains by miners, ranchers and settlers led to increasing conflicts with the indigenous population of the West. Many tribes -- from the Utes of the Great Basin to the Nez Perces of Idaho -- fought Americans at one time or another. But the Sioux of the Northern Plains and the Apache of the Southwest provided the most celebrated opposition to encroachment on tribal lands. Led by resolute, militant leaders, such as Red Cloud and Crazy Horse, the Sioux were skilled at high - speed mounted warfare. The Sioux were relatively new arrivals on the Plains, as, previously, they had been sedentary farmers in the Great Lakes region. Once they learned to capture and ride horses, they moved west, displacing other Indian tribes and became feared warriors. Historically the Apache bands supplemented their economy by raiding others and practiced warfare to avenge a death of a kinsman. The Apache bands were adept at fighting and highly elusive in the environments of desert and canyons. During the American Civil War, U.S. Army units were withdrawn to fight the war in the east. They were replaced by the volunteer infantry and cavalry raised by the states of California and Oregon, by the western territorial governments or the local militias. These units fought the Indians besides keeping open communications with the east, holding the west for the Union and defeating the Confederate attempt to capture the New Mexico Territory. After 1865 national policy called for all Indians either to assimilate into the general population as citizens, or to live peacefully on reservations. Raids and wars between tribes were not allowed, and armed Indian bands off a reservation were the responsibility of the Army to round up and return. In the 18th century, Spanish settlers in Texas came into conflict with the Apache, Comanche, and Karankawa, among other tribes. Large numbers of Anglo - American settlers reached Texas in the 1830s, and from that point until the 1870s, a series of armed confrontations broke out, mostly between Texans and Comanches. During the same period the Comanche and their allies raided hundreds of miles deep into Mexico (see Comanche -- Mexico Wars). The first notable battle was the Fort Parker massacre in 1836, in which a huge war party of Comanches, Kiowa, Wichitas, and Delawares attacked the Texan outpost at Fort Parker. Despite the small number of white settlers killed during the raid, the abduction of Cynthia Ann Parker and two other children caused widespread outrage among Texas ' Anglo settlers. Once the Republic of Texas was declared and had secured some sovereignty in their war with Mexico, the Texas government under President Sam Houston pursued a policy of engagement with the Comanches and Kiowa. Ironically, since Houston had lived with the Cherokee, the republic faced a conflict called the Cordova Rebellion, in which Cherokees appear to have joined with Mexican forces to fight the fledgling country. Houston resolved the conflict without resorting to arms, refusing to believe that the Cherokee would take up arms against his government. The administration of Mirabeau B. Lamar, which followed Houston 's, took a very different policy towards the Indians. Under Lamar, Texas removed the Cherokee to the west, and then sought to deport the Comanche and Kiowa. This led to a series of battles, including the Council House Fight, in which, at a peace parley, the Texas militia killed 33 Comanche chiefs. The Comanche retaliated with the Great Raid of 1840, and the Battle of Plum Creek followed several days later. The Lamar Administration was known for its failed and expensive Indian policy; the cost of the war with the Indians exceeded the annual revenue of the government throughout his four - year term. It was followed by a second Houston administration, which resumed the previous policy of diplomacy. Texas signed treaties with all of the tribes, including the Comanche. The Comanche and their allies shifted most of their raiding activities to Mexico, using Texas as a safe haven from Mexican retaliation. After Texas joined the Union in 1846, the struggle between the Plains Indians and the settlers was taken up by the federal government and the state of Texas. The years 1856 -- 1858 were particularly vicious and bloody on the Texas frontier, as settlers continued to expand their settlements into the Comanche homeland, the Comancheria, and 1858 was marked by the first Texan incursion into the heart of the Comancheria, the so - called Antelope Hills Expedition, marked by the Battle of Little Robe Creek. This battle signaled the beginning of the end of the Comanche as an independent nation, as, for the first time, they were attacked in the heart of their domain, in force. The battles between settlers and Indians continued and in 1860, at the Battle of Pease River, Texas militia destroyed an Indian camp. In the aftermath of the battle, the Texans learned that they had recaptured Cynthia Ann Parker, the little girl captured by the Comanche in 1836. She returned to live with the Parkers, but missed her children, including her son Quanah Parker. He was the son of Parker and Comanche Chief Peta Nocona and would go on to be a Comanche war chief at the First Battle of Adobe Walls. As chief of the Quahadi Comanches, he finally surrendered to the overwhelming force of the federal government and in 1875 moved to a reservation in southwestern Oklahoma. A number of wars occurred in the wake of the Oregon Treaty of 1846 and the creation of Oregon Territory and Washington Territory. Among the causes of conflict were a sudden immigration to the region and a series of gold rushes throughout the Pacific Northwest. The Whitman massacre of 1847 triggered the Cayuse War, which led to fighting from the Cascade Range to the Rocky Mountains. The Cayuse were defeated in 1855, but by then the conflict had expanded and continued in what became known as the Yakima War, 1855 -- 1858. One of the triggers of the Yakima War was the creation of Washington Territory and the effort of its first governor, Isaac Stevens, to compel tribes to sign treaties ceding land and establishing reservations. The Yakama signed one of the treaties negotiated during the Walla Walla Council of 1855, and the Yakama Indian Reservation was established. The treaties were poorly received by the native peoples and served mainly to intensify hostilities. Gold discoveries near Fort Colville resulted in many miners crossing Yakama lands via Naches Pass, and conflicts rapidly escalated into violence. It took several years for the US Army to defeat the Yakama, during which time war spread to the Puget Sound region west of the Cascades. The Puget Sound War of 1855 -- 1856 was triggered in part by the Yakima War and in part by the use of intimidation to compel tribes to sign land cession treaties. The Treaty of Medicine Creek, signed in 1855, established an unrealistically small reservation on poor land for the Nisqually and Puyallup people. Violence broke out in the White River valley, along the route to Naches Pass, which connected Nisqually and Yakama lands. Although limited in its magnitude, territorial impact and losses in terms of lives, the Puget Sound War is often remembered in connection with the 1856 Battle of Seattle and the execution of a central figure of the war, Nisqually Chief Leschi. In 1858, the fighting on the east side of the Cascades spread. This second phase of the Yakima War is known as the Coeur d'Alene War. The Yakama, Palouse, Spokane, and Coeur d'Alene tribes were defeated at the Battle of Four Lakes in late 1858. In southwest Oregon, tensions and skirmishes between American settlers and the Rogue River peoples, starting about 1850, escalated into the Rogue River Wars of 1855 -- 1856. The California Gold Rush helped fuel a large increase in the number of people traveling south through the Rogue River Valley. Gold discoveries continued to trigger violent conflict between prospectors and indigenous peoples. Beginning in 1858, the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush in British Columbia drew large numbers of miners, many from Washington, Oregon, and California, culminating in the Fraser Canyon War. Although this conflict occurred in what is now Canada, the militias involved were formed mostly of Americans. Due to the discovery of gold in Idaho and Oregon in the 1860s, similar conflicts arose that culminated in the Bear River Massacre in 1863 and Snake War from 1864 to 1868. In the late 1870s another series of armed conflicts occurred in Oregon and Idaho, spreading east into Wyoming and Montana. The Nez Perce War of 1877 is known particularly for Chief Joseph and the four - month, 1,200 - mile fighting retreat of a band of about 800 Nez Perce, including women and children. As with the other wars in the Pacific Northwest, the Nez Perce War was caused by a large influx of settlers, the appropriation of Indian lands, and a gold rush -- this time in Idaho. The Nez Perce engaged 2,000 American soldiers of different military units, as well as their Indian auxiliaries. The Nez Perce fought "eighteen engagements, including four major battles and at least four fiercely contested skirmishes ''. Although finally defeated and captured, Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce were much admired for their conduct in the war and their fighting ability. The Bannock War broke out the following year for similar reasons. The Sheepeater Indian War in 1879 was the last conflict in the area. The acquisition of Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo México from Mexico at the end of the Mexican -- American War in 1848, and the Gadsden Purchase in 1853, brought about conflicts with native peoples in what is now the Southwestern United States that spanned from 1846 to at least 1895. The first conflicts were in the New Mexico Territory, and later in California and the Utah Territory during and after the California Gold Rush. Native American tribes or bands in the southwest had been engaged in cycles of trading and fighting each other and foreign settlers for centuries prior to the United States gaining control of the region. These conflicts with the United States involved every non-pueblo tribe in the region and often were a continuation of Mexican -- Spanish conflicts. The Navajo Wars and Apache Wars are perhaps the best known. The last major campaign of the U.S. military against Native Americans in the Southwest involved 5,000 troops in the field, and resulted in the surrender of Chiricahua Apache chief Geronimo and his band of 24 warriors, women and children in 1886. Because of the small U.S. Army garrison west of the Rockies, and the economic and political effects of the California Gold Rush, most of the early conflicts with the mostly unwarlike California Indians involved local parties of miners or settlers. Occasionally companies of the California Militia were involved, whose actions were dignified with the name of an "Expedition '' or a "War ''. The first of these, the Gila Expedition in 1850, was a dismal failure and nearly bankrupted the state. Later, during the American Civil War, California volunteers replaced Federal troops and won the ongoing Bald Hills War and the Owens Valley Indian War and engaged in minor actions against hostiles in Northern California. California and Oregon volunteer garrisons in Nevada, Oregon, Idaho, Utah, New Mexico and the Arizona Territories also engaged in conflicts with the Apache, Cheyenne, Goshute, Navajo, Paiute, Shoshone, Sioux and Ute Indians from 1862 to 1866. Following the Civil War, California was mostly pacified, but federal troops replaced the volunteers and again took up the struggle against Native Americans in the remote regions of the Mojave Desert, and in the northeast against the Snakes (1864 -- 1868) and Modocs (1872 -- 1873). The tribes of the Great Basin, for the most part Shoshone, were severely impacted by the Oregon and California Trails and by Mormon emigration to Utah. Beginning with their encounter with Lewis and Clark the Shoshone had generally had friendly relations with American and British fur traders and trappers. At first, relationships were friendly with travelers on the trails, but, with time, the volume of emigrants severely impacted natural resources in the areas traversed by the trails. Often travelers treated the Indians they encountered badly and the Indians on their part continued to steal horses and other stock. In Utah, expanding Mormon settlement pushed natives from the fertile and well - watered valleys where they had lived and the cattle of the Mormons consumed the grasses and other plants which made up the traditional Shoshone diet. While unwilling to compensate the Shoshone, or the Ute, for their lands the Mormons did offer food to the Indians. However relations were not smooth, with the Indians being aggressive and demanding while the Mormons found the burden imposed by the Church leadership onerous. The federal government had little presence in the Great Basin and made little effort to ameliorate the situation. The Indians, their traditional way of life disrupted and in retaliation for outrages suffered at the hands of emigrants, engaged in raiding of travelers along the trails and engaged in aggressive behavior toward Mormon settlers. The efforts of the undisciplined California militia who were stationed in Utah during the Civil War to respond to complaints resulted in the Bear River Massacre. Following the massacre a series of treaties were agreed to with the various Shoshone tribes exchanging promises of peace for small annuities and reservations. One of these, the Box Elder Treaty, identified a land claim made by the Northwestern Shoshone. (This claim was declared non-binding by the Supreme Court in a 1945 ruling, but later recognized by the Indian Claims Commission in 1968. Descendents of the original group were compensated collectively at a rate of less than $0.50 per acre, minus legal fees.) Most of the local groups were decimated by the war, and faced continuing loss of hunting and fishing land caused by encroachment of white settlers. Some moved to the Fort Hall Indian Reservation when it was created in 1868. Some of the Shoshone populated the Mormon - sanctioned community of Washakie, Utah. Initially relations between participants in the Pike 's Peak gold rush and the Native American tribes of the Front Range and the Platte valley were friendly. An attempt was made to resolve conflicts by negotiation of the Treaty of Fort Wise which established a reservation in southeastern Colorado, but the settlement was not agreed to by all of the roving warriors, particularly the Dog Soldiers. During the early 1860s tensions increased and culminated in the Colorado War and the Sand Creek Massacre where Colorado volunteers fell on a peaceful Cheyenne village killing women and children which set the stage for further conflict. The peaceful relationship between settlers and the Indians of the Colorado and Kansas plains was maintained faithfully by the tribes, but sentiment grew among the Colorado settlers for Indian removal. The savagery of the attacks on civilians during the Dakota War of 1862 contributed to these sentiments as did the few minor incidents which occurred in the Platte Valley and in areas east of Denver. Regular army troops had been withdrawn for service in the Civil War and were replaced with the Colorado Volunteers, rough men who often favored extermination of the Indians. They were commanded by John Chivington and George L. Shoup who followed the lead of John Evans, territorial governor of Colorado. They adopted a policy of shooting all Indians encountered on sight, a policy which in short time ignited a general war on the Colorado and Kansas plains, the Colorado War. Raids by bands of plains Indians on isolated homesteads to the east of Denver, on the advancing settlements in Kansas, and on stage line stations along the South Platte, such as at Julesburg, and along the Smoky Hill Trail, resulted in settlers in both Colorado and Kansas adopting a murderous attitude towards Native Americans, with calls for extermination. Likewise, the savagery shown by the Colorado Volunteers during the Sand Creek massacre resulted in Native Americans, particularly the Dog Soldiers, a band of the Cheyenne, engaging in savage retribution. The Dakota War of 1862 (more commonly called the Sioux Uprising of 1862 in older authorities and popular texts) was the first major armed engagement between the U.S. and the Sioux. After six weeks of fighting in Minnesota, led mostly by Chief Taoyateduta (aka, Little Crow), records conclusively show that more than 500 U.S. soldiers and settlers died in the conflict, though many more may have died in small raids or after being captured. The number of Sioux dead in the uprising is mostly undocumented, but after the war, 303 Sioux were convicted of murder and rape by U.S. military tribunals and sentenced to death. Most of the death sentences were commuted by President Lincoln, but on December 26, 1862, in Mankato, Minnesota, 38 Dakota Sioux men were hanged in what is still today the largest penal mass execution in U.S. history. After the expulsion of the Dakota, some refugees and warriors made their way to Lakota lands in what is now North Dakota. Battles continued between Minnesota regiments and combined Lakota and Dakota forces through 1864, as Colonel Henry Sibley pursued the Sioux into Dakota Territory. Sibley 's army defeated the Lakota and Dakota in three major battles in 1863: the Battle of Dead Buffalo Lake on July 26, 1863, the Battle of Stony Lake on July 28, 1863, and the Battle of Whitestone Hill on September 3, 1863. The Sioux retreated further, but again faced an American army in 1864; this time, Gen. Alfred Sully led a force from near Fort Pierre, South Dakota, and decisively defeated the Sioux at the Battle of Killdeer Mountain on July 28, 1864. On November 29, 1864, the Colorado territory militia responded to a series of Indian attacks on white settlements by attacking a Cheyenne and Arapaho encampment on Sand Creek in southeastern Colorado. Under orders to take no prisoners, the militia killed and mutilated about 200 of the Indians, two - thirds of whom were women and children, taking scalps and other grisly trophies of battle. The Indians at Sand Creek had been assured by the U.S. Government that they would be safe in the territory they were occupying, but anti-Indian sentiments by white settlers were running high. Following the massacre, the survivors joined the camps of the Cheyenne on the Smokey Hill and Republican Rivers. There, the war pipe was smoked and passed from camp to camp among the Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho camped in the area and an attack on the stage station and fort at Julesburg was planned and carried out in the January 1865 Battle of Julesburg. This successful attack was followed up by numerous raids along the South Platte both east and west of Julesburg and a second raid on Julesburg in early February. A great deal of loot was captured and many whites killed. The bulk of the Indians then moved north into Nebraska on their way to the Black Hills and the Powder River. In the spring of 1865 raids continued along the Oregon trail in Nebraska and the Sioux, the Northern Cheyenne, the Northern Arapaho together with the warriors who had come north after the Sand Creek massacre raided the Oregon Trail along the North Platte River, and in July 1865 attacked the troops stationed at the bridge across the North Platte at the present site of Casper, Wyoming in the Battle of Platte Bridge. After the Civil War, all of the Indians were assigned to reservations; the role of the army was to keep them there. The reservations themselves were under the control of the Interior Department. Control of the Great Plains fell under the Army 's Department of the Missouri, an administrative area of over 1,000,000 mi. 2, encompassing all land between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. Maj. Gen. Winfield S. Hancock had led the department in 1866, but had mishandled his campaign, resulting in Sioux and Cheyenne raids that attacked mail stagecoaches, burnt the stations, and killed the employees. They also raped, killed, and kidnapped many settlers on the frontier. Philip Sheridan was the military governor of Louisiana and Texas in 1866. President Johnson removed Sheridan from that post claiming he was ruling over the area with absolute tyranny and insubordination. In order to preserve reconstruction efforts Sheridan had to be replaced. Shortly after Hancock was removed as Head of the Department of the Missouri and Grant selected Sheridan to replace him in August 1867. Sheridan was ordered to pacify the plains and take control of the Natives there. His first order was to immediately called General Custer back to command of the 7th Cavalry who had been suspended by Hancock. The Department of Missouri was in poor shape upon Sheridan 's arrival. A peace treaty was signed by commissioners from the government in October 1867 with the Comanche, Kiowa, Kiowa Apache, Cheyenne, and Arapaho that offered them land to live on in the form of reservations along with food and supplies. This attempt at peace through bribery was unsuccessful as Congress failed to pass it. The promised supplies from the government were not reaching the natives and they were beginning to starve. When Sheridan took command of the territory these now starving Indians numbered an estimated 6,000 warriors and families. Sheridan only had at his disposal 2,600 men at the time to control them and defend against any raids or attacks but only 1,200 of his men were mounted. These men were also under supplied and stationed at forts that themselves were in poor conditions. They were also mostly unproven units that replaced retired veterans from the American Civil War, only the West Point officers were able to maintain command positions. Sheridan attempted to approve the conditions of the military outpost and the Indians on the plains through a peace - oriented strategy. Toward the beginning of his command members of the Cheyenne and Arapaho followed him on his travels from Fort Larned to Fort Dodge where he spoke to them. They brought their problems to Sheridan 's ear and explained how the supplies they were promised by the commissioners were not being delivered. In response Sheridan gave the starving Natives a generous supply of rations. Shortly after the Saline Valley settlements were attacked and were followed by other violent raids and kidnappings in the region. Sheridan wanted to respond in force by was constrained by the government 's peace police and the lack of well supplied mounted troops. Since he could not deploy official military units, Sheridan commissioned a group of 47 frontiersmen and sharpshooters called Solomon 's Avengers. They investigated the recent raids near Arickaree Creek and where attacked by Native Indians on September 17 of 1868. The battle now known as Beecher 's Island saw the Avengers under siege for eight days by some seven hundred Indian warriors. Using their Spencer repeaters they were able to keep them at bay until military units arrived to help. The Avengers lost six men and another 15 were wounded. Due to the increase of violent attacks like Beecher 's Island and Saline Valley, Sherman gave Sheridan authority to respond in force to these threats. During his lifetime Sheridan was known as a fierce enemy of the Indians, and his approach to the Indians were encapsulated when he is thought to have said "The only good Indian is a dead Indian '', although he himself denied having said this when criticized by his political opponents. Sheridan believed that his soldiers would be unable to contend or chase the horses of the Natives during the summer months and decided to use them as a defensive force the remainder of September and October. His forces were better fed and clothed than the natives and in the winter months when they were constricted to winter camps, his forces could launch a successful campaign. His Winter Campaign of 1868 would start with the 19th Kansas from Custer 's 7th Cavalry along with 5 battalions of infantry under Major John H Page setting out from Fort Dodge on November 5. A few days later a force from the East consisting of units of the 5th Cavalry along with two companies of infantry moved from Fort Bascom to Fort Cobb where they would meet up with units from the 3rd Cavalry leaving from Fort Lyon. Sheridan Directed the opening month of the campaign from Camp Supply. The Units from the 5th and 3rd Cavalry would meet at Fort Cobb without any sign of the 19th Kansas, but they had a lead on a band of Indians nearby and Custer would lead a force after them. The coming attack by Custer on the Cheyenne Indians and Black Kettle would come to be known as the Battle of Washita River. During Custer 's attack it is estimated over 100 Indians were killed and over 50 taken prisoner. For Custer 's forces two officers and nineteen men were killed, two officers and eleven men wounded, and a unit under Major Elliott 's command had gone missing. After the battle Custer would execute 675 ponies which were imperative to the native 's survival on the plains. At this time the 19th Kansas were found and made their way into Camp Supply. Immediately following the battle, Sheridan received large amounts of backlash from Washington politicians who defended Black Kettle as a peace - loving Indian. This began the controversy arose as to whether the event was best described as a military victory or as a massacre. This discussion endures among historians to this day. Following Washita, Sheridan oversaw the refitting of the 19th Kansas and personally led them down the Washita River toward the Wichita Mountains. During this expedition, Sheridan met with Custer along the Washita River and the two searched for the missing unit of Major Elliott. They found the bodies of the missing unit and during this expedition also found the bodies of Mrs. Blynn and her child who had been taken by natives the previous summer near Fort Lyon. The defeat at Washita had scared many of the tribes and through force and threats Sheridan was able to round up the majority of the Kiowa and Comanche people at Fort Cobb in December and get them to agree to living on reservations. Shortly following this Sheridan began negotiations with Little Robe (chief of the Cheyenne) and Yellow Bear about agreeing to living on the reservations. Sheridan then began the construction of Camp Sill, later called Fort Sill which would be named after General Sill who died at Stone River. During this time the Cheyenne would flee and Custer would chase after them. By late march Custer found them and Sheridan got them and the other tribes to agree to live on reservations under the watch of military outposts. With his successful campaign coming to a close Sheridan was called back to Washington following the election of President Grant. He was informed on his promotion to Lieutenant General of the army and reassigned from the Department. With his campaign yet complete Sheridan protested and was allowed to stay in Missouri with the rank of Lieutenant General. The last remnants of Indian resistance came from Tall Bull Dog Soldiers and elements of the Sioux and Northern Cheyenne tribes. The 5th Cavalry from Fort McPherson were sent to handle the Situation on the Platte River in Nebraska. In May the two forces collided at Summit Springs and the Natives were pursued out of the region. This brought the end to Sheridan 's campaign as the Indians had successfully been removed from the Platte and Arkansas and the majority of those in Kansas had been settled onto reservations. Sheridan would leave in 1869 to take command of the Army and was replaced by Major General Schofield. This was not the end of the wars but the beginning of a war of attrition. In 1875, the Great Sioux War of 1876 -- 77, the last serious Sioux war erupted, when the Dakota gold rush penetrated the Black Hills. The U.S. Government decided to stop evicting trespassers from the Black Hills, and offered to buy the land from the Sioux. When they refused, the Government decided instead to take the land, and gave the Lakota until January 31, 1876 to return to reservations. With the deadline 's passing, the tribes were absent from the reservations, and military action commenced. After several indecisive encounters, Lt. Colonel George Custer found the main encampment of the Lakota and their allies at the Battle of the Little Bighorn. Custer and his men -- who were separated from their main body of troops -- were all killed by the far more numerous Indians who had the tactical advantage. They were led in the field by Crazy Horse and inspired by Sitting Bull 's earlier vision of victory. The defeat of Custer and his troopers as a popularized episode in the history of western Indian warfare was fostered by an advertising campaign by the Anheuser - Busch brewery. The enterprising company ordered reprints of a dramatic painting that depicted "Custer 's Last Fight '' and had them framed and hung in many American saloons, helping to create lasting impressions of the battle and the brewery 's products in the minds of bar patrons. Later, in 1890, a Ghost Dance ritual on the Northern Lakota reservation at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, led to the Army 's attempt to subdue the Lakota. On December 29 during this attempt, gunfire erupted, and soldiers killed up to 300 Indians, mostly old men, women and children in the Wounded Knee Massacre. Following the massacre, author L. Frank Baum wrote: "The Pioneer has before declared that our only safety depends upon the total extermination of the Indians. Having wronged them for centuries, we had better, in order to protect our civilization, follow it up by one more wrong and wipe these untamed and untamable creatures from the face of the earth. '' Long before this, the means of subsistence and the societies of the indigenous population of the Great Plains had been destroyed by the slaughter of the buffalo, driven almost to extinction in the 1880s by indiscriminate hunting. In 1924, both the Renegade period and the Apache Wars, which had begun decades earlier, ended and brought the American Indian Wars to a close. The 2010 census found 2,932,248 Americans who identified themselves as being Native American (or Alaskan Native), about 0.9 % of the U.S. population. In Canada, the 2011 census found 1,836,035 Canadians who identified themselves as being First Nations (or Inuit or Métis), about 4.3 % of the Canadian population. No consensus exists on how many native people lived in the Americas before the arrival of Europeans, but extensive research has been and continues to be conducted. Estimates on the population of pre-contact North America range from a low of 2.1 million (Ubelaker 1976) to 7 million (Russell Thornton) to 18 million (Dobyns 1983). As the direct result of infectious diseases, conflict with Europeans, wars between tribes, assimilation, migration to Canada and Mexico, and declining birth rates, the numbers of Native Americans dropped to below half a million in the 19th century. Scholars believe that the overwhelmingly important causes were new infectious diseases carried by European explorers and traders. Native Americans had not evolved immunity to such diseases, which had been chronic in Eurasian populations for over five centuries; the diseases were therefore highly lethal to the Native Americans. For instance, some estimates indicate case fatality rates of 80 -- 98 % in Native American populations during smallpox epidemics. The United States Census Bureau (1894) provided their estimate of deaths due specifically to war during the 102 years between 1789 and 1891, including 8,500 natives and 5,000 whites killed in "individual affairs '': The Indian wars under the government of the United States have been more than 40 in number. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, and the lives of about 30,000 Indians. The actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the number given... Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate... In the same 1894 report, the Census Bureau dismissed assertions that millions of Native Americans once inhabited what is now the United States, insisting instead that North America in 1492 was an almost empty continent, and "guesstimating '' that aboriginal populations "could not have exceeded much over 500,000. '' According to historian David Rich Lewis, American popular histories, film and fiction have given enormous emphasis to the Indian wars. From a professional standpoint, he argues, "American Indian history has a venerable past and boasts a tremendous volume of scholarship judging by the published bibliographies. '' Lewis adds, "it has been difficult to distract academics or the public from the drama of Indian wars. Most of the older histories of Indians and the American West emphasized this warfare and the victimization of Indian peoples. '' After 1970 new ethnohistorical approaches appeared providing an anthropological perspective that deepened understanding of the Indian perspective. The new scholarly emphasis on victimization mentored by the 1980s scholars were dealing more harshly with the U.S. government 's failures and emphasizing the impact of the wars on native peoples and their cultures. An influential book in popular history was Dee Brown 's Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee (1970). In academic history, Francis Jennings 's The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (New York: Norton, 1975) was notable for strong attacks on the Puritans and rejection of traditional portrayal of the wars between the indigenous peoples and colonists.

what percent of schools wear uniforms in the us

School uniforms by country - wikipedia School uniform or school uniforms is a practice which dates to the 16th century in the United Kingdom. It is believed that the Christ Hospital School in London in 1552 was the first school to use a school uniform. The earliest documented proof of institutionalised use of a standard academic dress dates back to 1222 when the then Archbishop of Canterbury ordered the wearing of the cappa clausa about 800 years ago. The practice of having school uniform has been adopted by other countries, and is now common in many parts of the world. Uniforms can be regarded as promoting social equality among students and school - pride, but the practice has also been criticised for promoting a form of uniformity characteristic of militarism. The decision as to whether to implement school uniform policy or not is a controversial one and also polarised in societies and countries. In countries such as the United Kingdom, South Africa and a number of Asian nations, school children have to wear approved school uniforms that conform to the uniform policy of their respective school. In modern Europe, Britain and Ireland stand out as the only countries where school uniform is widely adopted by state schools and generally supported by national and local governments although there is no legislation governing school uniform in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. There are some independent schools and state schools that do not have a school uniform policy and that pupils are at liberty to dress in a way considered to be appropriate by themselves and their parents or guardians. In Australia, each school or school system can set its own uniform policy. Wearing a uniform is compulsory in most Australian private and all Catholic schools, as well as in most public schools, although it is sometimes less enforced in primary schools that have uniforms. Uniforms usually have a color scheme based on the school colors. Uniform and appearance are generally strictly enforced in private and Catholic schools, although public schools are beginning to become increasingly strict about their uniforms. Most, if not all, public and private schools have the school logo incorporated in the uniform ensemble, typically on the necktie and the blazer breast pocket. For boys, the uniforms generally include a button - up or polo shirt with either shorts (especially for summer wear) or long trousers, usually in grey or school colour. Some schools allow boys to wear shorts only in younger years, and they must wear long trousers once they are a senior (17 - 18). At others, even older boys wear shorts in summer due to the heat. Where short trousers are to be worn, socks in school colors (more commonly white) are often required. Girls ' uniforms generally include a checkered or striped dress (usually sleeveless or short - sleeved) worn over a blouse for summer and, in most secondary schools, girls wear a skirt as well as a button - up or polo shirt in winter with a blazer and tie. In a number of schools, girls are also permitted to wear a button - up or polo shirt and dark trousers. In public schools, the uniform is usually a polo shirt for juniors and a different one for seniors and trousers or skirt. This set may be complemented by a school necktie and, typically, a v - neck jumper (pullover or sweater) or a blazer. In the summer, boys usually do not wear ties, pullovers, or blazers. Instead, they wear a short - sleeved version of the shirt and short trousers. A neck - tie, blazer, and hat are also common in private and Catholic schools. In most high schools a PE uniform is the norm for sports days only. At many high schools, children are required to change into and out of their PE uniform around the PE lesson. The PE uniform usually consists of shorts and a polo shirt, as well as a light weatherproof rain jacket (mainly at private or catholic schools), usually made of polyester, for winter and wet weather and sometimes a netball skirt for girls. It is common for students in their final year of primary school or secondary school to have their own jersey, jumper or jacket to denote their final - year status. There is no legal requirement for school uniforms in Brazil. On a state - by - state or city - by - city basis, governments may issue uniforms to public school pupils but may not require their use. Private schools are free to set their own uniform policy Brazilian school uniforms can vary widely from school. There are many schools that opt for a more elegant outfit, while others opt for a simpler one (social shirt, shorts). These "intelligent uniforms '' are embedded with locater chips that allow computers to automatically know whether pupils have arrived in school or not. If pupils do not turn up for school or classes, automated message is sent to inform the parents accordingly. The benefit of the automated system is to curb absenteeism and class skipping. In this country, all schools, both private and public; it is the student 's obligation to wear a uniform. School uniforms are compulsory for school children in Burundi. Burundi like most African countries has a compulsory school uniform policy. Burundi 's school uniform policy dates back to the colonial days. During those days chief 's sons ' wore a white uniform and all other children wore khaki. The uniform policy is still in force in Burundi to date. However, schools decide on what uniform the pupils wear. It is also argued that the school uniform policy in addition to poverty, especially in the rural areas, is negatively affecting enrollment into schools. In Cambodia students of all ages from pre-school to college wear school uniforms. The uniforms from each school and age level are different. Generally, boys wear a white dress shirt and a pair of shorts. The colour and length of the shorts varies per school. Male college students wear the same kind of uniform, but instead of shorts they wear black dress trousers. Girls usually wear white blouses and a skirt. Their skirts vary in colour and length depending upon the school and their ages. Generally the younger students wear long skirts that almost reach their ankles and the college students wear shorter ones. Skirts are generally blue or black but may be other colours as well, depending on the school. Some schools also have alternative uniforms which students of both genders wear every other day. These often consist of a coloured shirt and slacks. High school girl students must wear black or blue long skirts. High school boys wear long black or blue long trousers. The white shirt can be short sleeve or long sleeve for both. However, for high school students need to have name tags on the left hand side of the shirt. In Canada, school uniforms are not required in most public schools or separate schools, except in exceptional circumstances such as school performances or international field trips. However, the majority of Catholic high schools in Ontario (Grade 9 - 12) do require uniforms. Additionally, as of 2011, the Toronto Catholic District School Board has implemented an Appropriate Dress Code of navy blue and white in all elementary separate schools which do not already have their own uniforms. Uniforms are, however, used in most private schools, and also in special or alternative programs of Public and Catholic schools, such as the Traditional Learning Centres, a program that takes a liberal arts approach, while focusing on high levels of academic excellence. In Quebec however, most metropolitan anglophone school boards require a uniform. In Chile, most schools have a uniform. Until 1930, it was uncommon for students to wear a uniform. Under the government of Carlos Ibáñez del Campo, all students became obliged to wear a school uniform. During the administration of Eduardo Frei Montalva, a unified uniform was introduced for all public and private schools and other education centers. Today, these uniforms have disappeared in private schools, who have preferred to use a customised one. Uniforms are a common part of the schools in China. Almost all secondary schools as well as some elementary schools require students to wear uniforms. Uniforms in mainland China usually consist of five sets: 2 formal sets and 3 everyday sets. Each formal set is for either summer or winter and are worn on Mondays or special occasions (school anniversaries, school ceremonies, etc.) They consist of a white collared shirt with a sweater on top and a skirt for girls or a suit for boys with one set for summer and one set for winter. Everyday uniforms for boys in the winter usually consist of a zip up sweater and trousers and a collared shirt (usually white), with thinner materials in the spring and fall and short or long trousers in the summer. The everyday uniforms for girls are basically the same as the boys uniform. It is relatively common for there to be some kind of sponsored advert on some non-formal school uniform shirts, though this trend has been fluctuating in recent years. In Colombia, all students are required to wear uniforms in public and private schools. Uniforms in Colombia consist of two sets, one for everyday use and a sports one for physical education. Everyday use uniforms for girls generally include a knee - length skirt, a white T - shirt and a vest over it along with white mid-calf socks, and for the boys the uniform generally is a dark long trousers and a short or long - sleeved shirt. The shoes for both girls and boys are black lace - up shoes (sometimes it may vary for dark blue or red wine shoes depending on the uniform colours) and the shirts usually have the school 's symbol at the left side. The sports uniform is a sweatpant, a collar T - shirt and white sports shoes. The designs and the colours of the uniforms depend on the school 's colours and the principal 's preference. In El Salvador, all students from public schools and private schools are required to wear uniforms. Uniforms vary depending on the school. Since 1968, uniforms have not been enforced in French schools, with a few exceptions (such as Maison d'éducation de la Légion d'honneur, les Écoles TUNON, and Vatel). Xavier Darcos, a former teacher and Minister of Education of 2007 to 2009, is an advocate of the reintroduction of uniforms: "This is not outrageous. This removes the visible differences in social status or wealth. This is an additional factor of integration ''. Since March 2012, the students of the Boarding Excellence Sourdun wear a uniform with insignia of their establishment. Les lycées de la défense, formerly known as military schools, require their students to wear uniforms, as do the students at the boarding school of excellence SOURDUN. At some universities, the academic dress is becoming popular. In the French Antilles (Martinique and Guadeloupe), as well as French Guiana, a uniform has been required since September 2008. There is no tradition to wear school uniforms in Germany, and today, almost all students of state schools, private schools or universities do not wear school uniforms. However, certain garments have been common to students in former times: From the 16th century, students (especially of secondary or grammar schools and similar institutions) were often subject to regulations that prescribed, for example, modest and not too stylish attire. In many cases these regulations were part of wider laws concerning the clothing of all citizens of certain social classes. A blue coat became a widespread obligatory status symbol of students of secondary schools; it fell out of use during the latter half of the 18th century. In newer times, school uniforms in any real sense did not exist outside of convent schools and private boarding schools. At times, certain fashions became so widespread that they approached uniform status; this is true in particular for so - called student hats (Schülermützen) that became widespread from the 1880s on and remained somewhat popular until they were banned by the Nazis. Their wearing was advocated by teachers and the students themselves and occasionally made mandatory, but never on a national or statewide level. Another instance are the sailor suits that became fashionable around the turn of the 19th century. These, too, were not usually a prescribed uniform. The Nazis banned student hats -- the last remaining, if voluntary, form of unified student clothing -- because they considered them an attribute of class society. They did, however, institute mandatory membership in the uniformed Hitler Youth (HJ) from 1936 on. HJ uniforms were worn in the HJ training academies and in the Napolas; students of other schools sometimes wore them to school at their own discretion. In recent times, the introduction of school uniforms has been discussed, but usually the expression "uniform '' (the word is the same in German) is avoided in favour of terms like "school clothing '' ("Schulkleidung ''). School clothing has been introduced in a small number of schools, for example in Hamburg - Sinstorf in 2000, and in Friesenheim and Haag (Oberbayern) in 2005. In these cases the clothes are collections of shirts, sweaters, and the like, catering to contemporary fashion senses. Uniforms in a more traditional sense are almost never proposed in earnest. The debate on mandatory school uniformed intensified in Germany when two Muslim girls dressed in burka arrived at a school in Bonn in 2006. The girls ' actions were interpreted as political action and were subsequently suspended from school. The then Justice Minister Brigitte Zypries in an interview with the Welt am Sonntag stated that the simple solution to the issue under consideration is mandatory introduction of school uniforms for boys and girls across Germany. She further argued that school uniforms would help to prevent conflicts arising from religious or political differences. Her stance was supported by the then Minister Of Education Annette Schavan. The proposal was met with opposition from the teacher union and opposition political parties. The teacher union argued that school uniforms are not the solution for integration problems nor fight fashion obsession. The leader of the teacher union Heinz - Peter Meidinger also added that the school uniforms have been a controversial issue in Germany over the years. A senior member of the Green Party, Krista Sager, also said that the introduction or school uniforms would be unacceptable state interference in religious matters. She then proposed that individual schools have to find their own solutions and rejected solutions imposed by government. She further noted that school uniforms are no longer up to date and their imposition would be rejected by the current generation of students. The conference of education ministers, a body which decides on school policies, also kicked against school uniforms. They cited historical reasons dating back to WWII with memories of Hitler Youth 's uniform still fresh on people 's mind. They also concluded that the imposition of school uniforms would be excessive government encroachment on personal liberty of pupils and parents. A number of schools also sell branded clothing that can be worn as a sign of school - pride. The Bildungsstreik movement fights against school uniforms because they are mentioned being part of some kind of militarism. All children have to wear school uniforms in Ghana. Pupils in public schools have the same type of school uniform with the school 's emblem is imprinted on the left chest. This helps to distinguish pupils of one school from the other. Private schools determine which uniforms their pupils wear. Ghana like most African countries is characterised by low incomes and high levels of poverty. Hence the cost of school uniforms acts as one of the barriers to educational access. In an effort to achieve universal primary education the government, as part of its educational policy, initiated free school uniform distribution throughout the country in 2010. According to government data, a total of 170,221 pupils were supplied with free school uniforms in 2013 and it planned to supply 10,000 uniforms in 2014. There are public programs to offer poor families financial help to buy uniforms. Over 8,000 school uniforms have been distributed by the government to needy students in the communities from the Tarkwa Nsuaem municipality, one of the mining districts in Ghana, which is severely affected by poverty. This is part of a program instituted in 2010 to supply disadvantaged children with school uniforms. The vast majority of schools in the former British colony adopted uniforms similar to that of British schools, while Catholic schools in Hong Kong usually follow the tradition of Catholic school uniforms. A number of older Christian girls ' schools established before WWII, however, retain the heritage of using the Chinese cheongsam as their uniform, such as St. Stephen 's Girls ' College, True Light Middle School and Heep Yunn School. Sailor suits are also used as uniforms in some kindergartens for boys and girls, and secondary schools but for girls only, for example the Bishop Hall Jubilee School and New Method College. Uniforms are often compulsory in India in both public and private schools. The boys ' uniforms are often made of a light - coloured shirt, long trousers usually blue, white or black, and those of the girls are often a shirt and a skirt. At the state level, the secondary schools are required to use a Shalwar Kameez. This is not compulsory but they do have certain specific dress code. Many schools require students to wear shoes, ties and ID cards, and comb their hair down and keep it clean and short. Long hair is tied in braids. Uniform is one of the most important components of school life and is taken very seriously in India. Some institutions also require the use of a tie, especially the schools run by Christian missionaries, and the Indian government does not prohibit the children to have religious symbols, so the Muslim girls can wear the veil (hijab) (burka) and Sikh boys a turban in addition to the uniform. However, most of the schools, whether public or private, prohibits students to have a ponytail or dyed hair. In Indonesia, school uniforms are mandatory for every student. They can be simply described as below for each stage of education: Public schools in Indonesia tolerate religious freedoms. For example, Muslim girls may opt to wear long - sleeve shirts, longer skirts, and jilbab to cover their heads. Most schools in Indonesia also have a batik uniform, usually worn on Thursday or Friday. This kind of uniform consists of a batik short - sleeve or long - sleeve shirt, with long or short trousers for SMA and below - knee or long skirts for females. The motifs and colours of batik depend on the school. Some schools tend to issue neckties and / or vests for their students. These neckties and vests may vary from school to school in colour and sewing pattern, even among public schools. Nowadays, with the increase of private schools in Indonesia, most private schools have their own signature school uniform. Most consist of shirts with shorts or trousers for males, and skirts for females, only with differences on the colour. Every school has its own standard grooming. Males are not allowed to have long hair. Accessories are also normally prohibited for males, except for watches. Females are usually allowed to use simple accessories such as watches, earrings, and sometimes bracelets. All students are prohibited from colouring their hair or having tattoos. Wearing nail polish is usually not allowed. Most schools pay attention to the shoes that can be worn. Black or white sneakers with white laces are the most common shoes. Few higher - level students, such as in SMA or SMK, are normally required to wear black leather shoes. The school badge is usually put on the right sleeve of a shirt, consist of school 's name and location, and some have their own school 's logo. Others prefer to wear the school 's logo as a lapel or breast plastic or metal pin. The emblem of OSIS (Organisasi Siswa Intra Sekolah), or School 's Intern Student Organization, is put on the shirt 's left pocket. Students ' names are usually on the right side of the shirt and embedded by sewing, ironing or as a detachable badge. Some schools (usually "SMP '' and "SMA '') distinguish the grade of their students by stripes on the official neckties issued or an emblem below the school emblem (it can be stripes, chevrons or numbers). Nowadays some schools require the students to wear an Indonesian flag school badge sewn on top of their left pocket. The scouts (pramuka) uniform is used in many schools in Indonesia at least once a week. It consists of light - brown short - sleeve or long - sleeve shirts, with dark - brown shorts or trousers, and below - knee skirts or longer for females. The common day to wear the scout uniform usually falls on Wednesday, Friday, or Saturday. Furthermore, on certain occasions (usually on ceremonies or competitions), the uniform should be worn as full dress, with red and white scarf / necktie, dark brown beret, rope, dagger and scout 's stick. The scout uniform has two breast pockets. Above right pocket is the student 's name. The Gerakan Pramuka Indonesia (Indonesian Scout Movement) logo is sewn on the left pocket (for male students). On the right sleeve there are scouting organization 's location, number and logo, while on the left sleeve usually are the student 's scouting team logo and chevrons denoting his / her grade. Male students wear International Scout Organization logo above their name and female students on their lapel. According to former Education Minister Limor Livnat, about 1,400 Israeli public schools require pupils to wear uniforms. School uniforms used to be the norm in the state 's early days, but have since fallen out of favour. However, in recent years, the number of schools using school uniforms has been increasing once more. Many teachers, parents and students are in favour of returning the school uniform to common use to prevent the deepening of the gap between affluent children and those less well - off. Nowadays school uniforms are mainly associated with "national religious '' schools within the Israeli system of education. Schools for Arab citizens of Israel also frequently require uniforms: for girls, it is often a pinafore to be worn over trousers and shirt. In the Haredi or ultra-Orthodox school system, uniforms are compulsory in essentially all girls ' schools. In the vast majority of these, the style adopted by the Beit Ya'akov network is used: a sky - blue, button - down, open - collar, loose - fitting blouse with an Oxford - blue, pleated skirt which comes to just below the knee and dark stockings. In cold weather, a Yale - blue sweater may be added. A small fraction of schools alter the color scheme to pink and burgundy, while otherwise retaining the same overall appearance. In boys ' schools there is usually not an identifiable school uniform, distinct from what is considered acceptable for ordinary street wear. However, the standards of acceptable street wear for boys and men in Haredi communities are so precise and exacting that in almost all cases all of the boys in a particular school will be dressed identically. In non-Haredi schools today, school uniforms in Israel consist only of a shirt with the school logo. In the summer, the uniform shirt is a simple T - shirt, while in the winter, the shirts worn are warm or hooded sweaters. Although the shirts are uniform, they usually come in various colours, and allow students to customise and express themselves even while wearing a uniform. The shirts sell for a very small amount of money, so that even the less well - off can acquire them. In Italy, school uniforms are uncommon, partially because child uniforms are associated with the era of Benito Mussolini before World War II when children were placed according to their age into Italian Fascist youth movements and had to wear uniforms inside and outside school. However, until the early 1960s many high schools required girls to wear black grembiule (resembling a doctor smock) on top of their clothes: no uniform was required for boys. Perhaps this was because at one time high schools were the only public schools to admit both sexes (as opposed to junior schools and elementary), and girls may be required to "cover up '' not to distract their male counterparts. Indeed, this policy was highly disputed during the sexual revolution of the 1960s and later abolished. Nowadays, many pre-schools advise parents to dress their children with a grembiulino, i.e., a small grembiule, usually shorter and more colourful, that can be purchased cheaply. Some elementary schools advise some kind of grembiule for the younger pupils. Sometimes girls are required to wear a pink or white grembiulino, while boys may be required to wear a short cotton jacket, usually blue or black. In other cases both boys and girls may be required to wear a more neutral blue grembiule. Some parents send their children to school in a grembiule even if the school does not require it. Poet and children 's writer Gianni Rodari has described adult life as "a school without grembiule and school desk ''. In 2004 the Italian chapter of WWF warned that synthetic grembiuli were harmful to pupils. In July 2008 Education Minister Mariastella Gelmini proposed the re-introduction of the compulsory smock in public schools, provoking a debate in the Italian press. Japan introduced school uniforms in the late 19th century. Today, school uniforms are almost universal in the public and private school systems. They are also used in some women 's colleges. The Japanese word for uniform is seifuku (制服). In the majority of elementary schools, students are not required to wear a uniform to school. Where they are required, many boys wear white shirts, short trousers, and caps. Young boys often dress more formally in their class pictures than they do other days of the school year. Girls ' uniforms might include a grey pleated skirt and white blouse. Occasionally the sailor outfit is used for girls. The uniform codes may vary by season to work with the environment and occasion. It is common for boys and girls to wear brightly coloured caps to prevent traffic accidents. It is normal for uniforms to be worn outside of school areas. However, this is going out of fashion and many students are wearing casual dress. The Japanese junior - and senior - high - school uniform traditionally consists of a military style for boys and a sailor outfit for girls. These uniforms are based on Meiji era formal military dress, themselves modeled on European - style naval uniforms. The sailor outfit replace the undivided hakama (andon bakama 行灯 袴) designed by Utako Shimoda between 1920 and 1930. While this style is still in use, many schools have moved to more Western - pattern parochial school uniform styles. They consist of a white shirt, tie, blazer or sweater vest with school crest, and tailored trousers (often not of the same colour as the blazer or sweater vest) for boys and a white blouse, tie, blazer with school crest, and tartan skirt for girls. Much like the male uniform, the gakuran, the sailor outfit bears a similarity to military - styled naval uniforms. The uniform generally consists of a blouse attached with a sailor - style collar and a pleated skirt. There are seasonal variations for summer and winter: sleeve length and fabric are adjusted accordingly. A ribbon is tied in the front and laced through a loop attached to the blouse. Several variations on the ribbon include neckties, bolo ties, neckerchiefs, and bows. Common colours are navy blue, white, grey, light green and black. Shoes, socks, and other accessories are sometimes included as part of the uniform. The socks are typically navy or white. The shoes are typically brown or black penny loafers. Although not part of the prescribed uniform, alternate forms of legwear (such as loose socks, knee - length stockings, or similar) are commonly matched by more fashionable girls with their sailor outfits. Regardless of what type of uniform any particular school assigns its students, all schools have a summer version (usually consisting of a white dress shirt and dark slacks for boys and a reduced - weight traditional uniform or blouse and tartan skirt with tie for girls) and a sports - activity uniform (a polyester track suit for year - round use and a T - shirt and shorts for summer activities). Depending on the discipline level of their school, students may wear seasonal and activity uniforms in the same classroom during the day. Students may attempt to subvert the system of uniforms by wearing them incorrectly or by adding prohibited elements such as large loose socks or badges. Miniskirts have been very popular in Japan, where they became part of school uniforms, and they came to be worn within the Kogal culture. In Lebanon, all private schools require uniforms. Most of the uniforms are made of a skirt, a shirt, and a pull - over for girls, and for boys it 's made of trousers, a shirt, and a pull - over. Some public schools there do not require school uniforms. In Lesotho school uniforms are still compulsory. Many poor families can not afford them, which is one of the reasons for the high dropout rate in primary schools. In Malaysia, school uniforms (Malay: Pakaian Seragam Sekolah) are compulsory for all students who attend public schools. Western - style school uniforms were introduced to present - day Malaysia in the late 19th century during the British colonial era. The present design was standardised beginning in January 1970. Today, school uniforms are almost universal in the public and private school systems. The uniforms at Malaysian public schools are as follows: Students are required to wear white socks and white shoes with the above uniform. For modesty reasons, most schools require female students who wear the baju kurung to wear a plain - coloured camisole underneath. In addition to these, schools usually have badges which must be sewn or ironed on to the uniform -- generally at the left chest. Some schools require students to sew their name tags in addition to the badge. For upper forms, students generally have to wear a school - specific tie, except those who are wearing the baju kurung. In Malaysia, Muslim girls tend to wear the baju kurung. Most of them start wearing a white tudung (Malaysian version of the Muslim headscarf or hijab) upon entering secondary school, for religious reasons. Non-Muslim girls tend to wear the pinafore. Some non-Muslim girls wear the baju kurung. Muslim boys may wear baju melayu at school on Fridays, often with a songkok hat, to be dressed for going to the mosque for prayers at lunchtime. Girls who choose to wear the pinafore, especially those attending co-ed schools, usually wear shorts under their pinafore to allow for carefree movement as the skirt only covers up to the knee. Those who wear the baju kurung tend not to wear shorts under their long skirt as their skirt covers their legs. Neckties are often worn by prefects, class monitors, librarians, and other students of rank. Some schools have neckties as standard issue; even then, the neckties are generally reserved for school events and public appearances, and are not part of the everyday school uniform. The tropical climate makes them uncomfortable. The hairstyle of students is given attention by schools and the Ministry of Education. Schools do not allow students to colour their hair. For boys, there is usually a maximum length allowed, for example, the hair must be a few centimetres above the collar, and no sideburns are allowed. Violation of boys ' hair regulations is often punished with a caning; some offer the alternative of an enforced haircut at the school. The use of hair gel is prohibited in some of the stricter schools, to prevent excessive hairdressing. Girls ' long hair must be properly tied up, often into a ponytail. Some schools dictate the colour and type of hair accessories that can be used. Some prohibit even girls from having long hair. Wearing make up in school is prohibited. Schools usually enforce their uniform code thoroughly, with regular checks by teachers and prefects. Students who fail to comply may be warned, given demerit points, publicly punished, sent home from school, or caned. School uniforms in Mauritius are generally compulsory. Mauritius being a former British colony, has been using the system from back then. The students have to wear uniforms from primary school until higher secondary level. However, there are a few private schools that are based on the French system and do not require the student to wear school uniform. In Mexico, students from all public (and most private) schools are required to wear uniform (except on special days and / or occasions like holidays in which the school allows students to wear normal clothing rather than the uniform). The uniforms have the school 's logo and colors. Most Mexican schools have 2 types of uniforms: For regular school days. Girls wear a polo shirt, vest or sweater, plaid skirt, socks and shoes. Boys wear a polo, vest or sweater, pants, socks and shoes When children have P.E, they wear a polo or a shirt, sweater or hoodie, pants, and athletic shoes. Most of the times the uniform is unisex. Traditionally, many New Zealand intermediate and high schools, and state - integrated and private primary schools, have followed the British system of school uniforms, although it is common in state schools for the boy 's uniform to have a jersey and grey short trousers rather than a blazer with tie and long trousers. This usually consists of a variety of the following apparel: for boys, a business - style shirt with an official school tie, and long or short trousers; and for girls, a blouse, and a plain and / or plaid (usually tartan) skirt, and in some schools, especially in the South Island, kilts. Both sexes wear an ' official ' school jersey. Blazers and jackets are of varied colours according to the school - dark or light blue, grey, crimson, scarlet, green or black. Some follow the British practice of having contrasting colours edging the lapels and jacket fronts. Caps have generally been discarded since the 1970s but in many primary schools there is a compulsory broad - brimmed floppy hat, in the school colours, to help prevent sunburn. Where short trousers are worn, boys are usually required to wear long dark socks, which may require garters to hold them up. Since 1990 an increasing number of school include sandals as the standard summer footwear. During the 1980s and 1990s there was a tendency for the traditional uniform to be replaced by cheaper and more ' modern ' options: polo shirts, polar fleece tops, or a complete doing away with uniforms in favour of mufti. Intermediate schools usually provide the option of skirts or culottes for girls and sometimes shorts while boys will wear shorts. Bike shorts or tights are sometimes worn under girls ' skirts and dresses. Some high schools have introduced trousers as an option for girls instead of skirts, however demand is low with several Christchurch high schools estimating only 1 % of girls at their respective schools wear trousers. School uniforms are used in Nigeria. There are also programs to financially help the most disadvantaged families: for instance, the Chairman of Ejigbo Local Council Development Area, LCDA, Kehinde Bamigbetan has distributed 7,200 school uniforms to pupils in the nine primary schools within the council area, with the aim of improving the standard of education in Lagos state. The school uniforms are compulsory in most schools in Pakistan. Both the public and the private schools have mandated uniforms. Boys uniforms are often made of a light - coloured shirt, long trousers usually brown or blue. The girls often wear Shalwar Qameez suit or in some schools shirt and skirt. School uniforms (Filipino: uniporme or kasuotang pampaaralan, "school attire ''), much like Mexico, are commonplace in public schools and required in private schools. In some private schools, there are specified days when students can wear civilian clothing, typically in special occasions like a holiday or last day of school. There is usually no uniform in universities and progressive schools except for uniforms used in P.E classes, and in specific schools such as the University of Santo Tomas. Public school uniforms for primary levels are typically white, short - sleeved, buttoned - up shirts, with long skirts for girls and light brown knee - length trousers for boys. Uniforms for public high schools and private schools vary widely in pattern and colour, but most often are in the official school colours. Muslim girls in some higher institutions are often required to wear a white hijab versus other colours. The material for these usually loose uniforms is often light and suited to the country 's tropical climate (e.g. cotton). In 2008, the Department of Education ordered that students are no longer required to wear uniforms. This was to allow poorer families to save money for basic needs. School uniforms are not compulsory in Poland and absent from the vast majority of Polish schools. The idea of school uniforms in Poland did not exist before the early 20th century. In the People 's Republic of Poland, uniform ceased to be compulsory in most schools during the 1980s due to economic issues. Since then, there has been made only one effort to reintroduce uniform into Polish schools - by the former minister of education Roman Giertych, in 2006. It was then decided that school uniform would not be enforced by the state onto the whole country, but would be a matter decided upon by the principal of each school respectively. Initially this was meant to permit only a dress code, but this was later modified in 2007 to address school uniform. From 2007, all primary schools and middle schools were to enforce compulsory uniform, whilst high schools and other forms of further education were given the choice to decide on their own. The appearance of school uniform was decided upon locally, which meant that "uniform '' in most schools consisted of a jacket or shirt only - selected by the school management purely to avoid breaking regulations (the rest of clothing was still up to the students to decide). By mid-2008, compulsory school uniforms were repealed and it remains so to this day. In the Republic of Ireland, almost all primary and secondary schools require the wearing of a compulsory uniform. These can vary from school to school but for the most part include a trousers for males and a skirt or pinafore for female students a shirt a jumper and a necktie. In recent years many schools offer the option of trousers also for female students. Some schools require blazers rather than jumpers. Some primary schools now let their pupils wear a school tracksuit rather than a formal uniform. In recent years there has been criticism, including by the Department of Education of the requirement a school uniform jumper must have the school crest or name imprinted onto it and of the practice, where a schools uniform can only be bought from a certain supplier, which can markedly increase the price of a uniform. As well as rules regarding the wearing of a uniform many schools have regulations regarding hair, footwear, the growth of facial hair for males, the wearing of makeup and the length of school skirts. Since the late 90s students are no longer required to wear uniform during state examinations. During the Soviet period, a standardised "universal '' school uniform was worn by all schools. Originally of a military style with peaked cap and high collared tunic, by the 1980s boys wore a functional dark blue pattern with shoulder patches identifying the school. For formal occasions such as the first day of term, girls wore white lace collars and aprons dating back to the reign of Catherine the Great. During the initial post Soviet period from 1994 to 2013, the mandatory uniform policy was abandoned and pupils generally wore casual clothing such as jeans, T - shirts and sweaters. However, uniforms were reintroduced under a new education law in September 2013. Among the supporters of the new uniform law of 2013, arguments included tackling social inequality, but also putting an end to the controversial problem of whether school students are allowed to wear traditional religious clothing to school. Each school can now choose its own uniform.. Also, there are many instances in which schools do not enforce the rules on school uniform As in many other former British colonies, all South African private and public schools have a uniform, and it is compulsory in all public schools and in the vast majority of private schools for children above pre-school level. Uniform types vary less between public and private schools than they do across regions, where schools in more rural areas tend to forgo the daily wearing of ties and / or blazers for boys and girls regardless of their public or private nature. However, many of these same schools will have a "number ones '' uniform for special occasions which include such items. In cities such as Cape Town, on the other hand, it is more common to see formal apparel required in public and private schools on a daily basis. Many schools across South Africa also provide the choice between a summer and winter uniform, with khaki uniforms and brown shoes being very common in the summer. South African law has not required gender neutrality in school dress codes and a distinction between girls ' and boys ' uniforms remains. Boys of all ages are normally required to wear grey or khaki long or short trousers with socks, and the socks are usually long when worn with shorts, as in the illustration (right). Until recently, the straw boater was a common accessory in affluent public and private high schools, although these have now become optional in some cases. Nearly all schools, public or fee paying, have sports ' kits (uniforms) that require bare feet for health reasons, regardless of the season. Almost all South Korean secondary students wear a uniform called "gyobok '' (Korean: 교복, 校服). The majority of elementary schools, except some private ones, do not have uniforms; however, the uniform is strictly monitored from the start of middle school and up. Based on Western - style ones, the South Korean uniform usually consists of a shirt, blazer and tie, with skirts (which are replaceable with trousers in the majority of schools nowadays, skirts have recently sparked controversy for its shortening trend over the years) for girls and long trousers for boys. More recently, the uniform is often worn by celebrities who target the younger, teen audience to sell entertainment products. The school uniform and school setting is frequently used as a venue for romance. As a result, the uniform has become something akin to an expression of fashion among students. Name tags that are worn usually have different colors per grade. Oftentimes the writing is in black or white, whereas the background is colored. In Spain the use of school uniforms is not compulsory in the public school at any stage. Their use depends on school councils involving parents. However, it is customary to wear uniforms in private schools, where typically girls wear uniform shirt and jersey skirt and boys wear white shirt and tie and sometimes jacket. It is mandatory for Sri Lankan school students to wear a uniform regardless of them attending a government, semi-government or private school. In most government and semi-government schools, boys will wear a short - sleeved white shirt and a navy blue short when they are in the junior grades. This will later transition to white shorts and then to white trousers towards the latter part of the school life. A tie is not always worn, but may be worn for special school events along with a long - sleeved shirt. Proper black dress shoes and socks are also a part of this uniform. Certain schools also require the uniform to have the school 's insignia stitched to a corner of the pocket of the shirt. Girls who attend government and semi-government schools will wear a white one - piece dress. This may or may not have sleeves. Certain schools make wearing a tie mandatory for girls and some may have a plastic badge or the school 's insignia stitched to the dress. Proper dress shoes and socks are mandatory in most schools. On special occasions, students who bear a post in a sports team, club or association, would wear a blazer which would normally be white and having accents based on the school colors. In privately run schools, the suit is very similar but the colors might differ. They range from khaki and dark green to bright blue. As Taiwan experienced a long period of Japanese colonial rule, it is influenced by Japanese culture and the uniform style can be said to be close. However the school uniforms in the two regions are not identical. There are a total of 471 Taiwanese high schools. All schools have two sets of uniforms, a summer uniform and an uniform for winter. According to the provisions, sportswear is worn. Summer Primary school: White short pants and shirts are most common for the boys, while girls will wear a pleated skirt Secondary school: Males wear short - sleeved shirts with shorts. Females wear shirts with pleated skirts or skirt pants. Some schools have sailor uniforms. High school: Short sleeved shirts with long pants for males, pleated skirts or shorts for females in public schools; private schools will always have skirts Winter Long pants and long sleeved shirts are worn in most schools. In the past, many schools had khaki uniforms but this has been phased out with the exception of a few schools. Uniforms are compulsory for all students with very few variations from the standard model throughout the public and private school systems, including colleges and universities. The dress code in primary and secondary grades for boys comprises dark blue, khaki, or black shorts with a white open - collar short - sleeved shirt, white ankle socks or long dark socks, and brown or black trainers. Female students, wear a knee - length dark blue or black skirt, and a pale white blouse with a loosely hanging bow tie. The bow tie is dropped in favour of an open - necked pale blue shirt from Matthayom 4. The girls ' uniform is complemented by white ankle socks and black school shoes. The student 's name, number, and name of the school are often embroidered on the blouse or shirt. Some independent or international schools have uniforms more closely resembling British school uniform standards, and boys in senior high school grades may be allowed to wear long trousers. The standard dress for children in kindergarten is a red skirt and white blouse for girls, and red short trousers and a white shirt for boys. In all Thai schools, one day per week, usually Wednesday, is dedicated to scouting, when beige scout uniforms for boys and dark green guide uniforms are the rule, both wearing yellow neckerchiefs. The hairstyle of students is also given attention by schools and the Ministry of Education. Males are not allowed to have long hair. Some prohibit even girls from having long hair. The use of accessories is prohibited for males, while females are sometimes allowed to use simple accessories. Some schools dictate the colour and type of hair accessories that females can be used. All students are prohibited from colouring their hair or having tattoos on any part of the body. Thailand however has a few international schools which do not require uniforms. In Tonga all schools require a uniform. Uniforms are usually in the colours of their respective churches and Red for Government Schools. Catholic schools are usually light blue, Wesleyan (Royal Blue), Anglican (Navy Blue) and LDS Schools (Green). A Ta'ovala bordered with school colours and a tupenu are usually worn by boys with a white button - up shirt. Primary school students usually wear shorts and a white button up shirt. Nearly all Tongan secondary schools require girls to wear a pinafore dress with a white shirt except for Catholic schools which allow a striped blouse and skirt. Students are usually required to wear Roman sandals in English - medium schools and thongs in most other schools. School uniforms were used in all public and private institutions. There were several exceptions and most kindergartens did not require school uniforms. The uniforms varied in their appearance; primary schools used one - piece blue uniforms, while in secondary and high schools boys wore dark grey trousers with white shirts, jackets and a tie. Girls had skirts and shirts coloured like the boys ' uniform, plus a tie. Most private institutions have their own uniforms. School uniforms for primary schools were black until the 1990s. None of the universities or higher - education institutes have uniforms. School uniforms abolished in 2012 and schools gave an poll to families to select uniform or casual cloths. Dress code says that students ' shoulder should be covered, girls can not wear leggings or miniskirts. This caused a controversy in Western cities since some students were wearing mini 's, shorts and leggings. New law says that students can wear hijabs at school but it 's prohibited to wear makeup, tattoos, piercings, dye ın hair etc. This caused a huge controversy too. School uniforms have a long history in Turkey. They were first introduced because normal clothing would give hints about the child 's family 's economic situation. In order to prevent groupings amongst children from different social classes, uniforms were accepted. However, school uniforms were officially abolished on 27 November 2012, when the Turkish Ministry of Education suddenly abolished the nationwide uniform requirement in schools (international / foreign schools are excluded) and lifted the headscarf ban for religious imam - hatip schools, prompting fierce criticism from opposition parties, unions and educators. Opponents claim that economic differences cause pedagogical traumas for children and that permitting headscarves harms secular education. Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan defended the move, saying education in uniform has drawn complaints for many years. But students attending minority schools (Greeks, Jews and Armenians), which are also part of the Turkish Ministry of Education, have been excluded from this change, and are still required to wear school uniforms. Uniforms are compulsory in many schools across the United Arab Emirates. In June 2013, the Abu Dhabi Education Council standardised the uniforms for pupils in public school across Abu Dhabi. (1) Earlier, each school had its own uniform. Uniforms include options for varying weather conditions. (2) Boys in Kindergarten and Cycle 1 (Grades 1 to 5) can wear either a long - sleeved shirt and trousers or a short - sleeved shirt and shorts. Tie, winter blazer, and cardigan are optional. Boys in Cycle 2 and Cycle 3 (Grades 6 to 12) wear a kandoora (traditional white robe) and ghetra (head scarf). Pullover sweater or blazer are optional Girls in Kindergarten or Cycle 1 (Grades 1 to 5) wear a long sleeved shirt with either a school dress or skirt. Cardigan, blazer, and scarf are optional. Girls in Cycle 2 or 3 (Grades 6 to 12) wear a long sleeved shirt with a choice of a skirt or two different styles of dress plus a scarf. Cardigan or blazer are optional. rthese are only for the schools with the Arabic curriculum, not the other schools. Private schools in the UAE require a school uniform. It can range from a T - shirt or a simple white / black polo bearing the school logo to a more complete uniform with a button up shirt worn with a skirt, shorts or trousers. In the British schools, there is a blouse and either a skirt or trousers for the girls or a button up shirt with trousers. Shirts bear the school logo. Certain schools have certain codes on the use of makeup (some do n't condone it at all) and the sporting of bracelets / jewellery. While school uniform is common in the United Kingdom, there is no legislation enforcing it in any of the three separate legal jurisdictions of England & Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland, and enforcement of school uniform policy and dress codes is generally for individual schools to determine. However, schools do have to take into account Equality legislation in dress policies to prevent discrimination on grounds such as age, sex, race, disability, religion or belief and sexual orientation. School uniforms are required to be similar in cost for both boys and girls, to be reasonably low cost, and to tolerate religious freedoms, e.g. allowing male Sikhs to wear turbans and female Muslims to wear headscarfs. In order to ensure that policies are fair and non-discriminatory schools are expected to consult widely with staff, pupils, parents and governors when introducing or amending dress policies. In 2011, more than 90 % of English secondary schools had a compulsory uniform. School uniforms were first introduced on a large scale during the reign of King Henry VIII. The uniforms of the time were referred as "bluecoats '', as they consisted of long trench - coat - style jackets dyed blue. Blue was the cheapest available dye and showed humility amongst all children. The first school to introduce this uniform was Christ 's Hospital in London (now in Sussex). The Elementary Education Act 1870 introduced free primary education for all children. The popularity of uniforms increased and eventually most schools had a uniform. During this period most uniforms reflected the trends of the age, with boys wearing short trousers and blazers until roughly the age of puberty and then long trousers from about 14 or 15. Girls mainly wore blouse, tunic dress and pinafore, progressing to gymslips towards the beginning of the 20th century. worn together with a blouse. These uniforms continued until the 1950s when after the Butler reforms secondary education was made free and the school leaving age was raised to 15. These reforms encouraged schools to implement uniform codes which were similar to other schools. Distinct "summer '' and "winter '' uniforms were sometimes required, particularly for girls, for whom dresses were mandated for summer and gymslips for winter. In the 21st century, the typical primary school uniform is fairly casual while secondary school uniform is often formal. Uniform in primary school is generally a polo shirt or t - shirt, a jumper with the school logo, and trousers or shorts or a skirt. The typical secondary school uniform is a blazer, white shirt or blouse, a tie, trousers or skirt, and black shoes. However, it is also possible for primary schools to be more formal, with tie and blazer, and for secondary schools to require only a jumper. Uniforms sometimes match the school colours but are most commonly found in blue, black and grey. Scottish law is not specific on the question of school uniform. Generally, the school must provide information on its policy on clothing and uniform and the Education Authority must provide written information on its general policy on wearing school uniform. Some Education Authorities do not insist on students wearing a uniform as a precondition to attending and taking part in curricular activities. Children can not be disciplined for not wearing a uniform if their parents do not want their child to wear it. However, a child that simply refuses to wear the school uniform can be disciplined by the school if it thinks that academic or disciplinary problems might be caused by the refusal. Many schools do have a policy covering the wearing of school clothing. The policy may state that certain items must be worn and that other items can not be worn, for example, jeans. Schools must take religious and cultural requirements into account when drawing up a school uniform policy. Although the way that the uniforms are worn is usually not an issue, some state schools may have regulation on the subject (e.g. height of ties, whether the shirt is tucked in or not), the selection of clothes worn, whether they follow the policy, can be very strict. For example, in black and white uniform schools, wearing colours such as grey or wearing white shoes is forbidden. However, in schools that only use a basic uniform (e.g. jumper and trousers) the policy is often less strict. The Welsh Assembly Government issued detailed guidance to governing bodies on uniform and appearance policies that begins by making explicit, "There is no education legislation specifically covering the wearing of school uniform or other aspects of appearance such as hair colour and style, and the wearing of jewellery and makeup. However, as part of its responsibility for the conduct of the school, a governing body can specify a uniform which pupils are required to wear and other rules relating to appearance. '' The Northern Ireland Executive supports poor families with the cost of paying for school uniforms with a £ 35 primary school uniform allowance. This is claimed via local Education and Library Boards for parents in receipt of income support. At the end of August 2009, there were 24,135 successful applications for the grant. The most common secondary school uniform in Northern Ireland is a shirt, blazer and sweater with a tie and a skirt or trousers. The uniform (most likely the sweater and tie) may change after Year 12. The uniform in primary school is similar to those used in the Republic of Ireland. Most schools in the United States do not require uniforms, but instead enforce a dress code delineating what types of clothing are appropriate and inappropriate for students to wear to school. Dress codes vary from school to school, but are normally based on broader policies set by the school district 's elected school board. Private schools and other specialized schools sometimes require uniforms. A study conducted in 2000 found that only 23 % of public, private, and sectarian schools had any sort of uniform policy in the United States at or before 2000. Over the past decade, more public schools, specifically those in urban areas, have instituted stricter dress codes; roughly half the public schools in the United States have these more limiting dress codes. The schools that do require uniforms, or a more common standard dress code in towns and suburbs, tend to be more casual than those in Britain or other commonwealth nations. Commonly, students wear collared, buttoned shirts, with a tie for boys and a tie for girls, worn with khaki trousers, and a belt, depending on the age of the school 's student body. Skirts of a modest length are occasionally an option for girls. For instance, red, white or blue polo shirts, with a logo, with navy or khaki bottoms and a belt, was the uniform policy imposed at Palmer Elementary School in Houston, Texas. Schools may also have polo shirts and trousers as a uniform. Dress codes vary widely among private schools, although a Catholic school uniform tends to keep the shirt and tie. As of August 2013, almost one fifth of all American schools required their students to wear uniforms (Flam). This 20 percent of schools requiring uniforms is six percent higher than in 2003, the U.S. Department of Education reported. The uniform requirement is more common in lower socio - economic schools, where more than three - fourths of the school 's student population receives free or reduced lunch ("Fast ''). Forty - seven percent of low income schools require uniforms, whereas only about six percent of high socio - economic schools require uniforms ("Fast ''). The National Association of Elementary School Principals (NAESP) conducted a phone survey of 755 principals in 2000, which revealed that 21 % of public schools had a uniform policy; 23 % had firm plans to create one. However, this only accounts for those with school uniform policies and not for standardised dress codes, which provide for allowable student dress but are slightly more lax: For instance, instead of requiring everyone to wear the same shirt, or set of shirts, they may specify "any solid collared three - button polo / oxford shirt '' and leave more specific details up to the parents. In 2007 - 2008, 55 % of public school principals said their schools enforce a strict dress code, requiring students at least wear a collared shirt and trousers with an acceptable belt to school. Adolfo Santos, a political science professor at the University of Houston -- Downtown, stated that many Hispanic communities in the United States choose uniforms because many immigrants originate from countries with schools requiring uniforms. Sylvan I. Alleyne, Velma LaPoint, Jennifer Lee and Harold W. Mitchell of The Journal of Negro Education stated that little empirical research exists regarding how effective school uniforms are in enhancing academic performance and social environments, and that little research exists regarding teachers ' beliefs regarding issues related to dress codes, especially so regarding racial and ethnic minorities. In the United States, literature regarding public school student clothing and behavior cites anecdotal viewpoints from teachers. The literature discussed opinions on faculty, staff, and other employees on how to deal with student dress issues. A 2003 article of The Journal of Negro Education said that research and reports regarding the beneficial impact of school uniforms was not conclusive. Despite the federal government of the United States issuing a set of guidelines encouraging school uniforms in public schools, as of 2003 political support varied. In 1994, the Long Beach Unified School District, in Southern California, required school uniforms in all elementary and middle schools. This began a trend for uniforms in American elementary public schools, especially in urban school districts. President Clinton praised the idea in his 1996 State of the Union Address, saying that "if it means that teenagers will stop killing each other over designer jackets, then our public schools should be able to require their students to wear school uniforms. '' (3) The adoption of school - or district - wide uniform policies (or "standardised dress codes '', less rigid than uniform requirements and allowing some leeway in parameters) has been motivated by a need to counter "gang clothing '' or the pressure for families to purchase upscale - label clothing (to avoid their children being ignored by "fashion cliques '' and obligation chip ladyes), as well as to improve morale and school discipline. The proportion of U.S. public schools requiring uniforms had increased from 3 % in 1996 to 25 % in 2010. In Puerto Rico, the Department of Education requires all students to wear school uniforms, with only medical exemptions. Most schools in Vietnam requires uniform, and the rules on uniform vary from schools and areas. The most common type of uniform consists of a white shirt with school logo on left sleeve and navy / black trousers, with a red scarf for students from grade 3 to grade 9. This kind of uniform is often seen in public schools in North Vietnam or in rural areas, and there is no differences between boy 's and girl 's uniforms. However, many schools (private or famous public schools) have their own designed uniforms, which often replace trousers with skirts for girls or include bows, ties or vests / blazers. The white áo dài is also a tradition uniform for high school girls in Vietnam, but most schools in Northern Vietnam only require it for important events or ceremonies, since wearing áo dài is uncomfortable for daily use. Otherwise, áo dài is very familiar with school girls in Mekong Delta, where it is "daily uniform '' of all them. The image of a high school girl with nón lá and white áo dài on a bike is still considered symbolic nowadays. There are also uniform for Physical Education in Vietnam schools, usually includes T - shirt and tracksuit, which the T - shirts have school logo on them. The tracksuit jacket is popular and often used as winter uniform, even out of gym activity. There are no specific shoes for Vietnamese students, however flip - flops, slippers and high heels are forbidden. Sandals and boots are allowed, although students would wear sneakers or flats to school. Dyeing hair, nail polish and make - up are banned in many schools. School uniforms are used in Venezuela. By Venezuelan decree, uniforms are required at all schools in all grades. Boys wear navy trousers and girls wear navy skirts or trousers, depending on the school. The shirts have short sleeves and the colour varies by the level in which the student is. Students in nursery wear yellow shirts, while students in kindergarten wear red shirts. From first to sixth grade, students wear white polo shirts. From seventh to ninth grade they wear light blue polo shirts, and from tenth to eleventh grade they wear beige polo shirts. These shirts are to be stuffed inside the trousers with a black belt. Black dress shoes are the norm in public school, however some private schools can be more flexible with the shoes to be worn. "Fast Facts. '' U.S. Department of Education. 2014. Web. 12 Nov. 2014. < http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=50 > Flam, Lisa. Today.com. 19 Aug. 2013. Web. 12 Nov. 2014. < http://www.today.com/parents/are-school-uniforms-helping-or-hindering - 6C10945768 >

who says that everything is fair in love and war

All Is Fair in Love and War - wikipedia All Is Fair in Love and War may refer to:

when is quantico season 3 episode 4 airing

Quantico (season 3) - wikipedia The third season of American drama thriller series Quantico premiered in the United States on American Broadcasting Company (ABC) on April 26, 2018. The season was produced by ABC Studios, with series creator Joshua Safran, Mark Gordon, Robert Sertner, Nicholas Pepper and Jorge Zamacona serving as executive producers. The third season will consist of thirteen episodes, down from the twenty - two episode count of the two previous seasons. The season airs on Thursdays in the United States at 10: 00 pm. The show was cancelled on May 11, 2018 by ABC. On May 14, Deadline reported that the network will finish airing the remainder of the third season on Friday nights. Three years after the events of the Constitutional Convention, former CIA analyst, Alex Parrish had to escape outside the United States in order to avoid arrest from law enforcement authorities. After living anonymously in Italy, she is forced to return to America after Ryan shared information to her about Shelby 's kidnapping by a notorious international arms dealer known as The Widow. In order to save Shelby, Ryan and Alex recruit Owen and Harry to help them with their mission. Owen invites Jocelyn Turner to the team as the former FBI agent has intelligence about the arms dealer, due in part to their past encounter. Owing to the extreme circumstances of the covert operation, the team must retrieve Shelby at all costs, before time runs out. In May 2017, ABC renewed the series for a third season of 13 episodes. As part of the renewal process, Safran stepped down as showrunner of the show but remained as a consultant. The following month, it was announced that Michael Seitzman would be Quantico 's showrunner and Safran would be credited as an executive producer. The third season premiered on April 26, 2018. After the third season renewal announcement, it was reported that Yasmine Al Massri and Pearl Thusi would leave the series, and in June 2017, it was reported that Ellis and Tovey would not return as part of a creative overhaul. However, in August 2017, it was confirmed that Tovey would in fact be returning as a series regular. In late July 2017, Marlee Matlin joined the show as a series regular in the third season. She will play the role of ex-FBI agent, Jocelyn Turner. On November 21, 2017, it was announced that Alan Powell will join the show as a series regular in the third season. He will play Mike McQuigg, an undercover agent. On December 6, 2017, it was announced that Amber Skye Noyes will join the third season in the recurring role of Celine Fox. On January 17, 2018, it was announced that Vandit Bhatt will join the third season in the recurring role of Jagdeep Patel. On February 16, 2018, it was confirmed that Aunjanue Ellis has exited the series. Certain scenes of the third - season premiere were shot on location in Italy. Filming for the third season started on October 10, 2017. In March 2018, it was confirmed by showrunner Michael Seitzman that the last few episodes of the third season would be shot on location in Ireland. Filming for the third season ended on April 21, 2018. The fifth episode of the season, titled "The Blood of Romeo '', was criticized by some Indian social media users for its alleged anti-Indian sentiment. In the episode, Alex Parrish (Priyanka Chopra) uncovers a plot by Indian Hindu nationalists to commit a terrorist false flag attack with nuclear weapons in Manhattan, and have it blamed on Pakistan. Users had described the plotline as "ridiculous '' and "unrealistic '' and felt that it had damaged the image of Indians abroad. In addition, they denounced Chopra 's participation in the episode as her international profile had made her a "quasi-ambassador for India in the West ''. Chopra apologised for any hurt caused by the episode and stated that she was a "proud Indian ''. ABC also apologised and defended Chopra from what they felt was unfairly aimed criticism commenting that she did not have a role in writing, directing or creating the show. Indian - born British chef Atul Kochhar 's contract at the Rang Mahal restaurant in Dubai was terminated by JW Marriott Marquis Dubai after he made comments criticising Chopra 's involvement in the episode, which included allegations that Hindus had been terrorized by Islam for thousands of years. Bangladeshi - American writer Sharbari Zohra Ahmed who had previously worked on Quantico but was not involved in the writing of the episode was also targeted on social media. These attacks included threats of violence and rape. General references

when does new girl season 6 come out on dvd

New Girl - wikipedia New Girl is an American sitcom television series that premiered on Fox on September 20, 2011. Developed by Elizabeth Meriwether under the working title Chicks & Dicks, the series revolves around a kooky teacher, Jess (Zooey Deschanel), after she moves into a Los Angeles loft with three men, Nick (Jake Johnson), Schmidt (Max Greenfield), and Winston (Lamorne Morris); Jess ' best friend Cece (Hannah Simone) and on - again - off - again loft mate Coach (Damon Wayans Jr.) also appear regularly. The show combines comedy and drama elements as the characters, who are in their early thirties, deal with maturing relationships and career choices. The sixth and most current season premiered on September 20, 2016. Produced in Los Angeles as a single - camera comedy, New Girl is an ensemble show aimed at a general audience. Most episodes are anchored around Jess, who according to series creator, Meriwether, would have played a side character on other shows. The show 's first marketing push was on Zooey Deschanel and the promotional tagline "Simply Adorkable '', a portmanteau of "adorable '' and "dork ''. The producers rejected early criticism of Jess ' girlishness, insisting that Jess was not meant to be emblematic of all women. Instead, they aim to portray realistic, emotionally driven characters, and to approach the show from that angle rather than simply firing off punchlines. New Girl has received favorable responses from critics and has been named one of the best new comedies of the 2011 fall season. The pilot episode drew 10.28 million U.S. viewers and a 4.8 adults 18 -- 49 demo rating, making it the highest - rated fall debut for a Fox scripted show since 2001. Particular praise has been given to the performances of Deschanel, Greenfield, Johnson and Morris. Max Greenfield was considered the show 's breakout star in season 1, before critics named Jake Johnson the breakout star of season 2. The show has been nominated for several awards, including five Golden Globe Awards and five Primetime Emmy Awards. Originally set to be cancelled after its sixth season, on May 14, 2017, Fox renewed the series for a seventh and final season consisting of eight episodes. The renewal came after a last minute pitch on what the seventh season would look like and Fox revisiting the midseason schedule to find an eight - week space for the show to air. Jessica "Jess '' Christopher Day (Zooey Deschanel) is a bubbly young woman who teaches at a Los Angeles middle school. Jess comes home to find her boyfriend, Spencer, with another woman and leaves him immediately, and looks for somewhere else to live. She answers an ad for a new roommate on Craigslist, and moves in with three young men: Nick, Schmidt, and Coach. After the pilot episode, Winston, who had previously lived in the apartment with Nick and Schmidt, replaces Coach. Cece, Jessica 's childhood best friend and a successful fashion model, also appears in various episodes in the storyline. Coach returns to the loft in season 3 after revealing that he had broken up with his girlfriend Malia, who he moved in with after the pilot episode. The principal cast of New Girl includes: 20th Century Fox Television first approached playwright Elizabeth Meriwether in 2008 to develop a pilot that was eventually shelved. After Meriwether 's success with the 2011 romantic comedy film No Strings Attached, 20th Century Fox approached her once more, and she pitched an idea for a TV sitcom about an "offbeat girl moving in with three single guys '', inspired by her experience of "bouncing from Craigslist sublet to Craigslist sublet, for four years in L.A. '' when she was in her twenties. This show was initially called Chicks and Dicks, and two of the characters were already similar to the final characters of Jess and Schmidt. The initial idea was a Will & Grace - style comedy inspired by Meriwether 's close friendship with a guy after their exes started dating each other. The FOX network liked the script and pursued Zooey Deschanel for the role of Jess, to whose story Meriwether felt most connected. As the script developed, the plot moved on from being about the sexual endeavors of the roommates and became more socially oriented, so the title was changed to New Girl. As Fox greenlit the show in 2011 and ordered an initial 13 episodes, Meriwether approached Jake Kasdan, whom she admired for his work on Freaks and Geeks blending comedy and emotion, to shoot the pilot and subsequent episodes. 30 Rock 's Brett Baer and Dave Finkel became co-showrunners, although Meriwether is still regarded as the voice behind New Girl. According to The New Republic, Kasdan "helped develop the feel of the show, which is lit more darkly and cinematically than the average sitcom '', and Meriwether found the show working best "when you 're laughing, but you 're a little sad about it ''. The show attempts to combine "comedy and drama as the five characters explore the difficulties of the decade between 30 and 40, which is when many people take their biggest steps toward maturity '' in regards to relationships and careers, which, unlike Friends, is giving the show a "built - in biological clock ''. Kasdan said that "Their lives are moving forward, (but) they 're still trying to hang on to some kind of crazy youth '' although he does not "want them ever to seem pathetic. '' Screenwriters Stephanie Counts and Shari Gold filed an 87 - page lawsuit in January 2014, claiming that New Girl was based on their 2006 script for a proposed television series. There were a number of similarities, including the number of roommates, similar backgrounds, appearance, and ethnicity. Additionally, Jess 's long term partner in the New Girl pilot had the same name (Spencer) and they broke up for similar reasons (partner 's infidelity). Fox and talent agency William Morris Endeavor Entertainment LLC responded in April 2014 that in their view, the two works were not substantially similar and that any other similarities stemmed from non-protectable ideas, or scenes a faire. Thus, they pleaded that the judge dismiss the case. The case was dismissed with leave to amend in 2014. An amended complaint was filed in 2014 and decided by summary judgment against Counts and Gold on December 30, 2015. In March, Counts and Gold were ordered to pay approximately $800,000 in attorney 's fees. Movie actress and singer - songwriter Zooey Deschanel was in the process of developing an HBO show when she read the New Girl pilot script and responded to the material. The character of Jess was not specifically written for Deschanel, but the producers found it a great match and did not need a lot of fine - tuning. With the support from Fox, Meriwether wanted to make Jess a unique, interesting and funny female character that would have been the side character on other shows. Deschanel became a producer on the show and helped build the character, requesting to not play the classic wife character who would be ignored by the guys she tries to keep out of trouble. Meriwether 's goal was to write about herself from an honest perspective, with Jess mirroring her at the start and later Deschanel until Jess turned into a "hybrid of me and Zooey, the writers, and the editor ''. Deschanel described Jess as a part of her, especially in regards to "the sort of enthusiasm and optimism '' of her youth. She does not shy away from playing embarrassing scenes or being unattractive, and Kasdan said that "This show advocates for the attractive dork. '' Although Meriwether had always imagined the show as an ensemble show, Fox would later focus its first marketing push on Zooey Deschanel and gave the show the promotional tagline "Simply Adorkable. '' With Kasdan 's advice to cast good actors and write for them instead of shoehorning them into the other roles, Meriwether was prepared to deviate from her pitched characters during casting. Basing Nick Miller on a friend also surnamed Miller, she originally imagined Nick as the smartest one of the group who does n't need to say that and thought of him as "the everyman one, who 's stepping away and commenting on what all the crazy people are doing around him. '' She sent the New Girl pilot script to movie actor Jake Johnson, with whom she had enjoyed working on No Strings Attached. As he had never auditioned for a TV pilot, she guided him through the audition process. Casting was done mainly through chemistry tests, and Johnson auditioned with Max Greenfield, who impressed the producers in his first audition as Schmidt. The actors auditioning for Schmidt were more varied in appearance than those auditioning for Nick, and Johnson and Greenfield were initially worried that they looked too much alike. Johnson got the role of Nick after he agreed to lose 15 pounds at the network 's request; Greenfield learned the same day that he was cast. Casting the role of the "Coach '' character took longer. Meriwether originally envisioned Coach as "a fat Jewish guy, like a manchild '' and later as "this dumb jock (with) crazy rage problems ''. David Neher (who would play Schmidt 's so - called "fremesis, '' Benjamin, in two episodes) was among the 400 actors auditioning for Coach before the producers settled on Damon Wayans Jr. Wayans was expecting his show, the ABC sitcom Happy Endings, to be canceled. When that show was renewed for a second season, Wayans ' spot was replaced with Lamorne Morris, who had also read for Coach but had been unavailable for filming the pilot. Meriwether estimated that about 80 percent of the pilot would have needed to be re-shot in order to remove Wayans from the episode, since he was in one of the leading roles of the show. As the producers also liked reflecting the frequent apartment changes in young people 's lives, Meriwether, 20th Century Fox and the studio decided to keep the characters and the plot of the pilot episode as they were. Morris joined the show in the second episode of the series when the producers had already broken seven episodes without knowing what the actor was going to be able to do. Wayans returned to New Girl in season 3 for a season - long arc after Happy Endings had been cancelled, and was officially added as a regular for season 4. The New Girl production offices are on the Fox lot in Los Angeles, next to those of Homeland. New Girl had 11 writers during its first season and 15 during the second season, half of them male. Stories are developed in a collaborative effort and are aimed at viewers of all genders. The first season had no planned story arcs, but focused on setting up the characters, while the second season was to show different sides of the characters. Overarching storylines usually culminate at a season 's end; the actors are generally not told the ending. Meriwether said the writers did not "have a lot of plans. I think we really just to try to go where the show wants to go. '' The writers challenge themselves to create new stories and to change the show 's dynamics to keep things fresh, while aiming to be "as emotionally real as possible '' with "Every story having to feel like it was grounded in some emotional arc as opposed to going from the joke into the story. '' As the show 's jokes rely on the actors ' performance instead of perfectly constructed punch lines, Meriwether looks for the actors ' strengths before writing. The A story generally revolves around Jess and has an emotional core. Still, Meriwether sees the show as an ensemble about friendship with "everybody having their own stories and people being interested in all of the characters. '' Each New Girl episode starts out as a pitch page, goes through stages of an outline and a final draft before being filmed and edited, a process which may take weeks. Each stage is approved by Meriwether and her co-showrunners, by the production company Chernin, the Fox studio and the Fox network. One group of writers works on alternate punchlines ("alts ''), while another group rebreaks a draft until they find the funniest and most emotionally resonant version. All characters are tried to be tied into the story, and determining their motivation is the major goal so that people will laugh. Before taking the script to the table read with the whole cast on Tuesday, the main writers of an episode continue working on the draft over the weekend and the executive producers polish it. During the first season, Meriwether usually made a final pass at the draft alone because of her film and theater background. The actors ' performance influences new story ideas; the actors may also hand in story ideas. The main set, which was built for the pilot and is to represent a factory - turned - loft in downtown L.A., got reused once the show was given a full season. 837 Traction Avenue in Los Angeles stands in as the outside of the show 's apartment building. As a single - camera comedy, New Girl is neither performed in front of a studio audience nor has a laugh track. Some scenes are cross-covered (i.e. are filmed with a shooting camera on each person at the same time), to allow for better improvisations. Handheld cameras are avoided for a more filmic look. The actors first receive the script in form of a table draft and film the episode the next Monday, by which time the story may have changed drastically. The script keeps evolving during shooting. The actors first perform scenes as written, then act out the alts or improvise, to later allow the producers and editors to choose the gags that ultimately work best. Morris estimated that 20 percent of each episode are improv. Episodes are generally shot over five days, which may increase to several weeks if weather conditions delay filming outdoor scenes. The scenes are put together in the editing room until they achieve the emotional and comedic tone the producers are looking for. The first cut of generally 27 minutes has to be cut down to the air version 's 21 minutes and 35 seconds, which may air as little as a few days later. Only upon completion do the producers know what version ends up in the episode. True American is a fictional, convoluted drinking game that the New Girl characters first played in the season 1 episode "Normal ''. In September 2012, Producer Brett Baer felt the concept of the game "deserves its own episode at some point '', but the writers were reluctant to repeat the established rules and rather wanted to make it fresh. A version for the 2012 U.S. Presidential Election was planned but never made. The game 's eventual second appearance in season 2 's "Cooler '' was played with the strip - poker version "Clinton Rules '', but the exact rules remain unclear even to the actors. True American with updated rules and the resulting hangover were featured in season 3 's "Mars Landing ''. The writers started to do new True American episodes once each year. After "Normal '' aired, internet sources began to summarize the rules for True American, which the characters described as a mix of a drinking game and Candy Land where the floor is lava; it also involves shouting the names of American presidents. The idea of True American came from a New Girl writer who played a similar game in college. As she could not remember the game 's exact rules, the writers focused on making the game as funny on the page as possible, but only established chanting "JFK! FDR! '' and walking on chairs. As the cast did not understand the game during shooting, the writers created more rules on the spot, advised the actors to "have fun, dig in, jump in '' and play it as if "they 'd been playing this thing for years and years and years. '' The high - energy feel of the game and the amounts of coverage made filming True American more challenging for the actors than normal episodes. Producers Dave Finkel, Brett Baer, and writer Luvh Rakhe, came up with most of the obscure American history facts, but much was cut from the finished episode. Fox subsequently released a set of official rules for the game, which can be summarized "There are no real rules ''. When the promotional New Girl True American Bus Tour went through 19 American cities in 2012, the writers stated lack of time rather than not knowing the rules for not writing down the rules. Liz Meriwether said the game would not be easier to comprehend in later appearances, as the writers ' goal is to actually make it harder to understand. She agreed with The A.V. Club that "It 's much funnier if the rules make no sense. '' As more people attempted playing the game in real life, Baer pointed out that most people were "getting too drunk too fast '' and did not focus enough on strategy, so the writers were thinking of establishing more rules for guidance. Meriwether advised to "just trust your hearts, get really wasted, and look inside yourselves. I think you 'll find the rules were there all along. '' Creator Elizabeth Meriwether sees Nick, Schmidt and Winston "on the weirder side of things ''. The producers stated learning more about the characters by seeing the actors ' work and that "We probably rely on them more than we should '' to define the characters. For example, the producers found more variety in Nick 's character in season 1 and enjoyed Johnson 's improvisations, so they relayed Coach 's attributed rage issues to Nick. Nick is a childhood friend of Winston, has been best friends with Schmidt since his college days and becomes close to Jess, so his character connects the most with the other loftmates and is often part of their stories. Jake Johnson (Nick) noted the contrast to the original plans for his character, as season 1 turned Nick into "an idiot, he 's not keeping anyone together '', and that he did not fully understand his character in season 1, partly because the character might not have figured himself out at the age of 30. Johnson felt that initially it seemed like Nick hated Schmidt for being a douchebag, but the show later teamed them up like The Odd Couple, showing their genuine friendship and simultaneous idiocy as they get into trouble. According to Johnson, he and Max Greenfield (Schmidt) "could n't be more different (as actors) and it 's very much like Nick and Schmidt, but we both really get a kick out of the other guy '' on set. With Winston only being added late to the show, the writers developed the Nick -- Winston dynamic in season 1 and sought to figure out Winston 's relationship with the other loftmates in season 2. The writers noticed late during the first season that Morris seemed better suited to play a smart character and act as the loft 's voice of reason, although Meriwether found that when Winston "finally does blow up, he 's crazier than all of them '' and that he works better "in these kind of crazy, comedic runners, small pieces of the episode '' that contrast the relationship dramas of the other main characters. The Winston -- Schmidt friendship was developed significantly in the second half of season 2 when the story focus moved to Nick and Jess. The Nick -- Jess relationship affects the three guys ' friendship as Nick starts being more considerate of Jess ' feelings regarding shenanigans. Damon Wayans Jr. was planned to reprise his role as Coach in at least four episodes in the third season, according to Meriwether "at a time when the roommates are at odds with each other '' and "The guys are all fighting for his friendship. '' The three guys will get intimidated by Coach 's return, as he has "this alpha male aggression '' and is "that macho, tough - talking guy that they all think is so cool ''. With Meriwether 's openness regarding straight and gay communities, New Girl also plays with the guys ' sexual orientation for humor. One of Winston 's recurring alternate persona is Nick 's gay lover "Theodore K. Mullens '', which started out as an improv of Lamorne Morris (Winston). Johnson thought that Nick and Schmidt had "a pretty funny bromance '' with "their own little weird will - they - wo n't - they ''. Greenfield improvised kissing Nick a lot in season 1 until that the writers started putting Schmidt -- Nick kisses into the script, so that they shared more kisses than Nick and Jess did in the first two seasons. The season 2 episode "Models '' came about when Meriwether thought the show "needed a love story between Nick and Schmidt or something. We wanted to tell it like a classic rom - com story about Nick and Schmidt and their love of each other ''. The New Girl pilot was released via on - demand, iTunes, and TiVo on September 6, 2011 before its September 20 premiere on Fox in the United States and on City in Canada. Other international broadcasters include Channel 4 and E4 in the United Kingdom, RTÉ2 in the Republic of Ireland, Network Ten and Eleven in Australia, and Four in New Zealand. The pilot episode drew 10.28 million U.S. viewers and a 4.8 adults 18 -- 49 demo rating, making it the highest - rated fall debut for a Fox scripted show since The Bernie Mac Show in 2001. The second episode made New Girl the top - rated show on television in the marketing - important 18 -- 49 demographic, improved the rating of its lead - in hit series Glee and beat the long - running hit series NCIS and Dancing with the Stars. At this time, Fox ordered 11 additional episodes to the initial 13 - episode order, bringing the first season to 24 episodes. The ratings dropped considerably when the show took a break for baseball, plunging almost 20 percent to a 2.1 rating in the 18 -- 49 audience group. During the 2011 -- 12 television season, New Girl averaged 8.22 million viewers and a 4.2 adults 18 -- 49 demo rating. In 18 -- 49 demo, it ranked as the fifth highest rated show on Fox and 13th overall. On April 9, 2012, New Girl was officially renewed for a second season of 24 episodes; Fox ordered one more episode during the second half of the season. On March 4, 2013, the series was renewed for a third season, which premiered on September 17, 2013. New Girl 's ratings were cited as an example for changed audience behavior: when including its Live + 7 (days) results instead of just Live + SD (same day), the show 's viewership almost doubled in the week of October 13 -- 20, 2013 by jumping 89 percent, that week 's the biggest percentage gain, to a 3.6 demo rating. The total audience of the episode "Sister '' grew by 112 percent over thirty days on multi platforms, compared to the Live + SD rating of 3.4. The post-Super Bowl episode "Prince '' holds the show 's Live + SD viewership record of 26.30 million viewers. New Girl was renewed for a fourth season on March 7, 2014 and renewed for a fifth season on March 31, 2015. The series was added to TBS 's line - up on August 17, 2015. Additionally, the sitcom was added to MTV in the fall of 2015. In June 2011, New Girl was one of eight honorees in the "most exciting new series '' category at the 1st Critics ' Choice Television Awards, voted by journalists who had seen the pilots. Robert Bianco of USA Today considered New Girl "fall 's most promising new series '' and praised how Deschanel and Meriwether "have shaped Jess into something we have n't quite seen before -- a woman who is sweet yet crass, innocent yet sexy, beautiful yet clumsy, and brash yet irresistibly adorable. '' However, he noted how "Some people will be resistant to Deschanel 's doe - eyed charm; others have a congenital need to insult anyone who most everyone else is praising, particularly if doing so gets them attention. '' The Hollywood Reporter 's Tim Goodman saw the show as a "mostly romantic comedy '', and although Jess ' adorability "might seem like a thin premise, (...) Meriwether manages to make the situations funny and lets Deschanel channel her charm -- a winning combination. '' David Wiegand of San Francisco Chronicle would rather see the show tone down. He felt "the show 's fundamental setup is n't all that inspired, but it could work with smarter writing and better direction, especially with regard to Deschanel '', who, in his opinion, overplayed Jess ' weird habits "to the point of overkill within the first 10 minutes of the show ''. Alan Sepinwall of HitFix considered New Girl "the best new comedy of the fall season, and the only new show I genuinely enjoyed from start to finish '' because it was so well developed from the start. He praised Deschanel 's "wonderful comic performance '' and said that while the supporting actors "all bounce nicely off of Deschanel '', the scenes without Deschanel around them fell flat for him. Writing for the Daily News, David Hinckley lauded how none of the characters "settle in as the stereotypes they could easily become '', and presumed that all of them would evolve and get smarter as the show progresses. Lori Rack of the Chicago Sun - Times praised the actors ' comedic timing and playing off each other. Despite the guys sounding "like nightmares '' on paper, "they have endearing, vulnerable cores that make them likable, and occasionally, lovable. (...) New Girl did n't give me as many laugh - out - loud moments as some comedies '', but instead made her "feel warm and fuzzy ''. Rob Owen of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette said the show 's pilot was "more charming than hilarious '' and "cuter than it is funny, but when it does conjure laughs, its style of humor is reminiscent of ABC 's Happy Endings ''. Critics questioned the portrayal of Jess ' girlishness early on. Phillip Maciak of Slant Magazine initially expected New Girl as one of 2011 's many new female - centric shows to "be an exemplar of this new age of empowerment, but found instead that "New Girl presents us with a narratively scattered, male fantasy of a show about a cooing woman - child in a polka - dot skirt who literally ca n't say the word ' penis ' without giggling. '' Meriwether stated it was not the show 's goal to create a symbol and, pointing to gender double - standards, rejected opinions that Jess was emblematic of all women. She "was really just writing about myself, and so my main goal is just to give Zooey, really fun, interesting things to do every week, and then just be really honest with myself about the character and present an interesting, funny female character on television. '' Critics felt the first - season episode "Jess & Julia '' was a meta reference to Jess ' girliness and the initial "adorkable '' ad campaign for New Girl, but Meriwether stated the episode was more a response to a controversial New York magazine cover story about Deschanel 's personality and her views on women 's issues. Summarizing the first two seasons, Jon Caramanica of The New York Times said "Jess fit into no known mode, sitcom or interpersonal. For much of the (first) season, she remained a cipher. Her interactions with the rest of the crew were unfailingly odd -- there was no common language, and that was the root of the show 's comedic alchemy, or lack thereof. By the end of that first season, Jess ' sharp angles had been sandpapered down a bit, but the show 's second season (...) represented a change in approach that has rescued New Girl from its whimsy and turned it into one of the most reliable and reliably affecting sitcoms on television. At root, these changes sprang from the recognition that Ms. Deschanel 's charms lie not in her quirk but in her empathy and warmth. '' Variety 's Cynthia Littleton summarized that "The show has drawn praise from critics for its deft mix of offbeat humor that captures the voice of contempo 20 - somethings and laugh - out - loud moments, aided by Deschanel 's flair for physical comedy. '' The Huffington Post 's Maureen Ryan said New Girl 's second season was "doing an ace job of mixing sharp comedic moments and goofball weirdness with excellent character - building. '' Many critics considered Max Greenfield the show 's breakout star in season 1; The A.V. Club even named Greenfield 's Schmidt "the year 's breakout TV character '' as a "douchebag with a heart of gold ''. Salon described Schmidt as "a sort of self - created alpha male and a collection of beta male qualities (... which) are performed with such conviction they congeal into a sort of deranged machismo, one slathered in sandalwood - scented lotion. As part of this transition, Schmidt has gone from being a douchebag in the classic model -- a guy who, in the pilot, constantly wanted to show off his pecs and scam girls, and seemed capable of doing so -- to a douche of a more unique variety. '' The Huffington Post 's Maureen Ryan said how "Schmidt could have easily been ' the dumb guy ', or the show could have exploited his status as an eminently mockable douche. But thanks to Max Greenfield 's endearing depiction of the would - be ladykiller, there 's a lot more the writers have been able to do with the character. '' Caramanica lamented how Winston as the lone black character "is still an outlier, though far less so than in the first season. He 's a sharp foil when other characters, especially Schmidt, get too racially comfortable. '' After the teasing of the Nick -- Jess relationship in the first season, critics named Jake Johnson the breakout star of season 2 as the characters ' romance unfolded. Saying that "Not since Ross and Rachel 's tango on Friends has watching a comedy romance been so satisfying '', The Hollywood Reporter said the producers "did the impossible by engaging their leads in a love story, which only strengthened the artistry of the single - cam comedy ''. The New York Times said season 2 "erupted in fantastic and bizarre fits and starts '' because of the characters ' unmatched personalities, and lauded the writers for not playing up the will - they - or - wo n't - they dynamic. By emphasing how the characters got together, the show "made for hilarious setups (that occasionally led) to high - level Abbott and Costello slapstick. They have a modern love. (...) Together, they are fully functional. They make each other human. '' The Huffington Post 's Maureen Ryan was unconcerned about getting Jess and Nick together, as because of immaturity "they 're bound to keep on making a lot of amusing and painful mistakes, sometimes with each other. Those choices can be both hilarious and sad, and New Girl has gotten a lot of mileage out of both those areas. '' The continued Nick -- Jess relationship was criticized in season 3 for dropping the characters ' personalities, lack of tension, and for neglecting the show 's female friendship between Jess and Cece. TV Guide 's Natalie Abrams felt that during the first half of season 3 that "bringing them together caused that (former) spark (between them) to diminish '', while Hitfix 's Alan Sepinwall and The A.V. Club 's David Sims found that the show 's perceived decline in quality had less to do with the Nick -- Jess relationship but with the handling of Schmidt 's cheating arc and the re-introduction of Coach. The show has been nominated for several awards, including five Golden Globe Awards and five Primetime Emmy Awards.

how many champions league trophy has messi won

Lionel Messi - wikipedia Lionel Andrés "Leo '' Messi Cuccittini (Spanish pronunciation: (ljoˈnel anˈðɾes ˈmesi) (listen); born 24 June 1987) is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as a forward for Spanish club FC Barcelona and the Argentina national team. Often considered the best player in the world and regarded by many as the greatest of all time, Messi is the only player in history to win five FIFA Ballon d'Or awards, four of which he won consecutively, and a record - tying four European Golden Shoes. He has won 29 trophies with Barcelona, including eight La Liga titles, four UEFA Champions League titles, and five Copas del Rey. Both a prolific goalscorer and a creative playmaker, Messi holds the records for most official goals scored in La Liga (361), a La Liga season (50), a club football season in Europe (73), a calendar year (91), as well as those for most assists made in La Liga (140) and the Copa América (11). He has scored over 600 senior career goals for club and country. Born and raised in central Argentina, Messi was diagnosed with a growth hormone deficiency as a child. At age 13, he relocated to Spain to join Barcelona, who agreed to pay for his medical treatment. After a fast progression through Barcelona 's youth academy, Messi made his competitive debut aged 17 in October 2004. Despite being injury - prone during his early career, he established himself as an integral player for the club within the next three years, finishing 2007 as a finalist for both the Ballon d'Or and FIFA World Player of the Year award, a feat he repeated the following year. His first uninterrupted campaign came in the 2008 -- 09 season, during which he helped Barcelona achieve the first treble in Spanish football. At 22 years old, Messi won the Ballon d'Or and FIFA World Player of the Year award by record voting margins. Three successful seasons followed, with Messi winning three consecutive FIFA Ballons d'Or, including an unprecedented fourth. His personal best campaign statistically to date was the 2011 -- 12 season, in which he set the La Liga and European records for most goals scored in a single season, while establishing himself as Barcelona 's all - time top scorer in official competitions in March 2012. He again struggled with injury during the following two seasons, twice finishing second for the Ballon d'Or behind Cristiano Ronaldo, his perceived career rival. Messi regained his best form during the 2014 -- 15 campaign, breaking the all - time goalscoring records in both La Liga and the Champions League in November 2014, and led Barcelona to a historic second treble. An Argentine international, Messi is his country 's all - time leading goalscorer. At youth level, he won the 2005 FIFA World Youth Championship, finishing the tournament with both the Golden Ball and Golden Shoe, and an Olympic gold medal at the 2008 Summer Olympics. His style of play as a diminutive, left - footed dribbler drew comparisons with compatriot Diego Maradona, who declared the teenager his successor. After making his senior debut in August 2005, Messi became the youngest Argentine to play and score in a FIFA World Cup during the 2006 edition, and reached the final of the 2007 Copa América, where he was named young player of the tournament. As the squad 's captain from August 2011, he led Argentina to three consecutive finals: the 2014 World Cup, for which he won the Golden Ball, and the 2015 and 2016 Copas América. After announcing his international retirement in 2016, he reversed his decision and led his country to qualification for the 2018 World Cup. Lionel Andrés Messi was born on 24 June 1987 in Rosario, the third of four children of Jorge Messi, a steel factory manager, and his wife Celia Cuccittini, who worked in a magnet manufacturing workshop. On his father 's side, he is of Italian and Spanish descent, the great - grandson of immigrants from Marche and Catalonia, and on his mother 's side, he has primarily Italian ancestry. Growing up in a tight - knit, football - loving family, "Leo '' developed a passion for the sport from an early age, playing constantly with his older brothers, Rodrigo and Matías, and his cousins, Maximiliano and Emanuel Biancucchi, both of whom became professional footballers. At the age of four he joined local club Grandoli, where he was coached by his father, though his earliest influence as a player came from his maternal grandmother, Celia, who accompanied him to training and matches. He was greatly affected by her death, shortly before his eleventh birthday; since then, as a devout Catholic, he has celebrated his goals by looking up and pointing to the sky in tribute of his grandmother. A lifelong supporter of Newell 's Old Boys, Messi joined the Rosario club when he was six years old. During the six years he played for Newell 's, he scored almost 500 goals as a member of "The Machine of ' 87 '', the near - unbeatable youth side named for the year of their birth, and regularly entertained crowds by performing ball tricks during half - time of the first team 's home games. However, his future as a professional player was threatened when, at age 10, he was diagnosed with a growth hormone deficiency. As his father 's health insurance covered only two years of growth hormone treatment, which cost at least $ 1,000 per month, Newell 's agreed to contribute, but later reneged on their promise. He was scouted by Buenos Aires club River Plate, whose playmaker, Pablo Aimar, he idolised, but they were also unable to pay for his treatment due to the country 's economic collapse. As the Messi family had relatives in Catalonia, they sought to arrange a trial with Barcelona in September 2000. First team director Charly Rexach immediately wanted to sign him, but the board of directors hesitated; at the time it was highly unusual for European clubs to sign foreign players of such a young age. On 14 December, an ultimatum was issued for Barcelona to prove their commitment, and Rexach, with no other paper at hand, offered a contract on a paper napkin. In February 2001, the family relocated to Barcelona, where they moved into an apartment near the club 's stadium, Camp Nou. During his first year in Spain, Messi rarely played with the Infantiles due to a transfer conflict with Newell 's; as a foreigner, he could only be fielded in friendlies and the Catalan league. Without football, he struggled to integrate into the team; already reserved by nature, he was so quiet that his teammates initially believed he was mute. At home, he suffered from homesickness after his mother moved back to Rosario with his brothers and little sister, María Sol, while he stayed in Barcelona with his father. After a year at Barcelona 's youth academy, La Masia, Messi was finally enrolled in the Royal Spanish Football Federation (RFEF) in February 2002. Now playing in all competitions, he befriended his teammates, among whom were Cesc Fàbregas and Gerard Piqué. After completing his growth hormone treatment aged 14, Messi became an integral part of the "Baby Dream Team '', Barcelona 's greatest - ever youth side. During his first full season (2002 -- 03), he was top scorer with 36 goals in 30 games for the Cadetes A, who won an unprecedented treble of the league and both the Spanish and Catalan cups. The Copa Catalunya final, a 4 -- 1 victory over Espanyol, became known in club lore as the partido de la máscara, the final of the mask. A week after suffering a broken cheekbone during a league match, Messi was allowed to start the game on the condition that he wear a plastic protector; soon hindered by the mask, he took it off and scored two goals in 10 minutes before his substitution. At the close of the season, he received an offer to join Arsenal, his first from a foreign club, but while Fàbregas and Piqué soon left for England, he chose to remain in Barcelona. During the 2003 -- 04 season, his fourth with Barcelona, Messi rapidly progressed through the club 's ranks, debuting for a record five teams in a single campaign. After being named player of the tournament in four international pre-season competitions with the Juveniles B, he played only one official match with the team before being promoted to the Juveniles A, where he scored 18 goals in 11 league games. Messi was then one of several youth players called up to strengthen a depleted first team during the international break. French Winger Ludovic Giuly explained how a teenage Leo caught the eye in a training session with Frank Rijkaard 's first team: "He destroyed us all... They were kicking him all over the place to avoid being ridiculed by this kid, he just got up and kept on playing. He would dribble past four players and score a goal. Even the team 's starting centre - backs were nervous. He was an alien. '' At 16 years, four months, and 23 days old, he made his first team debut when he came on in the 75th minute during a friendly against José Mourinho 's Porto on 16 November 2003. His performance, creating two chances and a shot on goal, impressed the technical staff, and he subsequently began training daily with the club 's reserve side, Barcelona B, as well as weekly with the first team. After his first training session with the senior squad, Barça 's new star player, Ronaldinho, told his teammates that he believed the 16 - year - old would become an even better player than himself. Ronaldinho soon befriended Messi, whom he called "little brother '', which greatly eased his transition into the first team. To gain further match experience, Messi joined Barcelona C in addition to the Juveniles A, playing his first game for the third team on 29 November. He helped save them from the relegation zone of the Tercera División, scoring five goals in ten games, including a hat - trick in eight minutes during a Copa del Rey match while man - marked by Sevilla 's Sergio Ramos. His progress was reflected in his first professional contract, signed on 4 February 2004, which lasted until 2012 and contained an initial buyout clause of € 30 million. A month later, on 6 March, he made his debut for Barcelona B in the Segunda División B, and his buyout clause automatically increased to € 80 million. He played five games with the B team that season but did not score. Physically he was weaker than his opponents, who were often much older and taller, and in training he worked on increasing his muscle mass and overall strength in order to be able to shake off defenders. Towards the end of the season, he returned to both youth teams, helping the Juveniles B win the league. He finished the campaign having scored for four of his five teams with a total of 36 goals in all official competitions. During the 2004 -- 05 season, Messi was a guaranteed starter for the B team, playing 17 games throughout the campaign and scoring on six occasions. Since his debut the previous November, he had not been called up to the first team again, but in October 2004, the senior players asked manager Frank Rijkaard to promote him. Since Ronaldinho already played on the left wing, Rijkaard moved Messi from his usual position onto the right flank (though initially against the player 's wishes), allowing him to cut into the centre of the pitch and shoot with his dominant left foot. Messi made his league debut during the next match on 16 October, against Espanyol, coming on in the 82nd minute. At 17 years, three months, and 22 days old, he was at the time the youngest player to represent Barcelona in an official competition. As a substitute player, he played only 77 minutes in nine matches for the first team that season, including his debut in the UEFA Champions League against Shakhtar Donetsk. He scored his first senior goal on 1 May 2005, against Albacete, from an assist by Ronaldinho, becoming -- at that time -- the youngest - ever scorer for the club. Barcelona, in their second season under Rijkaard, won the league for the first time in six years. On 24 June 2005, his 18th birthday, Messi signed his first contract as a senior team player. It made him a Barcelona player until 2010, two years less than his previous contract, but his buyout clause increased to € 150 million. His breakthrough came two months later, on 24 August, during the Joan Gamper Trophy, Barcelona 's pre-season competition. A starter for the first time, he gave a well - received performance against Fabio Capello 's Juventus, receiving an ovation from the Camp Nou. While Capello requested to loan Messi, a bid to buy him came from Inter Milan, who were willing to pay his € 150 million buyout clause and triple his wages. According to then - president Joan Laporta, it was the only time the club faced a real risk of losing Messi, but he ultimately decided to stay. On 16 September, his contract was updated for the second time in three months and extended to 2014. Due to issues regarding his legal status in the Royal Spanish Football Federation, Messi missed the start of La Liga, but on 26 September, he acquired Spanish citizenship and became eligible to play. Wearing the number 19 shirt, he gradually established himself as the first - choice right winger, forming an attacking trio with Ronaldinho and striker Samuel Eto'o. He was in the starting line - up in major matches like his first Clásico against rivals Real Madrid on 19 November, as well as Barcelona 's away victory over Chelsea in the last 16 round of the Champions League, where he played his best match to that point. After he had scored 8 goals in 25 games, including his first in the Champions League, his season ended prematurely during the return leg against Chelsea on 7 March 2006, when he suffered a torn hamstring. Messi worked to regain fitness in time for the Champions League final, but on 17 May, the day of the final, he was eventually ruled out. He was so disappointed that he did not celebrate his team 's victory over Arsenal in Paris, something he later came to regret. While Barcelona began a gradual decline, the 19 - year - old Messi established himself as one of the best players in the world during the 2006 -- 07 campaign. Already an idol to the culés, the club 's supporters, he scored 17 goals in 36 games across all competitions. However, he continued to be plagued by major injuries; a metatarsal fracture sustained on 12 November 2006 kept him out of action for three months. He recovered in time for the last 16 round of the Champions League against Liverpool, but was effectively marked out of the game; Barcelona, the reigning champions, were out of the competition. In the league, his goal contribution increased towards the end of the season; 11 of his 14 goals came from the last 13 games. On 10 March 2007, he scored his first hat - trick in a Clásico, the first player to do so in 12 years, equalising after each goal by Real Madrid to end the match in a 3 -- 3 draw in extra time. His growing importance to the club was reflected in a new contract, signed that month, which greatly increased his wages. Already frequently compared to compatriot Diego Maradona, Messi proved their similarity when he nearly replicated Maradona 's two most famous goals in the span of three weeks. During a Copa del Rey semi-final against Getafe on 18 April, he scored a goal remarkably similar to Maradona 's goal in the quarter - finals of the 1986 FIFA World Cup, known as the Goal of the Century. Messi collected the ball on the right side near the halfway line, ran 60 metres (200 ft), and beat five defenders before scoring with an angled finish, just as Maradona had done. A league match against Espanyol on 9 June saw him score by launching himself at the ball and guiding it past the goalkeeper with his hand in similar fashion to Maradona 's Hand of God goal in the same World Cup match. As Messi continued his individual rise, Barcelona faltered; the team failed to reach the Copa del Rey final after Messi was rested during the second leg against Getafe and lost the league to Real Madrid on head - to - head results. After Ronaldinho lost form, Messi became Barça 's new star player at only 20 years old, receiving the nickname "Messiah '' from the Spanish media. His efforts in 2007 also earned him award recognition; journalists voted him the third - best player of the year for the Ballon d'Or, behind Kaká and runner - up Cristiano Ronaldo, while international managers and national team captains voted him second for the FIFA World Player of the Year award, again behind Kaká. Although he managed to score 16 goals during the 2007 -- 08 campaign, the second half of his season was again marred by injuries after he suffered a torn hamstring on 15 December. He returned to score twice in their away victory against Celtic in the last 16 round of the Champions League, becoming the competition 's top scorer at that point with six goals, but reinjured himself during the return leg on 4 March 2008. Rijkaard had fielded him despite warning from the medical staff, leading captain Carles Puyol to criticise the Spanish media for pressuring Messi to play every match. Barcelona finished the season without trophies, eliminated in the Champions League semi-finals by the eventual champions, Manchester United, and placed third in the league. After two unsuccessful seasons, Barcelona were in need of an overhaul, leading to the departure of Rijkaard and Ronaldinho. Upon the latter 's departure, Messi was given the number 10 shirt. He signed a new contract in July 2008 on an annual salary of € 7.8 million, becoming the club 's highest - paid player. Ahead of the new season, a major concern remained his frequent muscular injuries, which had left him side - lined for a total of eight months between 2006 and 2008. To combat the problem, the club implemented new training, nutrition, and lifestyle regimens, and assigned him a personal physiotherapist, who would travel with him during call - ups for the Argentina national team. As a result, Messi remained virtually injury - free during the next four years, allowing him to reach his full potential. Despite his injuries early in the year, his performances in 2008 saw him again voted runner - up for the Ballon d'Or and the FIFA World Player of the Year award, both times behind Cristiano Ronaldo. In his first uninterrupted campaign, the 2008 -- 09 season, he scored 38 goals in 51 games, contributing alongside Eto'o and winger Thierry Henry to a total of 100 goals in all competitions, a record at the time for the club. During his first season under Barcelona 's new manager, former captain Pep Guardiola, Messi played mainly on the right wing, like he had under Rijkaard, though this time as a false winger with the freedom to cut inside and roam the centre. During the Clásico on 2 May 2009, however, he played for the first time as a false nine, positioned as a centre - forward but dropping deep into midfield to link up with Xavi and Andrés Iniesta. He assisted with a chip his side 's first goal and scored twice to end the match in an emphatic 6 -- 2 victory, the team 's greatest - ever score at Real Madrid 's Santiago Bernabéu Stadium. Returning to the wing, he played his first final since breaking into the first team on 13 May, scoring once and assisting a second goal as Barcelona defeated Athletic Bilbao 4 -- 1 to win the Copa del Rey. With 23 league goals from Messi that season, Barcelona became La Liga champions three days later and achieved its fifth double. As the season 's Champions League top scorer with nine goals, the youngest in the tournament 's history, Messi scored two goals and assisted two more to ensure a 4 -- 0 quarter - final victory over Bayern Munich. He returned as a false nine during the final on 27 May in Rome against Manchester United. Barcelona were crowned champions of Europe by winning the match 2 -- 0, the second goal coming from a Messi header over goalkeeper Edwin van der Sar. Barcelona thus achieved the first treble in the history of Spanish football. This success was reflected in a new contract, signed on 18 September, which committed Messi to the club through 2016 with a new buyout clause of € 250 million, while his salary increased to € 12 million. His team 's prosperity continued into the second half of 2009, as Barcelona became the first club to achieve the sextuple, winning six top - tier trophies in a single year. After victories in the Supercopa de España and UEFA Super Cup in August, Barcelona won the FIFA Club World Cup against Estudiantes de La Plata on 19 December, with Messi scoring the winning 2 -- 1 goal with his chest. At 22 years old, Messi won the Ballon d'Or and the FIFA World Player of the Year award, both times by the greatest voting margin in each trophy 's history. Unsatisfied with his position on the right wing, Messi resumed playing as a false nine in early 2010, beginning with a Champions League last 16 - round match against VfB Stuttgart. After a first - leg draw, Barcelona won the second leg 4 -- 0 with two goals and an assist from Messi. At that point, he effectively became the tactical focal point of Guardiola 's team, and his goalscoring rate increased. Messi scored a total of 47 goals in all competitions that season, equaling Ronaldo 's club record from the 1996 -- 97 campaign. He notably scored all of his side 's four goals in the Champions League quarter - final against Arsène Wenger 's Arsenal on 6 April while becoming Barcelona 's all - time top scorer in the competition. Although Barcelona were eliminated in the Champions League semi-finals by the eventual champions, Inter Milan, Messi finished the season as top scorer (with 8 goals) for the second consecutive year. As the league 's top scorer with 34 goals (again tying Ronaldo 's record), he helped Barcelona win a second consecutive La Liga trophy with only a single defeat. Messi secured Barcelona 's first trophy of the 2010 -- 11 campaign, the Supercopa de España, by scoring a hat - trick in his side 's second - leg 4 -- 0 victory over Sevilla, after a first - leg defeat. Assuming a playmaking role, he was again instrumental in a Clásico on 29 November 2010, the first with José Mourinho in charge of Real Madrid, as Barcelona defeated their rivals 5 -- 0. Messi helped the team achieve 16 consecutive league victories, a record in Spanish football, concluding with another hat - trick against Atlético Madrid on 5 February 2011. His club performances in 2010 earned him the inaugural FIFA Ballon d'Or, an amalgamation of the Ballon d'Or and the FIFA World Player of the Year award, though his win was met with some criticism due to his lack of success with Argentina at the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Under the award 's old format, he would have placed just outside the top three, owing his win to the votes from the international coaches and captains. Towards the end of the season, Barcelona played four Clásicos in the span of 18 days. A league match on 16 April ended in a draw after a penalty from Messi. After Barcelona lost the Copa del Rey final four days later, Messi scored both goals in his side 's 2 -- 0 win in the first leg of the Champions League semi-finals, the second of which -- a dribble past three players -- was acclaimed as one of the best ever in the competition. Although he did not score, he was again important in the second - leg draw that sent Barcelona through to the Champions League final, where they faced Manchester United in a repeat of the final two years earlier. As the competition 's top scorer for the third consecutive year, with 12 goals, Messi gave a man - of - the - match performance at Wembley on 28 May, scoring the match - winning goal of Barça 's 3 -- 1 victory. Barcelona won a third consecutive La Liga title. In addition to his 31 goals, Messi was also the league 's top assist provider with 18. He finished the season with 53 goals and 24 assists in all competitions, becoming Barcelona 's all - time single - season top scorer and the first player in Spanish football to reach the 50 - goal benchmark. As Messi developed into a combination of a number 8 (a creator), a 9 (scorer), and a 10 (assistant), he scored an unprecedented 73 goals and provided 29 assists in all club competitions during the 2011 -- 12 season, producing a hat - trick or more on 10 occasions. He began the campaign by helping Barcelona win both the Spanish and European Super Cups; in the Supercopa de España, he scored three times to achieve a 5 -- 4 aggregate victory over Real Madrid, overtaking Raúl as the competition 's all - time top scorer with eight goals. At the close of the year, on 18 December, he scored twice in the FIFA Club World Cup final, a 4 -- 0 victory over Santos, earning the Golden Ball as the best player of the tournament, as he had done two years previously. For his efforts in 2011, he again received the FIFA Ballon d'Or, becoming only the fourth player in history to win the Ballon d'Or three times, after Johan Cruyff, Michel Platini, and Marco van Basten. Additionally, he won the inaugural UEFA Best Player in Europe Award, a revival of the old - style Ballon d'Or. By then, Messi was already widely considered one of the best footballers in history, alongside players like Diego Maradona and Pelé. As Messi maintained his goalscoring form into the second half of the season, the year 2012 saw him break several longstanding records. On 7 March, two weeks after scoring four goals in a league fixture against Valencia, he scored five times in a Champions League last 16 - round match against Bayer Leverkusen, an unprecedented achievement in the history of the competition. In addition to being the joint top assist provider with five assists, this feat made him top scorer with 14 goals, tying José Altafini 's record from the 1962 -- 63 season, as well as becoming only the second player after Gerd Müller to be top scorer in four campaigns. Two weeks later, on 20 March, Messi became the top goalscorer in Barcelona 's history at 24 years old, overtaking the 57 - year record of César Rodríguez 's 232 goals with a hat - trick against Granada. Despite Messi 's individual form, Barcelona 's four - year cycle of success under Guardiola -- one of the greatest eras in the club 's history -- drew to an end. Although Barcelona won the Copa del Rey against Athletic Bilbao on 25 May, its 14th title of that period, the team had lost the league to Real Madrid and was eliminated in the Champions League semi-finals by the eventual champions, Chelsea, with Messi sending a crucial second - leg penalty kick against the crossbar. In Barça 's last home league match on 5 May, against Espanyol, Messi scored all four goals before approaching the bench to embrace Guardiola, who had announced his resignation as manager. He finished the season as league top scorer in Spain and Europe for a second time, with 50 goals, an all - time La Liga record, while his 73 goals in all competitions surpassed Gerd Müller 's 67 goals in the 1972 -- 73 Bundesliga season, making him the single - season top scorer in the history of European club football. Under manager Tito Vilanova, who had first coached him aged 14 at La Masia, Messi helped the club achieve its best - ever start to a La Liga season during the second half of 2012, amassing 55 points by the competition 's midway point, a record in Spanish football. A double scored on 9 December against Real Betis saw Messi break two longstanding records: he surpassed César Rodríguez 's record of 190 league goals, becoming Barcelona 's all - time top scorer in La Liga, and Gerd Müller 's record of most goals scored in a calendar year, overtaking his 85 goals scored in 1972 for Bayern Munich and Germany. Messi sent Müller a number 10 Barcelona shirt, signed "with respect and admiration '', after breaking his 40 - year record. At the close of the year, Messi had scored a record 91 goals in all competitions for Barcelona and Argentina. Although FIFA did not acknowledge the achievement, citing verifiability issues, he received the Guinness World Records title for most goals scored in a calendar year. As the odds - on favourite, Messi again won the FIFA Ballon d'Or, becoming the only player in history to win the Ballon d'Or four times. Barcelona had virtually secured their La Liga title by the start of 2013, eventually equalling Real Madrid 's 100 - point record of the previous season. However, their performances deteriorated in the second half of the 2012 -- 13 campaign, concurrently with Vilanova 's absence due to ill health. After losing successive Clásicos, including the Copa del Rey semi-finals, they were nearly eliminated in the first knockout round of the Champions League by Milan, but a revival of form in the second leg led to a 4 -- 0 comeback, with two goals and an assist from Messi. Now in his ninth senior season with Barcelona, Messi signed a new contract on 7 February, committing himself to the club through 2018, while his fixed wage rose to € 13 million. He wore the captain 's armband for the first time a month later, on 17 March, in a league match against Rayo Vallecano; by then, he had become the team 's tactical focal point to a degree that was arguably rivalled only by former Barcelona players Josep Samitier, László Kubala and Johan Cruyff. Since his evolution into a false nine three years earlier, his input into the team 's attack had increased exponentially; from 24 % in their treble - winning campaign, his goal contribution rose to more than 40 % that season. After four largely injury - free seasons, the muscular injuries that had previously plagued Messi reoccurred. After he suffered a hamstring strain on 2 April, during the first quarter - final against Paris Saint - Germain, his appearances became sporadic. In the second leg against PSG, with an underperforming Barcelona down a goal, Messi came off the bench in the second half and within nine minutes helped create their game - tying goal, which allowed them to progress to the semi-finals. Still unfit, he proved ineffective during the first leg against Bayern Munich and was unable to play at all during the second, as Barcelona were defeated 7 -- 0 on aggregate by the eventual champions. These matches gave credence to the notion of Messidependencia, Barcelona 's perceived tactical and psychological dependence on their star player. Messi continued to struggle with injury throughout 2013, eventually parting ways with his long - time personal physiotherapist. Further damage to his hamstring sustained on 12 May ended his goalscoring streak of 21 consecutive league games, a worldwide record; he had netted 33 goals during his run, including a four - goal display against Osasuna, while becoming the first player to score consecutively against all 19 opposition teams in La Liga. With 60 goals in all competitions, including 46 goals in La Liga, he finished the campaign as league top scorer in Spain and Europe for the second consecutive year, becoming the first player in history to win the European Golden Shoe three times. Following an irregular start to the new season under manager Gerardo Martino, formerly of his boyhood club Newell 's Old Boys, Messi suffered his fifth injury of 2013 when he tore his hamstring on 10 November, leaving him sidelined for two months. Despite his injuries, he was voted runner - up for the FIFA Ballon d'Or, relinquishing the award after a four - year monopoly to Cristiano Ronaldo. During the second half of the 2013 -- 14 season, doubts persisted over Messi 's form, leading to a perception among the culés that he was reserving himself for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Statistically, his contribution of goals, shots, and passes had dropped significantly compared to previous seasons. He still managed to break two longstanding records in a span of seven days: a hat - trick on 16 March against Osasuna saw him overtake Paulino Alcántara 's 369 goals to become Barcelona 's top goalscorer in all competitions including friendlies, while another hat - trick against Real Madrid on 23 March made him the all - time top scorer in El Clásico, ahead of the 18 goals scored by former Real Madrid player Alfredo Di Stéfano. Messi finished the campaign with his worst output in five seasons, though he still managed to score 41 goals in all competitions. For the first time in five years, Barcelona ended the season without a major trophy; they were defeated in the Copa del Rey final by Real Madrid and lost the league in the last game to Atlético Madrid, causing Messi to be booed by sections of fans at the Camp Nou. After prolonged speculation over his future with the club, Messi signed a new contract on 19 May 2014, only a year after his last contractual update; his salary increased to € 20 million, or € 36 million before taxes, the highest wage ever in the sport. Under new manager and former captain Luis Enrique, Messi experienced a largely injury - free start to the 2014 -- 15 season, allowing him to break three more longstanding records towards the end of the year. A hat - trick scored against Sevilla on 22 November made him the all - time top scorer in La Liga, as he surpassed the 59 - year record of 251 league goals held by Telmo Zarra. Three days later, he scored another hat - trick against APOEL, overtaking Raúl 's 71 goals to become top scorer in the history of the Champions League. A third hat - trick, scored against city rivals Espanyol on 7 December, allowed him to surpass César Rodríguez as the all - time top scorer in the Derbi barceloní with 12 goals. Messi again placed second in the FIFA Ballon d'Or behind Cristiano Ronaldo, largely owing to his second - place achievement with Argentina at the World Cup. At the start of 2015, Barcelona were perceived to be headed for another disappointing end to the season, with renewed speculation in the media that Messi was leaving the club. A turning point came on 11 January during a 3 -- 1 victory over Atlético Madrid, the first time Barça 's attacking trident of Messi, Luis Suárez and Neymar, dubbed "MSN '', each scored in a match, marking the beginning of a highly successful run. After five years of playing in the centre of the pitch, Messi had returned to his old position on the right wing late the previous year, by his own suggestion according to Suárez, their striker. From there, he regained his best -- arguably his best - ever -- form, while Suárez and Neymar ended the team 's attacking dependency on their star player. With 58 goals from Messi, the trio scored a total of 122 goals in all competitions that season, a record in Spanish football. Towards the end of the campaign, Messi scored in a 1 -- 0 away win over Atlético Madrid on 17 May, securing the La Liga title. Among his 43 league goals that season was a hat - trick scored in 11 minutes against Rayo Vallecano on 8 March, the fastest of his senior career; it was his 32nd hat - trick overall for Barcelona, allowing him to overtake Telmo Zarra as the player with the most hat - tricks ever in Spanish football. Additionally, as the season 's top assist provider with 18 assists, he surpassed Luís Figo as the player with the most assists in La Liga; he made his record 106th assist in a fixture against Levante on 15 February, in which he also scored a hat - trick. Messi then scored twice as Barcelona defeated Athletic Bilbao 3 -- 1 in the Copa del Rey final on 30 May, achieving the sixth double in their history. His opening goal was hailed as one of the greatest in his career; he collected the ball near the halfway line and beat four opposing players, before feinting the goalkeeper to score in a tight space by the near post. The goal was later named one of the three final nominees for the 2015 FIFA Puskás Award. In the Champions League, Messi scored twice and assisted on another in their 3 -- 0 semi-final victory over Bayern Munich, now under the stewardship of Guardiola. His second goal, which came only three minutes after his first, saw him chip the ball over goalkeeper Manuel Neuer after his dribble past Jérôme Boateng had made the defender drop to the ground; it went viral, becoming the year 's most tweeted about sporting moment, and was named the best goal of the season by UEFA. Despite a second - leg loss, Barcelona progressed to the final on 6 June in Berlin, where they defeated Juventus 3 -- 1 to win their second treble, becoming the first team in history to do so. Although Messi did not score, he participated in each of his side 's goals, particularly the second as he forced a parried save from goalkeeper Gianluigi Buffon from which Suárez scored the match - winning goal on the rebound. In addition to being the top assist provider with six assists, Messi finished the competition as the joint top scorer with ten goals, which earned him the distinction of being the first player ever to achieve the top scoring mark in five Champions League seasons. For his efforts during the season, he received the UEFA Best Player in Europe award for a second time. Messi opened the 2015 -- 16 season by scoring twice from free kicks in Barcelona 's 5 -- 4 victory (after extra time) over Sevilla in the UEFA Super Cup. A subsequent 5 -- 1 aggregate defeat against Athletic Bilbao in the Supercopa de España ended their expressed hopes of a second sextuple, with Messi scoring his side 's only goal. On 16 September, he became the youngest player to make 100 appearances in the UEFA Champions League in a 1 -- 1 away draw to Roma. On 26 September, Messi sustained an injury in Barcelona 's match against Las Palmas; tests later confirmed that he suffered a tear in the medial collateral ligament of his left knee, ruling him out for six to eight weeks. He finally returned to the pitch on 21 November, making a substitute appearance in Barcelona 's 4 -- 0 away win over rivals Real Madrid in El Clásico. Messi capped off the year by winning the 2015 FIFA Club World Cup Final on 20 December, collecting his fifth club trophy of 2015 as Barcelona went on to defeat River Plate 3 -- 0 in Yokohama. Messi also won the tournament 's Silver Ball, despite missing the semi-final. On 30 December, Messi scored on his 500th appearance for Barcelona, in a 4 -- 0 home win over Real Betis. On 6 January 2016, recording Barcelona 's first goal of the new year, Messi scored two goals and assisted the other two in a 4 -- 1 derby win over Espanyol at the Camp Nou, in the first leg of the round of 16 of the 2015 -- 16 Copa del Rey. Five days later, Messi won the FIFA Ballon d'Or for a record fifth time in his career. On 3 February, he scored a hat - trick in Barcelona 's 7 -- 0 win against Valenciain the first leg of the Copa del Rey semi-final at the Camp Nou, also scoring his 500th career goal in the process, including youth competitions. With teammate Luis Suárez scoring the other four goals in the same match, this was the first time that two players had scored at least three goals each at Camp Nou, and the first time since Luis Suárez Miramontes and Justo Tejada in 1956. The feat had only occurred three times before in the club 's history, all at Camp de Les Corts. The next league match at Camp Nou, a 6 -- 1 win against Celta de Vigo, Messi assisted Suárez from a penalty kick. Some people saw it as "a touch of genius '', while others criticised it as being disrespectful to the opponent. The Celta players, however, never complained and their coach defended the penalty, stating, "Barca 's forwards are very respectful. '' The penalty routine has been compared to that of Barça icon Johan Cruyff in 1982, who was battling lung cancer, leading many fans to indicate that the penalty was a tribute to him. Cruyff himself was "very happy '' with the play, insisting "it was legal and entertaining ''. On 17 February, Messi reached his 300th league goal in a 1 -- 3 away win against Sporting de Gijón. A few days later, he scored both goals in Barcelona 's 0 -- 2 win against Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium, in the first leg of the 2015 -- 16 UEFA Champions League round of 16, with the second goal being Barcelona 's 10,000 th in official competitions. On 17 April, Messi ended a five - match scoring drought with his 500th senior career goal for club and country in Barcelona 's 2 -- 1 home loss to Valencia. Messi finished the 2015 -- 16 season by setting up both goals in Barcelona 's 2 -- 0 extra time win over Sevilla in the 2016 Copa del Rey Final, at the Vicente Calderón Stadium, on 22 May 2016, as the club celebrated winning the domestic double for the second consecutive season. In total, Messi scored 41 goals and provided 23 assists, as Barcelona 's attacking trio managed a Spanish record of 131 goals throughout the season, breaking the record they had set the previous season. Messi opened the 2016 -- 17 season by lifting the 2016 Supercopa de España as Barcelona 's captain in the absence of the injured Andrés Iniesta; he set - up Munir 's goal in a 2 -- 0 away win over Sevilla in the first leg on 14 August, and subsequently scored and assisted in a 3 -- 0 win in the return leg on 17 August. Three days later, he scored two goals and provided an assist to lead Barcelona to a 6 -- 2 victory against Real Betis in the opening game of the 2016 -- 17 La Liga season. On 13 September 2016, Messi scored his first hat - trick of the season in the opening game of the 2016 -- 17 UEFA Champions League campaign against Celtic in a 7 -- 0 victory; this was also Messi 's sixth hat - trick in the Champions League, the most by any player. A week later, Messi sustained a groin injury in a 1 -- 1 draw against Atlético Madrid and was ruled out with injury for three weeks. He marked his return with a goal, scoring three minutes after coming off the bench in a 4 -- 0 home win over Deportivo de La Coruña, on 16 October. Three days after this, he netted his thirty - seventh club hat - trick as Barcelona defeated Manchester City 4 -- 0. On 1 November, Messi scored his 54th Champions League group stage goal in Barcelona 's 3 -- 1 away return fixture to Manchester City, surpassing the previous record of 53 goals held by Raúl. On 12 November, Messi placed second in the 2016 Ballon d'Or behind Cristiano Ronaldo, who claimed the award for the fourth time. He finished the year with 51 goals, making him Europe 's top scorer, one ahead of Zlatan Ibrahimović. After placing second in the 2016 Ballon d'Or, on 9 January 2017 Messi also finished in second place -- behind Cristiano Ronaldo once again -- in the 2016 Best FIFA Men 's Player Award. On 11 January, Messi scored from a free - kick in Barcelona 's 3 -- 1 victory against Athletic Bilbao in the second leg of the round of 16 of the Copa del Rey, which enabled Barcelona to advance to the quarter - finals of the competition; with his 26th goal from a free - kick for Barcelona in all competitions, he equalled the club 's all - time record, which had previously been set by Ronald Koeman. In his next league match, on 14 January, Messi scored in a 5 -- 0 win against Las Palmas; with this goal, he equalled Raúl 's record for the most number of teams scored against in La Liga (35). On 4 February, Messi scored his 27th free - kick for Barcelona in a 3 -- 0 home win over Athletic Bilbao in the league, overtaking Koeman as the club 's all - time top - scorer from free - kicks. On 23 April, Messi scored twice in a 3 -- 2 away win over Real Madrid. His game - winning goal in stoppage time was his 500th for Barcelona. On 27 May, Messi scored a goal and set up another for Paco Alcácer in the 2017 Copa del Rey Final, helping Barcelona to a 3 -- 1 victory over Alavés, and was named Man of the Match. In total, Messi finished the 2016 -- 17 season with 54 goals and 16 assists, while his 37 goals in La Liga saw him claim both the Pichichi and European Golden Boot Awards for the fourth time in his career. Messi opened the 2017 -- 18 season by converting a penalty in Barcelona 's 1 -- 3 first leg home defeat to Real Madrid in Supercopa de España. Thereby, Messi also extended his El Clásico goalscoring record with the goal being his 24th official and 25th overall. On 27 August, Messi scored his first two goals of the 2017 -- 18 La Liga season in a 2 -- 0 away win over Alavés. Messi 's first goal marked his 350th in the fixture, becoming the first player ever to achieve this milestone. On 9 September, Messi scored his first hat - trick of the 2017 -- 18 league campaign, against Espanyol in derbi barceloní, thus helping to secure a 5 -- 0 home victory for Blaugrana over local rivals. Messi netted twice against Gianluigi Buffon, on 12 September, as Barça defeated the last season 's Italian champions Juventus 3 -- 0 at home in the UEFA Champions League. On 19 September, Messi found the net four times in a 6 -- 1 trashing of Eibar at the Camp Nou in La Liga. Three weeks later, on 1 October, Messi surpassed his former teammate Carles Puyol to become the third highest appearance maker in the club 's history, as he helped Barça defeat Las Palmas 3 -- 0 by assisting Sergio Busquets ' opener and later adding two himself in his 594th official game for the club; the league game was played behind closed doors at the Camp Nou due to violence in Catalonia relating to an ongoing independence referendum. On 18 October, in his 122nd European club appearance, Messi scored his 97th UEFA Champions League goal, and his 100th in all UEFA club competitions, in a 3 -- 1 home victory over Olympiakos; he also set up Lucas Digne 's goal during the same match. Messi became only the second player after Cristiano Ronaldo to reach this century milestone, but accomplished it in 21 fewer appearances than the Portuguese counterpart. On 23 October, Messi finished as the runner - up behind Cristiano Ronaldo in 2017 Best FIFA Men 's Player award for the second consecutive year. On 4 November, he made his 600th appearance for Barcelona in a 2 -- 1 home win over Sevilla in La Liga. As a dual Argentine - Spanish national, Messi was eligible to play for the national team of both countries. Selectors for Spain 's Under - 17 squad began pursuing him in 2003 after Barcelona 's director of football, Carles Rexach, alerted the Royal Spanish Football Federation to their young player. Messi declined the offer, having aspired to represent La Albiceleste since childhood. To further prevent Spain from taking him, the Argentine Football Association organised two under - 20 friendlies in June 2004, against Paraguay and Uruguay, with the purpose of finalising his status as an Argentina player in FIFA. Five days after his 17th birthday, on 29 June, he made his debut for his country against Paraguay, scoring once and providing two assists in their 8 -- 0 victory. He was subsequently included in the squad for the South American Youth Championship, held in Colombia in February 2005. As he lacked the stamina of his teammates, the result of his former growth hormone deficiency, he was used as a substitute in six of the nine games, proving more effective when coming on in the second half. After being named man of the match against Venezuela, he scored the winning 2 -- 1 goal in the crucial last match against Brazil, thereby securing their third - place qualification for the FIFA World Youth Championship. Aware of his physical limitations, Messi employed a personal trainer to increase his muscle mass, returning to the squad in improved condition in time for the World Youth Championship, hosted by the Netherlands in June 2005. After he was left out of the starting line - up in their first match against the United States, a 1 -- 0 defeat, the squad 's senior players asked manager Francisco Ferraro to let Messi start, as they considered him their best player. After helping the team defeat Egypt and Germany to progress past the group stage, Messi proved decisive in the knockout phase as he scored their equaliser against Colombia, provided a goal and an assist against title favourites Spain, and scored their opening goal against reigning champions Brazil. Ahead of the final, he was awarded the Golden Ball as the best player of the tournament. He scored two penalties in their 2 -- 1 victory over Nigeria, clinching Argentina 's fifth championship and finishing the tournament as top scorer with 6 goals. His performances drew comparisons with compatriot Diego Maradona, who had led Argentina to the title in 1979. In recognition of his achievements with the under - 20 side, senior manager José Pékerman gave Messi his first call - up for a friendly against Hungary on 17 August 2005. Aged 18, Messi made his senior debut for Argentina when he came on in the 63rd minute, only to be sent off after two minutes for a perceived foul against Vilmos Vanczák, who had grabbed his shirt; Messi had struck the defender with his arm while trying to shake him off, which the referee interpreted as an intentional elbowing, a contentious decision. Messi was reportedly found weeping in the dressing room after his sending - off. He returned to the team on 3 September in their World Cup qualifier defeat to Paraguay, which he had declared his "re-debut '' ahead of the match. Messi started his first game in the next qualifying match against Peru, in which he was able to win a crucial penalty that secured their victory. After the match, Pékerman described him as "a jewel ''. He subsequently made regular appearances for the team ahead of Argentina 's participation in the 2006 FIFA World Cup, scoring his first goal in a friendly against Croatia on 1 March 2006. A hamstring injury sustained a week later jeopardised his presence in the World Cup, but he was nevertheless selected for Pékerman 's squad and regained fitness in time for the start of the tournament. During the World Cup in Germany, Messi witnessed their opening match victory against the Ivory Coast from the substitutes ' bench. In the next match, against Serbia and Montenegro, he became the youngest player to represent Argentina at a FIFA World Cup when he came on as a substitute in the 74th minute. He assisted their fourth strike within minutes and scored the final goal in their 6 -- 0 victory, making him the youngest scorer in the tournament and the sixth - youngest goalscorer in the history of the World Cup. As their progression to the knockout phase was secured, several starters were rested during the last group match. Messi consequently started the game against the Netherlands, a 0 -- 0 draw, as they won their group on goal differential. In the round of 16 match against Mexico, played on his 19th birthday, Messi came on in the 84th minute, with the score tied at 1 -- 1. He appeared to score a goal, but it was contentiously ruled offside, with the team needing a late goal in extra time to proceed. He did not play in the quarter - final against Germany, during which Argentina were eliminated 4 -- 2 in a penalty shootout. Back home, Pékerman 's decision to leave him on the bench against Germany led to widespread criticism from those who believed Messi could have changed the outcome of the match in Argentina 's favour. As Messi evolved into one of the best players in the world, he secured a place in Alfio Basile 's starting line - up, as part of a team considered favourites to win the 2007 Copa América, held in Venezuela. He set up the game - winning goal of their 4 -- 1 victory over the United States in the opening match, before winning a penalty that led to the game - tying first strike of their 4 -- 2 win in the next match against Colombia. As they had secured their place in the knockout phase, Messi started the next game on the bench, coming on in the last 25 minutes with the score at 0 -- 0 to help his team defeat Paraguay by assisting their only goal. At the quarter - final stage, where the group winners faced Peru, he scored the second goal of a 4 -- 0 victory that saw them through to the semi-final, during which he chipped the ball over Mexico 's goalkeeper to ensure another 3 -- 0 win. In a surprise defeat, Argentina lost the final 3 -- 0 to a Brazil squad which lacked several of the nation 's best players. Their unexpected loss was followed by much criticism in Argentina, though Messi was mostly exempt due to his young age and secondary status to star player Juan Román Riquelme. He was named the best young player of the tournament by CONMEBOL. Ahead of the 2008 Summer Olympics, Barcelona legally barred Messi from representing Argentina at the tournament as it coincided with their Champions League qualifying matches. After interference from newly appointed Barcelona manager Pep Guardiola, who had won the tournament in 1992, Messi was permitted to join Sergio Batista 's under - 23 squad in Beijing. During the first match, he scored the opening goal and assisted another in their 2 -- 1 victory over the Ivory Coast. Following a 1 -- 0 win in the next group match against Australia, ensuring their quarter - final qualification, Messi was rested during the game against Serbia, while his side won the match to finish first in their group. Against the Netherlands, he again scored the first goal and assisted a second strike to help his team to a 2 -- 1 win in extra time. After a 3 -- 0 semi-final victory over Brazil, Messi assisted the only goal in the final as Argentina defeated Nigeria to claim Olympic gold medals. Along with Riquelme, Messi was singled out by FIFA as the stand - out player from the tournament 's best team. From late 2008, the national team experienced a three - year period marked by poor performances. Under manager Diego Maradona, who had led Argentina to World Cup victory as a player, the team struggled to qualify for the 2010 World Cup, securing their place in the tournament only after defeating Uruguay 1 -- 0 in their last qualifying match. Maradona was criticised for his strategic decisions as he played Messi out of position, positioned too deep for him to be able to contribute to the attack to his full ability. In eight qualifying matches under Maradona 's stewardship, Messi scored only one goal, netting the opening goal in the first such match, a 4 -- 0 victory over Venezuela. During that game, played on 28 March 2009, he wore Argentina 's number 10 shirt for the first time, following the international retirement of Riquelme. Overall, Messi scored four goals in 18 appearances during the qualifying process. Ahead of the tournament, Maradona visited Messi in Barcelona to request his tactical input; Messi then outlined a 4 -- 3 -- 1 -- 2 formation with himself playing behind the two strikers, a playmaking position known as the enganche in Argentine football, which had been his preferred position since childhood. Despite their poor qualifying campaign, Argentina were considered title contenders at the World Cup in South Africa. At the start of the tournament, the new formation proved effective; Messi managed at least four attempts on goal during their opening match but was repeatedly denied by Nigeria 's goalkeeper, resulting in a 1 -- 0 win. During the next match, against South Korea, he excelled in his playmaking role, participating in all four goals of his side 's 4 -- 1 victory. As their place in the knockout phase was guaranteed, most of the starters were rested during the last group match, but Messi reportedly refused to be benched. He wore the captain 's armband for the first time in their 2 -- 0 win against Greece; as the focal point of their play, he helped create their second goal to see Argentina finish as group winners. In the round of 16, they defeated Mexico 3 -- 1, with Messi assisting their first goal, a controversial strike that stood despite being offside. Argentina 's unstructured defence had proved a liability throughout the World Cup and finally led to their elimination in the quarter - final against Germany, at the same stage of the tournament and by the same opponent as four years earlier. Their 4 -- 0 loss was their worst margin of defeat since 1974. FIFA subsequently identified Messi as one of the tournament 's 10 best players, citing his "outstanding '' pace and creativity and "spectacular and efficient '' dribbling, shooting and passing. Back home, however, Messi was the subject of far harsher judgement. As the perceived best player in the world, he had been expected to lead an average team to the title, as Maradona arguably did in 1986, but he had failed to replicate his performances at Barcelona with the national team, leading to the accusation that he cared less about his country than his club. Maradona was replaced by Sergio Batista, who had orchestrated Argentina 's Olympic victory. Batista publicly stated that he intended to build the team around Messi, employing him as a false nine within a 4 -- 3 -- 3 system, as used to much success by Barcelona. Although Messi scored a record 53 goals during the 2010 -- 11 club season, he had not scored for Argentina in an official match since March 2009. Despite the tactical change, his goal drought continued during the 2011 Copa América, hosted by Argentina. Their first two matches, against Bolivia and Colombia, ended in draws, with Messi underperforming by his standards. Media and fans noted that he did not combine well with striker Carlos Tevez, who enjoyed far greater popularity among the Argentine public; Messi was consequently booed by his own team 's supporters for the first time in his career. During the crucial next match, with Tevez on the bench, he gave a well - received performance, assisting two goals in their 3 -- 0 victory over Costa Rica. After the quarter - final against Uruguay ended in a 1 -- 1 draw following extra time, with Messi having assisted their equaliser, Argentina were eliminated 4 -- 5 in the penalty shootout by the eventual champions. After Argentina 's unsuccessful performance in the Copa América, Batista was replaced by Alejandro Sabella. Upon his appointment in August 2011, Sabella awarded the 24 - year - old Messi the captaincy of the squad, in accord with then - captain Javier Mascherano. Reserved by nature, Messi went on to lead his squad by example as their best player, while Mascherano continued to fulfil the role of the team 's on - field leader and motivator. In a further redesign of the team, Sabella dismissed Tevez and brought in players with whom Messi had won the World Youth Championship and Olympic Games. Now playing in a free role in an improving team, Messi finally ended his goal drought by scoring during their first World Cup qualifying match against Chile on 7 October, his first official goal for Argentina in two - and - a-half years. Under Sabella, Messi 's goalscoring rate drastically increased; where he had scored only 17 goals in 61 matches under his previous managers, he scored 25 times in 32 appearances during the following three years. He netted a total of 12 goals in 9 games for Argentina in 2012, equalling the record held by Gabriel Batistuta, Argentina 's all - time top scorer, for the most goals scored in a calendar year for their country. His first hat - trick with the Albicelestes came in a friendly against Switzerland on 29 February 2012, followed by two more hat - tricks over the next year - and - a-half in friendlies against Brazil and Guatemala. Messi then helped the team secure their place in the 2014 World Cup with a 5 -- 2 victory over Paraguay on 10 September 2013; in addition to providing an assist, he scored twice from a penalty kick, taking his international tally to 37 goals to become Argentina 's second - highest goalscorer behind only Batistuta. Overall, he had scored a total of 10 goals in 14 matches during the qualifying campaign. Concurrently with his bettered performances, his relationship with his compatriots improved, as he gradually began to be perceived more favourably in Argentina. Ahead of the World Cup in Brazil, doubts persisted over Messi 's form, as he finished an unsuccessful and injury - plagued season with Barcelona. At the start of the tournament, however, he gave strong performances, being elected man of the match in their first four matches. In his first World Cup match as captain, he led them to a 2 -- 1 victory over Bosnia and Herzegovina; he helped create their early opening goal and scored their second strike after a dribble past three players, his first World Cup goal since his debut in the tournament eight years earlier. During the second match against Iran, he scored an injury - time goal from 23 metres out to end the game in a 1 -- 0 win, securing their qualification for the knockout phase. He scored twice in the last group match, a 3 -- 2 victory over Nigeria, his second goal from a free kick, as they finished first in their group. Messi assisted a late goal in extra time to ensure a 1 -- 0 win against Switzerland in the round of 16, before starting the play that led to their match - winning 1 -- 0 goal in the quarter - final against Belgium, helping Argentina progress to the semi-final of the World Cup for the first time since 1990. Following a 0 -- 0 draw in extra time, they eliminated the Netherlands 4 -- 2 in a penalty shootout to reach the final. Billed as Messi versus Germany, the world 's best player against the best team, the final was a repeat of the 1990 final featuring Diego Maradona. Within the first half - hour, Messi had started the play that led to a goal, but it was ruled offside. He missed several opportunities to open the scoring throughout the match, in particular at the start of the second half when his breakaway effort went wide of the far post. Substitute Mario Götze finally scored in the 113th minute, followed in the last minute of extra time by a free kick that Messi sent over the net, as Germany won the match 1 -- 0 to claim the World Cup. At the conclusion of the final, Messi was awarded the Golden Ball as the best player of the tournament. In addition to being the joint third - highest goalscorer, with four goals and an assist, he created the most chances, completed the most dribbling runs, made the most deliveries into the penalty area and produced the most throughballs in the competition. However, his selection drew criticism due to his lack of goals in the knockout round; FIFA President Sepp Blatter expressed his surprise, while Maradona suggested that Messi had undeservedly been chosen for marketing purposes. Another final appearance, the third of Messi 's senior international career, followed in the 2015 Copa América, held in Chile. Under the stewardship of former Barcelona manager Gerardo Martino, Argentina entered the tournament as title contenders due to their second - place achievement at the World Cup. During the opening match against Paraguay, they were ahead two goals by half - time but lost their lead to end the match in a 2 -- 2 draw; Messi had scored from a penalty kick, netting his only goal in the tournament. Following a 1 -- 0 win against defending champions Uruguay, Messi earned his 100th cap for his country in the final group match, a 1 -- 0 win over Jamaica, becoming only the fifth Argentine to achieve this milestone. In his 100 appearances, he had scored a total of 46 goals for Argentina, 22 of which came in official competitive matches. As Messi evolved from the team 's symbolic captain into a genuine leader, he led Argentina to the knockout stage as group winners. In the quarter - final, they created numerous chances, including a rebound header by Messi, but were repeatedly denied by Colombia 's goalkeeper, and ultimately ended the match scoreless, leading to a 5 -- 4 penalty shootout in their favour. At the semi-final stage, Messi excelled as playmaker as he provided three assists and helped create three more goals in his side 's 6 -- 1 victory over Paraguay, receiving applause from the initially hostile crowd. Argentina started the final as the odds - on title favourites, but were defeated by Chile 4 -- 1 in a penalty shootout after an 0 -- 0 extra-time draw. Faced with aggression from opposing players, including taking a boot to the midriff, Messi played below his standards, though he was the only Argentine to successfully convert his penalty. At the close of the tournament, he was reportedly selected to receive the Most Valuable Player award but rejected the honour. As Argentina continued a trophy drought that began in 1993, the World Cup and Copa América defeats again brought intense criticism for Messi from Argentine media and fans. Messi 's place in Argentina 's Copa América Centenario squad was initially put in jeopardy when he sustained a back injury in a 1 -- 0 friendly win over Honduras in a pre-Copa América warm - up match on 27 May 2016. It was later reported that he had suffered a deep bruise in his lumbar region, but that he would remain in Martino 's squad for the tournament, although he was later left on the bench in Argentina 's 2 -- 1 opening win over defending champions Chile on 6 June due to concerns regarding his fitness. Although Messi was declared match - fit for his nation 's second group match against Panama on 10 June, Martino left him on the bench once again; he replaced Augusto Fernández in the 61st minute and subsequently scored a hat - trick in 19 minutes, also starting the play which led to Sergio Agüero 's goal, as the match ended in a 5 -- 0 victory, sealing Argentina 's place in the quarter - finals of the competition; he was elected man of the match for his performance. On 18 June 2016, in the quarter - final of the Copa América against Venezuela, Messi produced another man of the match performance, assisting two goals and scoring another in a 4 -- 1 victory, which enabled him to equal Gabriel Batistuta 's national record of 54 goals in official international matches. This record was broken three days later when Messi scored in a 4 -- 0 win in the semi-final of the Copa América against hosts the United States; he also assisted two goals during the match as Argentina sealed a place in the final of the competition for a second consecutive year, and was named man of the match once again. During a repeat of the previous year 's final on 26 June, Argentina once again lost to Chile on penalties after a 0 -- 0 deadlock, resulting in Messi 's third consecutive defeat in a major tournament final with Argentina, and his fourth overall. After the match, Messi, who had missed his penalty in the shootout, announced his retirement from international football. Sources reported that other Argentine players -- Sergio Agüero, Javier Mascherano, Gonzalo Higuaín, Lucas Biglia, Éver Banega, Ezequiel Lavezzi and Ángel Di María -- could follow their captain in retiring from international football. Chile coach Juan Antonio Pizzi said after the match, "My generation ca n't compare him to Maradona that 's for my generation, because of what Maradona did for Argentine football. But I think the best player ever played today here in the United States. '' Messi finished the tournament as the second highest scorer, behind Eduardo Vargas, with five goals, and was the highest assist provider with four assists, also winning more Man of the Match awards than any other player in the tournament (3); he was named to the team of the tournament for his performances, but missed out on the Golden Ball Award for best player, which went to Alexis Sánchez. Following his announcement, a campaign began in Argentina for Messi to change his mind about retiring. He was greeted by fans with signs like "Do n't go, Leo '' when the team landed in Buenos Aires. President of Argentina Mauricio Macri urged Messi not to quit, stating, "We are lucky, it is one of life 's pleasures, it is a gift from God to have the best player in the world in a footballing country like ours... Lionel Messi is the greatest thing we have in Argentina and we must take care of him. '' Mayor of Buenos Aires Horacio Rodríguez Larreta unveiled a statue of Messi in the capital to convince him reconsider retirement. On social networks, NoTeVayasLeo became a global trending topic, and even a playlist on Spotify. The campaign also continued in the streets and avenues of the Argentine capital, with about 50,000 supporters going to the Obelisco de Buenos Aires on 2 July, using the same slogan. Just a week after Messi announced his international retirement, Argentine newspaper La Nación reported that he was reconsidering playing for Argentina at the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifiers in September. On 12 August, it was confirmed that Messi had reversed his decision to retire from international football, and he was included in the squad for the national team 's upcoming 2018 World Cup qualifiers. On 1 September 2016, in his first game back, he scored in a 1 -- 0 home win over Uruguay in a 2018 World Cup qualifier. On 28 March 2017, Messi was suspended for four international games for insulting an assistant referee in a game against Chile on 23 March 2017. He was also fined CHF 10,000. On 5 May 2017, Messi 's four match ban as well as his 10,000 CHF fine was lifted by FIFA after Argentina Football Association appealed against his suspension, which meant he could now play Argentina 's remaining World Cup Qualifiers. Argentina 's place in the 2018 World Cup was in jeopardy going into their final qualifying match as they were sixth in their group, outside the five possible CONMEBOL World Cup qualifying spots, meaning they risked failing to qualify for the World Cup for the first time since 1970. On 10 October 2017, Messi led his country to World Cup qualification in scoring a hat - trick as Argentina came from behind to defeat Ecuador 3 -- 1 away; Argentina had not defeated Ecuador in Quito since 2001. Messi 's three goals saw him become the joint all - time leading scorer in CONMEBOL World Cup qualifiers with 21 goals, alongside Uruguay 's Luis Suárez, overtaking the previous record which was held by compatriot Hernán Crespo. Due to his short stature, Messi has a lower centre of gravity than taller players, which gives him greater agility, allowing him to change direction more quickly and evade opposing tackles; this has led the Spanish media to dub him La Pulga Atómica ("The Atomic Flea ''). Despite being physically unimposing, he possesses significant upper - body strength, which, combined with his low centre of gravity and resulting balance, aids him in withstanding physical challenges from opponents; he has consequently been noted for his lack of diving in a sport rife with playacting. His short, strong legs allow him to excel in short bursts of acceleration while his quick feet enable him to retain control of the ball when dribbling at speed. His former Barcelona manager Pep Guardiola once stated, "Messi is the only player that runs faster with the ball than he does without it. '' Although he has improved his ability with his weaker foot since his mid-20s, Messi is predominantly a left - footed player; with the outside of his left foot, he usually begins dribbling runs, while he uses the inside of his foot to finish and provide passes and assists. A prolific goalscorer, Messi is known for his finishing, positioning, quick reactions, and ability to make attacking runs to beat the defensive line. He also functions in a playmaking role, courtesy of his vision and precise passing, and is an accurate free kick and penalty kick taker, though his ability on penalties has somewhat deteriorated in recent seasons. His pace and technical ability enable him to undertake individual dribbling runs towards goal, in particular during counterattacks, usually starting from the halfway line or the right side of the pitch. Widely considered to be the best dribbler in the world, and one of the greatest of all time, with regard to this ability, his former Argentina manager Diego Maradona has said of him, "The ball stays glued to his foot; I 've seen great players in my career, but I 've never seen anyone with Messi 's ball control. '' Beyond his individual qualities, he is also a well - rounded, hard - working team player, known for his creative combinations, in particular with Barcelona midfielders Xavi and Andrés Iniesta. Tactically, Messi plays in a free attacking role; a versatile player, he is capable of attacking on either wing or through the centre of the pitch. His favoured position in childhood was the playmaker behind two strikers, known as the enganche in Argentine football, but he began his career in Spain as a left - winger or left - sided forward. Upon his first - team debut, he was moved onto the right wing by manager Frank Rijkaard; from this position, he could more easily cut through the defence into the middle of the pitch and curl shots on goal with his left foot, rather than predominantly cross balls for teammates. Under Guardiola and subsequent managers, he most often played in a false nine role; positioned as a centre - forward or lone striker, he would roam the centre, often moving deep into midfield and drawing defenders with him, in order to create and exploit spaces for passes, dribbling runs or combinations with Xavi and Iniesta. Under the stewardship of Luis Enrique, Messi returned to playing in the right - sided position that characterised much of his early career, while also being deployed in a deeper, free role. With the Argentina national team, Messi has similarly played anywhere along the frontline; under various managers, he has been employed on the right wing, as a false nine, or in a deeper, creative role as a classic number 10 or attacking midfielder. A prodigious talent as a teenager, Messi established himself among the world 's best players before age 20. Diego Maradona considered the 18 - year - old Messi the best player in the world alongside Ronaldinho, while the Brazilian himself, shortly after winning the Ballon d'Or, commented, "I 'm not even the best at Barça, '' in reference to his protégé. Four years later, after Messi had won his first Ballon d'Or by a record margin, the public debate regarding his qualities as a player moved beyond his status in contemporary football to the possibility that he was the greatest player in history. An early proponent was his then - manager Pep Guardiola, who, as early as August 2009, declared Messi to be the best player he had ever seen. In the following years, this opinion gained greater acceptance among pundits, managers, former and current players, and by the end of Barça 's second treble - winning season, Messi 's superiority, ahead of Maradona and Pelé, had become the predominant view among insiders in continental Europe. A frequent dismissal, however, has centred on the fact that Messi has not won the FIFA World Cup with Argentina, leading some in the sport to instead cite him as the best club player in history. Throughout his career, Messi has been compared with his compatriot Diego Maradona, due to their similar playing styles as diminutive, left - footed dribblers. Initially, he was merely one of many young Argentine players, including his boyhood idol Pablo Aimar, to receive the "New Maradona '' moniker, but as his career progressed, Messi proved his similarity beyond all previous contenders, establishing himself as the greatest player Argentina had produced since Maradona. Jorge Valdano, who won the 1986 World Cup alongside Maradona, said in October 2013, "Messi is Maradona every day. For the last five years, Messi has been the Maradona of the World Cup in Mexico. '' César Menotti, who as manager orchestrated their 1978 World Cup victory, echoed this sentiment when he opined that Messi plays "at the level of the best Maradona ''. Other notable Argentines in the sport, such as Osvaldo Ardiles, Javier Zanetti, and Diego Simeone, have expressed their belief that Messi has overtaken Maradona as the best player in history. In Argentine society, Messi is generally held in lesser esteem than Maradona, a consequence of not only his uneven performances with the national team, but also of differences in class, personality, and background. Messi is in some ways the antithesis of his predecessor: where Maradona was an extroverted, controversial character who rose to greatness from the slums, Messi is reserved and unassuming, an unremarkable man outside of football. An enduring mark against him is the fact that, although through no fault of his own, he never proved himself in the Argentine Primera División as an upcoming player, achieving stardom overseas from a young age, while his lack of outward passion for the Albiceleste shirt -- he does not sing the national anthem and is disinclined to emotional displays -- have in the past led to the false perception that he felt Catalan rather than truly Argentine. Despite having lived in Spain since age 13, Messi has said: "Argentina is my country, my family, my way of expressing myself. I would change all my records to make the people in my country happy. '' In November 2016, with the Argentine Football Association being run by a FIFA committee for emergency due to an economic crisis, it was reported that three of the national team 's security staff told Messi that they have n't been given their salaries for six months. He stepped in and paid the salaries of the three members. Among his contemporary peers, Messi is most often compared and contrasted with Portuguese forward Cristiano Ronaldo, as part of an ongoing rivalry that has been compared to past sports rivalries like the Muhammad Ali -- Joe Frazier rivalry in boxing, the Björn Borg -- John McEnroe rivalry in tennis, and the Ayrton Senna -- Alain Prost rivalry from Formula One. Although Messi has at times denied any rivalry, they are widely believed to push one another in their aim to be the best player in the world: since 2008, Ronaldo has won four Ballons d'Or to Messi 's five, and as many European Golden Shoes as Messi, with four. Pundits and fans regularly argue the individual merits of both players; beyond their playing styles, the debate also revolves around their differing physiques -- Ronaldo is 1.85 m (6 ft 1 in) with a muscular build -- and contrasting public personalities, with Ronaldo 's self - confidence and theatrics a foil to Messi 's humility. Messi faces Ronaldo at least twice every season in El Clásico, which ranks among the world 's most viewed annual sports events. Off the pitch, Ronaldo is his direct competitor in terms of salary, sponsorships, and social media fanbase. According to France Football, Messi was the world 's highest - paid footballer for five years out of six between 2009 and 2014; he was the first player to exceed the € 40 million benchmark, with earnings of € 41 million in 2013, and the € 50 -- € 60 million points, with income of € 65 million in 2014. In 2016, Messi was second on Forbes list of the world 's highest - paid athletes (after Cristiano Ronaldo) with income of $81.4 million from his salary and endorsements in 2015 -- 16. Since 2008, he has been Barcelona 's highest - paid player, receiving a salary that increased incrementally from € 7.8 million to € 13 million over the next five years. His current salary of € 20 million net (€ 36 million before taxes), established in 2014, is the highest ever in the sport. In addition to his salary and multimillion - euro bonuses, much of his income derives from endorsements; SportsPro has consequently cited him as one of the world 's most marketable athletes every year since their research began in 2010. His main sponsor since 2006 is the sportswear company Adidas. As Barça 's leading youth prospect, he had been signed with Nike since age 14, but transferred to Adidas after they successfully challenged their rival 's claim to his image rights in court. Over time, Messi established himself as their leading brand endorser; from 2008, he had a long - running signature collection of Adidas F50 boots, and in 2015, he became the first footballer to receive his own sub-brand of boots, the Adidas Messi. As a commercial entity, Messi 's marketing brand has been based exclusively on his talents and achievements as a player, in contrast to arguably more glamorous players like Cristiano Ronaldo and David Beckham. At the start of his career, he thus mainly held sponsorship contracts with companies that employ sports - oriented marketing, such as Adidas, Pepsi, and Konami. From 2010 onwards, concurrently with his increased achievements as a player, his marketing appeal widened, leading to long - term endorsement deals with luxury brands Dolce & Gabbana and Audemars Piguet. Messi is also a global brand ambassador for Gillette, Turkish Airlines, Ooredoo, and Tata Motors, among other companies. Additionally, Messi was the face of Konami 's video game series Pro Evolution Soccer, appearing on the covers of PES 2009, PES 2010 and PES 2011. He subsequently signed with rival company EA Sports to become the face of their series FIFA and has since appeared on four consecutive covers from FIFA 13 to FIFA 16. Messi 's global popularity and influence are well documented. He was among the Time 100, an annual list of the world 's most influential people as published by Time, in 2011 and 2012. His fanbase on the social media website Facebook is among the largest of all public figures: within seven hours of its launch in April 2011, his Facebook page had nearly seven million followers, and by November 2013, he had become only the second sportsperson, after Cristiano Ronaldo, to amass over 50 million followers. According to a 2014 survey by sports research firm Repucom in 15 international markets, Messi was familiar to 87 % of respondents around the world, of whom 78 % perceived him favourably, making him the second-most recognised player globally, behind Ronaldo, and the most likable of all contemporary players. Other events have illustrated Messi 's presence in popular culture. A solid gold replica of his left foot, weighing 25 kg (55 lb) and valued at $5.25 million, went on sale in Japan in March 2013 to raise funds for victims of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. A 2013 Turkish Airlines advertisement starring Messi, in which he engages in a selfie competition with then - Los Angeles Lakers star Kobe Bryant, was the most - watched ad on YouTube in the year of its release, receiving 137 million views, and was subsequently voted the best advertisement of the 2005 -- 15 decade to commemorate YouTube 's founding. World Press Photo selected "The Final Game '', a photograph of Messi facing the World Cup trophy after Argentina 's final defeat to Germany, as the best sports image of 2014. Messi, a documentary about his life by filmmaker Álex de la Iglesia, premiered at the Venice Film Festival in August 2014. Since 2008, when he was 20, Messi has been in a relationship with Antonella Roccuzzo, a fellow native of Rosario. He has known Roccuzzo since he was five years old, as she is the cousin of his best friend since childhood, Lucas Scaglia, who is also a football player. After keeping their relationship private for a year, Messi first confirmed their romance in an interview in January 2009, before going public a month later during a carnival in Sitges after the Barcelona -- Espanyol derby. He had previously been romantically linked with Argentine models Macarena Lemos and Luciana Salazar. Messi and Roccuzzo have two sons: Thiago (born 2012) and Mateo (born 2015). To celebrate his partner 's first pregnancy, Messi placed the ball under his shirt after scoring in Argentina 's 4 -- 0 win against Ecuador on 2 June 2012, before confirming the pregnancy in an interview two weeks later. Thiago was born in Barcelona on 2 November 2012, with Messi attending the birth after being given permission by Barcelona to miss training. He announced his son 's arrival on his Facebook page, writing, "Today I am the happiest man in the world, my son was born and thanks to God for this gift! '' Thiago 's name and handprints are tattooed on his left calf. In April 2015, Messi confirmed on Facebook that they were expecting another child. He missed training ahead of a match against Atlético Madrid to attend the birth of his second son, Mateo, on 11 September 2015 in Barcelona. On 30 June 2017, he married Roccuzzo at a luxury hotel named Hotel City Center in Rosario with about 260 guests attending his wedding. On 15 October 2017, his wife announced they were expecting their third child in an Instagram post, with the words "Family of 5 ''. Messi enjoys a close relationship with his immediate family members, particularly his mother, Celia, whose face he has tattooed on his left shoulder. His professional affairs are largely run as a family business: his father, Jorge, has been his agent since he was 14, and his oldest brother, Rodrigo, handles his daily schedule and publicity. His mother and other brother, Matías, manage his charitable organisation, the Leo Messi Foundation, and take care of personal and professional matters in Rosario. Since leaving for Spain at age 13, Messi has maintained close ties to his hometown of Rosario, even preserving his distinct Rosarino accent. He has kept ownership of his family 's old house, although it has long stood empty; he maintains a penthouse apartment in an exclusive residential building for his mother, as well as a family compound just outside the city. Once when he was in training with the national team in Buenos Aires, he made a three - hour trip by car to Rosario immediately after practice to have dinner with his family, spent the night with them, and returned to Buenos Aires the next day in time for practice. Messi keeps in daily contact via phone and text with a small group of confidants in Rosario, most of whom were fellow members of "The Machine of ' 87 '' at Newell 's Old Boys. Although considered a one - club man, he has long planned to return to Rosario to end his playing career at Newell 's. He was on bad terms with the club after his transfer to Barcelona, but by 2012 their public feud had ended, with Newell 's embracing their ties with Messi, even issuing a club membership card to his newborn son. Throughout his career, Messi has been involved in charitable efforts aimed at vulnerable children, a commitment that stems in part from the medical difficulties he faced in his own childhood. Since 2004, he has contributed his time and finances to the United Nations Children 's Fund (UNICEF), an organisation with which Barcelona also have a strong association. Messi has served as a UNICEF goodwill ambassador since his appointment in March 2010, completing his first field mission for the organisation four months later as he travelled to Haiti to bring public awareness to the plight of the country 's children in the wake of the recent earthquake. He has since participated in UNICEF campaigns targeting HIV prevention, education, and the social inclusion of disabled children. To celebrate his son 's first birthday, in November 2013, Messi and Thiago were part of a publicity campaign to raise awareness of mortality rates among disadvantaged children. In addition to his work with UNICEF, Messi founded his own charitable organisation, the Leo Messi Foundation, which supports access to health care, education, and sport for children. It was established in 2007 following a visit Messi paid to a hospital for terminally ill children in Boston, an experience that resonated with him to the point that he decided to reinvest part of his earnings into society. Through his foundation, Messi has awarded research grants, financed medical training, and invested in the development of medical centres and projects in Argentina, Spain, and elsewhere in the world. In addition to his own fundraising activities, such as his global "Messi and Friends '' football matches, his foundation receives financial support from various companies to which he has assigned his name in endorsement agreements, with Adidas as their main sponsor. Messi has also invested in youth football in Argentina: he financially supports Sarmiento, a football club based in the Rosario neighbourhood where he was born, committing in 2013 to the refurbishment of their facilities and the installation of all - weather pitches, and funds the management of several youth players at Newell 's Old Boys and rival club Rosario Central, as well as at River Plate and Boca Juniors in Buenos Aires. At Newell 's Old Boys, his boyhood club, he funded the 2012 construction of a new gymnasium and a dormitory inside the club 's stadium for their youth academy. His former youth coach at Newell 's, Ernesto Vecchio, is employed by the Leo Messi Foundation as a talent scout for young players. On 7 June 2016, Messi won a libel case against La Razón newspaper and was awarded € 65,000 in damages, which he donated to the charity Doctors without Borders. Messi 's financial affairs came under investigation in 2013 for suspected tax evasion. Offshore companies in tax havens Uruguay and Belize were allegedly used to evade € 4.1 million in taxes related to sponsorship earnings between 2007 and 2009. An unrelated shell company in Panama, set up in 2012, was subsequently identified as belonging to the Messis in the Panama Papers data leak. Messi, who pleaded ignorance of the alleged scheme, voluntarily paid arrears of € 5.1 million in August 2013. He stood trial alongside his father on three counts of tax evasion in May 2016. On 6 July 2016, Messi and his father were both found guilty of tax fraud and were handed suspended 21 - month prison sentences and respectively ordered to pay € 1.7 million and € 1.4 million in fines. While the District Attorney did not consider there to be motives to accuse Messi, the state lawyer 's office became the only party that requested a punishment for him, despite his declarations that he was not aware of any of the deals that were taking place with his money. Facing the judge, he said, "I just played football. '' Notes Notes Notes Citations Bibliography

what is the definition of a health care professional

Health professional - wikipedia A health professional, health practitioner or healthcare provider (sometimes simply "provider '') is an individual who provides preventive, curative, promotional or rehabilitative health care services in a systematic way to people, families or communities. A health professional may operate within all branches of health care, including medicine, surgery, dentistry, midwifery, pharmacy, psychology, nursing or allied health professions. A health professional may also be a public / community health expert working for the common good of the society. Healthcare practitioners include and a wide variety of other human resources trained to provide some type of health care service. They often work in hospitals, healthcare centres and other service delivery points, but also in academic training, research and administration. Some provide care and treatment services for patients in private homes. Many countries have a large number of community health workers who work outside formal healthcare institutions. Managers of healthcare services, health information technicians, and other assistive personnel and support workers are also considered a vital part of health care teams. Healthcare practitioners are commonly grouped into health professions. Within each field of expertise, practitioners are often classified according to skill level and skill specialization. "Health professionals '' are highly skilled workers, in professions that usually require extensive knowledge including university - level study leading to the award of a first degree or higher qualification. This category includes physicians, physician assistants, dentists, midwives, radiographers, registered nurses, pharmacists, physiotherapists, optometrists, operating department practitioners and others. Allied health professionals, also referred to as "health associate professionals '' in the International Standard Classification of Occupations, support implementation of health care, treatment and referral plans usually established by medical, nursing, and other health professionals, and usually require formal qualifications to practice their profession. In addition, unlicensed assistive personnel assist with providing health care services as permitted. Another way to categorize healthcare practitioners is according to the sub-field in which they practice, such as mental health care, pregnancy and childbirth care, surgical care, rehabilitation care, or public health. A mental health practitioner is a health worker who offers services for the purpose of improving the mental health of individuals or treating mental illness. These include psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, clinical social workers, psychiatric - mental health nurse practitioners, marriage and family therapists, mental health counselors, as well as other health professionals and allied health professions. These health care providers often deal with the same illnesses, disorders, conditions, and issues; however their scope of practice often differs. The most significant difference across categories of mental health practitioners is education and training. A maternal and newborn health practitioner is a health worker who deals with the care of women and their children before, during and after pregnancy and childbirth. Such health practitioners include obstetricians, midwives, obstetrical nurses and many others. One of the main differences between these professions is in the training and authority to provide surgical services and other life - saving interventions. In some developing countries, traditional birth attendants, or traditional midwives, are the primary source of pregnancy and childbirth care for many women and families, although they are not certified or licensed. A geriatric care practitioner plans and coordinates the care of the elderly and / or disabled to promote their health, improve their quality of life, and maintain their independence for as long as possible. They include geriatricians, adult - gerontology nurse practitioners, clinical nurse specialists, geriatric clinical pharmacists, geriatric nurses, geriatric care managers, geriatric aides, Nursing aides, Caregivers and others who focus on the health and psychological care needs of older adults. A surgical practitioner is a healthcare professional who specializes in the planning and delivery of a patient 's perioperative care, including during the anaesthetic, surgical and recovery stages. They may include general and specialist surgeons, surgeon 's assistant, assistant surgeon, surgical assistant, anesthesiologists, anesthesiologist assistant, nurse anesthetists, surgical nurses, clinical officers, operating department practitioners, anaesthetic technicians, perioperative nursing, surgical technologists, and others. A rehabilitation care practitioner is a health worker who provides care and treatment which aims to enhance and restore functional ability and quality of life to those with physical impairments or disabilities. These include physiatrists, rehabilitation nurses, clinical nurse specialists, nurse practitioners, physiotherapists, orthotists, prosthetists, occupational therapists, recreational therapists, audiologists, speech and language pathologists, respiratory therapists, rehabilitation counsellors, physical rehabilitation therapists, athletic trainers, physiotherapy technicians, orthotic technicians, prosthetic technicians, personal care assistants, and others. Care and treatment for the eye and the adnexa may be delivered by ophthalmologists specializing in surgical / medical care, or optometrists specializing in refractive management and medical / therapeutic care. Medical diagnosis providers are health workers responsible for the process of determining which disease or condition explains a person 's symptoms and signs. It is most often referred to as diagnosis with the medical context being implicit. This usually involves a team of healthcare providers in various diagnostic units. These include radiographers, radiologists, medical laboratory scientists, pathologists, and related professionals. A dental care practitioner is a health worker who provides care and treatment to promote and restore oral health. These include dentists and dental surgeons, dental assistants, dental auxiliaries, dental hygienists, dental nurses, dental technicians, dental therapists, and related professionals. Care and treatment for the foot, ankle, and lower leg may be delivered by podiatrists, pedorthists, foot health practitioners, podiatric medical assistants, podiatric nurse and others. A public health practitioner focuses on improving health among individuals, families and communities through the prevention and treatment of diseases and injuries, surveillance of cases, and promotion of healthy behaviors. This category includes community and preventive medicine specialists, public health nurses, clinical nurse specialists, dietitians, environmental health officers, paramedics, epidemiologists, health inspectors, and others. In many societies, practitioners of alternative medicine have contact with a significant number of people, either as integrated within or remaining outside the formal health care system. These include practitioners in acupuncture, Ayurveda, herbalism, homeopathy, naturopathy, Reiki, Shamballa Reiki energy healing, Siddha medicine, traditional Chinese medicine, traditional Korean medicine, Unani, and Yoga. In some countries such as Canada, chiropractors and osteopaths (not to be confused with doctors of osteopathic medicine in the United States) are considered alternative medicine practitioners. Many jurisdictions report shortfalls in the number of trained health human resources to meet population health needs and / or service delivery targets, especially in medically underserved areas. For example, in the United States, the 2010 federal budget invested $330 million to increase the number of doctors, nurses, and dentists practicing in areas of the country experiencing shortages of trained health professionals. The Budget expands loan repayment programs for physicians, nurses, and dentists who agree to practice in medically underserved areas. This funding will enhance the capacity of nursing schools to increase the number of nurses. It will also allow states to increase access to oral health care through dental workforce development grants. The Budget 's new resources will sustain the expansion of the health care workforce funded in the Recovery Act. There were 15.7 million health care professionals in the US as of 2011. In Canada, the 2011 federal budget announced a Canada Student Loan forgiveness program to encourage and support new family physicians, nurse practitioners and nurses to practice in underserved rural or remote communities of the country, including communities that provide health services to First Nations and Inuit populations. In Uganda, the Ministry of Health reports that as many as 50 % of staffing positions for health workers in rural and underserved areas remain vacant. As of early 2011, the Ministry was conducting research and costing analyses to determine the most appropriate attraction and retention packages for medical officers, nursing officers, pharmacists, and laboratory technicians in the country 's rural areas. At the international level, the World Health Organization estimates a shortage of almost 4.3 million doctors, midwives, nurses, and support workers worldwide to meet target coverage levels of essential primary health care interventions. The shortage is reported most severe in 57 of the poorest countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. Occupational stress and occupational burnout are highly prevalent among health professionals. Some studies suggest that workplace stress is pervasive in the health care industry because of inadequate staffing levels, long work hours, exposure to infectious diseases and hazardous substances leading to illness or death, and in some countries threat of malpractice litigation. Other stressors include the emotional labor of caring for ill people and high patient loads. The consequences of this stress can include substance abuse, suicide, major depressive disorder, and anxiety, all of which occur at higher rates in health professionals than the general working population. Elevated levels of stress are also linked to high rates of burnout, absenteeism and diagnostic errors, and to reduced rates of patient satisfaction. In Canada, a national report (Canada 's Health Care Providers) also indicated higher rates of absenteeism due to illness or disability among health care workers compared to the rest of the working population, although those working in health care reported similar levels of good health and fewer reports of being injured at work. There is some evidence that cognitive - behavioral therapy, relaxation training and therapy (including meditation and massage), and modifying schedules can reduce stress and burnout among multiple sectors of health care providers. Research is ongoing in this area, especially with regards to physicians, whose occupational stress and burnout is less researched compared to other health professions. Exposure to respiratory infectious diseases like tuberculosis (caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis) and influenza can be reduced with the use of respirators; this exposure is a significant occupational hazard for health care professionals. Exposure to dangerous chemicals, including chemotherapy drugs, is another potential occupational risk. These drugs can cause cancer and other health conditions. Healthcare workers are also at risk for diseases that are contracted through extended contact with a patient, including scabies. Health professionals are also at risk for contracting blood - borne diseases like hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and HIV / AIDS through needlestick injuries or through contact with bodily fluids. This risk can be mitigated with vaccination when there is a vaccine available, like with hepatitis B. In epidemic situations, such as the 2014 - 2016 West African Ebola virus epidemic or the 2003 SARS outbreak, healthcare workers are at even greater risk, and were disproportionately affected in both the Ebola and SARS outbreaks. In general, appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) is the first - line mode of protection for healthcare workers from infectious diseases. For it to be effective against highly contagious diseases, personal protective equipment must be watertight and prevent the skin and mucous membranes from contacting infectious material. Different levels of personal protective equipment created to unique standards are used in situations where the risk of infection is different. Practices such as triple gloving and multiple respirators do not provide a higher level of protection and present a burden to the worker, who is additionally at increased risk of exposure when removing the PPE. Compliance with appropriate personal protective equipment rules may be difficult in certain situations, such as tropical environment or low - resource settings. A 2016 Cochrane systematic review found low quality evidence that using more breathable fabric in PPE, double gloving, and active training reduce the risk of contamination. Female health care workers may face specific types of workplace - related health conditions and stress. According to the World Health Organization, women predominate in the formal health workforce in many countries, and are prone to musculoskeletal injury (caused by physically demanding job tasks such as lifting and moving patients) and burnout. Female health workers are exposed to hazardous drugs and chemicals in the workplace which may cause adverse reproductive outcomes such as spontaneous abortion and congenital malformations. In some contexts, female health workers are also subject to gender - based violence including from coworkers and patients. Healthcare workers are at higher risk of on - the - job injury due to violence. Drunk, confused, and hostile patients and visitors are a continual threat to providers attempting to treat patients. Frequently, assault and violence in a healthcare setting goes unreported and is wrongly assumed to be part of the job. Violent incidents typically occur during one - on - one care; being alone with patients increases healthcare workers ' risk of assault. In the United States, healthcare workers suffer 2⁄3 of nonfatal workplace violence incidents. Psychiatric units represent the highest proportion of violent incidents, at 40 %; they are followed by geriatric units (20 %) and the emergency department (10 %). Workplace violence can also cause psychological trauma. The Occupational Health Safety Network is a system developed by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) to address health and safety risks among health care providers. Hospitals and other healthcare facilities can upload the occupational injury data they already collect to the secure database for analysis and benchmarking with other de-identified facilities from throughout the U.S. NIOSH works with OHSN participants in identifying and implementing timely and targeted interventions. OHSN modules currently focus on three high risk and preventable events that can lead to injuries or musculoskeletal disorders among healthcare providers: musculoskeletal injuries from patient handling activities; slips, trips, and falls; and workplace violence. Slips, trips, and falls are the second-most common cause of worker 's compensation claims in the US, and cause 21 % of work absences due to injury. These injuries most commonly result in strains and sprains; women, those older than 45, and those who have been working less than a year in a healthcare setting are at the highest risk. Health care professionals are also likely to experience sleep deprivation due to their jobs. Many health care professionals are on a shift work schedule, and therefore experience misalignment of their work schedule and their circadian rhythm. In 2007, 32 % of healthcare workers were found to get fewer than 6 hours of sleep a night. Sleep deprivation also predisposes healthcare professionals to make mistakes that may potentially endanger a patient. Practicing without a license that is valid and current is typically illegal. In most jurisdictions, the provision of health care services is regulated by the government. Individuals found to be providing medical, nursing or other professional services without the appropriate certification or license may face sanctions and criminal charges leading to a prison term. The number of professions subject to regulation, requisites for individuals to receive professional licensure, and nature of sanctions that can be imposed for failure to comply vary across jurisdictions. In the United States, under Michigan state laws, an individual is guilty of felony if identified as practicing in the health profession without a valid personal license or registration. Health professionals can also be imprisoned if found guilty of practicing beyond the limits allowed by their licences and registration. The state laws define the scope of practice for medicine, nursing, and a number of allied health professions. In Florida, practicing medicine without the appropriate license is a crime classified as a third degree felony, which may give imprisonment up to five years. Practicing a health care profession without a license which results in serious bodily injury classifies as a second degree felony, providing up to 15 years ' imprisonment. In the United Kingdom, healthcare professionals are regulated by the state; the UK Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC) protects the ' title ' of each profession it regulates. For example, it is illegal for someone to call himself an Occupational Therapist or Radiographer if they are not on the register held by the HCPC.

who played wynette in smokey and the bandit

Smokey and the Bandit - wikipedia Smokey and the Bandit is a 1977 American action comedy film starring Burt Reynolds, Sally Field, Jackie Gleason, Jerry Reed, Pat McCormick, Paul Williams and Mike Henry. The film was the directorial debut of stuntman Hal Needham. It inspired several other trucking films, including two sequels, Smokey and the Bandit II and Smokey and the Bandit Part 3. There was also a series of 1994 television films (Bandit Goes Country, Bandit Bandit, Beauty and the Bandit, and Bandit 's Silver Angel) from original director / writer Hal Needham that were loosely based on the earlier version, with actor Brian Bloom playing Bandit. The three original films introduced two generations of the Pontiac Trans Am, and the Dodge Stealth in the television movie. Smokey and the Bandit was the second - highest - grossing film of 1977 behind Star Wars. Wealthy Texan Big Enos Burdette and his son Little Enos seek a truck driver willing to bootleg Coors beer to Georgia for their refreshment. At the time, Coors was regarded as one of the finest beers in the United States, but it could not be legally sold east of the Mississippi River. Truck drivers who had taken the bet previously had been caught and arrested by "Smokey '' (CB slang for highway patrol officers, referring to the Smokey Bear -- type hats worn in some states). The Burdettes find legendary trucker Bo "Bandit '' Darville competing in a truck rodeo at Lakewood Fairgrounds in Atlanta; they offer him $80,000 to haul 400 cases of Coors beer from Texarkana, Texas back to Atlanta in 28 hours; Big Enos has sponsored a driver running in the Southern Classic stockcar race and "when he wins I want to celebrate in style. '' Bandit accepts the bet and recruits his partner Cledus "Snowman '' Snow to drive the truck, while Bandit drives the "blocker '', a black Pontiac Trans Am bought on an advance from the Burdettes, to divert attention away from the truck and its illegal cargo. The trip to Texas is mostly uneventful except for at least one pursuing Arkansas State Trooper whom Bandit evades with ease. They reach Texarkana an hour ahead of schedule, load their truck with the beer and head back toward Atlanta. Immediately upon starting the second leg of the run, Bandit picks up runaway bride Carrie, whom he eventually nicknames "Frog '' because she is "kinda cute like a frog, '' she is "always hoppin ' around, '' and because he "wants to jump '' her. But in so doing, Bandit makes himself a target of Texas Sheriff Buford T. Justice, a career lawman whose handsome but slow - witted son Junior was to have been Carrie 's bridegroom. Ignoring his own jurisdiction, Sheriff Justice, with Junior in tow, chases Bandit all the way to Georgia, even as various mishaps cause his cruiser to disintegrate around them. The remainder of the film is one lengthy high - speed chase, as Bandit 's antics attract more and more attention from local and state police across Dixie while Snowman barrels on toward Atlanta with the contraband beer. Bandit and Snowman are helped along the way via CB radio by many colorful characters, including an undertaker with his hearse driver and their funeral procession, an elderly lady, a drive - in waitress and all her customers, a convoy of trucks, and even a madam who runs a brothel out of her RV. Neither Sheriff Justice nor any other police officers have any knowledge of Snowman 's illegal manifest. The chase intensifies as Bandit and Snowman get closer to Atlanta; moments after crossing back into Georgia, Bandit comes to the rescue when Snowman is pulled over by a Georgia State Patrol motorcycle patrolman, and state and local police step up their pursuit with more cruisers, larger roadblocks, and even a police helicopter to track Bandit 's movements. Discouraged by the unexpected mounting attention, and with just four miles left to go, Bandit is about to give up, but Snowman refuses to listen and takes the lead, smashing through the police roadblock at the entrance to the fairgrounds. They arrive back at Lakewood Speedway (while the Southern Classic race is being run) with only 10 minutes to spare, but instead of taking the payoff, Frog and Bandit accept a double - or - nothing offer from Little Enos -- a challenge to run up to Boston and bring back clam chowder in 18 hours. They quickly escape in one of Big Enos ' Cadillac convertibles as Georgia State Patrol cruisers flood the racetrack to confiscate the Trans Am and truck, passing Sheriff Justice 's badly damaged police car by the side of the road. Bandit first directs Sheriff Justice to Big and Little Enos, but then in a gesture of respect, reveals his true location and invites Justice to give chase, leaving Junior behind. Director Hal Needham originally planned the film as a low - budget B movie with a production cost of $1 million, with Jerry Reed as the Bandit. It was not until Needham 's friend Burt Reynolds read the script, and said he would star, that the film was aimed at a more mainstream release; Reed would now portray Bandit 's friend Snowman (Reed would eventually play the Bandit in Smokey and the Bandit Part 3). At that time Reynolds was the top box office star in the world. In the original script Carrie was called Kate while Big Enos and Little Enos were called Kyle and Dickey. Bandit 's car was a second generation Ford Mustang and the prize for completing the run was a new truck rather than $80,000. Burt Reynolds revealed in his autobiography that Needham had written the first draft script on legal pads. Upon showing it to his friend, Reynolds told Needham that it was the worst script he had ever read but that he would still make the movie. Most of the dialogue was improvised on set. Universal Studios bankrolled Smokey and the Bandit for $5.3 million, figuring it was a good risk. Just two days before production was to begin, Universal sent a "hatchet man '' to Atlanta to inform Needham that the budget was being trimmed by $1 million. With Reynolds ' salary at $1 million, Needham was left with only $3.3 million to make the film. Needham and assistant director David Hamburger spent 30 hours revising the shooting schedule. "Buford T. Justice '' was the name of a real Florida Highway Patrolman known to Reynolds ' father, who was once Police Chief of Riviera Beach, Florida. His father was also the inspiration for the word "sumbitch '' used in the film, a variation of the phrase "son - of - a-bitch '' that, according to Reynolds, he uttered quite often. Jackie Gleason was given free rein to ad - lib dialogue and make suggestions. It was his idea to have Junior alongside him throughout. In particular, the scene where Sheriff Justice unknowingly encounters the Bandit in the "choke and puke '' (a roadside diner) was not in the original story, but rather was Gleason 's idea. Before Gleason was cast in the film, Richard Boone was originally considered for the role of Buford T. Justice. Sally Field only accepted the part after her agent advised her that she needed a big movie role on her resume. Reynolds actively pushed for her casting after Universal initially resisted, claiming Field was not attractive enough. Field enjoyed making the film, but remembers that virtually the entire project was improvised. Reportedly, Needham had great difficulty getting any studios or producers to take his project seriously, as in the film industry, he was better known as a stuntman. He managed to obtain studio attention after his friend Reynolds agreed to portray the Bandit in the film. The movie was primarily filmed in Georgia in the cities of McDonough, Jonesboro and Lithonia. The scenes set in Texarkana were filmed in Jonesboro and the surrounding area, and many of the chase scenes were filmed in the surrounding areas on Highway 54 between Fayetteville and Jonesboro for a majority of the driving scenes, Mundy 's Mill Road, Main Street in Jonesboro, Georgia State Route 400, I - 85 (Pleasant Hill exit), and in McDonough. However, the scene where they drive through the Shell gas station was filmed in Ojai, California on the corner of Ojai and El Paseo. Much of the surrounding scene comes from that immediate vicinity. The scene featuring the racetrack was filmed at Lakewood Speedway at the old Lakewood Fairgrounds on the south side of Atlanta. The roller coaster seen in the movie was the Greyhound. It had not been used for some time and was repainted for the film. It was destroyed in Smokey and the Bandit II and a flashback scene in Part 3. The film 's theme song, "East Bound and Down '', was written virtually overnight by Jerry Reed. He gave Needham a preview of the song, and when initially he got no reaction from the director, offered to rewrite the song. Needham, however, liked the song so much he assured Jerry not to change a word. It became one of Reed 's biggest hits and his signature song. The area around Helen, Georgia was also used for some locations. The scene where Buford T. Justice 's car has the door knocked off by a passing semi truck was shot on Georgia State Route 75, 3 miles (4.8 km) north of Helen. The tow truck driver was a local garage owner, Berlin Wike. The film features the custom clothing and costuming of Niver Western Wear of Fort Worth, Texas. Niver provided much of the western attire worn in the film, as well as the custom - made sheriff 's uniforms (waist size 64 inches) that Jackie Gleason wore throughout the film. Reynolds and Sally Field began dating during the filming of Smokey and the Bandit. While made to take advantage of the ongoing 1970s CB radio fad, the film added to the craze. Though the film Moonrunners (1975) is the precursor to the television series The Dukes of Hazzard (1979 - 1985), from the same creator and with many identical settings and concepts, the popularity of Smokey and the Bandit and similar films helped get the Dukes series on the air. Three actors from the main cast of The Dukes of Hazzard appear in small uncredited roles in Smokey and the Bandit: Ben Jones, John Schneider and Sonny Shroyer (who played a police officer in both). In return, Reynolds portrayed the Dukes character Boss Hogg (originally portrayed by Sorrell Booke) in the film adaptation The Dukes of Hazzard (2005). Reynolds is also referenced by name in several early episodes of the series. Needham saw an advertisement for the soon - to - be-released 1977 Pontiac Trans Am and knew right away that would be the Bandit 's car, or, as Needham referred to it, a character in the movie. He contacted Pontiac and an agreement was made that four 1977 Trans Ams and two Pontiac LeMans 4 - door sedans would be provided for the movie. The Trans Ams were actually 1976 - model cars with 1977 front ends. (From 1970 to 1976, both the Firebird / Trans Am and Chevrolet Camaro had two round headlights, and in 1977, the Firebird / Trans Am was changed to four rectangular headlights, while the Camaro remained unchanged.) The decals were also changed to 1977 - style units, as evidenced by the engine size callouts on the hood scoop being in liters rather than cubic inches, as had been the case in 1976. The hood scoop on these cars says "6.6 LITRE '', which in 1977 would have denoted an Oldsmobile 403 - equipped car or a non W - 72, 180 hp version of the 400 Pontiac engine. All four of the cars were badly damaged during production, one of which was all but destroyed during the jump over the dismantled bridge. The Trans Am used for the dismantled bridge jump was equipped with a booster rocket, the same type that was used by Evel Knievel during his failed Snake River Canyon jump. Needham served as the driver for the stunt (standing in for Reynolds) while Lada St. Edmund was in the same car (standing in for Sally Field during the jump). By the movie 's ending, the final surviving Trans Am and LeMans were both barely running and the other cars had become parts donors to keep them running. The Burdettes ' car is a 1974 Cadillac Eldorado convertible painted in a "Candy Red '' color scheme, and is seen briefly at the beginning of the movie and as Bandit, Snowman, Fred, and Frog make their escape in the final scene. The film also made use of three Kenworth W900A short - frame semi trucks, which Jerry Reed can be seen driving, each equipped with 38 - inch sleepers. Two units were 1974 models as evidenced by standard silver Kenworth emblems on the truck grille, and one unit was a 1973 model as evidenced by the gold - painted Kenworth emblem on the truck 's grille signifying Kenworth 's 50 years in business. The paint code for each truck was coffee brown with gold trims, and the 48 - foot (15 m) mural trailer used was manufactured by Hobbs Trailers in Texas with a non-operational Thermo King Refrigeration unit. This is obvious, because there is no fuel tank on the underside of the trailer to power the refrigeration unit, and the unit is never heard running. In 1977, Coors was unavailable for sale east of Oklahoma. A 1974 Time magazine article explains why Coors was so coveted that one would be willing to pay the Bandit such a high price to transport it. Coors Banquet Beer had a brief renaissance as certain people sought it out for its lack of stabilizers and preservatives. The article says that future Vice President Gerald Ford hid it in his luggage after a trip to Colorado in order to take it back to Washington. President Dwight D. Eisenhower had a steady supply airlifted to Washington by the Air Force. The article also mentions Frederick Amon, who smuggled it from Colorado to North Carolina and sold it for four times the retail price. The lack of additives and preservatives meant that Coors had the potential for spoiling in a week if it were not kept cold throughout its transportation and in storage at its destination. This explains the 28 - hour deadline. The theme music, "East Bound and Down '', was sung and co-written by Reed (credited under his birth name, Jerry Hubbard) and Dick Feller. It became Reed 's signature song and is found on multiple albums, including Country Legends and his live album Jerry Reed: Live Still. In 1991 it was arranged for orchestra by Crafton Beck and recorded by Erich Kunzel and the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra for their album Down on the Farm. Several other groups, such as US rock band Tonic, have also covered it. Reed also penned and performed the song for the opening credits, entitled "The Legend '', which tells of some of The Bandit 's escapades prior to the events of the film, and the ballad "The Bandit '', which features in several versions in the movie and on the soundtrack. Reed 's hit notwithstanding, Bill Justis is the first name on the credits for the soundtrack as he composed and arranged original music throughout the film. Musicians such as Beegie Adair and George Tidwell played on the soundtrack as part of long careers in music. Legendary five - string banjo player Bobby Thompson is also heard prominently towards the end of "East Bound and Down. '' The soundtrack album was released in 1977 on vinyl, cassette and 8 - track through MCA Records. Smokey and the Bandit was a sleeper hit. The film premiered at Radio City Music Hall in New York City where it performed badly. It then opened in just the South of the United States over the Memorial Day weekend and grossed $2,689,851 in 386 theatres. By the end of June it had played in major Southern markets including Charlotte, Atlanta, Jacksonville, New Orleans, Memphis, Dallas and Oklahoma City grossing $11.9 million. It opened in other Northern states at the end of July. With an original budget of $5.3 million (cut to $4.3 million two days before initial production), the film eventually grossed $126,737,428 in North America, making it the second - highest - grossing movie of 1977. The worldwide gross is estimated at over $300 million. Film critic Leonard Maltin gave the film a good rating (3 stars out of a possible 4) and characterized it as "About as subtle as The Three Stooges, but a classic compared to the sequels and countless rip - offs which followed. '' Gene Siskel, in his review in the Chicago Tribune, gave the film two stars and complained that the film failed to tell the audience when the clock started on the beer run, thus removing suspense throughout the film concerning how long remained to them. He also claimed that Bandit is never made aware of Frog 's leaving Junior at the altar, which is why the Bandit continually asks why a Texas sheriff is chasing him. However, this is inaccurate: within seconds of Bandit picking her up, Frog tells him "there is a wedding in search of a bride '', and goes on to explain her ill - advised romance with Junior, as Bandit holds up the CB mic for Snowman to hear. The film 's editors, Walter Hannemann and Angelo Ross, were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Film Editing. It currently holds a 79 % "Fresh '' rating on review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 28 reviews. Burt Reynolds rated the film as the one he most enjoyed and had the most fun making in his career. Legendary film maker Alfred Hitchcock stated that the movie was one of his favorites. Upon meeting Burt Reynolds, Billy Bob Thornton told him that the picture was not considered as such in the south, and was considered more of a documentary. Smokey and the Bandit was released in the United Kingdom on August 28, 1977 and was a sizeable success there, garnering positive reviews. American Film Institute Lists After the debut of the film the Trans Am became wildly popular with sales almost doubling in two years of the film 's release, to the delight of General Motors; in fact, it outsold its Camaro counterpart for the first time ever. Reynolds was given the 1977 vehicle used during promotion of the film as a gift, though the car itself never actually appeared in the film. Because of the popularity of the movie and the sales success of the Trans Am, then President of Pontiac Alex Mair promised to supply Reynolds with a Trans Am each year. Owing to his financial difficulties, in 2014 Reynolds put his vast collection of artwork and memorabilia up for auction, including the Trans Am. High estimates for the car were up to $80,000, but that was dwarfed by the actual sale price of $450,000. Also up for auction was a go - kart replica of the car, which sold for nearly $14,000. In 2016, Trans Am Depot, a Florida - based automobile customization company, announced that it would build 77 Trans Ams that would be modeled after the car that Reynolds drove in the 1977 original, despite Pontiac having been discontinued by GM in 2009. These new models were built off the Camaro platform (the very same one that the real Firebird and Trans Am used), came with Pontiac arrowhead, flaming bird and Bandit logos, as well as instrument panels, center consoles and hood scoops emulating their 1977 counterparts, and were signed by Reynolds. Some differences included the use of a supercharged 454 - cid (7.4 - liter) Chevrolet - sourced engine that put out 840 HP, and four round headlights, which appeared on the 1967 - 69 Firebirds / Trans Ams only; the actual 1977 - 81 models had rectangular headlights. The diablo sandwich ordered by Sheriff Justice in the Arkansas barbecue restaurant scene has entered popular culture as a minor reference to the film. While no authoritative source identifies the composition of the sandwich, there are several possibilities. A segment of the CMT program Reel Eats used a sloppy joe - style recipe consisting of seasoned ground beef, corn and sour cream. Another proposal, based more closely on images from the film and the shooting location of the scene (at an Old Hickory House restaurant in Georgia), is pulled pork and hot sauce on a hamburger bun. First run in 2007 to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the movie, The Bandit Run was the brainchild of Dave Hall, owner of Restore A Muscle Car. A group of Trans Am owners and fans of the movie take part in an annual road trip from Texarkana to Jonesboro, Georgia, recreating the route taken by the characters in the film. The Bandit Run quickly caught on and has become a fixture, most recently celebrating the 40th anniversary of the movie with a special screening of the film attended by Burt Reynolds and a recreation of the jump undertaken by Bandit and Frog across a river. In 2014, petroleum company Mobil 1 produced television commercials, featuring NASCAR star Tony Stewart, closely based on the film. Called Smoke is the Bandit playing on Stewart 's nickname, the commercials featured him as the Bandit opposite Darrell Waltrip who played Snowman and Jeff Hammond as Buford T. Justice. The story replaced the Coors beer with Mobil 1 products. The adverts poked fun at the film and even featured a Pontiac Trans Am and a cover version of the song East Bound and Down. The commercials were produced after Stewart mentioned that the movie was one of his favorites. When Smokey and the Bandit first aired on American network television in the early 1980s, censors were faced with the challenge of toning down the raw language of the original film. For this purpose, they overdubbed dialogue deemed offensive, which was (and remains, to an extent) common practice. The most noted change made for network broadcast was the replacing of Buford 's often - spoken phrase "sumbitch '' (a contraction of "son of a bitch ''; usually in reference to the Bandit) with the phrase "scum bum ''. This phrase achieved a level of popularity with children, and the 2007 Hot Wheels release of the 1970s Firebird Trans Am has "scum bum '' emblazoned on its tail. The TV prints of the first two Bandit films are still shown regularly on television, although a few TV stations aired the unedited version in recent years as some of the phraseology (i.e. "(son of a) bitch '', "ass '', etc.) became more acceptable on TV. The original actors mostly redubbed their own lines for the television version, except for Gleason. Actor Henry Corden, who voiced Fred Flintstone after original performer Alan Reed died, was used to replace a considerable amount of Sheriff Justice 's dialogue. This is fitting, as Fred Flintstone was a parody of / homage to Gleason 's character Ralph Kramden and The Flintstones was a parody of / homage to The Honeymooners. In the UK, the heavily dubbed version was shown for a number of years, particularly by the BBC. However, in more recent years, the original version has been shown (on ITV, a commercial channel), usually with the stronger language edited out, often quite awkwardly and noticeably. The theatrical release itself had a few lines deleted, including a creative edit in which Sheriff Justice tells a state trooper to "fuck off. '' His expletive is obscured when a passing big rig sounds its horn. At the time, using the ' F ' word would immediately require an R rating and this clever self - censorship allowed the film to avoid this rating and reach a much larger audience. However, the scene and the obscured expletive was played for comedy value and written as such, with the passing truck being the gag of the scene more than a way to avoid the censors. In 2006, a DVD re-release was issued of Smokey and the Bandit featuring a digitally - remastered audio track with 5.1 Dolby - compatible surround sound. It should be noted however that many of the film 's original sounds were replaced. For instance, the diesel engine start and run up sequence in the opening sequence of the film was completely dubbed over with a totally new sound. A few other examples of "sound effect replacement '' occur when Bandit takes off after managing to get a reluctant Cledus involved in the bet, and after he comes to a screeching halt on a roadway moments before picking up Carrie. Some of the original sound effects (such as Cledus ' dog Fred 's barking) and music (such as the final chase to the Southern Classic) were removed and not replaced. (Note: earlier DVD releases and the 40th Anniversary Blu - ray of the film have the original soundtrack intact.) Major portions of the audio ' background ' have been modified with different engine sounds or tire squeals from the original film. The updated version of the film features sounds inaccurate for what would be produced by the Trans Am or the numerous other Pontiac vehicles in the film. The original film had correct sounds that were usually recorded live as the action took place. Some TV versions also feature a longer version of the scene where Cledus wades into the pond after Fred. A series of television movies aired in 1994. The car featured was a Dodge Stealth.

when does the new season of ellen's game of games start

Ellen 's game of Games - Wikipedia Ellen 's Game of Games, also known as Game of Games and stylized as ellen 's GAME OF GAMES, is an American television game show that premiered on December 18, 2017. In March 2017, NBC ordered six (later eight) hour - long episodes of the series. Ellen DeGeneres serves as host, while Stephen "tWitch '' Boss appears as announcer / sidekick. The series is based on game segments from DeGeneres ' daytime talk show, The Ellen DeGeneres Show. A special preview episode aired on December 18, 2017, with the official series premiere on January 2, 2018. On January 9, 2018, NBC renewed the series for a 13 - episode second season. Each episode begins by saying, "And this is your host, Ellen DeGeneres! '' Each episode is a self - contained mini-tournament with contestants being selected to play in one of four preliminary games. The winner of each game advances to the semi-final round to play "Know or Go. '' The last remaining player will play the "Hot Hands '' game for a chance to win $100,000. The contestant has 30 seconds to identify the faces of ten celebrities that fit a certain category (e.g., "80s Stars ''). After identifying a celebrity, the contestant must press a button to move on to the next face. Contestants may pass if they are unsure but will need to wait three seconds until the next face automatically appears. Contestants earn an escalating amount of money based on the number of faces they correctly identify, as shown in the table below. Correctly identifying ten celebrities earns the grand prize of $100,000. In Germany, Sat. 1 broadcasts a local version of the show hosted by Bülent Ceylan, which has broadcast since 14 September 2018. In Australia, Network Ten has a local version of the show, hosted by Grant Denyer which began on 7 October 2018. In Spain, Antena 3 will air a local version, hosted by Silvia Abril in 2018. Legend: Currently airing No longer airing Upcoming

who are the characters in i'm dying up here supposed to be

I 'm Dying up Here - wikipedia I 'm Dying Up Here is an American comedy - drama television series created by David Flebotte. The pilot was written by Flebotte and directed by Jonathan Levine. It premiered on Showtime on June 4, 2017. The series is executive produced by Flebotte, Jim Carrey, Michael Aguilar, and Christina Wayne. It was announced on January 12, 2016, that Showtime had ordered the pilot to series based on the bestselling book by William Knoedelseder. On September 8, 2017, Showtime renewed the series for a 10 - episode second season. The second season premiered on May 6, 2018. The series explores the Los Angeles stand - up scene of the early 1970s as a group of young comedians attempt to become successful at Goldie 's comedy club and potentially gain a shot on Johnny Carson 's ' Tonight Show '. Club owner Goldie mentors the young comics with a combination of toughness and encouragement in order to further their chances at success. The show focuses on the daily struggles and successes of both Goldie and the comics.

who played johnny paul on the andy griffith show

Richard Keith (actor) - wikipedia Keith Thibodeaux (born December 1, 1950) is a former American child actor of television and film and a musician, best known for playing Little Ricky on the television sitcoms I Love Lucy and The Lucy - Desi Comedy Hour. His last name, which was Cajun French, was changed by producer Desi Arnaz to "Keith '' because "Thibodeaux '' was too difficult to pronounce. He is the last living regular appearing cast member from I Love Lucy. Thibodeaux is a musician who showed skill on the drums at a young age. Thibodeaux was making $500 a week at the age of 3, touring with the Horace Heidt Orchestra, then his father took him to audition for the part of Little Ricky in 1955. Thibodeaux said he remembers the day in 1955 when his father brought him to audition for the role of Ricky Ricardo Jr. "I walked on the set and there was Lucy, she was standing there and she was looking at me, '' he said. "She said ' OK he 's cute, but what does he do? ' My dad said, ' Well he plays the drums ' and she said, ' Oh, come on -- I ca n't believe that. ' Then, she says ' Look, we have a drum set over there, go ahead and let him play. ' Eventually Desi Arnaz himself came over and started jamming with me on the drums and then he kind of stood up and said ' Well, I think we found Little Ricky. ' '' January 19, 1953, was the television birthday of "Little Ricky, Jr., '' which is also the real birthday of Desi Arnaz, Jr. Three and a half years later the part of Little Ricky was cast and played by five year old Thibodeaux. According to Lucie Arnaz, who was interviewed on the TV show Archive of American Television, he became like part of the family. "Desi considered him his best friend and was responsible for teaching him the drums. He came over our house on many weekends and traveled with them during the summer. My mother kind of adopted him. He is in all of our home movies and photographs and was a great kid, and still is. '' As a child, he made numerous appearances on The Andy Griffith Show, between 1962 and 1966, as Opie 's friend "Johnny Paul Jason ''. He also accepted small roles on other popular television shows. In 1969, Thibodeaux joined the rock group David and the Giants who were based in Laurel, Mississippi. The group recorded in its early years with Capitol Records, Fame Records, and Crazy Horse Records, primarily touring throughout the South, and enjoyed a few regional hits which were recorded in Muscle Shoals, Alabama, and were well known in the Northern Soul music scene in England. After turning 21 in 1971, Thibodeaux received a final payment of $8000.00 from a trust fund set up during his days on I Love Lucy. He spent half of that payment on a sports car and the rest on sound equipment for the band and clothes, drugs, and whatever he wanted. He went through the whole $8000 in about two weeks, according to his autobiography Life After Lucy. Thibodeaux had developed a drug problem and eventually left the band, which broke up. His difficulties led to his becoming a born - again Christian in 1974. He witnessed to the leader of the band David Huff and the other members, who later converted. The group got back together. The band released nearly ten albums in the 1980s and 1990s for CBS Priority Records (Epic Records), The Benson Company, ABC Word Records (Myrrh) label, and the band 's own label Giant Records. David and the Giants released a live CD in 2014 titled Still Rockin. In 2017 the band was honored along with other notable Mississippi musicians such as Steve Forbert, Tammy Wynette, George Soule, and Elvis Presley, by receiving "The Jimmie '' Mississippi Dreamers (Jimmie Rodgers Award) for their musical contributions as Mississippi artists at a special concert at Peavey Electronics Corporate headquarters in Meridian, MS, along with Hartley Peavey. A live concert David and the Giants CD / DVD The Best Is Yet To Come was recorded in St. Louis, Mo. in August 2017 celebrating 40 years of David and the Giants music. In 1990, he became the Executive Director for his wife 's company, Ballet Magnificat! which tours nationally and internationally. In 2017 the couple pioneered Ballet Magnificat! Brasil dance company and trainee program headquartered in Curitiba, Brazil. Thibodeaux 's role in I Love Lucy is featured in the Lucille Ball -- Desi Arnaz Center in Jamestown, New York. Raised as a Roman Catholic, Thibodeaux went to school at St. Victor 's elementary in West Hollywood and St. Jane Frances de Chantal in North Hollywood. He attended Notre Dame High in Sherman Oaks for two years before his parents separated in 1966. After his parents separated, Keith, his mother, and siblings moved back to Lafayette, Louisiana. He graduated from Lafayette High School where he continued to play drums in rock and rhythm and blues bands. He left Louisiana for Mississippi in late 1969 after going to college for a short period where he said he "majored in drinking beer and playing pool '' to pursue a career with the band David and the Giants. In 1976, he met and married a ballet dancer named Kathy Denton in Jackson, Mississippi. The couple moved briefly to Southern California in 1977 where he was asked to join the pop band Starbuck famous for the late 70s hit "Moonlight Feels Right ''. After 2 weeks of rehearsals in Atlanta, Thibodeaux returned to Mississippi in 1978, where he, his wife and daughter Tara (born 1979) eventually settled in Jackson, Mississippi. Thibodeaux played with jazz bands locally for a brief time before joining a newly revamped Christian David and the Giants in 1979. His wife, Kathy, Founder and Artistic Director of Ballet Magnificat!, was a former principal dancer of Ballet Mississippi who won a Silver Medal in the Senior Division of the 1982 II USA IBC International Ballet Competition. Their daughter, (Tara), also a dancer and choreographer, was a semi-finalist at the age of 15 in the V USA IBC International Ballet Competition held in 1994. In 2001 and 2002 she was a member on the NBA Atlanta Hawks Dance team. She was awarded the prestigious Outstanding Choreographer Award at the 2017 Youth American Grand Prix in Chicago for her contemporary "Dying Swan '' and has set choreography for Ballet Magnificat "The Arrival '' and "Stratagem ''. She is currently teaching and training young dancers in Nashville, Tennessee. She married Bryce Drew in 2004 who is the head basketball coach of Vanderbilt University. He is famous for "The Shot '' in the 1998 NCAA Sweet Sixteen Tournament. Drew was a 1st round draft pick in the NBA and played professionally for six seasons for the Chicago Bulls, Houston Rockets, and Charlotte Hornets. Thibodeaux 's autobiography Life After Lucy was published in 1994.

where is the tv show gotham filmed at

Gotham (TV series) - wikipedia Crescenzo Notarile Gotham is an American crime drama television series developed by Bruno Heller, based on characters published by DC Comics and appearing in the Batman franchise, primarily those of James Gordon and Bruce Wayne. The series stars Ben McKenzie as the young Gordon, while Heller executive produces, along with Danny Cannon, who also directed the pilot. Originally the series would have relied only on Gordon 's early days with the Gotham City Police Department, but the series subsequently included the Wayne character and the origin stories of several Batman villains, including Penguin, Riddler, Catwoman, Poison Ivy, Scarecrow, Mr. Freeze, Hugo Strange, Ra 's al Ghul, and Solomon Grundy. Gotham premiered on Fox on September 22, 2014. In May 2017, Fox renewed the series for a fourth season, which premiered on September 21, 2017. On May 30th Fox cancelled their plans for a fifth and final season stating behind the scenes problems as the main reason why. In the first season, James Gordon, a new recruit in the Gotham City Police Department is paired with veteran detective Harvey Bullock to solve the murders of Thomas and Martha Wayne. Gordon meets the Waynes ' son Bruce who is now in the care of butler Alfred Pennyworth. In addition, he also encounters gang member Oswald Cobblepot, forensics worker Edward Nygma, street orphans Selina Kyle and Pamela "Ivy '' Pepper, assistant district attorney Harvey Dent, and medical doctor Leslie Thompkins. Gordon becomes involved with Gotham 's crime families including gangster Fish Mooney and crime lords Carmine Falcone and Salvatore Maroni. In the second season, Gordon deals with a series of events that are being orchestrated by Theo Galavan and his sister Tabitha as part of a plan to take over Gotham as the new Mayor of Gotham City and exacting revenge against the Wayne Family. After Galavan is murdered in his run for mayor, the Gotham City Police Department deals with the actions of Victor Fries. The enigmatic Hugo Strange and his assistant Ethel Peabody conduct a series of bizarre experiments underneath Arkham Asylum in the underground Indian Hill facility that is secretly owned by Wayne Enterprises and overseen by the Court of Owls. In the third season taking place six months later, Gordon has become a bounty hunter as he works to track down Indian Hill experiments that escaped as well as a revived Fish Mooney. While planning to get Leslie Thompkins back, he also encounters Carmine Falcone 's son Mario Calvi as well as hypnotist Jervis Tetch who arrives to look for his sister Alice where she possesses poisonous blood that drives many crazy in various ways. Meanwhile, Ivy is aged up to an adult woman following an encounter with one of Fish Mooney 's Indian Hill followers and Jerome Valeska is revived to resume his previous vendetta against the city. Gordon has to deal with the Court of Owls working on behalf of Ra 's al Ghul and the League of Shadows, Penguin and Ivy teaming up to form an army, and Edward Nygma embraces his new identity as "The Riddler ''. In the fourth season, Bruce Wayne is a masked vigilante, patrolling Gotham 's streets at night, wearing dark clothes and a hooded black balaclava. Cobblepot begins a campaign to dominate the city 's underworld by profiting off licensed crime, Nygma finds his mental faculties diminished as a side - effect of having been flash - frozen, Jonathan Crane is seen embracing his role as the Scarecrow, the League of Shadows begin their next plot involving an ancient embalming knife, Ivy Pepper taking drugs from an apothecary which transform her again, and Butch Gilzean becomes Solomon Grundy after his comatose body was dumped into Slaughter Swamp. A new criminal known as Professor Pyg shows up putting Gotham into chaos until it is revealed he has been working with Falcone 's daughter Sofia to take down Penguin which she succeeds in doing while having Penguin sent to Arkham where he meets Jerome Valeska. Eventually after Sofia is taken down by Gordon, Jerome Valeska, Jervis Tetch, and Jonathan Crane escape from Arkham along with others and team up with Victor Fries, Bridget Pike, Penguin, and Solomon Grundy to create a supervillain team known as the Legion of Horribles to bring madness and destruction to Gotham which leads to Jerome 's brother Jeremiah undergoing a chemical transformation. In addition, the energies that Ra 's al Ghul placed in Barbara Kean called the rest of the League of Shadows to her as the female members pledge their loyalty to her. Eventually, Jeremiah Valeska and Ra 's al Ghul 's plans plunge Gotham City into a No man 's land causing it to be evacuated while the different villains start claiming their territory. Initially, Heller said he was hesitant about doing a series about superheroes, telling website Digital Spy that "I do n't really know how to write about people with super powers ''. Further elaborating to Entertainment Weekly that "I do n't think Batman works very well on TV '', adding that "Frankly, all those superhero stories I 've seen, I always love them until they get into the costume '', noting that at that point "they 've stopped becoming humans. '' It was Heller 's son who suggested that the focus of the series be Commissioner Gordon from which Heller then further developed into the idea of Gordon being the investigator who investigated Bruce Wayne 's parents ' murder an idea he says that "gave us a starting point and allowed us to tell the saga from a much earlier point than before ''. On September 24, 2013, Fox announced that it had bypassed the traditional pilot phase and placed a straight - to - series order for Gotham, to be written and executive produced by Heller. Gotham received a series order from Fox on May 5, 2014, with the first season reported to consist of 16 episodes, rather than the standard 13 or 22. On January 17, 2015, the series was renewed for a second season. Fox 's Chairman of Entertainment Kevin Reilly stated, "We were only contractually obligated to order 13, and we ordered 16, because we think that 's the way that show, at least in its first iteration, will be very strong to arc to. Could we do more next season? We certainly could, but that 's where we 're starting with that one. That show is going to have a very strong, serialized element. '' On October 13, Fox ordered an additional six episodes for the show, bringing the first season order to a full 22 episodes. Speaking of the project at the 2014 winter TCA press tour, Reilly described the series as "this operatic soap that has a slightly larger - than - life quality. This is not some adjunct companion series. This is the Batman franchise, just backing it up (in chronology). '' He later added that the series is separate from any DC film universe. As part of a settlement with his heirs, Gotham and Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice were the first productions by DC that credited Bill Finger as co-creator of Batman. In January 2014, rumors arose that Donal Logue would portray Gordon in the series. Logue denied these rumors via Twitter. Logue was eventually cast as Harvey Bullock. In February 2014, Ben McKenzie was cast as James Gordon. McKenzie had shot a previous pilot with Heller for CBS, which led to Heller writing his characterization of Gordon with McKenzie in mind. Casting Bruce Wayne was challenging in part because, as Heller put it "It 's such an important casting and it would 've been very dangerous to cast the wrong person '' adding that the casting process for Wayne "took a lot of negotiation, a lot of back and forth so that everyone was happy and comfortable. '' In early March 2014, David Mazouz was cast as Bruce Wayne while Camren Bicondova was cast as Selina Kyle. At the 2014 Chicago Comic & Entertainment Expo, DC 's Jim Cunningham said that Renee Montoya would be a character on the show. In February 2014, it was reported that production would begin in New York City in March. Filming for the first season finished on March 24, 2015. In July 2014, it was announced that Graeme Revell would be the composer for the series. The series premiered on Nine Network in Australia on October 12. In Canada, it is shown in simulcast on CTV and reran on M3. In New Zealand, it premiered on TV2 on September 28. In the United Kingdom, it premiered on Channel 5 on October 13. The channel also screen the second season but after failing to screen the third season it was announced in August 2017 that the season would premiere exclusively on DVD and Blu - ray and be on Netflix from September 1. In Ireland, it premiered on RTÉ2 on January 26, 2015. In March 2018, it was announced that E4 had acquired the rights to air the fourth season on UK television. The pilot was screened at the Warner Bros. Television and DC Entertainment panel at San Diego Comic - Con International in July 2014. In September 2014, Warner Bros. sold the series ' worldwide video on demand rights to Netflix. The first season was released on DVD and Blu - ray on September 8, 2015. In early October 2014, market research firm Survata polled more than 1,400 viewers to determine that Gotham was the major TV premiere, out of 24, that viewers were most interested to watch that year. In Australia, the first and second episodes received 1.24 million and 896,000 viewers, respectively. The timeshifted broadcasts were watched by 1.43 and 1.03 million, respectively. The Canadian debut got 3.38 million viewers, making it the second most - watched telecast of the night and week. The UK premiere was watched by 3.20 million viewers. The airings on the 1 - hour and 24 - hour timeshift channels were watched by 597,000 and 142,000 viewers, respectively. In New Zealand, it was the most - watched program on the network, with 278,540 viewers. The time shifted version was watched by 39,580 viewers. Season 1 of Gotham received generally positive reviews from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the season a rating of 78 % based on 90 reviews, with an average rating of 6.92 / 10. The site 's consensus states, "High production values, a talented cast, and an appealingly stylized approach to the Batman mythos help Gotham overcome its occasionally familiar themes. '' Metacritic gives the season a score of 71 out of 100, based on 34 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. David Hinckley of New York Daily News praised the first episode for playing "like a 45 - minute movie, with stunning visuals that never feel like a shrunken TV version of the Batman films against which it will inevitably be measured '' and lauded Logue 's Harvey Bullock as a scene - stealer. The San Jose Mercury News ' Chuck Barney called the pilot "a fun, dark, moody and well - paced first hour '' and McKenzie 's James Gordon a commanding lead, while saying Jada Pinkett Smith is "an absolute blast to watch. '' Matt Brennan of Indiewire said that Gotham was "the perfect antidote to superhero fatigue '', praising the "bright, pop - inflected aesthetic, with urban backdrops that appear as though cut out from the panels of a comic book. '' Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly criticized the first half of season one along with the mid-season premiere. He found the personalities of the most characters "already nearly fully formed; all they can become is more or less than what they already are. '' Jensen added that Gordon not being Gotham 's redeemer hurt the premise of the show and heavily criticized what he saw as the under - use of Jada Pinkett Smith 's character. In the end, he does not see Gotham "as a show for comic book fanboys '' but rather as "a post-fanboy, or fanboy - irrelevant. '' Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club lamented that "there have been dozens of interpretations of Batman and his city in the 75 years since their creation, and Gotham has trouble finding the right balance of influences ''. The second season of Gotham received generally positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has a rating of 82 % based on 14 reviews, with an average rating of 7.21 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "While still tonally uneven in season two, Gotham is back with a renewed focus, moving away from disjointed case - of - the - week plots into a darker, more stable serialized story. '' Metacritic gives the season a score of 62 out of 100, based on 6 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. The third season of Gotham received generally positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 86 % based on 6 reviews, with an average rating of 7.29 / 10. The fourth season of Gotham received generally positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 92 % based on 13 reviews, with an average rating of 6.8 / 10. On February 1, 2016, Fox began airing episodes of a five - part motion comic titled Gotham Stories, meant to tie into the series ' second season. On January 31, 2017, the first Gotham tie - in novel was published by Titan. Dawn of Darkness by Jason Starr is described as an "official prequel '' to the TV series, set two months prior to the beginning of the series.

how did sam alex and clover become spies

Totally Spies! The movie - Wikipedia Totally Spies! The Movie (known as Totally Spies! Le film in France) is a 2009 French / Canadian animated action film. The film is an adaptation of the Totally Spies! television series, about a trio of teenagers from Beverly Hills who become spies. The film covers how the girls first met. In 2010, the film was broadcast in the United States and Canada on Cartoon Network and Teletoon respectively. The movie begins with Sam, Alex and Clover starting their new lives in Beverly Hills, California. As each of them were about to cross paths outside a sushi restaurant, nearby of WOOHP agents (including Jerry) purposely cause the giant sushi roll above the entrance to break off and chase after them, setting some nearby animals free in the process. The giant sushi roll, with the three girls log rolling on top of it, chases a baby pig to the street. The three girls are able to avoid it, save the life of the baby pig (which Alex later adopts and names "Oinky '') and destroy the sushi roll before it causes any damage. After that, Alex, Sam and Clover introduce themselves and this starts their friendship when they later see each other again at their new school, meet the current principal Miss Skrich and their rivals, Mandy and Dominique and Catlin. Clover offers her new friends a change of clothes after Mandy sprays them with a chai machine, but they find themselves sucked in through a locker and into one of the offices of WOOHP. Here, they meet Jerry and fellow WOOHP agent Tad. Jerry reveals that WOOHP had been observing the three of them secretly since childhood, showing videos of each girl, and picking them as prime recruits for the organization. However, the girls are quick to reject the invite and refuse to join. However, they later are "forced '' into training after each having traumatic experiences that seemingly relate to WOOHP. They agree to go through training and in 48 hours, complete the training. After training, they are thrown into their first mission when famous celebrities, like rockstar Rob Hearthrob and animal psychologist Peppy Wolfman, have been mysteriously abducted. This also shows how the girls obtained their differently colored uniforms (thanks to a design suggestion by Clover). They first go to Wolfman 's building where Alex has Oinky "go hog wild for mommy '' as a distraction, and Oinky deliberately runs around the lobby with the other animals and the receptionist in pursuit. They later find that each went through a make over by a mysterious machine called the "Fabulizor '', discovered thanks to security footage in Wolfman 's office. They later see that everyone at school also had gone through the Fabulizor, having the same look the next day, and Oinky ends up going through the Fabulizor, getting the same make over as well. This is after nearly being blasted by one of Fabu 's minions in a fighter jet while being flown back to school and after nearly avoiding Miss Skritch as they sneak back into school. Tailing Mandy that night, they find that all of those who went through the Fabulizor became hypnotized by a special chip in their cheek bones prior to the make over and Alex spots Oinky in the crowd and grabs onto him, with Sam and Clover grabbing onto Alex as they were abducted into a strange space station out in space. They then meet the mastermind behind the entire affair, Fabu, a runway model who quickly lost fame in five minutes on the runway and was ashamed of not being a part of the crowd during his childhood. The spies accidentally expose themselves and are captured by Fabu 's strongest henchmen. He then relates his entire plan, to abduct everyone who went through the Fabulizor and place them inside a special space station which he calls Fabutopia to live out new lives in the posh surroundings, then use a missile to destroy all of Earth, before using his Fabulizor in reverse and give the girls each horrible make overs (Sam gets green skin, Clover grows a unibrow and Alex gets massive pimples). He then sets them to be blasted back to Earth in rockets. But just as he leaves, things get more difficult when Tad meets the girls again while they are still imprisoned and says he will let them fail the mission and stop Fabu himself, taking all the credit and regaining his "favorite agent '' status with Jerry. But after a fight with Fabu, Tad is strapped to the missile bound for Earth. The girls manage to escape and, after fixing the Fabulizor 's damage to themselves, go after Fabu. They are unable to stop the missile from taking off but hitch a ride as it is rocketing towards Earth with Tad still attached to it. They are able to turn the missile around to destroy the station, surprising the girls since they had no idea of how to stop it earlier and Alex whacks at the control panel with the WOOHP manual. They then are picked up by a surprise appearance from Jerry in one of WOOHP 's ships and rescue the kidnapped people from aboard the station (freeing them of the hypnotic trance by destroying Fabu 's signal beacon in his staff) and evacuate safely, including Oinky, who Alex thought was never going to make it out in time, only to see him run fast to her, finally reunited with Alex before the missile explodes and destroys the station in a firework finale. They then chase after Fabu 's ship, manage to destroy it and catch Fabu and his Sphynx in his escape pod. After the mission, the girls admit that the mission was difficult at first, but it also made them friends, so they accept their position as spies. Alex is invited for a session with Wolfman and Clover is offered a date by Rob Hearthrob over the phone. But before that, they later return to school to face punishment from the principal for the "damage '' they caused when trying to avoid her earlier on in the movie (thanks to Sam using a laser lip stick to cut an escape hole in the wall earlier). But fortunately, it seems that thanks to WOOHP, they have a new principal, whose name is not revealed, and seemingly does not know about the girls ' punishment and gives Sam high praise. Miss Skritch had been transferred to another school in Antarctica in an igloo, Fabu, his henchman and Tad are later imprisoned and set for punishment by WOOHP and everyone who was rescued from aboard Fabu 's space station have their minds erased (including Mandy). But just after the girls celebrate getting even with Mandy for the last time, courtesy of one of WOOHP 's gadgets, they are sucked away to another mission. The girls are quick to bring up personal appointments, but soon find themselves running from a WOOHP jet as it prepares to suck them aboard. But the girls are ready for their mission as they change into their spy uniforms and exclaim their friendship as the movie ends. The movie was released in France on 22 July 2009 in 272 theatres. On 14 October 2009 the movie hit the Netherlands and stayed there for seven weeks. On 10 March 2010 the movie came out on DVD in the Netherlands. The film aired on Disney Channel Asia on February 27, 2010, a week later than the première of the season finale adaptation of its spin - off, The Amazing Spiez!. Prior to the film version, Disney Channel Asia has made two compilation movies of the TV series. The first one covers the 3rd season finale (Evil Promotion Much? Part 1 - 3) and the second one covers the 4th season finale (Totally Busted! Part 1 - 3). The film premiered on the British children 's channel Pop on March 29, 2016. The film was first shown in the US on Cartoon Network on April 25 at 7pm. A DVD of the movie in its original language, French, was released in France on the 3rd of February through Fox Pathe Europa. It topped charts in the French Amazon in the week of its release. Vendetta Films, a new New Zealand film distribution company, has recently confirmed the release date of the Totally Spies: The Movie! DVD. It will be released on 1 April, nothing else has been announced. Vendetta can ship overseas. It was also announced that it will cost $24.99 NZD. Marathon currently has no plans to release it in any North American country other than Mexico. On 30 March 2010, news was obtained that Cartoon Network have the rights to release the Totally Spies! The Movie in America including the spin - off, The Amazing Spiez! There was also an official soundtrack released in France. It includes the song "Walk Like an Egyptian '' by The Bangles. The opening and closing for the movie is the song "Gold Guns Girls '' by Canadian rock band Metric. The film grossed $572,000 on the first weekend and ranked at number # 9 at the French box office with approximately $2,100 per theater. The gross for the second, third, and fourth weekends were $191,000, $89,106 and $29,083 respectively. The film grossed $1.3 million internationally. The film earned 2011 Kidscreen Awards under Best TV Movie category.

what is the ratio of divorce in india

Divorce demography - wikipedia Divorce demography is the study of the demographic factors that impact divorce as a social phenomenon. Information about divorces can generally be obtained from the census data published by governmental statistics offices. One measure of divorces is the crude divorce rate, which is the number of divorces per 1,000 population. It can give a general overview of marriage in an area, but it does not take people who can not marry into account. For example, it would include young children who are clearly not of marriageable age in its sample. A related measure is the refined divorce rate which measures the number of divorces per 1,000 women married to men, so that non-married persons, e.g. young children are left out of the rate. Another measure of divorces is the divorce to marriage ratio, which is the number of divorces to the number of marriages in a given year (the ratio of the crude divorce rate to the crude marriage rate). For example, if there are 550 divorces and 1,000 marriages in a given year in a given area, the ratio would be one divorce for every two marriages, e.g. a ratio of 0.55 (55 %). However, this measurement compares two unlike populations, those who can marry and those who can divorce. Say there exists a community with 100,000 married couples, and very few people capable of marriage, for reasons such as age. If 1,000 people obtain divorces and 1,000 people get married in the same year, the ratio is one divorce for every marriage, which may lead people to think that the community 's relationships are extremely unstable, despite the number of married people not changing. This is also true in reverse: a community with very many people of marriageable age may have 10,000 marriages and 1,000 divorces, leading people to believe that it has very stable relationships. Furthermore, these two rates are not directly comparable since the marriage rate only examines the current year, while the divorce rate examines the outcomes of marriages for many previous years. This does not equate to the proportion of marriages in a given single - year cohort that will ultimately end in divorce. Another solution is to conduct a longitudinal study of married batches to assess the divorce rate.

the gift of the magi mickey and minnie

Mickey 's Once Upon a Christmas - wikipedia Alex Mann Mickey 's Once Upon a Christmas is a 1999 direct - to - video animated Christmas anthology film produced by Walt Disney Video Premieres and won the Award for Best Animated Feature Film at the 5th Kecskemét Animation Film Festival in 1999. The video features Mickey Mouse, Minnie Mouse, Pluto, Pete, Goofy, Max, Donald Duck, Daisy Duck, Huey, Dewey, and Louie, Scrooge McDuck, Mortimer Mouse, Figaro the Kitten and Chip ' n ' Dale with cameos by Owl, Clarabelle Cow, Horace Horsecollar, and a Beagle Boy. The film comprises three separate segments, with narration by Kelsey Grammer. A sequel, titled Mickey 's Twice Upon a Christmas, was released in 2004. Inspired by Christmas Every Day by William Dean Howells. Huey, Dewey and Louie wake up one Christmas morning and open their presents, even though they are supposed to wait first for Daisy, Uncle Scrooge and Aunt Gertie to arrive. After the boys take their new sleds from their Uncle Donald (not reading the included gift card) they go sledding and have Christmas dinner in which Donald yells at them to learn their manners. While Donald, Daisy, Uncle Scrooge and Aunt Gertie sing carols, the boys play with their new toys. Later, it is time for the boys to go to bed and having enjoyed the day immensely, the boys then wishes for it to be Christmas every day. Their wish is granted and at first the three are joyful. After a few days, however, they begin to get tired of Christmas and soon realize that every day will be exactly the same as the day when they first made their wish. They then decide to change the course of action of the next day by playing tricks and pranks, including swapping the cooked turkey with a live one for the dinner table. The day turns out to be a bad Christmas for everyone, especially Donald. After this, the boys finally read the gift card that was given to them which they had previously disregarded. The card is from Donald and Daisy, it wishes them love and explains that Christmas is not just about presents, it is also about being with family. The boys instantly become guilty for their pranks and decide to make amends by making the next day the best Christmas ever. At the end of the next day, the boys finally realize the true meaning of Christmas and the time loop comes to an end, leading into the day after Christmas. Goofy and Max are mailing out a letter to Santa Claus. However, as soon as they get home, Pete, the neighbor, tells Max that Santa does not exist, predicting how he ca n't fly around the world in one night. Things get worse when Goofy poses as Santa for some kids and Max finds out that he tricked him. Goofy is determined to prove to Max that Santa does exist and even stays up all Christmas Eve to keep an eye out for him. But after falling off the roof, Goofy gives up hope of Santa coming. Now, Max does everything that Goofy did to make his father happy, including posing as Santa. In the end, the real Santa actually comes and gives Max the gift the boy asked for earlier (as well as blowing some snow on Pete 's house when the cunning neighbor tries to flatter the legendary figure). This segment of Mickey 's Once Upon a Christmas chronologically precedes the cartoon series, Goof Troop. Max is voiced by Shaun Fleming of the indie rock bands Diane Coffee and Foxygen. Based on the story The Gift of the Magi by O. Henry. Mickey wants to get Minnie a gold chain for her one heirloom, her watch, so he works at Crazy Pete 's Tree Lot. Minnie wants to give Mickey something special for Christmas as well, so she works hard to get her special bonus. Mickey gives a poor family a short tree who ca n't buy a pete 10 - footer tree. However, Pete (Mickey 's uptight and greedy boss) steals all of Mickey 's money and fires him. He puts his cigar and money to his pocket, causing to go crazy and set his trees on fire, which ruins his chance to sell his expensive 10 - footers and Minnie 's bonus proves to be nothing but a fruit cake. After playing music for a toy drive with the Firehouse Five, Mickey has the idea that he can trade his harmonica for the chain. The shop closes by the time he gets there and the owner rejects it, thinking it 's not worth anything, but changes his mind after hearing its music. Back at Minnie 's house, Mickey gives her the chain for her watch and Minnie gives him a case for his harmonica. Of course, the irony is that Minnie no longer has her watch -- just as Mickey no longer has his harmonica -- so the gifts are essentially useless. As in the classic Gift of the Magi upon which this adaptation -- penned by O. Henry -- is based, the thought behind each gift is what counts. The film concludes with a medley of various carols featuring the main characters from the three segments. In "The Gift of Magi '', one of Mickey 's dance moves are very similar to his dance routine in the 1942 theatrical short, "Mickey 's Birthday Party ''. The film was originally released on VHS and DVD on November 9, 1999. It was later re-released on VHS and on DVD (as part of the Walt Disney Gold Classic Collection) on November 7, 2000. The film was released in a 2 - Movie Collection Blu - ray and DVD with Mickey 's Twice Upon a Christmas on November 4, 2014.

the leading spokesperson for public health in the united states is

Surgeon General of the United States - wikipedia The Surgeon General of the United States is the operational head of the U.S. Public Health Service Commissioned Corps (PHSCC) and thus the leading spokesperson on matters of public health in the federal government of the United States. The Surgeon General 's office and staff are known as the Office of the Surgeon General (OSG). The U.S. Surgeon General is nominated by the President of the United States and confirmed by the Senate. The Surgeon General must be appointed from individuals who (1) are members of the Regular Corps of the U.S. Public Health Service, and (2) have specialized training or significant experience in public health programs. The Surgeon General serves a four - year term of office and, depending on whether or not the current Assistant Secretary for Health is a Public Health Service commissioned officer, is either the senior or next most senior uniformed officer of the commissioned corps, holding the rank of a vice admiral. The current Surgeon General is Jerome Adams, having taken office on September 5, 2017. The Surgeon General reports to the Assistant Secretary for Health (ASH), who may be a four - star admiral in the commissioned corps, and who serves as the principal adviser to the Secretary of Health and Human Services on public health and scientific issues. The Surgeon General is the overall head of the Commissioned Corps, a 6,500 - member cadre of uniformed health professionals who are on call 24 hours a day, and can be dispatched by the Secretary of HHS or the Assistant Secretary for Health in the event of a public health emergency. The Surgeon General is also the ultimate award authority for several public health awards and decorations, the highest of which that can be directly awarded is the Surgeon General 's Medallion (the highest award bestowed by board action is the Public Health Service Distinguished Service Medal). The Surgeon General also has many informal duties, such as educating the American public about health issues and advocating healthy lifestyle choices. The office also periodically issues health warnings. Perhaps the best known example of this is the Surgeon General 's warning label that has been present on all packages of American tobacco cigarettes since 1966. A similar health warning has appeared on alcoholic beverages labels since 1988. In 1798, Congress established the Marine Hospital Fund, a network of hospitals that cared for sick and disabled seamen. The Marine Hospital Fund was reorganized along military lines in 1870 and became the Marine Hospital Service -- predecessor to today 's United States Public Health Service. The service became a separate bureau of the Treasury Department with its own staff, administration, headquarters in Washington, D.C, and the position of Supervising Surgeon (later Surgeon General). After 141 years under the Treasury Department, the Service came under the Federal Security Agency in 1939, then the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) in 1953, and finally the United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Some Surgeons General are notable for being outspoken and / or advocating controversial proposals on how to reform the U.S. health system. The office is not a particularly powerful one, and has little direct statutory impact on policy - making, but Surgeons General are often vocal advocates of precedent - setting, far - sighted, unconventional, or even unpopular health policies. The U.S. Army, Navy, and Air Force also have officers overseeing medical matters in their respective services who hold the title Surgeon General. The insignia of the Surgeon General, and the USPHS, use the caduceus as opposed to the Rod of Asclepius. The Surgeon General is a commissioned officer in the U.S. Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, one of the seven uniformed services of the United States, and by law holds the rank of vice admiral. Officers of the Public Health Service Commissioned Corps are classified as non-combatants, but can be subjected to the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ) and the Geneva Conventions when designated by the Commander - in - Chief as a military force or if they are detailed or assigned to work with the armed forces. Officer members of these services wear uniforms that are similar to those worn by the United States Navy, except that the commissioning devices, buttons, and insignia are unique. Officers in the U.S. Public Health Service wear unique devices that are similar to U.S. Navy, Staff Corps Officers (e.g., Navy Medical Service Corps, Supply Corps, etc.). The only Surgeon General to actually hold the rank of a four - star admiral was David Satcher (born 1941, served 1998 -- 2002). This was because he served simultaneously in the positions of Surgeon General (three - star) and Assistant Secretary for Health (which is a four - star office). John Maynard Woodworth (1837 -- 1879, served 1871 -- 1879), the first holder of the office as "Supervising Surgeon '', is the only Surgeon General to not hold a rank.

who played medusa in clash of the titans

Clash of the Titans (1981 film) - Wikipedia Clash of the Titans is a 1981 British - American heroic fantasy adventure film directed by Desmond Davis and written by Beverley Cross which retells the Greek mythological story of Perseus. It stars Harry Hamlin, Judi Bowker, Burgess Meredith, Maggie Smith and Laurence Olivier. The film features the final work of stop motion visual effects artist Ray Harryhausen. It was released on June 12, 1981 and grossed $41 million at the North American box office, which made it the 11th highest - grossing film of the year. A novelization of the film by Alan Dean Foster was published in 1981. Warner Bros. released a 3D remake on April 2, 2010. King Acrisius of Argos imprisons his daughter Danaë, jealous of her beauty. When the god Zeus impregnates her, Acrisius banishes his daughter and his newborn grandson Perseus to sea in a wooden chest. In retribution, Zeus kills Acrisius and orders Poseidon to release the last of the Titans, a gigantic sea monster called the Kraken, to destroy Argos. Meanwhile, Danaë and Perseus safely float to the island of Seriphos where Perseus grows to adulthood. Calibos, evil son of the sea goddess Thetis, is a young man engaged to marry Princess Andromeda, the beautiful daughter of Queen Cassiopeia and heiress to the rich city of Joppa; but for committing several atrocities against Zeus, including hunting and destroying Zeus 's sacred flying horses (excepting only Pegasus), Zeus transforms Calibos into a deformed monstrous creature. This left Calibos an outcast where he lived in the swamp. In revenge, Thetis transports an adult Perseus from Seriphos to an abandoned amphitheater in Joppa, where he is befriended by an elderly poet named Ammon and learns that Andromeda is under a curse and can not marry unless her suitor successfully answers a riddle whose failures are burned at the stake. In order to aid his son, Zeus sends Perseus a god - crafted helmet from Athena which makes its wearer invisible, a magical sword from Aphrodite, and a shield from Hera. Perseus, wearing the helmet, captures Pegasus and follows Calibos ' giant vulture that is carrying Andromeda 's soul to learn the next riddle. Perseus is nearly killed by Calibos but manages to sever one of Calibos ' hands, losing his helmet in the process. Perseus befriends Thallo and presents himself as suitor and correctly answers the riddle, presenting the severed hand of Calibos. Perseus wins Andromeda 's hand in marriage. Finding that Thetis can not act against Perseus, Calibos instead demands that she takes vengeance on Joppa. At the wedding, Queen Cassiopeia compares Andromeda 's beauty to that of Thetis herself, whereupon Thetis demands Andromeda be sacrificed to the Kraken on pain of Joppa 's destruction. Perseus seeks a way to defeat the Kraken, while Pegasus is captured by Calibos and his men. Zeus commands Athena to give Perseus her owl Bubo; but she orders Hephaestus to build a golden replica of Bubo instead, who leads Perseus to the Stygian Witches. By taking their magic eye Perseus forces them to reveal that the only way to defeat the Kraken is by using the head of Medusa, who lives on an island in the River Styx at the edge of the Underworld. The next day, the group continues on their journey without Andromeda and Ammon, who return to Joppa. On the Gorgon 's island with three soldiers by his side, Perseus fights Medusa 's guardian, a two - headed dog named Dioskilos, who kills one of his companions but Perseus intervenes in the nick of time and kills the beast. Perseus leads his two remaining allies into the Gorgon 's lair. His two other companions die on encounter with Medusa herself; she shoots one of the soldiers with an arrow and turns the other to stone. Perseus uses the reflective underside of his shield to deceive Medusa, decapitates her, and collects her head; but the shield is dissolved by her caustic blood. As Perseus and his party set to return, Calibos enters their camp, forces Bubo into the water, scares the horses away, and punctures the cloak carrying Medusa 's head, causing her blood to spill and produce three giant scorpions called Scorpiochs. The scorpions attack and Thallo is able to kill one of them, but he and his fighting companion are both killed by Calibos himself. Perseus slays the other two scorpions and thereafter kills Calibos and grieves Thallo 's death. Weakened by his struggle, Perseus sends Bubo to rescue Pegasus, who is being held prisoner by Calibos ' henchmen. Bubo succeeds in his task and manages to destroy Calibos ' camp as well. Perseus reaches the amphitheater in Joppa, but collapses unconscious from exhaustion. Andromeda is shackled to the sea cliffs outside Joppa, and the Kraken itself is summoned. Bubo diverts the Kraken 's attention until Perseus, whose strength was secretly re-restored by Zeus before the Kraken was released, appears on Pegasus. In the subsequent battle, Perseus petrifies the Kraken with Medusa 's head, causing it to crumble to pieces. He then tosses the head into the sea, frees Andromeda, and marries her. The gods predict that Perseus and Andromeda will live happily, rule wisely, and produce children, and Zeus forbids the other gods to pursue vengeance against them. The constellations of Perseus, Andromeda, Pegasus, and Cassiopeia are created in their honor. In 1978, Andor Films submitted a copy of the script to the British Board of Film Classification, seeking advice on how to secure either a "U '' or an "A '' certificate. The draft script included scenes which the BBFC considered would not be acceptable under those certificates, including the Kraken tearing Pegasus to pieces and Andromeda being naked during the climax of the film. Changes to the script and, on submission, some cuts to Perseus ' final battle with Calibos were made and the film secured the "A '' certificate: "Those aged 5 and older admitted, but not recommended for children under 14 years of age ''. Ray Harryhausen used the special effects technique of stop motion animation to create the various creatures in Clash of the Titans, including Calibos, his vulture, Pegasus, Bubo the mechanical owl, Dioskilos, Medusa, the Scorpiochs, and the Kraken. Harryhausen was also co-producer of the film, and retired from filmmaking shortly after the movie was released, making this his last main feature film. Despite the mechanical owl Bubo 's similarities to the droid R2 - D2 of the 1977 film Star Wars, Harryhausen claimed that Bubo was created before Star Wars was released. The BBFC, reviewing the film for certification in 1981, said that Harryhausen 's effects were well done and would give entertainment to audiences of all ages, but might appear a little "old hat '' to those familiar with Star Wars and Superman. Columbia Pictures were initially set to distribute the film having made most of Harryhausen and producer Charles H. Schneer 's films, but after a change of guard at the studio, they dropped the project during pre-production, leading to Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer to pick it up instead. Stars Harry Hamlin and Ursula Andress were romantically involved at the time of production. Their son, Dimitri, was born in 1980 after filming was completed, and their relationship ended in 1982. Jack Gwillim, who appeared as Poseidon, had earlier played the role of King Aeëtes in the original Jason and the Argonauts in 1963. The film 's screenwriter, Beverley Cross, was married to Maggie Smith, who played Thetis, until his death in 1998. Cross worked with producer Charles H. Schneer before, writing the screenplay for Schneer 's production of Jason and the Argonauts. Clash of the Titans was released on June 12, 1981. By the time it finished its theatrical run, it had grossed $41,000,000 in North America. The film has a 66 % "fresh '' rating on Rotten Tomatoes. In a book published in 2000, Stephen R. Wilk suggested that "most people today who are aware of the story of Perseus and Medusa owe their knowledge to the 1981 film Clash of the Titans. '' The karst area in El Torcal de Antequera, Spain appears in the visit to the Stygian witches. The Azure Window in Gozo, Malta, appears in the battle against the Kraken. Other locations include: The four - issue comic book mini-series Wrath of the Titans (2007), released by TidalWave Productions as part of their Ray Harryhausen Signature Series, picked up the story 5 years after the events of the film. The 3D remake Clash of the Titans (2010) and its sequel Wrath of the Titans (2012) were released by the property 's current rights holder Warner Bros.

who played hilary on the young and the restless

Mishael Morgan - wikipedia Marie - Charms Mishael Morgan (born July 15, 1986) known professionally as Mishael Morgan, is a Trinidadian - Canadian actress known for the role of Hilary Curtis on CBS Daytime soap opera, The Young and the Restless. Marie - Charms Mishael Morgan was born in San Fernando, Trinidad and Tobago on July 15, 1986. Morgan is the daughter of Michael and Sharon (Lee) Morgan; she has an older sister, Maggris and a younger sister, Monique. When Morgan was 5 years old, her parents relocated the family to New York where Michael found work. However, thinking it would be safer, the family relocated to Toronto, Ontario, Canada and settled in Mississauga. She attended York University in Toronto, and later began her career on television. From 2008 to 2009 she had a recurring role in the Canadian teen drama series The Best Years, and later was regular cast member of YTV sitcom, Family Biz. In 2012 she had a recurring role in the CBC Television comedy - drama Republic of Doyle, and also appeared in small roles in films Casino Jack (2010) and Total Recall (2012). Morgan also guest - starred on Supernatural and The Listener. In 2014, Morgan also starred in The CW summer comedy series, Backpackers. In May 2013, Morgan was cast as Hilary Curtis in the CBS daytime soap opera, The Young and the Restless. On June 11, 2018, Morgan confirmed earlier reports that she would be leaving the soap. Morgan 's representation later confirmed that Morgan opted to leave after unsuccessful attempts to negotiate for a raise in salary. Morgan married Navid Ali in May 2012. Morgan gave birth to their first child, a son named Niam, on August 9, 2015. On July 19, 2015, her The Young and the Restless co-star, Christel Khalil co-hosted her baby shower. In July 2018, Morgan confirmed the couple is currently expecting their second child, a girl.

what are the basic requirement to connect internet

Internet access - Wikipedia Internet access is ability of individuals and organizations to connect to the Internet using computer terminals, computers, mobile devices; and to access services such as email and the World Wide Web. Various technologies, at a wide range of speeds have been used by Internet service providers (ISPs) to provide this service. Internet access was once rare, but has grown rapidly. In 1995, only. 04 percent of the world 's population had access, with well over half of those living in the United States, and consumer use was through dial - up. By the first decade of the 21st century, many consumers in developed nations used faster broadband technology, and by 2014, 41 percent of the world 's population had access, broadband was almost ubiquitous worldwide, and global average connection speeds exceeded 4 Mbit / s. The Internet developed from the ARPANET, which was funded by the US government to support projects within the government and at universities and research laboratories in the US -- but grew over time to include most of the world 's large universities and the research arms of many technology companies. Use by a wider audience only came in 1995 when restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic were lifted. In the early to mid-1980s, most Internet access was from personal computers and workstations directly connected to local area networks or from dial - up connections using modems and analog telephone lines. LANs typically operated at 10 Mbit / s, while modem data - rates grew from 1200 bit / s in the early 1980s, to 56 kbit / s by the late 1990s. Initially, dial - up connections were made from terminals or computers running terminal emulation software to terminal servers on LANs. These dial - up connections did not support end - to - end use of the Internet protocols and only provided terminal to host connections. The introduction of network access servers supporting the Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) and later the point - to - point protocol (PPP) extended the Internet protocols and made the full range of Internet services available to dial - up users; although slower, due to the lower data rates available using dial - up. Broadband Internet access, often shortened to just broadband, is simply defined as "Internet access that is always on, and faster than the traditional dial - up access '' and so covers a wide range of technologies. Broadband connections are typically made using a computer 's built in Ethernet networking capabilities, or by using a NIC expansion card. Most broadband services provide a continuous "always on '' connection; there is no dial - in process required, and it does not interfere with voice use of phone lines. Broadband provides improved access to Internet services such as: In the 1990s, the National Information Infrastructure initiative in the U.S. made broadband Internet access a public policy issue. In 2000, most Internet access to homes was provided using dial - up, while many businesses and schools were using broadband connections. In 2000 there were just under 150 million dial - up subscriptions in the 34 OECD countries and fewer than 20 million broadband subscriptions. By 2004, broadband had grown and dial - up had declined so that the number of subscriptions were roughly equal at 130 million each. In 2010, in the OECD countries, over 90 % of the Internet access subscriptions used broadband, broadband had grown to more than 300 million subscriptions, and dial - up subscriptions had declined to fewer than 30 million. The broadband technologies in widest use are ADSL and cable Internet access. Newer technologies include VDSL and optical fibre extended closer to the subscriber in both telephone and cable plants. Fibre - optic communication, while only recently being used in premises and to the curb schemes, has played a crucial role in enabling broadband Internet access by making transmission of information at very high data rates over longer distances much more cost - effective than copper wire technology. In areas not served by ADSL or cable, some community organizations and local governments are installing Wi - Fi networks. Wireless and satellite Internet are often used in rural, undeveloped, or other hard to serve areas where wired Internet is not readily available. Newer technologies being deployed for fixed (stationary) and mobile broadband access include WiMAX, LTE, and fixed wireless, e.g., Motorola Canopy. Starting in roughly 2006, mobile broadband access is increasingly available at the consumer level using "3G '' and "4G '' technologies such as HSPA, EV - DO, HSPA+, and LTE. In addition to access from home, school, and the workplace Internet access may be available from public places such as libraries and Internet cafes, where computers with Internet connections are available. Some libraries provide stations for physically connecting users ' laptops to local area networks (LANs). Wireless Internet access points are available in public places such as airport halls, in some cases just for brief use while standing. Some access points may also provide coin - operated computers. Various terms are used, such as "public Internet kiosk '', "public access terminal '', and "Web payphone ''. Many hotels also have public terminals, usually fee based. Coffee shops, shopping malls, and other venues increasingly offer wireless access to computer networks, referred to as hotspots, for users who bring their own wireless - enabled devices such as a laptop or PDA. These services may be free to all, free to customers only, or fee - based. A Wi - Fi hotspot need not be limited to a confined location since multiple ones combined can cover a whole campus or park, or even an entire city can be enabled. Additionally, Mobile broadband access allows smart phones and other digital devices to connect to the Internet from any location from which a mobile phone call can be made, subject to the capabilities of that mobile network. The bit rates for dial - up modems range from as little as 110 bit / s in the late 1950s, to a maximum of from 33 to 64 kbit / s (V. 90 and V. 92) in the late 1990s. Dial - up connections generally require the dedicated use of a telephone line. Data compression can boost the effective bit rate for a dial - up modem connection to from 220 (V. 42bis) to 320 (V. 44) kbit / s. However, the effectiveness of data compression is quite variable, depending on the type of data being sent, the condition of the telephone line, and a number of other factors. In reality, the overall data rate rarely exceeds 150 kbit / s. Broadband technologies supply considerably higher bit rates than dial - up, generally without disrupting regular telephone use. Various minimum data rates and maximum latencies have been used in definitions of broadband, ranging from 64 kbit / s up to 4.0 Mbit / s. In 1988 the CCITT standards body defined "broadband service '' as requiring transmission channels capable of supporting bit rates greater than the primary rate which ranged from about 1.5 to 2 Mbit / s. A 2006 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) report defined broadband as having download data transfer rates equal to or faster than 256 kbit / s. And in 2015 the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) defined "Basic Broadband '' as data transmission speeds of at least 25 Mbit / s downstream (from the Internet to the user 's computer) and 3 Mbit / s upstream (from the user 's computer to the Internet). The trend is to raise the threshold of the broadband definition as higher data rate services become available. The higher data rate dial - up modems and many broadband services are "asymmetric '' -- supporting much higher data rates for download (toward the user) than for upload (toward the Internet). Data rates, including those given in this article, are usually defined and advertised in terms of the maximum or peak download rate. In practice, these maximum data rates are not always reliably available to the customer. Actual end - to - end data rates can be lower due to a number of factors. In late June 2016, internet connection speeds averaged about 6 Mbit / s globally. Physical link quality can vary with distance and for wireless access with terrain, weather, building construction, antenna placement, and interference from other radio sources. Network bottlenecks may exist at points anywhere on the path from the end - user to the remote server or service being used and not just on the first or last link providing Internet access to the end - user. Users may share access over a common network infrastructure. Since most users do not use their full connection capacity all of the time, this aggregation strategy (known as contended service) usually works well and users can burst to their full data rate at least for brief periods. However, peer - to - peer (P2P) file sharing and high - quality streaming video can require high data - rates for extended periods, which violates these assumptions and can cause a service to become oversubscribed, resulting in congestion and poor performance. The TCP protocol includes flow - control mechanisms that automatically throttle back on the bandwidth being used during periods of network congestion. This is fair in the sense that all users that experience congestion receive less bandwidth, but it can be frustrating for customers and a major problem for ISPs. In some cases the amount of bandwidth actually available may fall below the threshold required to support a particular service such as video conferencing or streaming live video -- effectively making the service unavailable. When traffic is particularly heavy, an ISP can deliberately throttle back the bandwidth available to classes of users or for particular services. This is known as traffic shaping and careful use can ensure a better quality of service for time critical services even on extremely busy networks. However, overuse can lead to concerns about fairness and network neutrality or even charges of censorship, when some types of traffic are severely or completely blocked. An Internet blackout or outage can be caused by local signaling interruptions. Disruptions of submarine communications cables may cause blackouts or slowdowns to large areas, such as in the 2008 submarine cable disruption. Less - developed countries are more vulnerable due to a small number of high - capacity links. Land cables are also vulnerable, as in 2011 when a woman digging for scrap metal severed most connectivity for the nation of Armenia. Internet blackouts affecting almost entire countries can be achieved by governments as a form of Internet censorship, as in the blockage of the Internet in Egypt, whereby approximately 93 % of networks were without access in 2011 in an attempt to stop mobilization for anti-government protests. On April 25, 1997, due to a combination of human error and software bug, an incorrect routing table at MAI Network Service (a Virginia Internet Service Provider) propagated across backbone routers and caused major disruption to Internet traffic for a few hours. When the Internet is accessed using a modem, digital data is converted to analog for transmission over analog networks such as the telephone and cable networks. A computer or other device accessing the Internet would either be connected directly to a modem that communicates with an Internet service provider (ISP) or the modem 's Internet connection would be shared via a Local Area Network (LAN) which provides access in a limited area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, or office building. Although a connection to a LAN may provide very high data - rates within the LAN, actual Internet access speed is limited by the upstream link to the ISP. LANs may be wired or wireless. Ethernet over twisted pair cabling and Wi - Fi are the two most common technologies used to build LANs today, but ARCNET, Token Ring, Localtalk, FDDI, and other technologies were used in the past. Ethernet is the name of the IEEE 802.3 standard for physical LAN communication and Wi - Fi is a trade name for a wireless local area network (WLAN) that uses one of the IEEE 802.11 standards. Ethernet cables are interconnected via switches & routers. Wi - Fi networks are built using one or more wireless antenna called access points. Many "modems '' provide the additional functionality to host a LAN so most Internet access today is through a LAN, often a very small LAN with just one or two devices attached. And while LANs are an important form of Internet access, this raises the question of how and at what data rate the LAN itself is connected to the rest of the global Internet. The technologies described below are used to make these connections. The term broadband includes a broad range of technologies, all of which provide higher data rate access to the Internet. The following technologies use wires or cables in contrast to wireless broadband described later. Dial - up Internet access uses a modem and a phone call placed over the public switched telephone network (PSTN) to connect to a pool of modems operated by an ISP. The modem converts a computer 's digital signal into an analog signal that travels over a phone line 's local loop until it reaches a telephone company 's switching facilities or central office (CO) where it is switched to another phone line that connects to another modem at the remote end of the connection. Operating on a single channel, a dial - up connection monopolizes the phone line and is one of the slowest methods of accessing the Internet. Dial - up is often the only form of Internet access available in rural areas as it requires no new infrastructure beyond the already existing telephone network, to connect to the Internet. Typically, dial - up connections do not exceed a speed of 56 kbit / s, as they are primarily made using modems that operate at a maximum data rate of 56 kbit / s downstream (towards the end user) and 34 or 48 kbit / s upstream (toward the global Internet). Multilink dial - up provides increased bandwidth by channel bonding multiple dial - up connections and accessing them as a single data channel. It requires two or more modems, phone lines, and dial - up accounts, as well as an ISP that supports multilinking -- and of course any line and data charges are also doubled. This inverse multiplexing option was briefly popular with some high - end users before ISDN, DSL and other technologies became available. Diamond and other vendors created special modems to support multilinking. Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a switched telephone service capable of transporting voice and digital data, is one of the oldest Internet access methods. ISDN has been used for voice, video conferencing, and broadband data applications. ISDN was very popular in Europe, but less common in North America. Its use peaked in the late 1990s before the availability of DSL and cable modem technologies. Basic rate ISDN, known as ISDN - BRI, has two 64 kbit / s "bearer '' or "B '' channels. These channels can be used separately for voice or data calls or bonded together to provide a 128 kbit / s service. Multiple ISDN - BRI lines can be bonded together to provide data rates above 128 kbit / s. Primary rate ISDN, known as ISDN - PRI, has 23 bearer channels (64 kbit / s each) for a combined data rate of 1.5 Mbit / s (US standard). An ISDN E1 (European standard) line has 30 bearer channels and a combined data rate of 1.9 Mbit / s. Leased lines are dedicated lines used primarily by ISPs, business, and other large enterprises to connect LANs and campus networks to the Internet using the existing infrastructure of the public telephone network or other providers. Delivered using wire, optical fiber, and radio, leased lines are used to provide Internet access directly as well as the building blocks from which several other forms of Internet access are created. T - carrier technology dates to 1957 and provides data rates that range from 56 and 64 kbit / s (DS0) to 1.5 Mbit / s (DS1 or T1), to 45 Mbit / s (DS3 or T3). A T1 line carries 24 voice or data channels (24 DS0s), so customers may use some channels for data and others for voice traffic or use all 24 channels for clear channel data. A DS3 (T3) line carries 28 DS1 (T1) channels. Fractional T1 lines are also available in multiples of a DS0 to provide data rates between 56 and 1,500 kbit / s. T - carrier lines require special termination equipment that may be separate from or integrated into a router or switch and which may be purchased or leased from an ISP. In Japan the equivalent standard is J1 / J3. In Europe, a slightly different standard, E-carrier, provides 32 user channels (64 kbit / s) on an E1 (2.0 Mbit / s) and 512 user channels or 16 E1s on an E3 (34.4 Mbit / s). Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET, in the U.S. and Canada) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH, in the rest of the world) are the standard multiplexing protocols used to carry high - data - rate digital bit - streams over optical fiber using lasers or highly coherent light from light - emitting diodes (LEDs). At lower transmission rates data can also be transferred via an electrical interface. The basic unit of framing is an OC - 3c (optical) or STS - 3c (electrical) which carries 155.520 Mbit / s. Thus an OC - 3c will carry three OC - 1 (51.84 Mbit / s) payloads each of which has enough capacity to include a full DS3. Higher data rates are delivered in OC - 3c multiples of four providing OC - 12c (622.080 Mbit / s), OC - 48c (2.488 Gbit / s), OC - 192c (9.953 Gbit / s), and OC - 768c (39.813 Gbit / s). The "c '' at the end of the OC labels stands for "concatenated '' and indicates a single data stream rather than several multiplexed data streams. The 1, 10, 40, and 100 gigabit Ethernet (GbE, 10 GbE, 40 / 100 GbE) IEEE standards (802.3) allow digital data to be delivered over copper wiring at distances to 100 m and over optical fiber at distances to 40 km. Cable Internet provides access using a cable modem on hybrid fiber coaxial wiring originally developed to carry television signals. Either fiber - optic or coaxial copper cable may connect a node to a customer 's location at a connection known as a cable drop. In a cable modem termination system, all nodes for cable subscribers in a neighborhood connect to a cable company 's central office, known as the "head end. '' The cable company then connects to the Internet using a variety of means -- usually fiber optic cable or digital satellite and microwave transmissions. Like DSL, broadband cable provides a continuous connection with an ISP. Downstream, the direction toward the user, bit rates can be as much as 400 Mbit / s for business connections, and 250 Mbit / s for residential service in some countries. Upstream traffic, originating at the user, ranges from 384 kbit / s to more than 20 Mbit / s. Broadband cable access tends to service fewer business customers because existing television cable networks tend to service residential buildings and commercial buildings do not always include wiring for coaxial cable networks. In addition, because broadband cable subscribers share the same local line, communications may be intercepted by neighboring subscribers. Cable networks regularly provide encryption schemes for data traveling to and from customers, but these schemes may be thwarted. Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) service provides a connection to the Internet through the telephone network. Unlike dial - up, DSL can operate using a single phone line without preventing normal use of the telephone line for voice phone calls. DSL uses the high frequencies, while the low (audible) frequencies of the line are left free for regular telephone communication. These frequency bands are subsequently separated by filters installed at the customer 's premises. DSL originally stood for "digital subscriber loop ''. In telecommunications marketing, the term digital subscriber line is widely understood to mean Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL), the most commonly installed variety of DSL. The data throughput of consumer DSL services typically ranges from 256 kbit / s to 20 Mbit / s in the direction to the customer (downstream), depending on DSL technology, line conditions, and service - level implementation. In ADSL, the data throughput in the upstream direction, (i.e. in the direction to the service provider) is lower than that in the downstream direction (i.e. to the customer), hence the designation of asymmetric. With a symmetric digital subscriber line (SDSL), the downstream and upstream data rates are equal. Very - high - bit - rate digital subscriber line (VDSL or VHDSL, ITU G. 993.1) is a digital subscriber line (DSL) standard approved in 2001 that provides data rates up to 52 Mbit / s downstream and 16 Mbit / s upstream over copper wires and up to 85 Mbit / s down - and upstream on coaxial cable. VDSL is capable of supporting applications such as high - definition television, as well as telephone services (voice over IP) and general Internet access, over a single physical connection. VDSL2 (ITU - T G. 993.2) is a second - generation version and an enhancement of VDSL. Approved in February 2006, it is able to provide data rates exceeding 100 Mbit / s simultaneously in both the upstream and downstream directions. However, the maximum data rate is achieved at a range of about 300 meters and performance degrades as distance and loop attenuation increases. DSL Rings (DSLR) or Bonded DSL Rings is a ring topology that uses DSL technology over existing copper telephone wires to provide data rates of up to 400 Mbit / s. Fiber - to - the - home (FTTH) is one member of the Fiber - to - the - x (FTTx) family that includes Fiber - to - the - building or basement (FTTB), Fiber - to - the - premises (FTTP), Fiber - to - the - desk (FTTD), Fiber - to - the - curb (FTTC), and Fiber - to - the - node (FTTN). These methods all bring data closer to the end user on optical fibers. The differences between the methods have mostly to do with just how close to the end user the delivery on fiber comes. All of these delivery methods are similar to hybrid fiber - coaxial (HFC) systems used to provide cable Internet access. The use of optical fiber offers much higher data rates over relatively longer distances. Most high - capacity Internet and cable television backbones already use fiber optic technology, with data switched to other technologies (DSL, cable, POTS) for final delivery to customers. Australia began rolling out its National Broadband Network across the country using fiber - optic cables to 93 percent of Australian homes, schools, and businesses. The project was abandoned by the subsequent LNP government, in favour of a hybrid FTTN design, which turned out to be more expensive and introduced delays. Similar efforts are underway in Italy, Canada, India, and many other countries (see Fiber to the premises by country). Power - line Internet, also known as Broadband over power lines (BPL), carries Internet data on a conductor that is also used for electric power transmission. Because of the extensive power line infrastructure already in place, this technology can provide people in rural and low population areas access to the Internet with little cost in terms of new transmission equipment, cables, or wires. Data rates are asymmetric and generally range from 256 kbit / s to 2.7 Mbit / s. Because these systems use parts of the radio spectrum allocated to other over-the - air communication services, interference between the services is a limiting factor in the introduction of power - line Internet systems. The IEEE P1901 standard specifies that all power - line protocols must detect existing usage and avoid interfering with it. Power - line Internet has developed faster in Europe than in the U.S. due to a historical difference in power system design philosophies. Data signals can not pass through the step - down transformers used and so a repeater must be installed on each transformer. In the U.S. a transformer serves a small cluster of from one to a few houses. In Europe, it is more common for a somewhat larger transformer to service larger clusters of from 10 to 100 houses. Thus a typical U.S. city requires an order of magnitude more repeaters than in a comparable European city. Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and Frame Relay are wide - area networking standards that can be used to provide Internet access directly or as building blocks of other access technologies. For example, many DSL implementations use an ATM layer over the low - level bitstream layer to enable a number of different technologies over the same link. Customer LANs are typically connected to an ATM switch or a Frame Relay node using leased lines at a wide range of data rates. While still widely used, with the advent of Ethernet over optical fiber, MPLS, VPNs and broadband services such as cable modem and DSL, ATM and Frame Relay no longer play the prominent role they once did. Wireless broadband is used to provide both fixed and mobile Internet access with the following technologies. Satellite Internet access provides fixed, portable, and mobile Internet access. Data rates range from 2 kbit / s to 1 Gbit / s downstream and from 2 kbit / s to 10 Mbit / s upstream. In the northern hemisphere, satellite antenna dishes require a clear line of sight to the southern sky, due to the equatorial position of all geostationary satellites. In the southern hemisphere, this situation is reversed, and dishes are pointed north. Service can be adversely affected by moisture, rain, and snow (known as rain fade). The system requires a carefully aimed directional antenna. Satellites in geostationary Earth orbit (GEO) operate in a fixed position 35,786 km (22,236 miles) above the Earth 's equator. At the speed of light (about 300,000 km / s or 186,000 miles per second), it takes a quarter of a second for a radio signal to travel from the Earth to the satellite and back. When other switching and routing delays are added and the delays are doubled to allow for a full round - trip transmission, the total delay can be 0.75 to 1.25 seconds. This latency is large when compared to other forms of Internet access with typical latencies that range from 0.015 to 0.2 seconds. Long latencies negatively affect some applications that require real - time response, particularly online games, voice over IP, and remote control devices. TCP tuning and TCP acceleration techniques can mitigate some of these problems. GEO satellites do not cover the Earth 's polar regions. HughesNet, Exede, AT&T and Dish Network have GEO systems. Satellites in low Earth orbit (LEO, below 2000 km or 1243 miles) and medium Earth orbit (MEO, between 2000 and 35,786 km or 1,243 and 22,236 miles) are less common, operate at lower altitudes, and are not fixed in their position above the Earth. Lower altitudes allow lower latencies and make real - time interactive Internet applications more feasible. LEO systems include Globalstar and Iridium. The O3b Satellite Constellation is a proposed MEO system with a latency of 125 ms. COMMStellation TM is a LEO system, scheduled for launch in 2015, that is expected to have a latency of just 7 ms. Mobile broadband is the marketing term for wireless Internet access delivered through mobile phone towers to computers, mobile phones (called "cell phones '' in North America and South Africa, and "hand phones '' in Asia), and other digital devices using portable modems. Some mobile services allow more than one device to be connected to the Internet using a single cellular connection using a process called tethering. The modem may be built into laptop computers, tablets, mobile phones, and other devices, added to some devices using PC cards, USB modems, and USB sticks or dongles, or separate wireless modems can be used. New mobile phone technology and infrastructure is introduced periodically and generally involves a change in the fundamental nature of the service, non-backwards - compatible transmission technology, higher peak data rates, new frequency bands, wider channel frequency bandwidth in Hertz becomes available. These transitions are referred to as generations. The first mobile data services became available during the second generation (2G). The download (to the user) and upload (to the Internet) data rates given above are peak or maximum rates and end users will typically experience lower data rates. WiMAX was originally developed to deliver fixed wireless service with wireless mobility added in 2005. CDPD, CDMA2000 EV - DO, and MBWA are no longer being actively developed. In 2011, 90 % of the world 's population lived in areas with 2G coverage, while 45 % lived in areas with 2G and 3G coverage. Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) is a set of interoperable implementations of the IEEE 802.16 family of wireless - network standards certified by the WiMAX Forum. WiMAX enables "the delivery of last mile wireless broadband access as an alternative to cable and DSL ''. The original IEEE 802.16 standard, now called "Fixed WiMAX '', was published in 2001 and provided 30 to 40 megabit - per - second data rates. Mobility support was added in 2005. A 2011 update provides data rates up to 1 Gbit / s for fixed stations. WiMax offers a metropolitan area network with a signal radius of about 50 km (30 miles), far surpassing the 30 - metre (100 - foot) wireless range of a conventional Wi - Fi local area network (LAN). WiMAX signals also penetrate building walls much more effectively than Wi - Fi. Wireless Internet service providers (WISPs) operate independently of mobile phone operators. WISPs typically employ low - cost IEEE 802.11 Wi - Fi radio systems to link up remote locations over great distances (Long - range Wi - Fi), but may use other higher - power radio communications systems as well. Traditional 802.11 a / b / g / n / ac is an unlicensed omnidirectional service designed to span between 100 and 150 m (300 to 500 ft). By focusing the radio signal using a directional antenna (where allowed by regulations), 802.11 can operate reliably over a distance of many km (miles), although the technology 's line - of - sight requirements hamper connectivity in areas with hilly or heavily foliated terrain. In addition, compared to hard - wired connectivity, there are security risks (unless robust security protocols are enabled); data rates are usually slower (2 to 50 times slower); and the network can be less stable, due to interference from other wireless devices and networks, weather and line - of - sight problems. With the increasing popularity of unrelated consumer devices operating on the same 2.4 GHz band, many providers have migrated to the 5GHz ISM band. If the service provider holds the necessary spectrum license, it could also reconfigure various brands of off the shelf Wi - Fi hardware to operate on its own band instead of the crowded unlicensed ones. Using higher frequencies carries various advantages: Proprietary technologies like Motorola Canopy & Expedience can be used by a WISP to offer wireless access to rural and other markets that are hard to reach using Wi - Fi or WiMAX. There are a number of companies that provide this service. Local Multipoint Distribution Service (LMDS) is a broadband wireless access technology that uses microwave signals operating between 26 GHz and 29 GHz. Originally designed for digital television transmission (DTV), it is conceived as a fixed wireless, point - to - multipoint technology for utilization in the last mile. Data rates range from 64 kbit / s to 155 Mbit / s. Distance is typically limited to about 1.5 miles (2.4 km), but links of up to 5 miles (8 km) from the base station are possible in some circumstances. LMDS has been surpassed in both technological and commercial potential by the LTE and WiMAX standards. Deploying multiple adjacent Wi - Fi access points is sometimes used to create city - wide wireless networks. It is usually ordered by the local municipality from commercial WISPs. Grassroots efforts have also led to wireless community networks widely deployed at numerous countries, both developing and developed ones. Rural wireless - ISP installations are typically not commercial in nature and are instead a patchwork of systems built up by hobbyists mounting antennas on radio masts and towers, agricultural storage silos, very tall trees, or whatever other tall objects are available. Where radio spectrum regulation is not community - friendly, the channels are crowded or when equipment can not be afforded by local residents, free - space optical communication can also be deployed in a similar manner for point to point transmission in air (rather than in fiber optic cable). Packet radio connects computers or whole networks operated by radio amateurs with the option to access the Internet. Note that as per the regulatory rules outlined in the HAM license, Internet access and e-mail should be strictly related to the activities of hardware amateurs. The term, a tongue - in - cheek play on net (work) as in Internet or Ethernet, refers to the wearing of sneakers as the transport mechanism for the data. For those who do not have access to or can not afford broadband at home, downloading large files and disseminating information is done by transmission through workplace or library networks, taken home and shared with neighbors by sneakernet. There are various decentralized, delay tolerant peer to peer applications which aim to fully automate this using any available interface, including both wireless (Bluetooth, Wi - Fi mesh, P2P or hotspots) and physically connected ones (USB storage, ethernet, etc.). Sneakernets may also be used in tandem with computer network data transfer to increase data security or overall throughput for big data use cases. Innovation continues in the area to this day, for example AWS has recently announced Snowball, and bulk data processing is also done in a similar fashion by many research institutes and government agencies. Internet access is limited by the relation between pricing and available resources to spend. Regarding the latter, it is estimated that 40 % of the world 's population has less than US $20 per year available to spend on information and communications technology (ICT). In Mexico, the poorest 30 % of the society counts with an estimated US $35 per year (US $3 per month) and in Brazil, the poorest 22 % of the population counts with merely US $9 per year to spend on ICT (US $0.75 per month). From Latin America it is known that the borderline between ICT as a necessity good and ICT as a luxury good is roughly around the "magical number '' of US $10 per person per month, or US $120 per year. This is the amount of ICT spending people esteem to be a basic necessity. Current Internet access prices exceed the available resources by large in many countries. Dial - up users pay the costs for making local or long distance phone calls, usually pay a monthly subscription fee, and may be subject to additional per minute or traffic based charges, and connect time limits by their ISP. Though less common today than in the past, some dial - up access is offered for "free '' in return for watching banner ads as part of the dial - up service. NetZero, BlueLight, Juno, Freenet (NZ), and Free - nets are examples of services providing free access. Some Wireless community networks continue the tradition of providing free Internet access. Fixed broadband Internet access is often sold under an "unlimited '' or flat rate pricing model, with price determined by the maximum data rate chosen by the customer, rather than a per minute or traffic based charge. Per minute and traffic based charges and traffic caps are common for mobile broadband Internet access. Internet services like Facebook, Wikipedia and Google have built special programs to partner with mobile network operators (MNO) to introduce zero - rating the cost for their data volumes as a means to provide their service more broadly into developing markets. With increased consumer demand for streaming content such as video on demand and peer - to - peer file sharing, demand for bandwidth has increased rapidly and for some ISPs the flat rate pricing model may become unsustainable. However, with fixed costs estimated to represent 80 -- 90 % of the cost of providing broadband service, the marginal cost to carry additional traffic is low. Most ISPs do not disclose their costs, but the cost to transmit a gigabyte of data in 2011 was estimated to be about $0.03. Some ISPs estimate that a small number of their users consume a disproportionate portion of the total bandwidth. In response some ISPs are considering, are experimenting with, or have implemented combinations of traffic based pricing, time of day or "peak '' and "off peak '' pricing, and bandwidth or traffic caps. Others claim that because the marginal cost of extra bandwidth is very small with 80 to 90 percent of the costs fixed regardless of usage level, that such steps are unnecessary or motivated by concerns other than the cost of delivering bandwidth to the end user. In Canada, Rogers Hi - Speed Internet and Bell Canada have imposed bandwidth caps. In 2008 Time Warner began experimenting with usage - based pricing in Beaumont, Texas. In 2009 an effort by Time Warner to expand usage - based pricing into the Rochester, New York area met with public resistance, however, and was abandoned. On August 1, 2012 in Nashville, Tennessee and on October 1, 2012 in Tucson, Arizona Comcast began tests that impose data caps on area residents. In Nashville exceeding the 300 Gbyte cap mandates a temporary purchase of 50 Gbytes of additional data. Despite its tremendous growth, Internet access is not distributed equally within or between countries. The digital divide refers to "the gap between people with effective access to information and communications technology (ICT), and those with very limited or no access ''. The gap between people with Internet access and those without is one of many aspects of the digital divide. Whether someone has access to the Internet can depend greatly on financial status, geographical location as well as government policies. "Low - income, rural, and minority populations have received special scrutiny as the technological "have - nots. '' Government policies play a tremendous role in bringing Internet access to or limiting access for underserved groups, regions, and countries. For example, in Pakistan, which is pursuing an aggressive IT policy aimed at boosting its drive for economic modernization, the number of Internet users grew from 133,900 (0.1 % of the population) in 2000 to 31 million (17.6 % of the population) in 2011. In North Korea there is relatively little access to the Internet due to the governments ' fear of political instability that might accompany the benefits of access to the global Internet. The U.S. trade embargo is a barrier limiting Internet access in Cuba. Access to computers is a dominant factor in determining the level of Internet access. In 2011, in developing countries, 25 % of households had a computer and 20 % had Internet access, while in developed countries the figures were 74 % of households had a computer and 71 % had Internet access. The majority of people in developing countries do not have Internet access. (1) About 4 billion people do not have Internet access. (2) When buying computers was legalized in Cuba in 2007, the private ownership of computers soared (there were 630,000 computers available on the island in 2008, a 23 % increase over 2007). Internet access has changed the way in which many people think and has become an integral part of peoples economic, political, and social lives. The United Nations has recognized that providing Internet access to more people in the world will allow them to take advantage of the "political, social, economic, educational, and career opportunities '' available over the Internet. Several of the 67 principles adopted at the World Summit on the Information Society convened by the United Nations in Geneva in 2003, directly address the digital divide. To promote economic development and a reduction of the digital divide, national broadband plans have been and are being developed to increase the availability of affordable high - speed Internet access throughout the world. Access to the Internet grew from an estimated 10 million people in 1993, to almost 40 million in 1995, to 670 million in 2002, and to 2.7 billion in 2013. With market saturation, growth in the number of Internet users is slowing in industrialized countries, but continues in Asia, Africa, Latin America, the Caribbean, and the Middle East. There were roughly 0.6 billion fixed broadband subscribers and almost 1.2 billion mobile broadband subscribers in 2011. In developed countries people frequently use both fixed and mobile broadband networks. In developing countries mobile broadband is often the only access method available. Traditionally the divide has been measured in terms of the existing numbers of subscriptions and digital devices ("have and have - not of subscriptions ''). Recent studies have measured the digital divide not in terms of technological devices, but in terms of the existing bandwidth per individual (in kbit / s per capita). As shown in the Figure on the side, the digital divide in kbit / s is not monotonically decreasing, but re-opens up with each new innovation. For example, "the massive diffusion of narrow - band Internet and mobile phones during the late 1990s '' increased digital inequality, as well as "the initial introduction of broadband DSL and cable modems during 2003 -- 2004 increased levels of inequality ''. This is because a new kind of connectivity is never introduced instantaneously and uniformly to society as a whole at once, but diffuses slowly through social networks. As shown by the Figure, during the mid-2000s, communication capacity was more unequally distributed than during the late 1980s, when only fixed - line phones existed. The most recent increase in digital equality stems from the massive diffusion of the latest digital innovations (i.e. fixed and mobile broadband infrastructures, e.g. 3G and fiber optics FTTH). As shown in the Figure, Internet access in terms of bandwidth is more unequally distributed in 2014 as it was in the mid-1990s. In the United States, billions of dollars have been invested in efforts to narrow the digital divide and bring Internet access to more people in low - income and rural areas of the United States. Internet availability varies widely state by state in the U.S. In 2011 for example, 87.1 % of all New Hampshire residents lived in a household where Internet was available, ranking first in the nation. Meanwhile, 61.4 % of all Mississippi residents lived in a household where Internet was available, ranking last in the nation. The Obama administration continued this commitment to narrowing the digital divide through the use of stimulus funding. The National Center for Education Statistics reported that 98 % of all U.S. classroom computers had Internet access in 2008 with roughly one computer with Internet access available for every three students. The percentage and ratio of students to computers was the same for rural schools (98 % and 1 computer for every 2.9 students). One of the great challenges for Internet access in general and for broadband access in particular is to provide service to potential customers in areas of low population density, such as to farmers, ranchers, and small towns. In cities where the population density is high, it is easier for a service provider to recover equipment costs, but each rural customer may require expensive equipment to get connected. While 66 % of Americans had an Internet connection in 2010, that figure was only 50 % in rural areas, according to the Pew Internet & American Life Project. Virgin Media advertised over 100 towns across the United Kingdom "from Cwmbran to Clydebank '' that have access to their 100 Mbit / s service. Wireless Internet Service Provider (WISPs) are rapidly becoming a popular broadband option for rural areas. The technology 's line - of - sight requirements may hamper connectivity in some areas with hilly and heavily foliated terrain. However, the Tegola project, a successful pilot in remote Scotland, demonstrates that wireless can be a viable option. The Broadband for Rural Nova Scotia initiative is the first program in North America to guarantee access to "100 % of civic addresses '' in a region. It is based on Motorola Canopy technology. As of November 2011, under 1000 households have reported access problems. Deployment of a new cell network by one Canopy provider (Eastlink) was expected to provide the alternative of 3G / 4G service, possibly at a special unmetered rate, for areas harder to serve by Canopy. In New Zealand, a fund has been formed by the government to improve rural broadband, and mobile phone coverage. Current proposals include: (a) extending fibre coverage and upgrading copper to support VDSL, (b) focussing on improving the coverage of cellphone technology, or (c) regional wireless. The actions, statements, opinions, and recommendations outlined below have led to the suggestion that Internet access itself is or should become a civil or perhaps a human right. Several countries have adopted laws requiring the state to work to ensure that Internet access is broadly available and / or preventing the state from unreasonably restricting an individual 's access to information and the Internet: In December 2003, the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) was convened under the auspice of the United Nations. After lengthy negotiations between governments, businesses and civil society representatives the WSIS Declaration of Principles was adopted reaffirming the importance of the Information Society to maintaining and strengthening human rights: The WSIS Declaration of Principles makes specific reference to the importance of the right to freedom of expression in the "Information Society '' in stating: A poll of 27,973 adults in 26 countries, including 14,306 Internet users, conducted for the BBC World Service between 30 November 2009 and 7 February 2010 found that almost four in five Internet users and non-users around the world felt that access to the Internet was a fundamental right. 50 % strongly agreed, 29 % somewhat agreed, 9 % somewhat disagreed, 6 % strongly disagreed, and 6 % gave no opinion. The 88 recommendations made by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in a May 2011 report to the Human Rights Council of the United Nations General Assembly include several that bear on the question of the right to Internet access: Network neutrality (also net neutrality, Internet neutrality, or net equality) is the principle that Internet service providers and governments should treat all data on the Internet equally, not discriminating or charging differentially by user, content, site, platform, application, type of attached equipment, or mode of communication. Advocates of net neutrality have raised concerns about the ability of broadband providers to use their last mile infrastructure to block Internet applications and content (e.g. websites, services, and protocols), and even to block out competitors. Opponents claim net neutrality regulations would deter investment into improving broadband infrastructure and try to fix something that is n't broken. In April 2017, a recent attempt to compromise net neutrality in the United States is being considered by the newly appointed FCC chairman, Ajit Varadaraj Pai. Natural disasters disrupt internet access in profound ways. This is important -- not only for telecommunication companies who own the networks and the businesses who use them, but for emergency crew and displaced citizens as well. The situation is worsened when hospitals or other buildings necessary to disaster response lose their connection. Knowledge gained from studying past internet disruptions by natural disasters could be put to use in planning or recovery. Additionally, because of both natural and man - made disasters, studies in network resiliency are now being conducted to prevent large - scale outages. One way natural disasters impact internet connection is by damaging end sub-networks (subnets), making them unreachable. A study on local networks after Hurricane Katrina found that 26 % of subnets within the storm coverage were unreachable. At Hurricane Katrina 's peak intensity, almost 35 % of networks in Mississippi were without power, while around 14 % of Louisiana 's networks were disrupted. Of those unreachable subnets, 73 % were disrupted for four weeks or longer and 57 % were at "network edges where important emergency organizations such as hospitals and government agencies are mostly located ''. Extensive infrastructure damage and inaccessible areas were two explanations for the long delay in returning service. The company Cisco has revealed a Network Emergency Response Vehicle (NERV), a truck that makes portable communications possible for emergency responders despite traditional networks being disrupted. A second way natural disasters destroy internet connectivity is by severing submarine cables -- fiber - optic cables placed on the ocean floor that provide international internet connection. A sequence of undersea earthquakes cut six out of seven international cables connected to that country and caused a tsunami that wiped out one of its cable and landing stations. The impact slowed or disabled internet connection for five days within the Asia - Pacific region as well as between the region and the United States and Europe. With the rise in popularity of cloud computing, concern has grown over access to cloud - hosted data in the event of a natural disaster. Amazon Web Services (AWS) has been in the news for major network outages in April 2011 and June 2012. AWS, like other major cloud hosting companies, prepares for typical outages and large - scale natural disasters with backup power as well as backup data centers in other locations. AWS divides the globe into five regions and then splits each region into availability zones. A data center in one availability zone should be backed up by a data center in a different availability zone. Theoretically, a natural disaster would not affect more than one availability zone. This theory plays out as long as human error is not added to the mix. The June 2012 major storm only disabled the primary data center, but human error disabled the secondary and tertiary backups, affecting companies such as Netflix, Pinterest, Reddit, and Instagram.

what is ansi and what does it do

American National standards Institute - Wikipedia The American National Standards Institute (ANSI, / ˈænsi / AN - see) is a private non-profit organization that oversees the development of voluntary consensus standards for products, services, processes, systems, and personnel in the United States. The organization also coordinates U.S. standards with international standards so that American products can be used worldwide. ANSI accredits standards that are developed by representatives of other standards organizations, government agencies, consumer groups, companies, and others. These standards ensure that the characteristics and performance of products are consistent, that people use the same definitions and terms, and that products are tested the same way. ANSI also accredits organizations that carry out product or personnel certification in accordance with requirements defined in international standards. The organization 's headquarters are in Washington, D.C. ANSI 's operations office is located in New York City. The ANSI annual operating budget is funded by the sale of publications, membership dues and fees, accreditation services, fee - based programs, and international standards programs. ANSI was originally formed in 1918, when five engineering societies and three government agencies founded the American Engineering Standards Committee (AESC). In 1928, the AESC became the American Standards Association (ASA). In 1966, the ASA was reorganized and became United States of America Standards Institute (USASI). The present name was adopted in 1969. Prior to 1918, these five founding engineering societies: had been members of the United Engineering Society (UES). At the behest of the AIEE, they invited the U.S. government Departments of War, Navy (combined in 1947 to become the Department of Defense or DOD) and Commerce to join in founding a national standards organization. According to Adam Stanton, the first permanent secretary and head of staff in 1919, AESC started as an ambitious program and little else. Staff for the first year consisted of one executive, Clifford B. LePage, who was on loan from a founding member, ASME. An annual budget of $7,500 was provided by the founding bodies. In 1931, the organization (renamed ASA in 1928) became affiliated with the U.S. National Committee of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), which had been formed in 1904 to develop electrical and electronics standards. ANSI 's members are government agencies, organizations, academic and international bodies, and individuals. In total, the Institute represents the interests of more than 270,000 companies and organizations and 30 million professionals worldwide. Though ANSI itself does not develop standards, the Institute oversees the development and use of standards by accrediting the procedures of standards developing organizations. ANSI accreditation signifies that the procedures used by standards developing organizations meet the Institute 's requirements for openness, balance, consensus, and due process. ANSI also designates specific standards as American National Standards, or ANS, when the Institute determines that the standards were developed in an environment that is equitable, accessible and responsive to the requirements of various stakeholders. Voluntary consensus standards quicken the market acceptance of products while making clear how to improve the safety of those products for the protection of consumers. There are approximately 9,500 American National Standards that carry the ANSI designation. The American National Standards process involves: In addition to facilitating the formation of standards in the United States, ANSI promotes the use of U.S. standards internationally, advocates U.S. policy and technical positions in international and regional standards organizations, and encourages the adoption of international standards as national standards where appropriate. The Institute is the official U.S. representative to the two major international standards organizations, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), as a founding member, and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), via the U.S. National Committee (USNC). ANSI participates in almost the entire technical program of both the ISO and the IEC, and administers many key committees and subgroups. In many instances, U.S. standards are taken forward to ISO and IEC, through ANSI or the USNC, where they are adopted in whole or in part as international standards. Adoption of ISO and IEC standards as American standards increased from 0.2 % in 1986 to 15.5 % in May 2012. The Institute administers nine standards panels: Each of the panels works to identify, coordinate, and harmonize voluntary standards relevant to these areas. In 2009, ANSI and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) formed the Nuclear Energy Standards Coordination Collaborative (NESCC). NESCC is a joint initiative to identify and respond to the current need for standards in the nuclear industry.

who has been fired from the grand ole opry

Grand Ole Opry - wikipedia The Grand Ole Opry is a weekly country - music stage concert in Nashville, Tennessee, which was founded on November 28, 1925, by George D. Hay as a one - hour radio "barn dance '' on WSM. Currently owned and operated by Opry Entertainment (a division of Ryman Hospitality Properties, Inc.), it is the longest - running radio broadcast in US history, albeit not the longest - running one on a radio network. Dedicated to honoring country music and its history, the Opry showcases a mix of famous singers and contemporary chart - toppers performing country, bluegrass, Americana, folk, gospel, and comedic performances and skits. It attracts hundreds of thousands of visitors from around the world and millions of radio and Internet listeners. The Opry 's current primary slogan is "The Show that Made Country Music Famous ''. Other slogans include "Home of American Music '' and "Country 's Most Famous Stage ''. In the 1930s the show began hiring professionals and expanded to four hours; and WSM, broadcasting by then with 50,000 watts, made the program a Saturday night musical tradition in nearly 30 states. In 1939, it debuted nationally on NBC Radio. The Opry moved to a permanent home, the Ryman Auditorium, in 1943. As it developed in importance, so did the city of Nashville, which became America 's "country music capital ''. The Grand Ole Opry holds such significance in Nashville that its name is included on the city / county line signs on all major roadways. The signs read "Music City Metropolitan Nashville Davidson County Home of the Grand Ole Opry ''. Membership in the Opry remains one of country music 's crowning achievements. Such country music legends as Hank Williams, Johnny Cash, Patsy Cline, Marty Robbins, Roy Acuff, the Carter family, Bill Monroe, Ernest Tubb, Kitty Wells, and Minnie Pearl became regulars on the Opry 's stage. In recent decades, the Opry has hosted such contemporary country stars as Dolly Parton, Loretta Lynn, Alan Jackson, Garth Brooks, Reba McEntire, Josh Turner, Carrie Underwood, Brad Paisley, Rascal Flatts, Dierks Bentley, Little Big Town, Blake Shelton, Chris Young, and Ricky Skaggs. Since 1974, the show has been broadcast from the Grand Ole Opry House east of downtown Nashville, with an annual three - month winter foray back to the Ryman since 1999. Performances have been sporadically televised in addition to the radio programs. The Grand Ole Opry started as the WSM Barn Dance in the new fifth - floor radio studio of the National Life & Accident Insurance Company in downtown Nashville on November 28, 1925. On October 18, 1925, management began a program featuring "Dr. Humphrey Bate and his string quartet of old - time musicians. '' On November 2, WSM hired long - time announcer and program director George D. "Judge '' Hay, an enterprising pioneer from the National Barn Dance program at WLS in Chicago, who was also named the most popular radio announcer in America as a result of his radio work with both WLS and WMC in Memphis, Tennessee. Hay launched the WSM Barn Dance with 77 - year - old fiddler Uncle Jimmy Thompson on November 28, 1925, which is celebrated as the birth date of the Grand Ole Opry. Some of the bands regularly on the show during its early days included Bill Monroe, the Possum Hunters (with Dr. Humphrey Bate), the Fruit Jar Drinkers with Uncle Dave Macon, the Crook Brothers, the Binkley Brothers ' Dixie Clodhoppers, Sid Harkreader, Deford Bailey, Fiddlin ' Arthur Smith, and the Gully Jumpers. Judge Hay, however, liked the Fruit Jar Drinkers and asked them to appear last on each show because he wanted to always close each segment with "red hot fiddle playing ''. They were the second band accepted on Barn Dance, with the Crook Brothers being the first. When the Opry began having square dancers on the show, the Fruit Jar Drinkers always played for them. In 1926, Uncle Dave Macon, a Tennessee banjo player who had recorded several songs and toured the vaudeville circuit, became its first real star. The phrase "Grand Ole Opry '' was first uttered on the air on December 10, 1927. At the time, Barn Dance followed the NBC Red Network 's Music Appreciation Hour, a program of classical music and selections from grand opera presented by classical conductor Walter Damrosch. On that particular night, Damrosch had remarked that "there is no place in the classics for realism. '' In response, Opry presenter George Hay said: Friends, the program which just came to a close was devoted to the classics. Doctor Damrosch told us that there is no place in the classics for realism. However, from here on out for the next three hours, we will present nothing but realism. It will be down to earth for the "earthy ''. Hay then introduced DeFord Bailey, the man he had dubbed the "Harmonica Wizard '', saying: For the past hour, we have been listening to music taken largely from Grand Opera. From now on, we will present the "Grand Ole Opry ''. Bailey then stepped up to the mic to play "The Pan-American Blues, '' his song inspired by the Pan-American, a premier L&N Railroad passenger train. As audiences for the live show increased, National Life & Accident Insurance 's radio venue became too small to accommodate the hordes of fans. They built a larger studio, but it was still not large enough. After several months with no audiences, National Life decided to allow the show to move outside its home offices. In October 1934, the Opry moved into then - suburban Hillsboro Theatre (now the Belcourt); and then on June 13, 1936, to the Dixie Tabernacle in East Nashville. The Opry then moved to the War Memorial Auditorium, a downtown venue adjacent to the State Capitol. A 25 - cent admission was charged to try to curb the large crowds, but to no avail. On June 5, 1943, the Opry moved to the Ryman Auditorium. Top - charting country music acts performed during the Ryman years, including Roy Acuff, called the King of Country Music, Hank Williams, Webb Pierce, Faron Young, Martha Carson, Lefty Frizzell, and many others. One hour of the Opry was nationally - broadcast by the NBC Red Network from 1939 to 1956; for much of its run, it aired one hour after the program that had inspired it, National Barn Dance. The NBC segment, originally known by the name of its sponsor, The Prince Albert Show, was first hosted by Acuff, who was succeeded by Red Foley from 1946 to 1954. From October 15, 1955 to September 1956, ABC - TV aired a live, hour - long television version once a month on Saturday nights (sponsored by Ralston - Purina), pre-empting one hour of the then - 90 - minute Ozark Jubilee. From 1955 to 1957, Al Gannaway owned and produced both The Country Show and Stars of the Grand Ole Opry, filmed programs syndicated by Flamingo Films. Gannaway 's Stars of the Grand Ole Opry was the first television show shot in color. On October 2, 1954, a teenage Elvis Presley made his only Opry performance. Although the audience reacted politely to his revolutionary brand of rockabilly music, after the show Opry manager Jim Denny told Presley 's producer Sam Phillips that the singer 's style did not suit the program. In the 1960s, as the hippie counterculture movement spread, the Opry maintained a strait - laced, conservative image with "longhairs '' not being featured on the show. The Byrds were a notable exception. Country rock pioneer Gram Parsons, who at that time was a member of The Byrds, was in Nashville to work on the band 's country rock album, Sweetheart of the Rodeo. The band 's record label, Columbia Records, had arranged for The Byrds to be allowed to perform at the Ryman on March 15, 1968, a prospect that thrilled Parsons. However, when the band took the stage the audience 's response was immediately hostile, resulting in derisive heckling, booing and mocking calls of "tweet, tweet '' and "cut your hair '' The Byrds further outraged the Opry establishment by breaking with accepted protocol when they performed Parsons ' song "Hickory Wind '' instead of the Merle Haggard song "Life in Prison '', as had been announced by Tompall Glaser. Another artist that ran afoul of the Opry 's stringent standards was Jerry Lee Lewis, who, after several years of success on the country charts, made his first and only appearance on the show on January 20, 1973. Given two conditions for his appearance (no rock and roll and no profanity), Lewis proceeded to disregard both (referring to himself as a certain unairable maternal insult at one point) and, in a continuous 40 - minute set, played a mixture of his rock and roll hits and covers of other singers ' country songs. Lewis was said to be bitter about how he was treated when he first arrived in Nashville in 1955 and supposedly used his Opry appearance to exact revenge on the Nashville music industry. The Ryman Auditorium was home to the Opry until 1974. By the late 1960s, National Life & Accident desired a new, larger and more modern home for the long - running radio show. Ryman Auditorium, already 51 years old at the time the Opry moved there, was beginning to suffer from disrepair as the downtown neighborhood around it fell victim to increasing urban decay. Despite these shortcomings, the show 's popularity was increasing and its weekly crowds were outgrowing the 3,000 - seat venue. The Opry 's operators were seeking to build a new air - conditioned theatre with a greater capacity, ample parking, and the ability to easily serve as a television production facility. The ideal location would be in a less urbanized area of town, providing visitors a more controlled, safer, and more enjoyable experience. National Life & Accident purchased farmland owned by a local sausage manufacturer (Rudy 's Farm) in the Pennington Bend area of Nashville, nine miles east of downtown, and adjacent to the newly constructed Briley Parkway. The new Opry venue was to be the centerpiece of a grand entertainment complex at that location, which would later come to include Opryland USA Theme Park and Opryland Hotel. The theme park opened to the public on June 30, 1972, well ahead of the 4,000 - seat Opry House, which debuted nearly two years later, on Saturday, March 16, 1974. Opening night was attended by sitting U.S. President Richard Nixon, who played a few songs on the piano. To carry on the tradition of the show 's run at the Ryman, a six - foot circle of oak was cut from the corner of the Ryman 's stage and inlaid into center stage at the new venue. The artists on stage usually stand on the circle as they perform. While the theme park was closed and demolished following the 1997 season, the Grand Ole Opry House remains in use. The immediate area around it was left intact through the construction of Opry Mills, which opened in May 2000. The Opry continues to be performed every Tuesday, Friday and Saturday at the Grand Ole Opry House from March through November each year. The Grand Ole Opry House was added to the National Register of Historic Places on January 27, 2015. Following the departure of the Opry, Ryman Auditorium sat mostly vacant and decaying for twenty years. An initial effort by National Life & Accident to tear down the Ryman and use its bricks to build a chapel at Opryland USA was met with resounding resistance from the public, including the influential musicians of the time. The plans were abandoned, and the building remained standing with an uncertain future. Despite the absence of performances, the building still held such significance as an attraction that it would remain open for tours. In 1991 and 1992, Emmylou Harris performed a series of concerts there and released some of the recordings as an album entitled At the Ryman. The concert and album 's high acclaim renewed interest in reviving Ryman Auditorium as an active venue. Beginning in September 1993, Gaylord Entertainment undertook a full renovation of the Ryman, restoring it into a world - class concert hall that reopened with a broadcast of A Prairie Home Companion on June 4, 1994. On Sunday, October 18, 1998, the Opry held a benefit show at Ryman Auditorium, marking its return to the venue for the first time since its final show on March 15, 1974. The show was well received by fans, performers, and management alike, and so the decision was made to host the Opry 's regular shows there on January 15 & 16, 1999 as part of the celebration to commemorate 25 years at the new venue. Beginning in November 1999, the Opry was held at Ryman Auditorium for three months, partly due to the ongoing construction of Opry Mills. The Opry has returned to the Ryman for the three winter months every year since, allowing the show to acknowledge its roots while also taking advantage of a smaller venue during an off - peak season for tourism. While still officially the Grand Ole Opry, the shows there are billed as Opry At The Ryman. From 2002 to 2014, a traveling version of the Radio City Christmas Spectacular took up residence at the Grand Ole Opry House each holiday season while the Opry was away. It was replaced by Dr. Seuss ' How the Grinch Stole Christmas! The Musical beginning in 2015. In May 2010, the Opry House was flooded, along with much of Nashville, due to the Cumberland River overflowing its banks. While repairs were made, the Opry itself remained uninterrupted. Over the course of the summer of 2010, the broadcast temporarily originated from alternate venues in Nashville, with Ryman Auditorium hosting the majority of the shows. Other venues included the TPAC War Memorial Auditorium, another former Opry home; TPAC 's Andrew Jackson Hall; Nashville Municipal Auditorium; Allen Arena at Lipscomb University; and the Two Rivers Baptist Church. Much of the auditorium 's main floor seating, the backstage areas and the entire stage (including the inlaid circle of wood from the Ryman 's stage) was underwater during the flood. While the Grand Ole Opry House 's stage was replaced thereafter, the Ryman circle was restored and again placed at center stage in the Grand Ole Opry House before shows resumed. The remediation following the flood also resulted in a renovated backstage area, including the construction of more dressing rooms and a performer 's lounge. The Opry returned to the Grand Ole Opry House on September 28, 2010 in a special edition of the Opry entitled Country Comes Home that was televised live on Great American Country. The evening was filled with one - of - a-kind Opry moments. Martina McBride and Connie Smith dueted on Smith 's signature hit "Once a Day '', and other collaborations included Dierks Bentley and Del McCoury ("Roll On Buddy, Roll On ''), Josh Turner and Lorrie Morgan ("Golden Ring ''), and Montgomery Gentry and Charlie Daniels Band ("Devil Went Down To Georgia ''), among others. The show closed with an all - star guitar jam featuring Brad Paisley, Keith Urban, Steve Wariner, Ricky Skaggs, and Marty Stuart. The Grand Ole Opry is broadcast live on WSM - AM at 7 p.m. CT on Saturday nights, shortened from a previous time start of 6: 30. A similar program, the Friday Night Opry, airs live on Friday nights. From February through December, the Tuesday Night Opry is also aired live. Wednesday shows are typically presented in the summer months. The length of the show varies; as of October 2016, the show runs three nights a week for 21⁄4 hours each night (the Saturday night shows have often extended as late as midnight). The Opry can also be heard live on Willie 's Roadhouse on channel 59 on Sirius XM Satellite Radio. A condensed radio program, America 's Opry Weekend, is syndicated to stations around the United States. The program is also streamed on WSM 's website. ABC broadcast the Grand Old Opry as a monthly series from 1955 to 1956. PBS televised annual live performances from 1978 to 1981. In 1985, The Nashville Network began airing an edited half - hour version of the program as Grand Ole Opry Live; the show moved to Country Music Television (expanding to an hour in the process), and then to the Great American Country (GAC) cable network with its Opry Live show no longer televised. RFD - TV carries reruns of Opry telecasts under the title Opry Encore. Regular performers at the Grand Ole Opry can be inducted into the organization as a member, by way of an existing member nominating them. Opry membership must be maintained throughout an artist 's career and expires when the performer dies. Although a number of legendary country artists either lost their Opry membership (such as Hank Williams, Sr. and Willie Nelson) or never received it in their lifetimes (longtime leading hitmakers Merle Haggard, George Strait, and Conway Twitty being prominent examples), receiving Opry membership is considered an honor equivalent to a hall of fame induction. In April 1963 Opry management made a rule that members had to perform on at least 26 shows a year to keep their membership active. WSM dropped the number of required performances to 20 in January 1964; in 2000 the minimum number of Opry performances was at 12. The minimum number of performances has reduced over the years, but artists offered membership are expected to show a dedication to the Opry with frequent attendance. Another controversy that raged for years was over allowable instrumentation, especially the use of drums and electrically amplified instruments. Some purists were appalled at the prospect; traditionally a string bass provided the rhythm component in country music and percussion instruments were seldom used. Electric amplification, then new, was regarded as the province of popular music and jazz in 1940s. Though the Opry allowed electric guitars and steel guitars by World War II, the restrictions against drums and horns continued. They caused a conflict when Bob Wills and Pee Wee King defied the show 's ban on drums. The company has enforced its trademark on the name "Grand Ole Opry '', for which it owns trademark registrations in the United States and in numerous countries around the world.It has taken court action to limit use of the word "opry '' (which the organization has not directly trademarked) to members of the Opry and products associated with or licensed by it, and to discourage use of the word in ways that would imply a connection to the Grand Ole Opry. In late 1968, for instance, WSM sued Opry Records, a record label that was independent of WSM, and the court stated that "the record is replete with newspaper and magazine articles and clippings which demonstrate conclusively that the term ' Opry ', standing alone as defendant has used it, is constantly used in country and western music circles in referring to plaintiff 's ' Grand Ole Opry '. '' The court also stated "the defendant has appropriated, at its peril, the dominant or salient term in the plaintiff 's mark, a term which identified the ' Grand Ole Opry ' in the mind of the public many years before the inception of ' Opry Records ' -- the name adopted by defendant. '' In another case, the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board granted summary judgment that the term "Opry '' is a generic term (and thus no more protected than the words "Grand '' or "Ole '') but the Federal Circuit court reversed this decision. As recently as 2009, the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board granted judgment against Texas Opry House, LLC, which had filed a trademark application for TEXAS OPRY HOUSE. In 2004, it was announced that the Grand Ole Opry had contracted for the first time with a "presenting sponsor '', Cracker Barrel, and the sponsoring company 's name would be associated with Grand Ole Opry in all its advertising. Humana, Inc., Cracker Barrel, and Dollar General are the present sponsors of the Opry.

who played princess summer fall winter spring on howdy doody

Judy Tyler - wikipedia Judy Tyler (born Judith Mae Hess; October 9, 1932 -- July 3, 1957) was an American actress. Born Judith Mae Hess in Milwaukee, she came from a show business family and was encouraged to study dance and acting. Her acting career began as a teenager with regular appearances on Howdy Doody as Princess Summerfall Winterspring from 1950 to 1953. Like her mother, she became a chorus girl, but then went on to land a starring role in the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical Pipe Dream. Life did a story on rising Broadway talent with Tyler on the magazine 's cover as one of the up - and - coming stars. She lived with her parents in Teaneck, New Jersey while appearing on Howdy Doody and Broadway. Offered an opportunity in Hollywood, Tyler appeared in the film Bop Girl Goes Calypso (1957), then starred opposite Elvis Presley in Jailhouse Rock (1957). She made a guest appearance on Perry Mason as Irene Kilby in "The Case of the Fan Dancer 's Horse '', which aired on December 28, 1957, nearly six months after her death. After completing filming of the Presley movie, she and her second husband, Gregory Lafayette (born Earl Gregory Nisonger Jr. on January 23, 1938 in New York City) left Hollywood to return to their home in New York. While driving through Wyoming on July 3, 1957, they were involved in an automobile accident on U.S. Route 287 near Rock River. She was killed instantly, aged 24, and her husband died the following day, aged 19. A passenger in the other car was killed as well. Police said Lafayette swerved to avoid hitting a car that was towing a trailer, and collided with the other vehicle involved in the crash. Tyler 's cremated remains are in the private family room of her husband in the mausoleum in Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York.

how much oil does europe get from russia

Russia in the European energy sector - wikipedia The Russian Federation supplies a significant volume of fossil fuels and is the largest exporter of oil and natural gas to the European Union. In 2007, the European Union imported from Russia 185 million tonnes of crude oil, which accounted for 32.6 % of total oil import, and 100.7 million tonnes of oil equivalent of natural gas, which accounted 38.7 % of total gas import. The Urengoy -- Pomary -- Uzhgorod pipeline was constructed in 1982 -- 1984 with Western financing to provide Soviet gas to the Western European market. The Russian state - owned company Gazprom exports natural gas to Europe. It also controls a large number of subsidiaries, including various infrastructure assets. According to the study published by the Research Centre for East European Studies, the liberalization of the EU gas market has driven Gazprom 's expansion in Europe by increasing its share in the European downstream market. It has established sale subsidiaries in many of its export markets, and has also invested in access to industrial and power generation sectors in Western and Central Europe. In addition, Gazprom has established joint ventures to build natural gas pipelines and storage depots in a number of European countries. Transneft, a Russian state - owned company responsible for the national oil pipelines, is another Russian company supplying energy to Europe. In September 2012 the European Commission has opened formal proceedings to investigate whether Gazprom is hindering competition in Central and Eastern European gas markets, in breach of EU competition law. In particular, the Commission is looking into Gazprom 's usage of ' no resale ' clauses in supply contracts, alleged prevention of diversification of gas supplies, and imposition of unfair pricing by linking oil and gas prices in long - term contracts. The Russian Federation responded by issuing a blocking legislation, which introduced a default rule prohibiting Russian strategic firms, including Gazprom, to comply with any foreign measures or requests. Compliance is made subject to a prior permission granted by the Russian government. In the early 1980s there were American efforts, led by the Reagan administration, to convince European countries through which a proposed Soviet gas pipeline was to be built to deny firms responsible for construction the ability to purchase supplies and parts for the pipeline and associated facilities. The pipeline was built despite these protests and the rise of large Russian gas firms such as Gazprom as well as increased Russian fossil fuel production has facilitated a large expansion in the quantity of gas supplied to the European market since the 1990s. In 2007, 38.7 % of the European Union 's natural gas total imports and 24.3 % of consumed natural gas originated from Russia. As of 2009, Russian natural gas was delivered to Europe through 12 pipelines, of which three were direct pipelines (to Finland, Estonia and Latvia), four through Belarus (to Lithuania and Poland) and five through Ukraine (to Slovakia, Romania, Hungary and Poland). In 2011, an additional pipeline, Nord Stream (directly to Germany through the Baltic Sea), opened. The largest importers of Russian gas in the European Union are Germany and Italy, accounting together for almost half of the EU gas imports from Russia. Other larger Russian gas importers (over 5 billion cubic meter per year) in the European Union are France, Hungary, Czech Republic, Poland, Austria and Slovakia. The largest non-EU importers of Russian natural gas are Ukraine, Turkey and Belarus. According to the European Commission, the share of Russian natural gas in the member states ' domestic gas consumption in 2007 was the following: The shares of Russian natural gas in the domestic gas consumption in non-EU countries in Europe were in 2006: At the same time, the variety of national policies and stances of larger exporters versus larger dependents of Russian gas, together with the segmentation of the European gas market, has become a prominent issue in European politics toward Russia, with significant geopolitical implications for economic and political ties between the EU and Russia. These ties have occasionally led to calls for greater European energy diversity, although such efforts are complicated by the fact that many European customers have long term legal contracts for gas deliveries despite the disputes, most of which stretch beyond 2025 -- 2030. A number of disputes in which Russia was using pipeline shutdowns in what was described as "tool for intimidation and blackmail '' caused European Union to significantly increase efforts to diversify its energy sources. Part of the aim of the Energy Union is to diversify the EU 's gas supplies away from Russia, which has already proved to be an unreliable partner, first in 2006 and then in 2009, and which threatened to become one again at the outbreak of the conflict in Ukraine in 2013 - 2014. During an anti-trust investigation initiated in 2011 against Gazprom a number of internal company documents were seized that documented a number of "abusive practices '' in an attempt to "segment the internal (EU) market along national borders '' and impose "unfair pricing ''.

when did the roman empire reached its peak

Roman Empire - Wikipedia Mediolanum (286 -- 402, Western) Augusta Treverorum Sirmium Ravenna (402 -- 476, Western) Nicomedia (286 -- 330, Eastern) Constantinople (330 -- 1453, Eastern) Syracuse (663 -- 669, Eastern) The Roman Empire (Latin: Imperium Rōmānum; Classical Latin: (ɪmˈpɛ. ri. ũː roːˈmaː. nũː) Koine and Medieval Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, tr. Basileia tōn Rhōmaiōn) was the post-Roman Republic period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterized by government headed by emperors and large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe, Africa and Asia. The city of Rome was the largest city in the world c. 100 BC -- c. AD 400, with Constantinople (New Rome) becoming the largest around AD 500, and the Empire 's populace grew to an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants (roughly 20 % of the world 's population at the time). The 500 - year - old republic which preceded it was severely destabilized in a series of civil wars and political conflict, during which Julius Caesar was appointed as perpetual dictator and then assassinated in 44 BC. Civil wars and executions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesar 's adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of Egypt. Octavian 's power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power and the new title Augustus, effectively marking the end of the Roman Republic. The imperial period of Rome lasted approximately 1,500 years compared to the 500 years of the Republican era. The first two centuries of the empire 's existence were a period of unprecedented political stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana, or "Roman Peace ''. Following Octavian 's victory, the size of the empire was dramatically increased. After the assassination of Caligula in AD 41, the Senate briefly considered restoring the republic, but the Praetorian Guard proclaimed Claudius emperor instead. Under Claudius, the empire invaded Britannia, its first major expansion since Augustus. After Claudius ' successor, Nero, committed suicide in AD 68, the empire suffered a series of brief civil wars, as well as a concurrent major rebellion in Judea, during which four different legionary generals were proclaimed emperor. Vespasian emerged triumphant in AD 69, establishing the Flavian dynasty, before being succeeded by his son Titus, who opened the Colosseum shortly after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. His short reign was followed by the long reign of his brother Domitian, who was eventually assassinated. The Senate then appointed the first of the Five Good Emperors. The empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan, the second in this line. A period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus. Commodus ' assassination in 192 triggered the Year of the Five Emperors, of which Septimius Severus emerged victorious. The assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 led to the Crisis of the Third Century in which 26 men were declared emperor by the Roman Senate over a fifty - year time span. It was not until the reign of Diocletian that the empire was fully stabilized with the introduction of the Tetrarchy, which saw four emperors rule the empire at once. This arrangement was ultimately unsuccessful, leading to a civil war that was finally ended by Constantine the Great, who defeated his rivals and became the sole ruler of the empire in 324. Constantine subsequently established a second capital city in Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. It remained the capital of the east until its demise. Constantine also adopted Christianity which later became the official state religion of the empire. Following the death of Theodosius I in 395, the empire was permanently divided between the West and the East. The dominion of the Western Roman Empire was gradually eroded by abuses of power, civil wars, barbarian migrations and invasions, military reforms and economic depression. The Sack of Rome in 410 by the Visigoths and again in 455 by the Vandals accelerated the Western Empire 's decay, while the deposition of the emperor, Romulus Augustulus, in 476 by Odoacer, is generally accepted to mark the end of the empire in the west. However, Augustulus was never recognized by his Eastern colleague, and separate rule in the Western part of the empire only ceased to exist upon the death of Julius Nepos, in 480. The Eastern Roman Empire (in modern historiography called the Byzantine Empire) endured for another millennium as one of the leading powers in the world alongside its arch - rival the Sassanid Empire, which had inherited a centuries - old Roman - Persian conflict from its predecessor the Parthians. It eventually fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The Roman Empire was among the most powerful economic, cultural, political and military forces in the world of its time. It was one of the largest empires in world history. At its height under Trajan, it covered 5 million square kilometres. It held sway over an estimated 70 million people, at that time 21 % of the world 's entire population. The longevity and vast extent of the empire ensured the lasting influence of Latin and Greek language, culture, religion, inventions, architecture, philosophy, law and forms of government on the empire 's descendants. Throughout the European medieval period, attempts were even made to establish successors to the Roman Empire, including the Empire of Romania, a Crusader state; and the Holy Roman Empire. By means of European colonialism following the Renaissance, and their descendant states, Greco - Roman and Judaeo - Christian culture was exported on a worldwide scale, playing a crucial role in the development of the modern world. Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the republic in the 6th century BC, though it did not expand outside the Italian Peninsula until the 3rd century BC. Then, it was an "empire '' long before it had an emperor. The Roman Republic was not a nation - state in the modern sense, but a network of towns left to rule themselves (though with varying degrees of independence from the Roman Senate) and provinces administered by military commanders. It was ruled, not by emperors, but by annually elected magistrates (Roman Consuls above all) in conjunction with the senate. For various reasons, the 1st century BC was a time of political and military upheaval, which ultimately led to rule by emperors. The consuls ' military power rested in the Roman legal concept of imperium, which literally means "command '' (though typically in a military sense). Occasionally, successful consuls were given the honorary title imperator (commander), and this is the origin of the word emperor (and empire) since this title (among others) was always bestowed to the early emperors upon their accession. Rome suffered a long series of internal conflicts, conspiracies and civil wars from the late second century BC onwards, while greatly extending its power beyond Italy. This was the period of the Crisis of the Roman Republic. Towards the end of this era, in 44 BC, Julius Caesar was briefly perpetual dictator before being assassinated. The faction of his assassins was driven from Rome and defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC by an army led by Mark Antony and Caesar 's adopted son Octavian. Antony and Octavian 's division of the Roman world between themselves did not last and Octavian 's forces defeated those of Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. In 27 BC the Senate and People of Rome made Octavian princeps ("first citizen '') with proconsular imperium, thus beginning the Principate (the first epoch of Roman imperial history, usually dated from 27 BC to AD 284), and gave him the name "Augustus '' ("the venerated ''). Though the old constitutional machinery remained in place, Augustus came to predominate it. Although the republic stood in name, contemporaries of Augustus knew it was just a veil and that Augustus had all meaningful authority in Rome. Since his rule ended a century of civil wars and began an unprecedented period of peace and prosperity, he was so loved that he came to hold the power of a monarch de facto if not de jure. During the years of his rule, a new constitutional order emerged (in part organically and in part by design), so that, upon his death, this new constitutional order operated as before when Tiberius was accepted as the new emperor. The 200 years that began with Augustus 's rule is traditionally regarded as the Pax Romana ("Roman Peace ''). During this period, the cohesion of the empire was furthered by a degree of social stability and economic prosperity that Rome had never before experienced. Uprisings in the provinces were infrequent, but put down "mercilessly and swiftly '' when they occurred. The sixty years of Jewish -- Roman wars in the second half of the 1st century and the first half of the 2nd century were exceptional in their duration and violence. The success of Augustus in establishing principles of dynastic succession was limited by his outliving a number of talented potential heirs. The Julio - Claudian dynasty lasted for four more emperors -- Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero -- before it yielded in 69 AD to the strife - torn Year of Four Emperors, from which Vespasian emerged as victor. Vespasian became the founder of the brief Flavian dynasty, to be followed by the Nerva -- Antonine dynasty which produced the "Five Good Emperors '': Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and the philosophically - inclined Marcus Aurelius. In the view of the Greek historian Dio Cassius, a contemporary observer, the accession of the emperor Commodus in 180 AD marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron '' -- a famous comment which has led some historians, notably Edward Gibbon, to take Commodus ' reign as the beginning of the decline of the Roman Empire. In 212, during the reign of Caracalla, Roman citizenship was granted to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire. But despite this gesture of universality, the Severan dynasty was tumultuous -- an emperor 's reign was ended routinely by his murder or execution -- and, following its collapse, the Roman Empire was engulfed by the Crisis of the Third Century, a period of invasions, civil strife, economic disorder, and plague. In defining historical epochs, this crisis is sometimes viewed as marking the transition from Classical Antiquity to Late Antiquity. Aurelian (reigned 270 -- 275) brought the empire back from the brink and stabilized it. Diocletian completed the work of fully restoring the empire, but declined the role of princeps and became the first emperor to be addressed regularly as domine, "master '' or "lord ''. This marked the end of the Principate, and the beginning of the Dominate. Diocletian 's reign also brought the empire 's most concerted effort against the perceived threat of Christianity, the "Great Persecution ''. The state of absolute monarchy that began with Diocletian endured until the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire in 1453. Diocletian divided the empire into four regions, each ruled by a separate emperor, the Tetrarchy. Confident that he fixed the disorders that were plaguing Rome, he abdicated along with his co-emperor, and the Tetrarchy soon collapsed. Order was eventually restored by Constantine the Great, who became the first emperor to convert to Christianity, and who established Constantinople as the new capital of the eastern empire. During the decades of the Constantinian and Valentinian dynasties, the empire was divided along an east -- west axis, with dual power centres in Constantinople and Rome. The reign of Julian, who attempted to restore Classical Roman and Hellenistic religion, only briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors. Theodosius I, the last emperor to rule over both East and West, died in 395 AD after making Christianity the official religion of the empire. The Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate in the early 5th century as Germanic migrations and invasions overwhelmed the capacity of the Empire to assimilate the migrants and fight off the invaders. The Romans were successful in fighting off all invaders, most famously Attila, though the empire had assimilated so many Germanic peoples of dubious loyalty to Rome that the empire started to dismember itself. Most chronologies place the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476, when Romulus Augustulus was forced to abdicate to the Germanic warlord Odoacer. By placing himself under the rule of the Eastern Emperor, rather than naming himself Emperor (as other Germanic chiefs had done after deposing past emperors), Odoacer ended the Western Empire by ending the line of Western emperors. The empire in the East -- often known as the Byzantine Empire, but referred to in its time as the Roman Empire or by various other names -- had a different fate. It survived for almost a millennium after the fall of its Western counterpart and became the most stable Christian realm during the Middle Ages. During the 6th century, Justinian I reconquered Northern Africa and Italy. But within a few years of Justinian 's death, Byzantine possessions in Italy were greatly reduced by the Lombards who settled in the peninsula. In the east, partially resulting from the destructive Plague of Justinian, the Romans were threatened by the rise of Islam, whose followers rapidly conquered the territories of Syria, Armenia and Egypt during the Byzantine - Arab Wars, and soon presented a direct threat to Constantinople. In the following century, the Arabs also captured southern Italy and Sicily. Slavic populations were also able to penetrate deep into the Balkans. The Romans, however, managed to stop further Islamic expansion into their lands during the 8th century and, beginning in the 9th century, reclaimed parts of the conquered lands. In 1000 AD, the Eastern Empire was at its height: Basil II reconquered Bulgaria and Armenia, culture and trade flourished. However, soon after, the expansion was abruptly stopped in 1071 with the Byzantine defeat in the Battle of Manzikert. The aftermath of this important battle sent the empire into a protracted period of decline. Two decades of internal strife and Turkic invasions ultimately paved the way for Emperor Alexios I Komnenos to send a call for help to the Western European kingdoms in 1095. The West responded with the Crusades, eventually resulting in the Sack of Constantinople by participants in the Fourth Crusade. The conquest of Constantinople in 1204 fragmented what remained of the Empire into successor states, the ultimate victor being that of Nicaea. After the recapture of Constantinople by Imperial forces, the Empire was little more than a Greek state confined to the Aegean coast. The Roman Empire finally collapsed when Mehmed the Conqueror conquered Constantinople on 29 May 1453. The Roman Empire was one of the largest in history, with contiguous territories throughout Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. The Latin phrase imperium sine fine ("empire without end '') expressed the ideology that neither time nor space limited the Empire. In Vergil 's epic poem the Aeneid, limitless empire is said to be granted to the Romans by their supreme deity Jupiter. This claim of universal dominion was renewed and perpetuated when the Empire came under Christian rule in the 4th century. In reality, Roman expansion was mostly accomplished under the Republic, though parts of northern Europe were conquered in the 1st century AD, when Roman control in Europe, Africa and Asia was strengthened. During the reign of Augustus, a "global map of the known world '' was displayed for the first time in public at Rome, coinciding with the composition of the most comprehensive work on political geography that survives from antiquity, the Geography of the Pontic Greek writer Strabo. When Augustus died, the commemorative account of his achievements (Res Gestae) prominently featured the geographical cataloguing of peoples and places within the Empire. Geography, the census, and the meticulous keeping of written records were central concerns of Roman Imperial administration. The Empire reached its largest expanse under Trajan (reigned 98 -- 117), encompassing an area of 5 million square kilometres. The traditional population estimate of 55 -- 60 million inhabitants accounted for between one - sixth and one - fourth of the world 's total population and made it the largest population of any unified political entity in the West until the mid-19th century. Recent demographic studies have argued for a population peak ranging from 70 million to more than 100 million. Each of the three largest cities in the Empire -- Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch -- was almost twice the size of any European city at the beginning of the 17th century. As the historian Christopher Kelly has described it: Then the empire stretched from Hadrian 's Wall in drizzle - soaked northern England to the sun - baked banks of the Euphrates in Syria; from the great Rhine -- Danube river system, which snaked across the fertile, flat lands of Europe from the Low Countries to the Black Sea, to the rich plains of the North African coast and the luxuriant gash of the Nile Valley in Egypt. The empire completely circled the Mediterranean... referred to by its conquerors as mare nostrum -- ' our sea '. Trajan 's successor Hadrian adopted a policy of maintaining rather than expanding the empire. Borders (fines) were marked, and the frontiers (limites) patrolled. The most heavily fortified borders were the most unstable. Hadrian 's Wall, which separated the Roman world from what was perceived as an ever - present barbarian threat, is the primary surviving monument of this effort. The language of the Romans was Latin, which Virgil emphasizes as a source of Roman unity and tradition. Until the time of Alexander Severus (reigned 222 -- 235), the birth certificates and wills of Roman citizens had to be written in Latin. Latin was the language of the law courts in the West and of the military throughout the Empire, but was not imposed officially on peoples brought under Roman rule. This policy contrasts with that of Alexander the Great, who aimed to impose Greek throughout his empire as the official language. As a consequence of Alexander 's conquests, koine Greek had become the shared language around the eastern Mediterranean and into Asia Minor. The "linguistic frontier '' dividing the Latin West and the Greek East passed through the Balkan peninsula. Romans who received an elite education studied Greek as a literary language, and most men of the governing classes could speak Greek. The Julio - Claudian emperors encouraged high standards of correct Latin (Latinitas), a linguistic movement identified in modern terms as Classical Latin, and favoured Latin for conducting official business. Claudius tried to limit the use of Greek, and on occasion revoked the citizenship of those who lacked Latin, but even in the Senate he drew on his own bilingualism in communicating with Greek - speaking ambassadors. Suetonius quotes him as referring to "our two languages ''. In the Eastern empire, laws and official documents were regularly translated into Greek from Latin. The everyday interpenetration of the two languages is indicated by bilingual inscriptions, which sometimes even switch back and forth between Greek and Latin. After all freeborn inhabitants of the empire were universally enfranchised in 212 AD, a great number of Roman citizens would have lacked Latin, though they were expected to acquire at least a token knowledge, and Latin remained a marker of "Romanness. '' Among other reforms, the emperor Diocletian (reigned 284 -- 305) sought to renew the authority of Latin, and the Greek expression hē kratousa dialektos attests to the continuing status of Latin as "the language of power. '' In the early 6th century, the emperor Justinian engaged in a quixotic effort to reassert the status of Latin as the language of law, even though in his time Latin no longer held any currency as a living language in the East. References to interpreters indicate the continuing use of local languages other than Greek and Latin, particularly in Egypt, where Coptic predominated, and in military settings along the Rhine and Danube. Roman jurists also show a concern for local languages such as Punic, Gaulish, and Aramaic in assuring the correct understanding and application of laws and oaths. In the province of Africa, Libyco - Berber and Punic were used in inscriptions and for legends on coins during the time of Tiberius (1st century AD). Libyco - Berber and Punic inscriptions appear on public buildings into the 2nd century, some bilingual with Latin. In Syria, Palmyrene soldiers even used their dialect of Aramaic for inscriptions, in a striking exception to the rule that Latin was the language of the military. The Babatha Archive is a suggestive example of multilingualism in the Empire. These papyri, named for a Jewish woman in the province of Arabia and dating from 93 to 132 AD, mostly employ Aramaic, the local language, written in Greek characters with Semitic and Latin influences; a petition to the Roman governor, however, was written in Greek. The dominance of Latin among the literate elite may obscure the continuity of spoken languages, since all cultures within the Roman Empire were predominantly oral. In the West, Latin, referred to in its spoken form as Vulgar Latin, gradually replaced Celtic and Italic languages that were related to it by a shared Indo - European origin. Commonalities in syntax and vocabulary facilitated the adoption of Latin. After the decentralization of political power in late antiquity, Latin developed locally into branches that became the Romance languages, such as Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian and Romanian, and a large number of minor languages and dialects. Today, more than 900 million people are native speakers worldwide. As an international language of learning and literature, Latin itself continued as an active medium of expression for diplomacy and for intellectual developments identified with Renaissance humanism up to the 17th century, and for law and the Roman Catholic Church to the present. Although Greek continued as the language of the Byzantine Empire, linguistic distribution in the East was more complex. A Greek - speaking majority lived in the Greek peninsula and islands, western Anatolia, major cities, and some coastal areas. Like Greek and Latin, the Thracian language was of Indo - European origin, as were several now - extinct languages in Anatolia attested by Imperial - era inscriptions. Albanian is often seen as the descendant of Illyrian, although this hypothesis has been challenged by some linguists, who maintain that it derives from Dacian or Thracian. (Illyrian, Dacian, and Thracian, however, may have formed a subgroup or a Sprachbund; see Thraco - Illyrian.) Various Afroasiatic languages -- primarily Coptic in Egypt, and Aramaic in Syria and Mesopotamia -- were never replaced by Greek. The international use of Greek, however, was one factor enabling the spread of Christianity, as indicated for example by the use of Greek for the Epistles of Paul. The Roman Empire was remarkably multicultural, with "a rather astonishing cohesive capacity '' to create a sense of shared identity while encompassing diverse peoples within its political system over a long span of time. The Roman attention to creating public monuments and communal spaces open to all -- such as forums, amphitheatres, racetracks and baths -- helped foster a sense of "Romanness ''. Roman society had multiple, overlapping social hierarchies that modern concepts of "class '' in English may not represent accurately. The two decades of civil war from which Augustus rose to sole power left traditional society in Rome in a state of confusion and upheaval, but did not affect an immediate redistribution of wealth and social power. From the perspective of the lower classes, a peak was merely added to the social pyramid. Personal relationships -- patronage, friendship (amicitia), family, marriage -- continued to influence the workings of politics and government, as they had in the Republic. By the time of Nero, however, it was not unusual to find a former slave who was richer than a freeborn citizen, or an equestrian who exercised greater power than a senator. The blurring or diffusion of the Republic 's more rigid hierarchies led to increased social mobility under the Empire, both upward and downward, to an extent that exceeded that of all other well - documented ancient societies. Women, freedmen, and slaves had opportunities to profit and exercise influence in ways previously less available to them. Social life in the Empire, particularly for those whose personal resources were limited, was further fostered by a proliferation of voluntary associations and confraternities (collegia and sodalitates) formed for various purposes: professional and trade guilds, veterans ' groups, religious sodalities, drinking and dining clubs, performing arts troupes, and burial societies. Infanticide has been recorded in the Roman Empire and may have been widespread. According to the jurist Gaius, the essential distinction in the Roman "law of persons '' was that all human beings were either free (liberi) or slaves (servi). The legal status of free persons might be further defined by their citizenship. Most citizens held limited rights (such as the ius Latinum, "Latin right ''), but were entitled to legal protections and privileges not enjoyed by those who lacked citizenship. Free people not considered citizens, but living within the Roman world, held status as peregrini, non-Romans. In 212 AD, by means of the edict known as the Constitutio Antoniniana, the emperor Caracalla extended citizenship to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire. This legal egalitarianism would have required a far - reaching revision of existing laws that had distinguished between citizens and non-citizens. Freeborn Roman women were considered citizens throughout the Republic and Empire, but did not vote, hold political office, or serve in the military. A mother 's citizen status determined that of her children, as indicated by the phrase ex duobus civibus Romanis natos ("children born of two Roman citizens ''). A Roman woman kept her own family name (nomen) for life. Children most often took the father 's name, but in the Imperial period sometimes made their mother 's name part of theirs, or even used it instead. The archaic form of manus marriage in which the woman had been subject to her husband 's authority was largely abandoned by the Imperial era, and a married woman retained ownership of any property she brought into the marriage. Technically she remained under her father 's legal authority, even though she moved into her husband 's home, but when her father died she became legally emancipated. This arrangement was one of the factors in the degree of independence Roman women enjoyed relative to those of many other ancient cultures and up to the modern period: although she had to answer to her father in legal matters, she was free of his direct scrutiny in her daily life, and her husband had no legal power over her. Although it was a point of pride to be a "one - man woman '' (univira) who had married only once, there was little stigma attached to divorce, nor to speedy remarriage after the loss of a husband through death or divorce. Girls had equal inheritance rights with boys if their father died without leaving a will. A Roman mother 's right to own property and to dispose of it as she saw fit, including setting the terms of her own will, gave her enormous influence over her sons even when they were adults. As part of the Augustan programme to restore traditional morality and social order, moral legislation attempted to regulate the conduct of men and women as a means of promoting "family values ''. Adultery, which had been a private family matter under the Republic, was criminalized, and defined broadly as an illicit sex act (stuprum) that occurred between a male citizen and a married woman, or between a married woman and any man other than her husband. Childbearing was encouraged by the state: a woman who had given birth to three children was granted symbolic honours and greater legal freedom (the ius trium liberorum). Because of their legal status as citizens and the degree to which they could become emancipated, women could own property, enter contracts, and engage in business, including shipping, manufacturing, and lending money. Inscriptions throughout the Empire honour women as benefactors in funding public works, an indication they could acquire and dispose of considerable fortunes; for instance, the Arch of the Sergii was funded by Salvia Postuma, a female member of the family honoured, and the largest building in the forum at Pompeii was funded by Eumachia, a priestess of Venus. At the time of Augustus, as many as 35 % of the people in Italy were slaves, making Rome one of five historical "slave societies '' in which slaves constituted at least a fifth of the population and played a major role in the economy. Slavery was a complex institution that supported traditional Roman social structures as well as contributing economic utility. In urban settings, slaves might be professionals such as teachers, physicians, chefs, and accountants, in addition to the majority of slaves who provided trained or unskilled labour in households or workplaces. Agriculture and industry, such as milling and mining, relied on the exploitation of slaves. Outside Italy, slaves made up on average an estimated 10 to 20 % of the population, sparse in Roman Egypt but more concentrated in some Greek areas. Expanding Roman ownership of arable land and industries would have affected preexisting practices of slavery in the provinces. Although the institution of slavery has often been regarded as waning in the 3rd and 4th centuries, it remained an integral part of Roman society until the 5th century. Slavery ceased gradually in the 6th and 7th centuries along with the decline of urban centres in the West and the disintegration of the complex Imperial economy that had created the demand for it. Laws pertaining to slavery were "extremely intricate ''. Under Roman law, slaves were considered property and had no legal personhood. They could be subjected to forms of corporal punishment not normally exercised on citizens, sexual exploitation, torture, and summary execution. A slave could not as a matter of law be raped, since rape could be committed only against people who were free; a slave 's rapist had to be prosecuted by the owner for property damage under the Aquilian Law. Slaves had no right to the form of legal marriage called conubium, but their unions were sometimes recognized, and if both were freed they could marry. Following the Servile Wars of the Republic, legislation under Augustus and his successors shows a driving concern for controlling the threat of rebellions through limiting the size of work groups, and for hunting down fugitive slaves. Technically, a slave could not own property, but a slave who conducted business might be given access to an individual account or fund (peculium) that he could use as if it were his own. The terms of this account varied depending on the degree of trust and co-operation between owner and slave: a slave with an aptitude for business could be given considerable leeway to generate profit, and might be allowed to bequeath the peculium he managed to other slaves of his household. Within a household or workplace, a hierarchy of slaves might exist, with one slave in effect acting as the master of other slaves. Over time slaves gained increased legal protection, including the right to file complaints against their masters. A bill of sale might contain a clause stipulating that the slave could not be employed for prostitution, as prostitutes in ancient Rome were often slaves. The burgeoning trade in eunuch slaves in the late 1st century AD prompted legislation that prohibited the castration of a slave against his will "for lust or gain. '' Roman slavery was not based on race. Slaves were drawn from all over Europe and the Mediterranean, including Gaul, Hispania, Germany, Britannia, the Balkans, Greece... Generally slaves in Italy were indigenous Italians, with a minority of foreigners (including both slaves and freedmen) born outside of Italy estimated at 5 % of the total in the capital at its peak, where their number was largest. Those from outside of Europe were predominantly of Greek descent, while the Jewish ones never fully assimilated into Roman society, remaining an identifiable minority. These slaves (especially the foreigners) had higher mortality rates and lower birth rates than natives, and were sometimes even subjected to mass expulsions. The average recorded age at death for the slaves of the city of Rome was extraordinarily low: seventeen and a half years (17.2 for males; 17.9 for females). During the period of Republican expansionism when slavery had become pervasive, war captives were a main source of slaves. The range of ethnicities among slaves to some extent reflected that of the armies Rome defeated in war, and the conquest of Greece brought a number of highly skilled and educated slaves into Rome. Slaves were also traded in markets, and sometimes sold by pirates. Infant abandonment and self - enslavement among the poor were other sources. Vernae, by contrast, were "homegrown '' slaves born to female slaves within the urban household or on a country estate or farm. Although they had no special legal status, an owner who mistreated or failed to care for his vernae faced social disapproval, as they were considered part of his familia, the family household, and in some cases might actually be the children of free males in the family. Talented slaves with a knack for business might accumulate a large enough peculium to justify their freedom, or be manumitted for services rendered. Manumission had become frequent enough that in 2 BC a law (Lex Fufia Caninia) limited the number of slaves an owner was allowed to free in his will. Rome differed from Greek city - states in allowing freed slaves to become citizens. After manumission, a slave who had belonged to a Roman citizen enjoyed not only passive freedom from ownership, but active political freedom (libertas), including the right to vote. A slave who had acquired libertas was a libertus ("freed person, '' feminine liberta) in relation to his former master, who then became his patron (patronus): the two parties continued to have customary and legal obligations to each other. As a social class generally, freed slaves were libertini, though later writers used the terms libertus and libertinus interchangeably. A libertinus was not entitled to hold public office or the highest state priesthoods, but he could play a priestly role in the cult of the emperor. He could not marry a woman from a family of senatorial rank, nor achieve legitimate senatorial rank himself, but during the early Empire, freedmen held key positions in the government bureaucracy, so much so that Hadrian limited their participation by law. Any future children of a freedman would be born free, with full rights of citizenship. The rise of successful freedmen -- through either political influence in imperial service, or wealth -- is a characteristic of early Imperial society. The prosperity of a high - achieving group of freedmen is attested by inscriptions throughout the Empire, and by their ownership of some of the most lavish houses at Pompeii, such as the House of the Vettii. The excesses of nouveau riche freedmen were satirized in the character of Trimalchio in the Satyricon by Petronius, who wrote in the time of Nero. Such individuals, while exceptional, are indicative of the upward social mobility possible in the Empire. The Latin word ordo (plural ordines) refers to a social distinction that is translated variously into English as "class, order, rank, '' none of which is exact. One purpose of the Roman census was to determine the ordo to which an individual belonged. The two highest ordines in Rome were the senatorial and equestrian. Outside Rome, the decurions, also known as curiales (Greek bouleutai), were the top governing ordo of an individual city. "Senator '' was not itself an elected office in ancient Rome; an individual gained admission to the Senate after he had been elected to and served at least one term as an executive magistrate. A senator also had to meet a minimum property requirement of 1 million sestertii, as determined by the census. Nero made large gifts of money to a number of senators from old families who had become too impoverished to qualify. Not all men who qualified for the ordo senatorius chose to take a Senate seat, which required legal domicile at Rome. Emperors often filled vacancies in the 600 - member body by appointment. A senator 's son belonged to the ordo senatorius, but he had to qualify on his own merits for admission to the Senate itself. A senator could be removed for violating moral standards: he was prohibited, for instance, from marrying a freedwoman or fighting in the arena. In the time of Nero, senators were still primarily from Rome and other parts of Italy, with some from the Iberian peninsula and southern France; men from the Greek - speaking provinces of the East began to be added under Vespasian. The first senator from the most eastern province, Cappadocia, was admitted under Marcus Aurelius. By the time of the Severan dynasty (193 -- 235), Italians made up less than half the Senate. During the 3rd century, domicile at Rome became impractical, and inscriptions attest to senators who were active in politics and munificence in their homeland (patria). Senators had an aura of prestige and were the traditional governing class who rose through the cursus honorum, the political career track, but equestrians of the Empire often possessed greater wealth and political power. Membership in the equestrian order was based on property; in Rome 's early days, equites or knights had been distinguished by their ability to serve as mounted warriors (the "public horse ''), but cavalry service was a separate function in the Empire. A census valuation of 400,000 sesterces and three generations of free birth qualified a man as an equestrian. The census of 28 BC uncovered large numbers of men who qualified, and in 14 AD, a thousand equestrians were registered at Cadiz and Padua alone. Equestrians rose through a military career track (tres militiae) to become highly placed prefects and procurators within the Imperial administration. The rise of provincial men to the senatorial and equestrian orders is an aspect of social mobility in the first three centuries of the Empire. Roman aristocracy was based on competition, and unlike later European nobility, a Roman family could not maintain its position merely through hereditary succession or having title to lands. Admission to the higher ordines brought distinction and privileges, but also a number of responsibilities. In antiquity, a city depended on its leading citizens to fund public works, events, and services (munera), rather than on tax revenues, which primarily supported the military. Maintaining one 's rank required massive personal expenditures. Decurions were so vital for the functioning of cities that in the later Empire, as the ranks of the town councils became depleted, those who had risen to the Senate were encouraged by the central government to give up their seats and return to their hometowns, in an effort to sustain civic life. In the later Empire, the dignitas ("worth, esteem '') that attended on senatorial or equestrian rank was refined further with titles such as vir illustris, "illustrious man ''. The appellation clarissimus (Greek lamprotatos) was used to designate the dignitas of certain senators and their immediate family, including women. "Grades '' of equestrian status proliferated. Those in Imperial service were ranked by pay grade (sexagenarius, 60,000 sesterces per annum; centenarius, 100,000; ducenarius, 200,000). The title eminentissimus, "most eminent '' (Greek exochôtatos) was reserved for equestrians who had been Praetorian prefects. The higher equestrian officials in general were perfectissimi, "most distinguished '' (Greek diasêmotatoi), the lower merely egregii, "outstanding '' (Greek kratistos). As the republican principle of citizens ' equality under the law faded, the symbolic and social privileges of the upper classes led to an informal division of Roman society into those who had acquired greater honours (honestiores) and those who were humbler folk (humiliores). In general, honestiores were the members of the three higher "orders, '' along with certain military officers. The granting of universal citizenship in 212 seems to have increased the competitive urge among the upper classes to have their superiority over other citizens affirmed, particularly within the justice system. Sentencing depended on the judgement of the presiding official as to the relative "worth '' (dignitas) of the defendant: an honestior could pay a fine when convicted of a crime for which an humilior might receive a scourging. Execution, which had been an infrequent legal penalty for free men under the Republic even in a capital case, could be quick and relatively painless for the Imperial citizen considered "more honourable '', while those deemed inferior might suffer the kinds of torture and prolonged death previously reserved for slaves, such as crucifixion and condemnation to the beasts as a spectacle in the arena. In the early Empire, those who converted to Christianity could lose their standing as honestiores, especially if they declined to fulfil the religious aspects of their civic responsibilities, and thus became subject to punishments that created the conditions of martyrdom. The three major elements of the Imperial Roman state were the central government, the military, and provincial government. The military established control of a territory through war, but after a city or people was brought under treaty, the military mission turned to policing: protecting Roman citizens (after 212 AD, all freeborn inhabitants of the Empire), the agricultural fields that fed them, and religious sites. Without modern instruments of either mass communication or mass destruction, the Romans lacked sufficient manpower or resources to impose their rule through force alone. Cooperation with local power elites was necessary to maintain order, collect information, and extract revenue. The Romans often exploited internal political divisions by supporting one faction over another: in the view of Plutarch, "it was discord between factions within cities that led to the loss of self - governance ''. Communities with demonstrated loyalty to Rome retained their own laws, could collect their own taxes locally, and in exceptional cases were exempt from Roman taxation. Legal privileges and relative independence were an incentive to remain in good standing with Rome. Roman government was thus limited, but efficient in its use of the resources available to it. The dominance of the emperor was based on the consolidation of certain powers from several republican offices, including the inviolability of the tribunes of the people and the authority of the censors to manipulate the hierarchy of Roman society. The emperor also made himself the central religious authority as Pontifex Maximus, and centralized the right to declare war, ratify treaties, and negotiate with foreign leaders. While these functions were clearly defined during the Principate, the emperor 's powers over time became less constitutional and more monarchical, culminating in the Dominate. The emperor was the ultimate authority in policy - and decision - making, but in the early Principate he was expected to be accessible to individuals from all walks of life, and to deal personally with official business and petitions. A bureaucracy formed around him only gradually. The Julio - Claudian emperors relied on an informal body of advisors that included not only senators and equestrians, but trusted slaves and freedmen. After Nero, the unofficial influence of the latter was regarded with suspicion, and the emperor 's council (consilium) became subject to official appointment for the sake of greater transparency. Though the senate took a lead in policy discussions until the end of the Antonine dynasty, equestrians played an increasingly important role in the consilium. The women of the emperor 's family often intervened directly in his decisions. Plotina exercised influence on both her husband Trajan and his successor Hadrian. Her influence was advertised by having her letters on official matters published, as a sign that the emperor was reasonable in his exercise of authority and listened to his people. Access to the emperor by others might be gained at the daily reception (salutatio), a development of the traditional homage a client paid to his patron; public banquets hosted at the palace; and religious ceremonies. The common people who lacked this access could manifest their general approval or displeasure as a group at the games held in large venues. By the 4th century, as urban centres decayed, the Christian emperors became remote figureheads who issued general rulings, no longer responding to individual petitions. Although the senate could do little short of assassination and open rebellion to contravene the will of the emperor, it survived the Augustan restoration and the turbulent Year of Four Emperors to retain its symbolic political centrality during the Principate. The senate legitimated the emperor 's rule, and the emperor needed the experience of senators as legates (legati) to serve as generals, diplomats, and administrators. A successful career required competence as an administrator and remaining in favour with the emperor, or over time perhaps multiple emperors. The practical source of an emperor 's power and authority was the military. The legionaries were paid by the Imperial treasury, and swore an annual military oath of loyalty to the emperor (sacramentum). The death of an emperor led to a crucial period of uncertainty and crisis. Most emperors indicated their choice of successor, usually a close family member or adopted heir. The new emperor had to seek a swift acknowledgement of his status and authority to stabilize the political landscape. No emperor could hope to survive, much less to reign, without the allegiance and loyalty of the Praetorian Guard and of the legions. To secure their loyalty, several emperors paid the donativum, a monetary reward. In theory, the Senate was entitled to choose the new emperor, but did so mindful of acclamation by the army or Praetorians. The soldiers of the Imperial Roman army were professionals who volunteered for 20 years of active duty and five as reserves. The transition to a professional military had begun during the late Republic, and was one of the many profound shifts away from republicanism, under which an army of conscripts had exercised their responsibilities as citizens in defending the homeland in a campaign against a specific threat. For Imperial Rome, the military was a full - time career in itself. The primary mission of the Roman military of the early empire was to preserve the Pax Romana. The three major divisions of the military were: The pervasiveness of military garrisons throughout the Empire was a major influence in the process of cultural exchange and assimilation known as "Romanization, '' particularly in regard to politics, the economy, and religion. Knowledge of the Roman military comes from a wide range of sources: Greek and Roman literary texts; coins with military themes; papyri preserving military documents; monuments such as Trajan 's Column and triumphal arches, which feature artistic depictions of both fighting men and military machines; the archaeology of military burials, battle sites, and camps; and inscriptions, including military diplomas, epitaphs, and dedications. Through his military reforms, which included consolidating or disbanding units of questionable loyalty, Augustus changed and regularized the legion, down to the hobnail pattern on the soles of army boots. A legion was organized into ten cohorts, each of which comprised six centuries, with a century further made up of ten squads (contubernia); the exact size of the Imperial legion, which is most likely to have been determined by logistics, has been estimated to range from 4,800 to 5,280. In AD 9, Germanic tribes wiped out three full legions in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. This disastrous event reduced the number of the legions to 25. The total of the legions would later be increased again and for the next 300 years always be a little above or below 30. The army had about 300,000 soldiers in the 1st century, and under 400,000 in the 2nd, "significantly smaller '' than the collective armed forces of the territories it conquered. No more than 2 % of adult males living in the Empire served in the Imperial army. Augustus also created the Praetorian Guard: nine cohorts, ostensibly to maintain the public peace, which were garrisoned in Italy. Better paid than the legionaries, the Praetorians served only sixteen years. The auxilia were recruited from among the non-citizens. Organized in smaller units of roughly cohort strength, they were paid less than the legionaries, and after 25 years of service were rewarded with Roman citizenship, also extended to their sons. According to Tacitus there were roughly as many auxiliaries as there were legionaries. The auxilia thus amounted to around 125,000 men, implying approximately 250 auxiliary regiments. The Roman cavalry of the earliest Empire were primarily from Celtic, Hispanic or Germanic areas. Several aspects of training and equipment, such as the four - horned saddle, derived from the Celts, as noted by Arrian and indicated by archaeology. The Roman navy (Latin: classis, "fleet '') not only aided in the supply and transport of the legions, but also helped in the protection of the frontiers along the rivers Rhine and Danube. Another of its duties was the protection of the crucial maritime trade routes against the threat of pirates. It patrolled the whole of the Mediterranean, parts of the North Atlantic coasts, and the Black Sea. Nevertheless, the army was considered the senior and more prestigious branch. An annexed territory became a province in a three - step process: making a register of cities, taking a census of the population, and surveying the land. Further government recordkeeping included births and deaths, real estate transactions, taxes, and juridical proceedings. In the 1st and 2nd centuries, the central government sent out around 160 officials each year to govern outside Italy. Among these officials were the "Roman governors '', as they are called in English: either magistrates elected at Rome who in the name of the Roman people governed senatorial provinces; or governors, usually of equestrian rank, who held their imperium on behalf of the emperor in provinces excluded from senatorial control, most notably Roman Egypt. A governor had to make himself accessible to the people he governed, but he could delegate various duties. His staff, however, was minimal: his official attendants (apparitores), including lictors, heralds, messengers, scribes, and bodyguards; legates, both civil and military, usually of equestrian rank; and friends, ranging in age and experience, who accompanied him unofficially. Other officials were appointed as supervisors of government finances. Separating fiscal responsibility from justice and administration was a reform of the Imperial era. Under the Republic, provincial governors and tax farmers could exploit local populations for personal gain more freely. Equestrian procurators, whose authority was originally "extra-judicial and extra-constitutional, '' managed both state - owned property and the vast personal property of the emperor (res privata). Because Roman government officials were few in number, a provincial who needed help with a legal dispute or criminal case might seek out any Roman perceived to have some official capacity, such as a procurator or a military officer, including centurions down to the lowly stationarii or military police. Roman courts held original jurisdiction over cases involving Roman citizens throughout the empire, but there were too few judicial functionaries to impose Roman law uniformly in the provinces. Most parts of the Eastern empire already had well - established law codes and juridical procedures. In general, it was Roman policy to respect the mos regionis ("regional tradition '' or "law of the land '') and to regard local laws as a source of legal precedent and social stability. The compatibility of Roman and local law was thought to reflect an underlying ius gentium, the "law of nations '' or international law regarded as common and customary among all human communities. If the particulars of provincial law conflicted with Roman law or custom, Roman courts heard appeals, and the emperor held final authority to render a decision. In the West, law had been administered on a highly localized or tribal basis, and private property rights may have been a novelty of the Roman era, particularly among Celtic peoples. Roman law facilitated the acquisition of wealth by a pro-Roman elite who found their new privileges as citizens to be advantageous. The extension of universal citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Empire in 212 required the uniform application of Roman law, replacing the local law codes that had applied to non-citizens. Diocletian 's efforts to stabilize the Empire after the Crisis of the Third Century included two major compilations of law in four years, the Codex Gregorianus and the Codex Hermogenianus, to guide provincial administrators in setting consistent legal standards. The pervasive exercise of Roman law throughout Western Europe led to its enormous influence on the Western legal tradition, reflected by the continued use of Latin legal terminology in modern law. Taxation under the Empire amounted to about 5 % of the Empire 's gross product. The typical tax rate paid by individuals ranged from 2 to 5 %. The tax code was "bewildering '' in its complicated system of direct and indirect taxes, some paid in cash and some in kind. Taxes might be specific to a province, or kinds of properties such as fisheries or salt evaporation ponds; they might be in effect for a limited time. Tax collection was justified by the need to maintain the military, and taxpayers sometimes got a refund if the army captured a surplus of booty. In - kind taxes were accepted from less - monetized areas, particularly those who could supply grain or goods to army camps. The primary source of direct tax revenue was individuals, who paid a poll tax and a tax on their land, construed as a tax on its produce or productive capacity. Supplemental forms could be filed by those eligible for certain exemptions; for example, Egyptian farmers could register fields as fallow and tax - exempt depending on flood patterns of the Nile. Tax obligations were determined by the census, which required each head of household to appear before the presiding official and provide a head count of his household, as well as an accounting of property he owned that was suitable for agriculture or habitation. A major source of indirect - tax revenue was the portoria, customs and tolls on imports and exports, including among provinces. Special taxes were levied on the slave trade. Towards the end of his reign, Augustus instituted a 4 % tax on the sale of slaves, which Nero shifted from the purchaser to the dealers, who responded by raising their prices. An owner who manumitted a slave paid a "freedom tax '', calculated at 5 % of value. An inheritance tax of 5 % was assessed when Roman citizens above a certain net worth left property to anyone but members of their immediate family. Revenues from the estate tax and from a 1 % sales tax on auctions went towards the veterans ' pension fund (aerarium militare). Low taxes helped the Roman aristocracy increase their wealth, which equalled or exceeded the revenues of the central government. An emperor sometimes replenished his treasury by confiscating the estates of the "super-rich '', but in the later period, the resistance of the wealthy to paying taxes was one of the factors contributing to the collapse of the Empire. Moses Finley was the chief proponent of the primitivist view that the Roman economy was "underdeveloped and underachieving, '' characterized by subsistence agriculture; urban centres that consumed more than they produced in terms of trade and industry; low - status artisans; slowly developing technology; and a "lack of economic rationality. '' Current views are more complex. Territorial conquests permitted a large - scale reorganization of land use that resulted in agricultural surplus and specialization, particularly in north Africa. Some cities were known for particular industries or commercial activities, and the scale of building in urban areas indicates a significant construction industry. Papyri preserve complex accounting methods that suggest elements of economic rationalism, and the Empire was highly monetized. Although the means of communication and transport were limited in antiquity, transportation in the 1st and 2nd centuries expanded greatly, and trade routes connected regional economies. The supply contracts for the army, which pervaded every part of the Empire, drew on local suppliers near the base (castrum), throughout the province, and across provincial borders. The Empire is perhaps best thought of as a network of regional economies, based on a form of "political capitalism '' in which the state monitored and regulated commerce to assure its own revenues. Economic growth, though not comparable to modern economies, was greater than that of most other societies prior to industrialization. Socially, economic dynamism opened up one of the avenues of social mobility in the Roman Empire. Social advancement was thus not dependent solely on birth, patronage, good luck, or even extraordinary ability. Although aristocratic values permeated traditional elite society, a strong tendency towards plutocracy is indicated by the wealth requirements for census rank. Prestige could be obtained through investing one 's wealth in ways that advertised it appropriately: grand country estates or townhouses, durable luxury items such as jewels and silverware, public entertainments, funerary monuments for family members or coworkers, and religious dedications such as altars. Guilds (collegia) and corporations (corpora) provided support for individuals to succeed through networking, sharing sound business practices, and a willingness to work. The early Empire was monetized to a near - universal extent, in the sense of using money as a way to express prices and debts. The sestertius (plural sestertii, English "sesterces '', symbolized as HS) was the basic unit of reckoning value into the 4th century, though the silver denarius, worth four sesterces, was used also for accounting beginning in the Severan dynasty. The smallest coin commonly circulated was the bronze as (plural asses), one - fourth sestertius. Bullion and ingots seem not to have counted as pecunia, "money, '' and were used only on the frontiers for transacting business or buying property. Romans in the 1st and 2nd centuries counted coins, rather than weighing them -- an indication that the coin was valued on its face, not for its metal content. This tendency towards fiat money led eventually to the debasement of Roman coinage, with consequences in the later Empire. The standardization of money throughout the Empire promoted trade and market integration. The high amount of metal coinage in circulation increased the money supply for trading or saving. Rome had no central bank, and regulation of the banking system was minimal. Banks of classical antiquity typically kept less in reserves than the full total of customers ' deposits. A typical bank had fairly limited capital, and often only one principal, though a bank might have as many as six to fifteen principals. Seneca assumes that anyone involved in commerce needs access to credit. A professional deposit banker (argentarius, coactor argentarius, or later nummularius) received and held deposits for a fixed or indefinite term, and lent money to third parties. The senatorial elite were involved heavily in private lending, both as creditors and borrowers, making loans from their personal fortunes on the basis of social connections. The holder of a debt could use it as a means of payment by transferring it to another party, without cash changing hands. Although it has sometimes been thought that ancient Rome lacked "paper '' or documentary transactions, the system of banks throughout the Empire also permitted the exchange of very large sums without the physical transfer of coins, in part because of the risks of moving large amounts of cash, particularly by sea. Only one serious credit shortage is known to have occurred in the early Empire, a credit crisis in 33 AD that put a number of senators at risk; the central government rescued the market through a loan of 100 million HS made by the emperor Tiberius to the banks (mensae). Generally, available capital exceeded the amount needed by borrowers. The central government itself did not borrow money, and without public debt had to fund deficits from cash reserves. Emperors of the Antonine and Severan dynasties overall debased the currency, particularly the denarius, under the pressures of meeting military payrolls. Sudden inflation during the reign of Commodus damaged the credit market. In the mid-200s, the supply of specie contracted sharply. Conditions during the Crisis of the Third Century -- such as reductions in long - distance trade, disruption of mining operations, and the physical transfer of gold coinage outside the empire by invading enemies -- greatly diminished the money supply and the banking sector by the year 300. Although Roman coinage had long been fiat money or fiduciary currency, general economic anxieties came to a head under Aurelian, and bankers lost confidence in coins legitimately issued by the central government. Despite Diocletian 's introduction of the gold solidus and monetary reforms, the credit market of the Empire never recovered its former robustness. The main mining regions of the Empire were the Iberian Peninsula (gold, silver, copper, tin, lead); Gaul (gold, silver, iron); Britain (mainly iron, lead, tin), the Danubian provinces (gold, iron); Macedonia and Thrace (gold, silver); and Asia Minor (gold, silver, iron, tin). Intensive large - scale mining -- of alluvial deposits, and by means of open - cast mining and underground mining -- took place from the reign of Augustus up to the early 3rd century AD, when the instability of the Empire disrupted production. The gold mines of Dacia, for instance, were no longer available for Roman exploitation after the province was surrendered in 271. Mining seems to have resumed to some extent during the 4th century. Hydraulic mining, which Pliny referred to as ruina montium ("ruin of the mountains ''), allowed base and precious metals to be extracted on a proto - industrial scale. The total annual iron output is estimated at 82,500 tonnes. Copper was produced at an annual rate of 15,000 t, and lead at 80,000 t, both production levels unmatched until the Industrial Revolution; Hispania alone had a 40 % share in world lead production. The high lead output was a by - product of extensive silver mining which reached 200 t per annum. At its peak around the mid-2nd century AD, the Roman silver stock is estimated at 10,000 t, five to ten times larger than the combined silver mass of medieval Europe and the Caliphate around 800 AD. As an indication of the scale of Roman metal production, lead pollution in the Greenland ice sheet quadrupled over its prehistoric levels during the Imperial era, and dropped again thereafter. The Roman Empire completely encircled the Mediterranean, which they called "our sea '' (mare nostrum). Roman sailing vessels navigated the Mediterranean as well as the major rivers of the Empire, including the Guadalquivir, Ebro, Rhône, Rhine, Tiber and Nile. Transport by water was preferred where possible, and moving commodities by land was more difficult. Vehicles, wheels, and ships indicate the existence of a great number of skilled woodworkers. Land transport utilized the advanced system of Roman roads. The in - kind taxes paid by communities included the provision of personnel, animals, or vehicles for the cursus publicus, the state mail and transport service established by Augustus. Relay stations were located along the roads every seven to twelve Roman miles, and tended to grow into a village or trading post. A mansio (plural mansiones) was a privately run service station franchised by the imperial bureaucracy for the cursus publicus. The support staff at such a facility included muleteers, secretaries, blacksmiths, cartwrights, a veterinarian, and a few military police and couriers. The distance between mansiones was determined by how far a wagon could travel in a day. Mules were the animal most often used for pulling carts, travelling about 4 mph. As an example of the pace of communication, it took a messenger a minimum of nine days to travel to Rome from Mainz in the province of Germania Superior, even on a matter of urgency. In addition to the mansiones, some taverns offered accommodations as well as food and drink; one recorded tab for a stay showed charges for wine, bread, mule feed, and the services of a prostitute. Roman provinces traded among themselves, but trade extended outside the frontiers to regions as far away as China and India. The main commodity was grain. Chinese trade was mostly conducted overland through middle men along the Silk Road; Indian trade, however, also occurred by sea from Egyptian ports on the Red Sea. Also traded were olive oil, various foodstuffs, garum (fish sauce), slaves, ore and manufactured metal objects, fibres and textiles, timber, pottery, glassware, marble, papyrus, spices and materia medica, ivory, pearls, and gemstones. Though most provinces were capable of producing wine, regional varietals were desirable and wine was a central item of trade. Shortages of vin ordinaire were rare. The major suppliers for the city of Rome were the west coast of Italy, southern Gaul, the Tarraconensis region of Hispania, and Crete. Alexandria, the second - largest city, imported wine from Laodicea in Syria and the Aegean. At the retail level, taverns or speciality wine shops (vinaria) sold wine by the jug for carryout and by the drink on premises, with price ranges reflecting quality. Inscriptions record 268 different occupations in the city of Rome, and 85 in Pompeii. Professional associations or trade guilds (collegia) are attested for a wide range of occupations, including fishermen (piscatores), salt merchants (salinatores), olive oil dealers (olivarii), entertainers (scaenici), cattle dealers (pecuarii), goldsmiths (aurifices), teamsters (asinarii or muliones), and stonecutters (lapidarii). These are sometimes quite specialized: one collegium at Rome was strictly limited to craftsmen who worked in ivory and citrus wood. Work performed by slaves falls into five general categories: domestic, with epitaphs recording at least 55 different household jobs; imperial or public service; urban crafts and services; agriculture; and mining. Convicts provided much of the labour in the mines or quarries, where conditions were notoriously brutal. In practice, there was little division of labour between slave and free, and most workers were illiterate and without special skills. The greatest number of common labourers were employed in agriculture: in the Italian system of industrial farming (latifundia), these may have been mostly slaves, but throughout the Empire, slave farm labour was probably less important than other forms of dependent labour by people who were technically not enslaved. Textile and clothing production was a major source of employment. Both textiles and finished garments were traded among the peoples of the Empire, whose products were often named for them or a particular town, rather like a fashion "label ''. Better ready - to - wear was exported by businessmen (negotiatores or mercatores) who were often well - to - do residents of the production centres. Finished garments might be retailed by their sales agents, who travelled to potential customers, or by vestiarii, clothing dealers who were mostly freedmen; or they might be peddled by itinerant merchants. In Egypt, textile producers could run prosperous small businesses employing apprentices, free workers earning wages, and slaves. The fullers (fullones) and dye workers (coloratores) had their own guilds. Centonarii were guild workers who specialized in textile production and the recycling of old clothes into pieced goods. Economic historians vary in their calculations of the gross domestic product of the Roman economy during the Principate. In the sample years of 14, 100, and 150 AD, estimates of per capita GDP range from 166 to 380 HS. The GDP per capita of Italy is estimated as 40 to 66 % higher than in the rest of the Empire, due to tax transfers from the provinces and the concentration of elite income in the heartland. In the Scheidel -- Friesen economic model, the total annual income generated by the Empire is placed at nearly 20 billion HS, with about 5 % extracted by central and local government. Households in the top 1.5 % of income distribution captured about 20 % of income. Another 20 % went to about 10 % of the population who can be characterized as a non-elite middle. The remaining "vast majority '' produced more than half of the total income, but lived near subsistence. The chief Roman contributions to architecture were the arch, vault and the dome. Even after more than 2,000 years some Roman structures still stand, due in part to sophisticated methods of making cements and concrete. Roman roads are considered the most advanced roads built until the early 19th century. The system of roadways facilitated military policing, communications, and trade. The roads were resistant to floods and other environmental hazards. Even after the collapse of the central government, some roads remained usable for more than a thousand years. Roman bridges were among the first large and lasting bridges, built from stone with the arch as the basic structure. Most utilized concrete as well. The largest Roman bridge was Trajan 's bridge over the lower Danube, constructed by Apollodorus of Damascus, which remained for over a millennium the longest bridge to have been built both in terms of overall span and length. The Romans built many dams and reservoirs for water collection, such as the Subiaco Dams, two of which fed the Anio Novus, one of the largest aqueducts of Rome. They built 72 dams just on the Iberian peninsula, and many more are known across the Empire, some still in use. Several earthen dams are known from Roman Britain, including a well - preserved example from Longovicium (Lanchester). The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts. A surviving treatise by Frontinus, who served as curator aquarum (water commissioner) under Nerva, reflects the administrative importance placed on ensuring the water supply. Masonry channels carried water from distant springs and reservoirs along a precise gradient, using gravity alone. After the water passed through the aqueduct, it was collected in tanks and fed through pipes to public fountains, baths, toilets, or industrial sites. The main aqueducts in the city of Rome were the Aqua Claudia and the Aqua Marcia. The complex system built to supply Constantinople had its most distant supply drawn from over 120 km away along a sinuous route of more than 336 km. Roman aqueducts were built to remarkably fine tolerance, and to a technological standard that was not to be equalled until modern times. The Romans also made use of aqueducts in their extensive mining operations across the empire, at sites such as Las Medulas and Dolaucothi in South Wales. Insulated glazing (or "double glazing '') was used in the construction of public baths. Elite housing in cooler climates might have hypocausts, a form of central heating. The Romans were the first culture to assemble all essential components of the much later steam engine, when Hero built the aeolipile. With the crank and connecting rod system, all elements for constructing a steam engine (invented in 1712) -- Hero 's aeolipile (generating steam power), the cylinder and piston (in metal force pumps), non-return valves (in water pumps), gearing (in water mills and clocks) -- were known in Roman times. In the ancient world, a city was viewed as a place that fostered civilization by being "properly designed, ordered, and adorned. '' Augustus undertook a vast building programme in Rome, supported public displays of art that expressed the new imperial ideology, and reorganized the city into neighbourhoods (vici) administered at the local level with police and firefighting services. A focus of Augustan monumental architecture was the Campus Martius, an open area outside the city centre that in early times had been devoted to equestrian sports and physical training for youth. The Altar of Augustan Peace (Ara Pacis Augustae) was located there, as was an obelisk imported from Egypt that formed the pointer (gnomon) of a horologium. With its public gardens, the Campus became one of the most attractive places in the city to visit. City planning and urban lifestyles had been influenced by the Greeks from an early period, and in the eastern Empire, Roman rule accelerated and shaped the local development of cities that already had a strong Hellenistic character. Cities such as Athens, Aphrodisias, Ephesus and Gerasa altered some aspects of city planning and architecture to conform to imperial ideals, while also expressing their individual identity and regional preeminence. In the areas of the western Empire inhabited by Celtic - speaking peoples, Rome encouraged the development of urban centres with stone temples, forums, monumental fountains, and amphitheatres, often on or near the sites of the preexisting walled settlements known as oppida. Urbanization in Roman Africa expanded on Greek and Punic cities along the coast. The network of cities throughout the Empire (coloniae, municipia, civitates or in Greek terms poleis) was a primary cohesive force during the Pax Romana. Romans of the 1st and 2nd centuries AD were encouraged by imperial propaganda to "inculcate the habits of peacetime ''. As the classicist Clifford Ando has noted: Most of the cultural appurtenances popularly associated with imperial culture -- public cult and its games and civic banquets, competitions for artists, speakers, and athletes, as well as the funding of the great majority of public buildings and public display of art -- were financed by private individuals, whose expenditures in this regard helped to justify their economic power and legal and provincial privileges. Even the Christian polemicist Tertullian declared that the world of the late 2nd century was more orderly and well - cultivated than in earlier times: "Everywhere there are houses, everywhere people, everywhere the res publica, the commonwealth, everywhere life. '' The decline of cities and civic life in the 4th century, when the wealthy classes were unable or disinclined to support public works, was one sign of the Empire 's imminent dissolution. In the city of Rome, most people lived in multistory apartment buildings (insulae) that were often squalid firetraps. Public facilities -- such as baths (thermae), toilets that were flushed with running water (latrinae), conveniently located basins or elaborate fountains (nymphea) delivering fresh water, and large - scale entertainments such as chariot races and gladiator combat -- were aimed primarily at the common people who lived in the insulae. Similar facilities were constructed in cities throughout the Empire, and some of the best - preserved Roman structures are in Spain, southern France, and northern Africa. The public baths served hygienic, social and cultural functions. Bathing was the focus of daily socializing in the late afternoon before dinner. Roman baths were distinguished by a series of rooms that offered communal bathing in three temperatures, with varying amenities that might include an exercise and weight - training room, sauna, exfoliation spa (where oils were massaged into the skin and scraped from the body with a strigil), ball court, or outdoor swimming pool. Baths had hypocaust heating: the floors were suspended over hot - air channels that circulated warmth. Mixed nude bathing was not unusual in the early Empire, though some baths may have offered separate facilities or hours for men and women. Public baths were a part of urban culture throughout the provinces, but in the late 4th century, individual tubs began to replace communal bathing. Christians were advised to go to the baths for health and cleanliness, not pleasure, but to avoid the games (ludi), which were part of religious festivals they considered "pagan ''. Tertullian says that otherwise Christians not only availed themselves of the baths, but participated fully in commerce and society. Rich families from Rome usually had two or more houses, a townhouse (domus, plural domūs) and at least one luxury home (villa) outside the city. The domus was a privately owned single - family house, and might be furnished with a private bath (balneum), but it was not a place to retreat from public life. Although some neighbourhoods of Rome show a higher concentration of well - to - do houses, the rich did not live in segregated enclaves. Their houses were meant to be visible and accessible. The atrium served as a reception hall in which the paterfamilias (head of household) met with clients every morning, from wealthy friends to poorer dependents who received charity. It was also a centre of family religious rites, containing a shrine and the images of family ancestors. The houses were located on busy public roads, and ground - level spaces facing the street were often rented out as shops (tabernae). In addition to a kitchen garden -- windowboxes might substitute in the insulae -- townhouses typically enclosed a peristyle garden that brought a tract of nature, made orderly, within walls. The villa by contrast was an escape from the bustle of the city, and in literature represents a lifestyle that balances the civilized pursuit of intellectual and artistic interests (otium) with an appreciation of nature and the agricultural cycle. Ideally a villa commanded a view or vista, carefully framed by the architectural design. It might be located on a working estate, or in a "resort town '' situated on the seacoast, such as Pompeii and Herculaneum. The programme of urban renewal under Augustus, and the growth of Rome 's population to as many as 1 million people, was accompanied by a nostalgia for rural life expressed in the arts. Poetry praised the idealized lives of farmers and shepherds. The interiors of houses were often decorated with painted gardens, fountains, landscapes, vegetative ornament, and animals, especially birds and marine life, rendered accurately enough that modern scholars can sometimes identify them by species. The Augustan poet Horace gently satirized the dichotomy of urban and rural values in his fable of the city mouse and the country mouse, which has often been retold as a children 's story. On a more practical level, the central government took an active interest in supporting agriculture. Producing food was the top priority of land use. Larger farms (latifundia) achieved an economy of scale that sustained urban life and its more specialized division of labour. Small farmers benefited from the development of local markets in towns and trade centres. Agricultural techniques such as crop rotation and selective breeding were disseminated throughout the Empire, and new crops were introduced from one province to another, such as peas and cabbage to Britain. Maintaining an affordable food supply to the city of Rome had become a major political issue in the late Republic, when the state began to provide a grain dole (annona) to citizens who registered for it. About 200,000 -- 250,000 adult males in Rome received the dole, amounting to about 33 kg. per month, for a per annum total of about 100,000 tons of wheat primarily from Sicily, north Africa, and Egypt. The dole cost at least 15 % of state revenues, but improved living conditions and family life among the lower classes, and subsidized the rich by allowing workers to spend more of their earnings on the wine and olive oil produced on the estates of the landowning class. The grain dole also had symbolic value: it affirmed both the emperor 's position as universal benefactor, and the right of all citizens to share in "the fruits of conquest ''. The annona, public facilities, and spectacular entertainments mitigated the otherwise dreary living conditions of lower - class Romans, and kept social unrest in check. The satirist Juvenal, however, saw "bread and circuses '' (panem et circenses) as emblematic of the loss of republican political liberty: The public has long since cast off its cares: the people that once bestowed commands, consulships, legions and all else, now meddles no more and longs eagerly for just two things: bread and circuses. Most apartments in Rome lacked kitchens, though a charcoal brazier could be used for rudimentary cookery. Prepared food was sold at pubs and bars, inns, and food stalls (tabernae, cauponae, popinae, thermopolia). Carryout and restaurant dining were for the lower classes; fine dining could be sought only at private dinner parties in well - to - do houses with a chef (archimagirus) and trained kitchen staff, or at banquets hosted by social clubs (collegia). Most people would have consumed at least 70 % of their daily calories in the form of cereals and legumes. Puls (pottage) was considered the aboriginal food of the Romans. The basic grain pottage could be elaborated with chopped vegetables, bits of meat, cheese, or herbs to produce dishes similar to polenta or risotto. Urban populations and the military preferred to consume their grain in the form of bread. Mills and commercial ovens were usually combined in a bakery complex. By the reign of Aurelian, the state had begun to distribute the annona as a daily ration of bread baked in state factories, and added olive oil, wine, and pork to the dole. The importance of a good diet to health was recognized by medical writers such as Galen (2nd century AD), whose treatises included one On Barley Soup. Views on nutrition were influenced by schools of thought such as humoral theory. Roman literature focuses on the dining habits of the upper classes, for whom the evening meal (cena) had important social functions. Guests were entertained in a finely decorated dining room (triclinium), often with a view of the peristyle garden. Diners lounged on couches, leaning on the left elbow. By the late Republic, if not earlier, women dined, reclined, and drank wine along with men. The most famous description of a Roman meal is probably Trimalchio 's dinner party in the Satyricon, a fictional extravaganza that bears little resemblance to reality even among the most wealthy. The poet Martial describes serving a more plausible dinner, beginning with the gustatio ("tasting '' or "appetizer ''), which was a composed salad of mallow leaves, lettuce, chopped leeks, mint, arugula, mackerel garnished with rue, sliced eggs, and marinated sow udder. The main course was succulent cuts of kid, beans, greens, a chicken, and leftover ham, followed by a dessert of fresh fruit and vintage wine. The Latin expression for a full - course dinner was ab ovo usque mala, "from the egg to the apples, '' equivalent to the English "from soup to nuts. '' A book - length collection of Roman recipes is attributed to Apicius, a name for several figures in antiquity that became synonymous with "gourmet. '' Roman "foodies '' indulged in wild game, fowl such as peacock and flamingo, large fish (mullet was especially prized), and shellfish. Luxury ingredients were brought by the fleet from the far reaches of empire, from the Parthian frontier to the Straits of Gibraltar. Refined cuisine could be moralized as a sign of either civilized progress or decadent decline. The early Imperial historian Tacitus contrasted the indulgent luxuries of the Roman table in his day with the simplicity of the Germanic diet of fresh wild meat, foraged fruit, and cheese, unadulterated by imported seasonings and elaborate sauces. Most often, because of the importance of landowning in Roman culture, produce -- cereals, legumes, vegetables, and fruit -- was considered a more civilized form of food than meat. The Mediterranean staples of bread, wine, and oil were sacralized by Roman Christianity, while Germanic meat consumption became a mark of paganism, as it might be the product of animal sacrifice. Some philosophers and Christians resisted the demands of the body and the pleasures of food, and adopted fasting as an ideal. Food became simpler in general as urban life in the West diminished, trade routes were disrupted, and the rich retreated to the more limited self - sufficiency of their country estates. As an urban lifestyle came to be associated with decadence, the Church formally discouraged gluttony, and hunting and pastoralism were seen as simple, virtuous ways of life. When Juvenal complained that the Roman people had exchanged their political liberty for "bread and circuses '', he was referring to the state - provided grain dole and the circenses, events held in the entertainment venue called a circus in Latin. The largest such venue in Rome was the Circus Maximus, the setting of horse races, chariot races, the equestrian Troy Game, staged beast hunts (venationes), athletic contests, gladiator combat, and historical re-enactments. From earliest times, several religious festivals had featured games (ludi), primarily horse and chariot races (ludi circenses). Although their entertainment value tended to overshadow ritual significance, the races remained part of archaic religious observances that pertained to agriculture, initiation, and the cycle of birth and death. Under Augustus, public entertainments were presented on 77 days of the year; by the reign of Marcus Aurelius, the number of days had expanded to 135. Circus games were preceded by an elaborate parade (pompa circensis) that ended at the venue. Competitive events were held also in smaller venues such as the amphitheatre, which became the characteristic Roman spectacle venue, and stadium. Greek - style athletics included footraces, boxing, wrestling, and the pancratium. Aquatic displays, such as the mock sea battle (naumachia) and a form of "water ballet '', were presented in engineered pools. State - supported theatrical events (ludi scaenici) took place on temple steps or in grand stone theatres, or in the smaller enclosed theatre called an odeum. Circuses were the largest structure regularly built in the Roman world, though the Greeks had their own architectural traditions for the similarly purposed hippodrome. The Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum, became the regular arena for blood sports in Rome after it opened in 80 AD. The circus races continued to be held more frequently. The Circus Maximus could seat around 150,000 spectators, and the Colosseum about 50,000 with standing room for about 10,000 more. Many Roman amphitheatres, circuses and theatres built in cities outside Italy are visible as ruins today. The local ruling elite were responsible for sponsoring spectacles and arena events, which both enhanced their status and drained their resources. The physical arrangement of the amphitheatre represented the order of Roman society: the emperor presiding in his opulent box; senators and equestrians watching from the advantageous seats reserved for them; women seated at a remove from the action; slaves given the worst places, and everybody else packed in - between. The crowd could call for an outcome by booing or cheering, but the emperor had the final say. Spectacles could quickly become sites of social and political protest, and emperors sometimes had to deploy force to put down crowd unrest, most notoriously at the Nika riots in the year 532, when troops under Justinian slaughtered thousands. The chariot teams were known by the colours they wore, with the Blues and Greens the most popular. Fan loyalty was fierce and at times erupted into sports riots. Racing was perilous, but charioteers were among the most celebrated and well - compensated athletes. One star of the sport was Diocles, from Lusitania (present - day Portugal), who raced chariots for 24 years and had career earnings of 35 million sesterces. Horses had their fans too, and were commemorated in art and inscriptions, sometimes by name. The design of Roman circuses was developed to assure that no team had an unfair advantage and to minimize collisions (naufragia, "shipwrecks ''), which were nonetheless frequent and spectacularly satisfying to the crowd. The races retained a magical aura through their early association with chthonic rituals: circus images were considered protective or lucky, curse tablets have been found buried at the site of racetracks, and charioteers were often suspected of sorcery. Chariot racing continued into the Byzantine period under imperial sponsorship, but the decline of cities in the 6th and 7th centuries led to its eventual demise. The Romans thought gladiator contests had originated with funeral games and sacrifices in which select captive warriors were forced to fight to expiate the deaths of noble Romans. Some of the earliest styles of gladiator fighting had ethnic designations such as "Thracian '' or "Gallic ''. The staged combats were considered munera, "services, offerings, benefactions '', initially distinct from the festival games (ludi). Throughout his 40 - year reign, Augustus presented eight gladiator shows in which a total of 10,000 men fought, as well as 26 staged beast hunts that resulted in the deaths of 3,500 animals. To mark the opening of the Colosseum, the emperor Titus presented 100 days of arena events, with 3,000 gladiators competing on a single day. Roman fascination with gladiators is indicated by how widely they are depicted on mosaics, wall paintings, lamps, and even graffiti drawings. Gladiators were trained combatants who might be slaves, convicts, or free volunteers. Death was not a necessary or even desirable outcome in matches between these highly skilled fighters, whose training represented a costly and time - consuming investment. By contrast, noxii were convicts sentenced to the arena with little or no training, often unarmed, and with no expectation of survival. Physical suffering and humiliation were considered appropriate retributive justice for the crimes they had committed. These executions were sometimes staged or ritualized as re-enactments of myths, and amphitheatres were equipped with elaborate stage machinery to create special effects. Tertullian considered deaths in the arena to be nothing more than a dressed - up form of human sacrifice. Modern scholars have found the pleasure Romans took in the "theatre of life and death '' to be one of the more difficult aspects of their civilization to understand and explain. The younger Pliny rationalized gladiator spectacles as good for the people, a way "to inspire them to face honourable wounds and despise death, by exhibiting love of glory and desire for victory even in the bodies of slaves and criminals ''. Some Romans such as Seneca were critical of the brutal spectacles, but found virtue in the courage and dignity of the defeated fighter rather than in victory -- an attitude that finds its fullest expression with the Christians martyred in the arena. Even martyr literature, however, offers "detailed, indeed luxuriant, descriptions of bodily suffering '', and became a popular genre at times indistinguishable from fiction. In the plural, ludi almost always refers to the large - scale spectator games. The singular ludus, "play, game, sport, training, '' had a wide range of meanings such as "word play, '' "theatrical performance, '' "board game, '' "primary school, '' and even "gladiator training school '' (as in Ludus Magnus, the largest such training camp at Rome). Activities for children and young people included hoop rolling and knucklebones (astragali or "jacks ''). The sarcophagi of children often show them playing games. Girls had dolls, typically 15 -- 16 cm tall with jointed limbs, made of materials such as wood, terracotta, and especially bone and ivory. Ball games include trigon, which required dexterity, and harpastum, a rougher sport. Pets appear often on children 's memorials and in literature, including birds, dogs, cats, goats, sheep, rabbits and geese. After adolescence, most physical training for males was of a military nature. The Campus Martius originally was an exercise field where young men developed the skills of horsemanship and warfare. Hunting was also considered an appropriate pastime. According to Plutarch, conservative Romans disapproved of Greek - style athletics that promoted a fine body for its own sake, and condemned Nero 's efforts to encourage gymnastic games in the Greek manner. Some women trained as gymnasts and dancers, and a rare few as female gladiators. The famous "bikini girls '' mosaic shows young women engaging in apparatus routines that might be compared to rhythmic gymnastics. Women in general were encouraged to maintain their health through activities such as playing ball, swimming, walking, reading aloud (as a breathing exercise), riding in vehicles, and travel. People of all ages played board games pitting two players against each other, including latrunculi ("Raiders ''), a game of strategy in which opponents coordinated the movements and capture of multiple game pieces, and XII scripta ("Twelve Marks ''), involving dice and arranging pieces on a grid of letters or words. A game referred to as alea (dice) or tabula (the board), to which the emperor Claudius was notoriously addicted, may have been similar to backgammon, using a dice - cup (pyrgus). Playing with dice as a form of gambling was disapproved of, but was a popular pastime during the December festival of the Saturnalia with its carnival, norms - overturned atmosphere. In a status - conscious society like that of the Romans, clothing and personal adornment gave immediate visual clues about the etiquette of interacting with the wearer. Wearing the correct clothing was supposed to reflect a society in good order. The toga was the distinctive national garment of the Roman male citizen, but it was heavy and impractical, worn mainly for conducting political business and religious rites, and for going to court. The clothing Romans wore ordinarily was dark or colourful, and the most common male attire seen daily throughout the provinces would have been tunics, cloaks, and in some regions trousers. The study of how Romans dressed in daily life is complicated by a lack of direct evidence, since portraiture may show the subject in clothing with symbolic value, and surviving textiles from the period are rare. The basic garment for all Romans, regardless of gender or wealth, was the simple sleeved tunic. The length differed by wearer: a man 's reached mid-calf, but a soldier 's was somewhat shorter; a woman 's fell to her feet, and a child 's to its knees. The tunics of poor people and labouring slaves were made from coarse wool in natural, dull shades, with the length determined by the type of work they did. Finer tunics were made of lightweight wool or linen. A man who belonged to the senatorial or equestrian order wore a tunic with two purple stripes (clavi) woven vertically into the fabric: the wider the stripe, the higher the wearer 's status. Other garments could be layered over the tunic. The Imperial toga was a "vast expanse '' of semi-circular white wool that could not be put on and draped correctly without assistance. In his work on oratory, Quintilian describes in detail how the public speaker ought to orchestrate his gestures in relation to his toga. In art, the toga is shown with the long end dipping between the feet, a deep curved fold in front, and a bulbous flap at the midsection. The drapery became more intricate and structured over time, with the cloth forming a tight roll across the chest in later periods. The toga praetexta, with a purple or purplish - red stripe representing inviolability, was worn by children who had not come of age, curule magistrates, and state priests. Only the emperor could wear an all - purple toga (toga picta). In the 2nd century, emperors and men of status are often portrayed wearing the pallium, an originally Greek mantle (himation) folded tightly around the body. Women are also portrayed in the pallium. Tertullian considered the pallium an appropriate garment both for Christians, in contrast to the toga, and for educated people, since it was associated with philosophers. By the 4th century, the toga had been more or less replaced by the pallium as a garment that embodied social unity. Roman clothing styles changed over time, though not as rapidly as fashions today. In the Dominate, clothing worn by both soldiers and government bureaucrats became highly decorated, with woven or embroidered stripes (clavi) and circular roundels (orbiculi) applied to tunics and cloaks. These decorative elements consisted of geometrical patterns, stylized plant motifs, and in more elaborate examples, human or animal figures. The use of silk increased, and courtiers of the later Empire wore elaborate silk robes. The militarization of Roman society, and the waning of cultural life based on urban ideals, affected habits of dress: heavy military - style belts were worn by bureaucrats as well as soldiers, and the toga was abandoned. People visiting or living in Rome or the cities throughout the Empire would have seen art in a range of styles and media on a daily basis. Public or official art -- including sculpture, monuments such as victory columns or triumphal arches, and the iconography on coins -- is often analysed for its historical significance or as an expression of imperial ideology. At Imperial public baths, a person of humble means could view wall paintings, mosaics, statues, and interior decoration often of high quality. In the private sphere, objects made for religious dedications, funerary commemoration, domestic use, and commerce can show varying degrees of aesthetic quality and artistic skill. A wealthy person might advertise his appreciation of culture through painting, sculpture, and decorative arts at his home -- though some efforts strike modern viewers and some ancient connoisseurs as strenuous rather than tasteful. Greek art had a profound influence on the Roman tradition, and some of the most famous examples of Greek statues are known only from Roman Imperial versions and the occasional description in a Greek or Latin literary source. Despite the high value placed on works of art, even famous artists were of low social status among the Greeks and Romans, who regarded artists, artisans, and craftsmen alike as manual labourers. At the same time, the level of skill required to produce quality work was recognized, and even considered a divine gift. Portraiture, which survives mainly in the medium of sculpture, was the most copious form of imperial art. Portraits during the Augustan period utilize youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism. Republican portraits had been characterized by a "warts and all '' verism, but as early as the 2nd century BC, the Greek convention of heroic nudity was adopted sometimes for portraying conquering generals. Imperial portrait sculptures may model the head as mature, even craggy, atop a nude or seminude body that is smooth and youthful with perfect musculature; a portrait head might even be added to a body created for another purpose. Clothed in the toga or military regalia, the body communicates rank or sphere of activity, not the characteristics of the individual. Women of the emperor 's family were often depicted dressed as goddesses or divine personifications such as Pax ("Peace ''). Portraiture in painting is represented primarily by the Fayum mummy portraits, which evoke Egyptian and Roman traditions of commemorating the dead with the realistic painting techniques of the Empire. Marble portrait sculpture would have been painted, and while traces of paint have only rarely survived the centuries, the Fayum portraits indicate why ancient literary sources marvelled at how lifelike artistic representations could be. Examples of Roman sculpture survive abundantly, though often in damaged or fragmentary condition, including freestanding statues and statuettes in marble, bronze and terracotta, and reliefs from public buildings, temples, and monuments such as the Ara Pacis, Trajan 's Column, and the Arch of Titus. Niches in amphitheatres such as the Colosseum were originally filled with statues, and no formal garden was complete without statuary. Temples housed the cult images of deities, often by famed sculptors. The religiosity of the Romans encouraged the production of decorated altars, small representations of deities for the household shrine or votive offerings, and other pieces for dedicating at temples. Divine and mythological figures were also given secular, humorous, and even obscene depictions. Elaborately carved marble and limestone sarcophagi are characteristic of the 2nd to the 4th centuries with at least 10,000 examples surviving. Although mythological scenes have been most widely studied, sarcophagus relief has been called the "richest single source of Roman iconography, '' and may also depict the deceased 's occupation or life course, military scenes, and other subject matter. The same workshops produced sarcophagi with Jewish or Christian imagery. Much of what is known of Roman painting is based on the interior decoration of private homes, particularly as preserved at Pompeii and Herculaneum by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD. In addition to decorative borders and panels with geometric or vegetative motifs, wall painting depicts scenes from mythology and the theatre, landscapes and gardens, recreation and spectacles, work and everyday life, and frank pornography. Birds, animals, and marine life are often depicted with careful attention to realistic detail. A unique source for Jewish figurative painting under the Empire is the Dura - Europos synagogue, dubbed "the Pompeii of the Syrian Desert, '' buried and preserved in the mid-3rd century after the city was destroyed by Persians. Mosaics are among the most enduring of Roman decorative arts, and are found on the surfaces of floors and other architectural features such as walls, vaulted ceilings, and columns. The most common form is the tessellated mosaic, formed from uniform pieces (tesserae) of materials such as stone and glass. Mosaics were usually crafted on site, but sometimes assembled and shipped as ready - made panels. A mosaic workshop was led by the master artist (pictor) who worked with two grades of assistants. Figurative mosaics share many themes with painting, and in some cases portray subject matter in almost identical compositions. Although geometric patterns and mythological scenes occur throughout the Empire, regional preferences also find expression. In North Africa, a particularly rich source of mosaics, homeowners often chose scenes of life on their estates, hunting, agriculture, and local wildlife. Plentiful and major examples of Roman mosaics come also from present - day Turkey, Italy, southern France, Spain, and Portugal. More than 300 Antioch mosaics from the 3rd century are known. Opus sectile is a related technique in which flat stone, usually coloured marble, is cut precisely into shapes from which geometric or figurative patterns are formed. This more difficult technique was highly prized, and became especially popular for luxury surfaces in the 4th century, an abundant example of which is the Basilica of Junius Bassus. Decorative arts for luxury consumers included fine pottery, silver and bronze vessels and implements, and glassware. The manufacture of pottery in a wide range of quality was important to trade and employment, as were the glass and metalworking industries. Imports stimulated new regional centres of production. Southern Gaul became a leading producer of the finer red - gloss pottery (terra sigillata) that was a major item of trade in 1st - century Europe. Glassblowing was regarded by the Romans as originating in Syria in the 1st century BC, and by the 3rd century Egypt and the Rhineland had become noted for fine glass. Silver cup, from the Boscoreale treasure (early 1st century AD) Figural bronze oil lamps from Nova Zagora in Roman - era Bulgaria (1st -- 2nd century) Finely decorated Gallo - Roman terra sigillata bowl Gold earrings with gemstones, 3rd century Glass cage cup from the Rhineland, latter 4th century Seuso plate (detail) In Roman tradition, borrowed from the Greeks, literary theatre was performed by all - male troupes that used face masks with exaggerated facial expressions that allowed audiences to "see '' how a character was feeling. Such masks were occasionally also specific to a particular role, and an actor could then play multiple roles merely by switching masks. Female roles were played by men in drag (travesti). Roman literary theatre tradition is particularly well represented in Latin literature by the tragedies of Seneca. The circumstances under which Seneca 's tragedies were performed are however unclear; scholarly conjectures range from minimally staged readings to full production pageants. More popular than literary theatre was the genre - defying mimus theatre, which featured scripted scenarios with free improvisation, risqué language and jokes, sex scenes, action sequences, and political satire, along with dance numbers, juggling, acrobatics, tightrope walking, striptease, and dancing bears. Unlike literary theatre, mimus was played without masks, and encouraged stylistic realism in acting. Female roles were performed by women, not by men. Mimus was related to the genre called pantomimus, an early form of story ballet that contained no spoken dialogue. Pantomimus combined expressive dancing, instrumental music and a sung libretto, often mythological, that could be either tragic or comic. Although sometimes regarded as foreign elements in Roman culture, music and dance had existed in Rome from earliest times. Music was customary at funerals, and the tibia (Greek aulos), a woodwind instrument, was played at sacrifices to ward off ill influences. Song (carmen) was an integral part of almost every social occasion. The Secular Ode of Horace, commissioned by Augustus, was performed publicly in 17 BC by a mixed children 's choir. Music was thought to reflect the orderliness of the cosmos, and was associated particularly with mathematics and knowledge. Various woodwinds and "brass '' instruments were played, as were stringed instruments such as the cithara, and percussion. The cornu, a long tubular metal wind instrument that curved around the musician 's body, was used for military signals and on parade. These instruments are found in parts of the Empire where they did not originate, and indicate that music was among the aspects of Roman culture that spread throughout the provinces. Instruments are widely depicted in Roman art. The hydraulic pipe organ (hydraulis) was "one of the most significant technical and musical achievements of antiquity '', and accompanied gladiator games and events in the amphitheatre, as well as stage performances. It was among the instruments that the emperor Nero played. Although certain forms of dance were disapproved of at times as non-Roman or unmanly, dancing was embedded in religious rituals of archaic Rome, such as those of the dancing armed Salian priests and of the Arval Brothers, priesthoods which underwent a revival during the Principate. Ecstatic dancing was a feature of the international mystery religions, particularly the cult of Cybele as practised by her eunuch priests the Galli and of Isis. In the secular realm, dancing girls from Syria and Cadiz were extremely popular. Like gladiators, entertainers were infames in the eyes of the law, little better than slaves even if they were technically free. "Stars '', however, could enjoy considerable wealth and celebrity, and mingled socially and often sexually with the upper classes, including emperors. Performers supported each other by forming guilds, and several memorials for members of the theatre community survive. Theatre and dance were often condemned by Christian polemicists in the later Empire, and Christians who integrated dance traditions and music into their worship practices were regarded by the Church Fathers as shockingly "pagan. '' St. Augustine is supposed to have said that bringing clowns, actors, and dancers into a house was like inviting in a gang of unclean spirits. Estimates of the average literacy rate in the Empire range from 5 to 30 % or higher, depending in part on the definition of "literacy ''. The Roman obsession with documents and public inscriptions indicates the high value placed on the written word. The Imperial bureaucracy was so dependent on writing that the Babylonian Talmud declared "if all seas were ink, all reeds were pen, all skies parchment, and all men scribes, they would be unable to set down the full scope of the Roman government 's concerns. '' Laws and edicts were posted in writing as well as read out. Illiterate Roman subjects would have someone such as a government scribe (scriba) read or write their official documents for them. Public art and religious ceremonies were ways to communicate imperial ideology regardless of ability to read. Although the Romans were not a "People of the Book '', they had an extensive priestly archive, and inscriptions appear throughout the Empire in connection with statues and small votives dedicated by ordinary people to divinities, as well as on binding tablets and other "magic spells '', with hundreds of examples collected in the Greek Magical Papyri. The military produced a vast amount of written reports and service records, and literacy in the army was "strikingly high ''. Urban graffiti, which include literary quotations, and low - quality inscriptions with misspellings and solecisms indicate casual literacy among non-elites. In addition, numeracy was necessary for any form of commerce. Slaves were numerate and literate in significant numbers, and some were highly educated. Books were expensive, since each copy had to be written out individually on a roll of papyrus (volumen) by scribes who had apprenticed to the trade. The codex -- a book with pages bound to a spine -- was still a novelty in the time of the poet Martial (1st century AD), but by the end of the 3rd century was replacing the volumen and was the regular form for books with Christian content. Commercial production of books had been established by the late Republic, and by the 1st century AD certain neighbourhoods of Rome were known for their bookshops (tabernae librariae), which were found also in Western provincial cities such as Lugdunum (present - day Lyon, France). The quality of editing varied wildly, and some ancient authors complain about error - ridden copies, as well as plagiarism or forgery, since there was no copyright law. A skilled slave copyist (servus litteratus) could be valued as highly as 100,000 sesterces. Collectors amassed personal libraries, such as that of the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum, and a fine library was part of the cultivated leisure (otium) associated with the villa lifestyle. Significant collections might attract "in - house '' scholars; Lucian mocked mercenary Greek intellectuals who attached themselves to philistine Roman patrons. An individual benefactor might endow a community with a library: Pliny the Younger gave the city of Comum a library valued at 1 million sesterces, along with another 100,000 to maintain it. Imperial libraries housed in state buildings were open to users as a privilege on a limited basis, and represented a literary canon from which disreputable writers could be excluded. Books considered subversive might be publicly burned, and Domitian crucified copyists for reproducing works deemed treasonous. Literary texts were often shared aloud at meals or with reading groups. Scholars such as Pliny the Elder engaged in "multitasking '' by having works read aloud to them while they dined, bathed or travelled, times during which they might also dictate drafts or notes to their secretaries. The multivolume Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius is an extended exploration of how Romans constructed their literary culture. The reading public expanded from the 1st through the 3rd century, and while those who read for pleasure remained a minority, they were no longer confined to a sophisticated ruling elite, reflecting the social fluidity of the Empire as a whole and giving rise to "consumer literature '' meant for entertainment. Illustrated books, including erotica, were popular, but are poorly represented by extant fragments. Traditional Roman education was moral and practical. Stories about great men and women, or cautionary tales about individual failures, were meant to instil Roman values (mores maiorum). Parents and family members were expected to act as role models, and parents who worked for a living passed their skills on to their children, who might also enter apprenticeships for more advanced training in crafts or trades. Formal education was available only to children from families who could pay for it, and the lack of state intervention in access to education contributed to the low rate of literacy. Young children were attended by a pedagogus, or less frequently a female pedagoga, usually a Greek slave or former slave. The pedagogue kept the child safe, taught self - discipline and public behaviour, attended class and helped with tutoring. The emperor Julian recalled his pedagogue Mardonius, a eunuch slave who reared him from the age of 7 to 15, with affection and gratitude. Usually, however, pedagogues received little respect. Primary education in reading, writing, and arithmetic might take place at home for privileged children whose parents hired or bought a teacher. Others attended a school that was "public, '' though not state - supported, organized by an individual schoolmaster (ludimagister) who accepted fees from multiple parents. Vernae (homeborn slave children) might share in home - or public - schooling. Schools became more numerous during the Empire, and increased the opportunities for children to acquire an education. School could be held regularly in a rented space, or in any available public niche, even outdoors. Boys and girls received primary education generally from ages 7 to 12, but classes were not segregated by grade or age. For the socially ambitious, bilingual education in Greek as well as Latin was a must. Quintilian provides the most extensive theory of primary education in Latin literature. According to Quintilian, each child has in - born ingenium, a talent for learning or linguistic intelligence that is ready to be cultivated and sharpened, as evidenced by the young child 's ability to memorize and imitate. The child incapable of learning was rare. To Quintilian, ingenium represented a potential best realized in the social setting of school, and he argued against homeschooling. He also recognized the importance of play in child development, and disapproved of corporal punishment because it discouraged love of learning -- in contrast to the practice in most Roman primary schools of routinely striking children with a cane (ferula) or birch rod for being slow or disruptive. At the age of 14, upperclass males made their rite of passage into adulthood, and began to learn leadership roles in political, religious, and military life through mentoring from a senior member of their family or a family friend. Higher education was provided by grammatici or rhetores. The grammaticus or "grammarian '' taught mainly Greek and Latin literature, with history, geography, philosophy or mathematics treated as explications of the text. With the rise of Augustus, contemporary Latin authors such as Vergil and Livy also became part of the curriculum. The rhetor was a teacher of oratory or public speaking. The art of speaking (ars dicendi) was highly prized as a marker of social and intellectual superiority, and eloquentia ("speaking ability, eloquence '') was considered the "glue '' of a civilized society. Rhetoric was not so much a body of knowledge (though it required a command of references to the literary canon) as it was a mode of expression and decorum that distinguished those who held social power. The ancient model of rhetorical training -- "restraint, coolness under pressure, modesty, and good humour '' -- endured into the 18th century as a Western educational ideal. In Latin, illiteratus (Greek agrammatos) could mean both "unable to read and write '' and "lacking in cultural awareness or sophistication. '' Higher education promoted career advancement, particularly for an equestrian in Imperial service: "eloquence and learning were considered marks of a well - bred man and worthy of reward ''. The poet Horace, for instance, was given a top - notch education by his father, a prosperous former slave. Urban elites throughout the Empire shared a literary culture embued with Greek educational ideals (paideia). Hellenistic cities sponsored schools of higher learning as an expression of cultural achievement. Young men from Rome who wished to pursue the highest levels of education often went abroad to study rhetoric and philosophy, mostly to one of several Greek schools in Athens. The curriculum in the East was more likely to include music and physical training along with literacy and numeracy. On the Hellenistic model, Vespasian endowed chairs of grammar, Latin and Greek rhetoric, and philosophy at Rome, and gave teachers special exemptions from taxes and legal penalties, though primary schoolmasters did not receive these benefits. Quintilian held the first chair of grammar. In the eastern empire, Berytus (present - day Beirut) was unusual in offering a Latin education, and became famous for its school of Roman law. The cultural movement known as the Second Sophistic (1st -- 3rd century AD) promoted the assimilation of Greek and Roman social, educational, and aesthetic values, and the Greek proclivities for which Nero had been criticized were regarded from the time of Hadrian onward as integral to Imperial culture. Literate women ranged from cultured aristocrats to girls trained to be calligraphers and scribes. The "girlfriends '' addressed in Augustan love poetry, although fictional, represent an ideal that a desirable woman should be educated, well - versed in the arts, and independent to a frustrating degree. Education seems to have been standard for daughters of the senatorial and equestrian orders during the Empire. A highly educated wife was an asset for the socially ambitious household, but one that Martial regards as an unnecessary luxury. The woman who achieved the greatest prominence in the ancient world for her learning was Hypatia of Alexandria, who educated young men in mathematics, philosophy, and astronomy, and advised the Roman prefect of Egypt on politics. Her influence put her into conflict with the bishop of Alexandria, Cyril, who may have been implicated in her violent death in 415 at the hands of a Christian mob. Literacy began to decline, perhaps dramatically, during the socio - political Crisis of the Third Century. Although the Church Fathers were well - educated, they regarded Classical literature as dangerous, if valuable, and reconstrued it through moralizing and allegorical readings. Julian, the only emperor after the conversion of Constantine to reject Christianity, banned Christians from teaching the Classical curriculum, on the grounds that they might corrupt the minds of youth. While the book roll had emphasized the continuity of the text, the codex format encouraged a "piecemeal '' approach to reading by means of citation, fragmented interpretation, and the extraction of maxims. In the 5th and 6th centuries, reading became rarer even for those within the Church hierarchy. In the traditional literary canon, literature under Augustus, along with that of the late Republic, has been viewed as the "Golden Age '' of Latin literature, embodying the classical ideals of "unity of the whole, the proportion of the parts, and the careful articulation of an apparently seamless composition. '' The three most influential Classical Latin poets -- Vergil, Horace, and Ovid -- belong to this period. Vergil wrote the Aeneid, creating a national epic for Rome in the manner of the Homeric epics of Greece. Horace perfected the use of Greek lyric metres in Latin verse. Ovid 's erotic poetry was enormously popular, but ran afoul of the Augustan moral programme; it was one of the ostensible causes for which the emperor exiled him to Tomis (present - day Constanța, Romania), where he remained to the end of his life. Ovid 's Metamorphoses was a continuous poem of fifteen books weaving together Greco - Roman mythology from the creation of the universe to the deification of Julius Caesar. Ovid 's versions of Greek myths became one of the primary sources of later classical mythology, and his work was so influential in the Middle Ages that the 12th and 13th centuries have been called the "Age of Ovid. '' The principal Latin prose author of the Augustan age is the historian Livy, whose account of Rome 's founding and early history became the most familiar version in modern - era literature. Vitruvius 's book De Architectura, the only complete work on architecture to survive from antiquity, also belongs to this period. Latin writers were immersed in the Greek literary tradition, and adapted its forms and much of its content, but Romans regarded satire as a genre in which they surpassed the Greeks. Horace wrote verse satires before fashioning himself as an Augustan court poet, and the early Principate also produced the satirists Persius and Juvenal. The poetry of Juvenal offers a lively curmudgeon 's perspective on urban society. The period from the mid-1st century through the mid-2nd century has conventionally been called the "Silver Age '' of Latin literature. Under Nero, disillusioned writers reacted to Augustanism. The three leading writers -- Seneca the philosopher, dramatist, and tutor of Nero; Lucan, his nephew, who turned Caesar 's civil war into an epic poem; and the novelist Petronius (Satyricon) -- all committed suicide after incurring the emperor 's displeasure. Seneca and Lucan were from Hispania, as was the later epigrammatist and keen social observer Martial, who expressed his pride in his Celtiberian heritage. Martial and the epic poet Statius, whose poetry collection Silvae had a far - reaching influence on Renaissance literature, wrote during the reign of Domitian. The so - called "Silver Age '' produced several distinguished writers, including the encyclopedist Pliny the Elder; his nephew, known as Pliny the Younger; and the historian Tacitus. The Natural History of the elder Pliny, who died during disaster relief efforts in the wake of the eruption of Vesuvius, is a vast collection on flora and fauna, gems and minerals, climate, medicine, freaks of nature, works of art, and antiquarian lore. Tacitus 's reputation as a literary artist matches or exceeds his value as a historian; his stylistic experimentation produced "one of the most powerful of Latin prose styles. '' The Twelve Caesars by his contemporary Suetonius is one of the primary sources for imperial biography. Among Imperial historians who wrote in Greek are Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the Jewish historian Josephus, and the senator Cassius Dio. Other major Greek authors of the Empire include the biographer and antiquarian Plutarch, the geographer Strabo, and the rhetorician and satirist Lucian. Popular Greek romance novels were part of the development of long - form fiction works, represented in Latin by the Satyricon of Petronius and The Golden Ass of Apuleius. From the 2nd to the 4th centuries, the Christian authors who would become the Latin Church Fathers were in active dialogue with the Classical tradition, within which they had been educated. Tertullian, a convert to Christianity from Roman Africa, was the contemporary of Apuleius and one of the earliest prose authors to establish a distinctly Christian voice. After the conversion of Constantine, Latin literature is dominated by the Christian perspective. When the orator Symmachus argued for the preservation of Rome 's religious traditions, he was effectively opposed by Ambrose, the bishop of Milan and future saint -- a debate preserved by their missives. In the late 4th century, Jerome produced the Latin translation of the Bible that became authoritative as the Vulgate. Augustine, another of the Church Fathers from the province of Africa, has been called "one of the most influential writers of western culture '', and his Confessions is sometimes considered the first autobiography of Western literature. In The City of God against the Pagans, Augustine builds a vision of an eternal, spiritual Rome, a new imperium sine fine that will outlast the collapsing Empire. In contrast to the unity of Classical Latin, the literary aesthetic of late antiquity has a tessellated quality that has been compared to the mosaics characteristic of the period. A continuing interest in the religious traditions of Rome prior to Christian dominion is found into the 5th century, with the Saturnalia of Macrobius and The Marriage of Philology and Mercury of Martianus Capella. Prominent Latin poets of late antiquity include Ausonius, Prudentius, Claudian, and Sidonius. Ausonius (d. ca. 394), the Bordelaise tutor of the emperor Gratian, was at least nominally a Christian, though throughout his occasionally obscene mixed - genre poems, he retains a literary interest in the Greco - Roman gods and even druidism. The imperial panegyrist Claudian (d. 404) was a vir illustris who appears never to have converted. Prudentius (d. ca. 413), born in Hispania Tarraconensis and a fervent Christian, was thoroughly versed in the poets of the Classical tradition, and transforms their vision of poetry as a monument of immortality into an expression of the poet 's quest for eternal life culminating in Christian salvation. Sidonius (d. 486), a native of Lugdunum, was a Roman senator and bishop of Clermont who cultivated a traditional villa lifestyle as he watched the Western empire succumb to barbarian incursions. His poetry and collected letters offer a unique view of life in late Roman Gaul from the perspective of a man who "survived the end of his world ''. Religion in the Roman Empire encompassed the practices and beliefs the Romans regarded as their own, as well as the many cults imported to Rome or practised by peoples throughout the provinces. The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious, and attributed their success as a world power to their collective piety (pietas) in maintaining good relations with the gods (pax deorum). The archaic religion believed to have been handed down from the earliest kings of Rome was the foundation of the mos maiorum, "the way of the ancestors '' or "tradition '', viewed as central to Roman identity. There was no principle analogous to "separation of church and state ''. The priesthoods of the state religion were filled from the same social pool of men who held public office, and in the Imperial era, the Pontifex Maximus was the emperor. Roman religion was practical and contractual, based on the principle of do ut des, "I give that you might give. '' Religion depended on knowledge and the correct practice of prayer, ritual, and sacrifice, not on faith or dogma, although Latin literature preserves learned speculation on the nature of the divine and its relation to human affairs. For ordinary Romans, religion was a part of daily life. Each home had a household shrine at which prayers and libations to the family 's domestic deities were offered. Neighbourhood shrines and sacred places such as springs and groves dotted the city. Apuleius (2nd century) described the everyday quality of religion in observing how people who passed a cult place might make a vow or a fruit offering, or merely sit for a while. The Roman calendar was structured around religious observances. In the Imperial era, as many as 135 days of the year were devoted to religious festivals and games (ludi). Women, slaves, and children all participated in a range of religious activities. In the wake of the Republic 's collapse, state religion had adapted to support the new regime of the emperors. As the first Roman emperor, Augustus justified the novelty of one - man rule with a vast programme of religious revivalism and reform. Public vows formerly made for the security of the republic now were directed at the wellbeing of the emperor. So - called "emperor worship '' expanded on a grand scale the traditional Roman veneration of the ancestral dead and of the Genius, the divine tutelary of every individual. Upon death, an emperor could be made a state divinity (divus) by vote of the Senate. Imperial cult, influenced by Hellenistic ruler cult, became one of the major ways Rome advertised its presence in the provinces and cultivated shared cultural identity and loyalty throughout the Empire. Cultural precedent in the Eastern provinces facilitated a rapid dissemination of Imperial cult, extending as far as the Augustan military settlement at Najran, in present - day Saudi Arabia. Rejection of the state religion became tantamount to treason against the emperor. This was the context for Rome 's conflict with Christianity, which Romans variously regarded as a form of atheism and novel superstitio. The Romans are known for the great number of deities they honoured, a capacity that earned the mockery of early Christian polemicists. As the Romans extended their dominance throughout the Mediterranean world, their policy in general was to absorb the deities and cults of other peoples rather than try to eradicate them. One way that Rome promoted stability among diverse peoples was by supporting their religious heritage, building temples to local deities that framed their theology within the hierarchy of Roman religion. Inscriptions throughout the Empire record the side - by - side worship of local and Roman deities, including dedications made by Romans to local gods. By the height of the Empire, numerous cults of pseudo-foreign gods (Roman reinventions of foreign gods) were cultivated at Rome and in the provinces, among them cults of Cybele, Isis, Epona, and of solar gods such as Mithras and Sol Invictus, found as far north as Roman Britain. Because Romans had never been obligated to cultivate one god or one cult only, religious tolerance was not an issue in the sense that it is for competing monotheistic systems. Mystery religions, which offered initiates salvation in the afterlife, were a matter of personal choice for an individual, practised in addition to carrying on one 's family rites and participating in public religion. The mysteries, however, involved exclusive oaths and secrecy, conditions that conservative Romans viewed with suspicion as characteristic of "magic '', conspiracy (coniuratio), and subversive activity. Sporadic and sometimes brutal attempts were made to suppress religionists who seemed to threaten traditional morality and unity. In Gaul, the power of the druids was checked, first by forbidding Roman citizens to belong to the order, and then by banning druidism altogether. At the same time, however, Celtic traditions were reinterpreted (interpretatio romana) within the context of Imperial theology, and a new Gallo - Roman religion coalesced, with its capital at the Sanctuary of the Three Gauls in Lugdunum (present - day Lyon, France). The sanctuary established precedent for Western cult as a form of Roman - provincial identity. The monotheistic rigour of Judaism posed difficulties for Roman policy that led at times to compromise and the granting of special exemptions. Tertullian noted that the Jewish religion, unlike that of the Christians, was considered a religio licita, "legitimate religion. '' Wars between the Romans and the Jews occurred when conflict, political as well as religious, became intractable. When Caligula wanted to place a golden statue of his deified self in the Temple in Jerusalem, the potential sacrilege and likely war were prevented only by his timely death. The Siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD led to the sacking of the temple and the dispersal of Jewish political power (see Jewish diaspora). Christianity emerged in Roman Judea as a Jewish religious sect in the 1st century AD. The religion gradually spread out of Jerusalem, initially establishing major bases in first Antioch, then Alexandria, and over time throughout the Empire as well as beyond. Imperially authorized persecutions were limited and sporadic, with martyrdoms occurring most often under the authority of local officials. The first persecution by an emperor occurred under Nero, and was confined to the city of Rome. Tacitus reports that after the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, some among the population held Nero responsible and that the emperor attempted to deflect blame onto the Christians. After Nero, a major persecution occurred under the emperor Domitian and a persecution in 177 took place at Lugdunum, the Gallo - Roman religious capital. A surviving letter from Pliny the Younger, governor of Bythinia, to the emperor Trajan describes his persecution and executions of Christians. The Decian persecution of 246 -- 251 was a serious threat to the Church, but ultimately strengthened Christian defiance. Diocletian undertook what was to be the most severe persecution of Christians, lasting from 303 to 311. In the early 4th century, Constantine I became the first emperor to convert to Christianity. During the rest of the fourth century Christianity became the dominant religion of the Empire. The emperor Julian made a short - lived attempt to revive traditional and Hellenistic religion and to affirm the special status of Judaism, but in 380 (Edict of Thessalonica), under Theodosius I Christianity became the official state church of the Roman Empire, to the exclusion of all others. From the 2nd century onward, the Church Fathers had begun to condemn the diverse religions practised throughout the Empire collectively as "pagan. '' Pleas for religious tolerance from traditionalists such as the senator Symmachus (d. 402) were rejected, and Christian monotheism became a feature of Imperial domination. Christian heretics as well as non-Christians were subject to exclusion from public life or persecution, but Rome 's original religious hierarchy and many aspects of its ritual influenced Christian forms, and many pre-Christian beliefs and practices survived in Christian festivals and local traditions. Several states claimed to be the Roman Empire 's successors after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The Holy Roman Empire, an attempt to resurrect the Empire in the West, was established in 800 when Pope Leo III crowned Frankish King Charlemagne as Roman Emperor on Christmas Day, though the empire and the imperial office did not become formalized for some decades. After the fall of Constantinople, the Russian Tsardom, as inheritor of the Byzantine Empire 's Orthodox Christian tradition, counted itself the Third Rome (Constantinople having been the second). These concepts are known as Translatio imperii. When the Ottomans, who based their state on the Byzantine model, took Constantinople in 1453, Mehmed II established his capital there and claimed to sit on the throne of the Roman Empire. He even went so far as to launch an invasion of Italy with the purpose of re-uniting the Empire and invited European artists to his capital, including Gentile Bellini. In the medieval West, "Roman '' came to mean the church and the Pope of Rome. The Greek form Romaioi remained attached to the Greek - speaking Christian population of the Eastern Roman Empire, and is still used by Greeks in addition to their common appellation. The Roman Empire 's territorial legacy of controlling the Italian peninsula would influence Italian nationalism and the unification of Italy (Risorgimento) in 1861. In the United States, the founders were educated in the classical tradition, and used classical models for landmarks and buildings in Washington, D.C., to avoid the feudal and religious connotations of European architecture such as castles and cathedrals. In forming their theory of the mixed constitution, the founders looked to Athenian democracy and Roman republicanism for models, but regarded the Roman emperor as a figure of tyranny. They nonetheless adopted Roman Imperial forms such as the dome, as represented by the US Capitol and numerous state capitol buildings, to express classical ideals through architecture. Thomas Jefferson saw the Empire as a negative political lesson, but was a chief proponent of its architectural models. Jefferson 's design for the Virginia State Capitol, for instance, is modelled directly from the Maison Carrée, a Gallo - Roman temple built under Augustus. The renovations of the National Mall at the beginning of the 20th century have been viewed as expressing a more overt imperialist kinship with Rome.

chinese civilization evolved around the huang he which means river

River valley civilization - wikipedia A river civilization or river culture is an agricultural nation or civilization situated beside and drawing sustenance from a river. A river gives the inhabitants a reliable source of water for drinking and agriculture. Additional benefits include fishing, fertile soil due to annual flooding, and ease of transportation. The first great civilizations all grew up in river valleys. Civilization first began in 3500 BCE, which along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the Middle East; the name given to that civilization, Mesopotamia, means "land between the rivers ''. The Nile valley in Egypt had been home to agricultural settlements as early as 5500 BCE, but the growth of Egypt as a civilization began around 3100 BCE. A third civilization grew up along the Indus River around 2600 BCE, in parts of what are now India and Pakistan. The fourth great river civilization emerged around 1700 BCE along the Yellow River in China, also known as the Huang - He River Civilization. Civilizations tended to grow up in river valleys for a number of reasons. The most obvious is access to a usually reliable source of water for agriculture and human needs. Plentiful water, and the enrichment of the soil due to annual floods, made it possible to grow excess crops beyond what was needed to sustain an agricultural village. This allowed for some members of the community to engage in non-agricultural activities such as construction of buildings and cities (the root of the word "civilization ''), metal working, trade, and social organization. Boats on the river provided an easy and efficient way to transport people and goods, allowing for the development of trade and facilitating central control of outlying areas. Mesopotamia was the earliest river valley civilization, starting to form around 3500 BCE. The civilization was created after regular trading started relationships between multiple cities and states around the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Mesopotamian cities became self - run civil governments. One of the cities within this civilization, Uruk, was the first literate society in history. Eventually, they all joined together to irrigate the two rivers in order to make their dry land fertile for agricultural growth. The increase in successful farming in this civilization allowed population growth throughout the cities and states within Mesopotamia. Egypt also created irrigation systems from its local river, the Nile River, more intricate than previous systems. The Egyptians would rotate legumes with cereal which would stop salt buildup from the fresh water and enhance the fertility of their fields. The Nile River also allowed easier travel among the civilization, eventually resulting in the creation of two kingdoms in the north and south areas of the river until both were unified into one society by 3000 BCE. Much of the history of the Indus valley civilization, discovered in the 1920s, is unknown. Discovered in the 1920s, Harappan society remains a mystery because the Harappan system of writing has not yet been deciphered. It was larger than either Egypt or Mesopotamia. Historians have found no evidence of violence or a ruling class; there are no distinctive burial sites and there is not a lot of evidence to suggest a formal military. However, historians believe that the lack of knowledge about the ruling class and the military is mainly due to the inability to read Harappan writing. The Yellow River (Huang He) area became settled around 4000 BC. Many tribes settled along the river, sixth longest in the world, which was distinguished by its heavy load of yellow silt and its periodic devastating floods. Recorded Chinese history begins with the first great wall, the Xia Dynasty, which went through the Yellow River valley from 2100 to 1600 BC. A major impetus for the tribes to unite into a single kingdom was the desire to find a solution to the frequent deadly floods. The Xia dug canals to channel excess water away from the area, resulting in a strong civilization with bountiful harvests and powerful leaders. The Yellow River is often called "The Cradle of Chinese Civilization ''.

who sang spread your tiny wings and fly away

Snowbird (song) - wikipedia "Snowbird '' is a song by the Canadian songwriter Gene MacLellan. Though it has been recorded by many performers (including Bing Crosby and Elvis Presley), it is best known through Anne Murray 's 1969 recording, which -- after appearing as an album track in mid-1969 -- was eventually released as a single in the summer of 1970. It was a No. 2 hit on Canada 's pop chart and went to No. 1 on both the Canadian adult contemporary and country charts. The song reached No. 8 on the U.S. pop singles chart, spent six weeks at No. 1 on the U.S. adult contemporary chart, and became a surprise Top 10 U.S. country hit as well. It was certified as a gold single by the RIAA, the first American Gold record ever awarded to a Canadian solo female artist. The song peaked at No. 23 on the UK Singles Chart. In 2003 it was an inaugural song inductee of the Canadian Songwriters Hall of Fame. Anne Murray and Gene MacLellan had met while both were regulars on the CBC television series Singalong Jubilee and Murray recorded two of MacLellan 's compositions, "Snowbird '' and "Biding My Time '', for her first major label album release, This Way Is My Way, in 1969. Murray would recall: "Gene told me he wrote ('' Snowbird ") in twenty minutes while walking on a beach in PEI. '' The theme and approach broadly resemble that of the earlier hits "Message to Michael '' (a.k.a. "Kentucky Bluebird '' in hit versions by Lou Johnson and Adam Faith) and "Yellow Bird '' in contrasting the narrator 's being stranded in the place of his / her heartache to the bird 's ability to just up and fly away. "Snowbird '' sold well over a million copies and was recently picked as 19th on the 50 Tracks: The Canadian Version list, a partially populist approach to defining the most influential songs by Canadians. Gene MacLellan made his own recording of "Snowbird '' on his 1970 album Street Corner Preacher: MacLellan 's version features an additional verse to the song 's standard two verse format. In 2007 Anne Murray remade "Snowbird '' for her Anne Murray Duets: Friends & Legends album, the song being rendered as a duet with Sarah Brightman. 1970 1971 1972 1986 2011 Year?

the correct order in which energy is obtained for muscle contraction is

Electromyography - wikipedia Electromyography (EMG) is an electrodiagnostic medicine technique for evaluating and recording the electrical activity produced by skeletal muscles. EMG is performed using an instrument called an electromyograph to produce a record called an electromyogram. An electromyograph detects the electric potential generated by muscle cells when these cells are electrically or neurologically activated. The signals can be analyzed to detect medical abnormalities, activation level, or recruitment order, or to analyze the biomechanics of human or animal movement. EMG testing has a variety of clinical and biomedical applications. EMG is used as a diagnostics tool for identifying neuromuscular diseases, or as a research tool for studying kinesiology, and disorders of motor control. EMG signals are sometimes used to guide botulinum toxin or phenol injections into muscles. EMG signals are also used as a control signal for prosthetic devices such as prosthetic hands, arms, and lower limbs. An acceleromyograph may be used for neuromuscular monitoring in general anesthesia with neuromuscular - blocking drugs, in order to avoid postoperative residual curarization (PORC). Except in the case of some purely primary myopathic conditions EMG is usually performed with another electrodiagnostic medicine test that measures the conducting function of nerves. This is called nerve conduction studies (NCS). Needle EMG and NCSs are typically indicated when there is pain in the limbs, weakness from spinal nerve compression, or concern about some other neurologic injury or disorder. Spinal nerve injury does not cause neck, mid back pain or low back pain, and for this reason, evidence has not shown EMG or NCS to be helpful in diagnosing causes of axial lumbar pain, thoracic pain, or cervical spine pain. Needle EMG may aid with the diagnosis of nerve compression or injury (such as carpal tunnel syndrome), nerve root injury (such as sciatica), and with other problems of the muscles or nerves. Less common medical conditions include amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, myasthenia gravis, and muscular dystrophy. The first step before insertion of the needle electrode is skin preparation. This typically involves simply cleaning the skin with an alcohol pad. The actual placement of the needle electrode can be difficult and depends on a number of factors, such as specific muscle selection and the size of that muscle. Proper needle EMG placement is very important for accurate representation of the muscle of interest, although EMG is more effective on superficial muscles as it is unable to bypass the action potentials of superficial muscles and detect deeper muscles. Also, the more body fat an individual has, the weaker the EMG signal. When placing the EMG sensor, the ideal location is at the belly of the muscle: the longitudinal midline. The belly of the muscle can also be thought of as in - between the motor point (middle) of the muscle and the tendonus insertion point. Cardiac pacemakers and implanted cardiac defibrillators (ICDs) are used increasingly in clinical practice, and no evidence exists indicating that performing routine electrodiagnostic studies on patients with these devices pose a safety hazard. However, there are theoretical concerns that electrical impulses of nerve conduction studies (NCS) could be erroneously sensed by devices and result in unintended inhibition or triggering of output or reprogramming of the device. In general, the closer the stimulation site is to the pacemaker and pacing leads, the greater the chance for inducing a voltage of sufficient amplitude to inhibit the pacemaker. Despite such concerns, no immediate or delayed adverse effects have been reported with routine NCS. No known contraindications exist for performing needle EMG or NCS on pregnant patients. Additionally, no complications from these procedures have been reported in the literature. Evoked potential testing, likewise, has not been reported to cause any problems when it is performed during pregnancy. Patients with lymphedema or patients at risk for lymphedema are routinely cautioned to avoid percutaneous procedures in the affected extremity, namely venipuncture, to prevent development or worsening of lymphedema or cellulitis. Despite the potential risk, the evidence for such complications subsequent to venipuncture is limited. No published reports exist of cellulitis, infection, or other complications related to EMG performed in the setting of lymphedema or prior lymph node dissection. However, given the unknown risk of cellulitis in patients with lymphedema, reasonable caution should be exercised in performing needle examinations in lymphedematous regions to avoid complications. In patients with gross edema and taut skin, skin puncture by needle electrodes may result in chronic weeping of serous fluid. The potential bacterial media of such serous fluid and the violation of skin integrity may increase the risk of cellulitis. Before proceeding, the physician should weigh the potential risks of performing the study with the need to obtain the information gained. There are two kinds of EMG: surface EMG and intramuscular EMG. Surface EMG assesses muscle function by recording muscle activity from the surface above the muscle on the skin. Surface electrodes are able to provide only a limited assessment of the muscle activity. Surface EMG can be recorded by a pair of electrodes or by a more complex array of multiple electrodes. More than one electrode is needed because EMG recordings display the potential difference (voltage difference) between two separate electrodes. Limitations of this approach are the fact that surface electrode recordings are restricted to superficial muscles, are influenced by the depth of the subcutaneous tissue at the site of the recording which can be highly variable depending of the weight of a patient, and can not reliably discriminate between the discharges of adjacent muscles. Intramuscular EMG can be performed using a variety of different types of recording electrodes. The simplest approach is a monopolar needle electrode. This can be a fine wire inserted into a muscle with a surface electrode as a reference; or two fine wires inserted into muscle referenced to each other. Most commonly fine wire recordings are for research or kinesiology studies. Diagnostic monopolar EMG electrodes are typically insulated and stiff enough to penetrate skin, with only the tip exposed using a surface electrode for reference. Needles for injecting therapeutic botulinum toxin or phenol are typically monopolar electrodes that use a surface reference, in this case, however, the metal shaft of a hypodermic needle, insulated so that only the tip is exposed, is used both to record signals and to inject. Slightly more complex in design is the concentric needle electrode. These needles have a fine wire, embedded in a layer of insulation that fills the barrel of a hypodermic needle, that has an exposed shaft, and the shaft serves as the reference electrode. The exposed tip of the fine wire serves as the active electrode. As a result of this configuration, signals tend to be smaller when recorded from a concentric electrode than when recorded from a monopolar electrode and they are more resistant to electrical artifacts from tissue and measurements tend to be somewhat more reliable. However, because the shaft is exposed throughout its length, superficial muscle activity can contaminate the recording of deeper muscles. Single fiber EMG needle electrodes are designed to have very tiny recording areas, and allow for the discharges of individual muscle fibers to be discriminated. To perform intramuscular EMG, typically either a monopolar or concentric needle electrode is inserted through the skin into the muscle tissue. The needle is then moved to multiple spots within a relaxed muscle to evaluate both insertional activity and resting activity in the muscle. Normal muscles exhibit a brief burst of muscle fiber activation when stimulated by needle movement, but this rarely lasts more than 100ms. The two most common pathologic types of resting activity in muscle are fasciculation and fibrillation potentials. A fasciculation potential is an involuntary activation of a motor unit within the muscle, sometimes visible with the naked eye as a muscle twitch or by surface electrodes. Fibrillations, however, are only detected by needle EMG, and represent the isolated activation of individual muscle fibers, usually as the result of nerve or muscle disease. Often, fibrillations are triggered by needle movement (insertional activity) and persist for several seconds or more after the movement ceases. After assessing resting and insertional activity, the electromyographer assess the activity of muscle during voluntary contraction. The shape, size, and frequency of the resulting electrical signals are judged. Then the electrode is retracted a few millimetres, and again the activity is analyzed. This is repeated, sometimes until data on 10 -- 20 motor units have been collected in order to draw conclusions about motor unit function. Each electrode track gives only a very local picture of the activity of the whole muscle. Because skeletal muscles differ in the inner structure, the electrode has to be placed at various locations to obtain an accurate study. Single fiber electromyography assesses the delay between the contractions of individual muscle fibers within a motor unit and is a sensitive test for dysfunction of the neuromuscular junction caused by drugs, poisons, or diseases such as myasthenia gravis. The technique is complicated and typically only performed by individuals with special advanced training. Surface EMG is used in a number of settings; for example, in the physiotherapy clinic, muscle activation is monitored using surface EMG and patients have an auditory or visual stimulus to help them know when they are activating the muscle (biofeedback). A review of the literature on surface EMG published in 2008, concluded that surface EMG may be useful to detect the presence of neuromuscular disease (level C rating, class III data), but there are insufficient data to support its utility for distinguishing between neuropathic and myopathic conditions or for the diagnosis of specific neuromuscular diseases. EMGs may be useful for additional study of fatigue associated with post-poliomyelitis syndrome and electromechanical function in myotonic dystrophy (level C rating, class III data). Certain US states limit the performance of needle EMG by nonphysicians. New Jersey declared that it can not be delegated to a physician 's assistant. Michigan has passed legislation saying needle EMG is the practice of medicine. Special training in diagnosing medical diseases with EMG is required only in residency and fellowship programs in neurology, clinical neurophysiology, neuromuscular medicine, and physical medicine and rehabilitation. There are certain subspecialists in otolaryngology who have had selective training in performing EMG of the laryngeal muscles, and subspecialists in urology, obstetrics and gynecology who have had selective training in performing EMG of muscles controlling bowel and bladder function. One basic function of EMG is to see how well a muscle can be activated. The most common way that can be determined is by performing a maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) of the muscle that is being tested. Muscle force, which is measured mechanically, typically correlates highly with measures of EMG activation of muscle. Most commonly this is assessed with surface electrodes, but it should be recognized that these typically only record from muscle fibers in close approximation to the surface. Several analytical methods for determining muscle activation are commonly used depending on the application. The use of mean EMG activation or the peak contraction value is a debated topic. Most studies commonly use the maximal voluntary contraction as a means of analyzing peak force and force generated by target muscles. According to the article, Peak and average rectified EMG measures: Which method of data reduction should be used for assessing core training exercises?, concluded that the "average rectified EMG data (ARV) is significantly less variable when measuring the muscle activity of the core musculature compared to the peak EMG variable. '' Therefore, these researchers would suggest that "ARV EMG data should be recorded alongside the peak EMG measure when assessing core exercises. '' Providing the reader with both sets of data would result in enhanced validity of the study and potentially eradicate the contradictions within the research. EMG can also be used for indicating the amount of fatigue in a muscle. The following changes in the EMG signal can signify muscle fatigue: an increase in the mean absolute value of the signal, increase in the amplitude and duration of the muscle action potential and an overall shift to lower frequencies. Monitoring the changes of different frequency changes the most common way of using EMG to determine levels of fatigue. The lower conduction velocities enable the slower motor neurons to remain active. A motor unit is defined as one motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates. When a motor unit fires, the impulse (called an action potential) is carried down the motor neuron to the muscle. The area where the nerve contacts the muscle is called the neuromuscular junction, or the motor end plate. After the action potential is transmitted across the neuromuscular junction, an action potential is elicited in all of the innervated muscle fibers of that particular motor unit. The sum of all this electrical activity is known as a motor unit action potential (MUAP). This electrophysiologic activity from multiple motor units is the signal typically evaluated during an EMG. The composition of the motor unit, the number of muscle fibres per motor unit, the metabolic type of muscle fibres and many other factors affect the shape of the motor unit potentials in the myogram. Nerve conduction testing is also often done at the same time as an EMG to diagnose neurological diseases. Some patients can find the procedure somewhat painful, whereas others experience only a small amount of discomfort when the needle is inserted. The muscle or muscles being tested may be slightly sore for a day or two after the procedure. EMG signals are essentially made up of superimposed motor unit action potentials (MUAPs) from several motor units. For a thorough analysis, the measured EMG signals can be decomposed into their constituent MUAPs. MUAPs from different motor units tend to have different characteristic shapes, while MUAPs recorded by the same electrode from the same motor unit are typically similar. Notably MUAP size and shape depend on where the electrode is located with respect to the fibers and so can appear to be different if the electrode moves position. EMG decomposition is non-trivial, although many methods have been proposed. Rectification is the translation of the raw EMG signal to a signal with a single polarity, usually positive. The purpose of rectifying the signal is to ensure the signal does not average to zero, due to the raw EMG signal having positive and negative components. Two types of rectification are used: full - wave and half - wave rectification. Full - wave rectification adds the EMG signal below the baseline to the signal above the baseline to make a conditioned signal that is all positive. If the baseline is zero, this is equivalent to taking the absolute value of the signal. This is the preferred method of rectification because it conserves all of the signal energy for analysis. Half - wave rectification discards the portion of the EMG signal that is below the baseline. In doing so, the average of the data is no longer zero therefore it can be used in statistical analyses. Needle EMG used in clinical settings has practical applications such as helping to discover disease. Needle EMG has limitations, however, in that it does involve voluntary activation of muscle, and as such is less informative in patients unwilling or unable to cooperate, children and infants, and in individuals with paralysis., Surface EMG can have limited applications due to inherent problems associated with surface EMG. Adipose tissue (fat) can affect EMG recordings. Studies show that as adipose tissue increased the active muscle directly below the surface decreased. As adipose tissue increased, the amplitude of the surface EMG signal directly above the center of the active muscle decreased. EMG signal recordings are typically more accurate with individuals who have lower body fat, and more compliant skin, such as young people when compared to old. Muscle cross talk occurs when the EMG signal from one muscle interferes with that of another limiting reliability of the signal of the muscle being tested. Surface EMG is limited due to lack of deep muscles reliability. Deep muscles require intramuscular wires that are intrusive and painful in order to achieve an EMG signal. Surface EMG can only measure superficial muscles and even then it is hard to narrow down the signal to a single muscle. The electrical source is the muscle membrane potential of about -- 90 mV. Measured EMG potentials range between less than 50 μV and up to 20 to 30 mV, depending on the muscle under observation. Typical repetition rate of muscle motor unit firing is about 7 -- 20 Hz, depending on the size of the muscle (eye muscles versus seat (gluteal) muscles), previous axonal damage and other factors. Damage to motor units can be expected at ranges between 450 and 780 mV. Muscle tissue at rest is normally electrically inactive. After the electrical activity caused by the irritation of needle insertion subsides, the electromyograph should detect no abnormal spontaneous activity (i.e., a muscle at rest should be electrically silent, with the exception of the area of the neuromuscular junction, which is, under normal circumstances, very spontaneously active). When the muscle is voluntarily contracted, action potentials begin to appear. As the strength of the muscle contraction is increased, more and more muscle fibers produce action potentials. When the muscle is fully contracted, there should appear a disorderly group of action potentials of varying rates and amplitudes (a complete recruitment and interference pattern). EMG findings vary with the type of disorder, the duration of the problem, the age of the patient, the degree to which the patient can be cooperative, the type of needle electrode used to study the patient, and sampling error in terms of the number of areas studied within a single muscle and the number of muscles studied overall. Interpreting EMG findings is usually best done by an individual informed by a focused history and physical examination of the patient, and in conjunction with the results of other relevant diagnostic studies performed including most importantly, nerve conduction studies, but also, where appropriate, imaging studies such as MRI and ultrasound, muscle and nerve biopsy, muscle enzymes, and serologic studies. Abnormal results may be caused by the following medical conditions (please note this is not an exhaustive list of conditions that can result in abnormal EMG studies): Disorders of Muscle: Disorders of the neuromuscular junction: Disorders of Nerves: Plexus disorders: Root disorders: Motor neuron disease The first documented experiments dealing with EMG started with Francesco Redi 's works in 1666. Redi discovered a highly specialized muscle of the electric ray fish (Electric Eel) generated electricity. By 1773, Walsh had been able to demonstrate that the eel fish 's muscle tissue could generate a spark of electricity. In 1792, a publication entitled De Viribus Electricitatis in Motu Musculari Commentarius appeared, written by Luigi Galvani, in which the author demonstrated that electricity could initiate muscle contraction. Six decades later, in 1849, Emil du Bois - Reymond discovered that it was also possible to record electrical activity during a voluntary muscle contraction. The first actual recording of this activity was made by Marey in 1890, who also introduced the term electromyography. In 1922, Gasser and Erlanger used an oscilloscope to show the electrical signals from muscles. Because of the stochastic nature of the myoelectric signal, only rough information could be obtained from its observation. The capability of detecting electromyographic signals improved steadily from the 1930s through the 1950s, and researchers began to use improved electrodes more widely for the study of muscles. The AANEM was formed in 1953 as one of several currently active medical societies with a special interest in advancing the science and clinical use of the technique. Clinical use of surface EMG (sEMG) for the treatment of more specific disorders began in the 1960s. Hardyck and his researchers were the first (1966) practitioners to use sEMG. In the early 1980s, Cram and Steger introduced a clinical method for scanning a variety of muscles using an EMG sensing device. It was not until the middle of the 1980s that integration techniques in electrodes had sufficiently advanced to allow batch production of the required small and lightweight instrumentation and amplifiers. At present, a number of suitable amplifiers are commercially available. In the early 1980s, cables that produced signals in the desired microvolt range became available. Recent research has resulted in a better understanding of the properties of surface EMG recording. Surface electromyography is increasingly used for recording from superficial muscles in clinical or kinesiological protocols, where intramuscular electrodes are used for investigating deep muscles or localized muscle activity. There are many applications for the use of EMG. EMG is used clinically for the diagnosis of neurological and neuromuscular problems. It is used diagnostically by gait laboratories and by clinicians trained in the use of biofeedback or ergonomic assessment. EMG is also used in many types of research laboratories, including those involved in biomechanics, motor control, neuromuscular physiology, movement disorders, postural control, and physical therapy. EMG can be used to sense isometric muscular activity where no movement is produced. This enables definition of a class of subtle motionless gestures to control interfaces without being noticed and without disrupting the surrounding environment. These signals can be used to control a prosthesis or as a control signal for an electronic device such as a mobile phone or PDA. EMG signals have been targeted as control for flight systems. The Human Senses Group at the NASA Ames Research Center at Moffett Field, CA seeks to advance man - machine interfaces by directly connecting a person to a computer. In this project, an EMG signal is used to substitute for mechanical joysticks and keyboards. EMG has also been used in research towards a "wearable cockpit, '' which employs EMG - based gestures to manipulate switches and control sticks necessary for flight in conjunction with a goggle - based display. Unvoiced speech recognition recognizes speech by observing the EMG activity of muscles associated with speech. It is targeted for use in noisy environments, and may be helpful for people without vocal cords and people with aphasia. EMG has also been used as a control signal for computers and other devices. An interface device based on EMG could be used to control moving objects, such as mobile robots or an electric wheelchair. This may be helpful for individuals that can not operate a joystick - controlled wheelchair. Surface EMG recordings may also be a suitable control signal for some interactive video games. In 1999 an EMG program called Echidna was used to enable a man with locked in syndrome to send a message to a computer. That program, now called NeuroSwitch, developed by Control Bionics enables people with severe disabilities to communicate by text, email, SMS, computer - generated voice and to control computer games and programs, and - through the internet - Anybots telepresence robots. A joint project involving Microsoft, the University of Washington in Seattle, and the University of Toronto in Canada has explored using muscle signals from hand gestures as an interface device. A patent based on this research was submitted on June 26, 2008.

when did 5 nights at freddy's come out

Five Nights at Freddy 's - wikipedia Five Nights at Freddy 's (often abbreviated to FNaF) is a media franchise based around an indie video game series created, designed, developed, and published by Scott Cawthon for Microsoft Windows, iOS, and Android. The series is centered on the story of a fictional restaurant named Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza, a pastiche of restaurants like Chuck E. Cheese 's and ShowBiz Pizza Place. The first three games involve the player working as a nighttime security guard, in which they must utilize several tools, most notably checking security cameras, to survive against animatronic characters, which become mobile and homicidal after - hours. The fourth game, which uses different gameplay mechanics from its predecessors, takes place in the house of a child who must defend against nightmarish versions of the animatronics by closing doors and fleeing on foot. The fifth game takes place in a maintenance facility owned by a sister company of Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza. In this game, the player character is a technician instead of a night guard, who must do different tasks each night as told by an AI voice heard in the game. The series has gained widespread popularity since its release. Two novel adaptations, Five Nights at Freddy 's: The Silver Eyes and Five Nights at Freddy 's: The Twisted Ones, were released on December 17, 2015 and June 27, 2017, respectively. A guidebook based on the series, The Freddy Files, was released on August 29, 2017. A horror attraction based on the series was featured in the Adventuredome in Halloween of 2016. Additionally, the series appeared in the Guinness Book of Records: Gamer 's Edition, breaking the record for the largest number of sequels released in a year. The idea for Five Nights at Freddy 's stems from the negative reception towards Scott Cawthon 's previous game, the family friendly Chipper & Sons Lumber Co., as players commented that the main character (a young beaver) looked like "a scary animatronic animal '', with reviewer Jim Sterling calling the game unintentionally "terrifying ''. Although initially discouraged by the poor reception to Chipper & Sons, Cawthon, who had previously mainly developed Christian - oriented games, eventually used it to inspire himself to make something intentionally scarier. The first Five Nights at Freddy 's game was released via Desura on August 8, 2014. On August 20, 2014, after it was approved by the service 's crowdsourcing platform Greenlight, Five Nights at Freddy 's was also released via Steam. The games that followed were released on November 10, 2014; March 2, 2015; July 23, 2015; and October 7, 2016, respectively. A spin - off of the series, FNaF World was announced on a Steam post by Cawthon in September 2015, and was released in January 2017. Cawthon releases most pictorial teasers of his games to his website, "Scott Games '', and releases teaser trailers on his YouTube channel. Cawthon uses Clickteam Fusion 2.5 to create the Five Nights at Freddy 's games and Autodesk 3ds Max to model and render the 3D graphics of the games. For the enhancement of FNaF World and Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location, Cawthon hired professional voice actors. Cawthon has announced that all titles will be remade by third - party companies for release on consoles. Cawthon posted a teaser on his official website in 2015 that announced he had plans to release his first novel called Five Nights at Freddy 's: The Untold Story (that would later be renamed to Five Nights at Freddy 's: The Silver Eyes) sometime in the near future, and that it was to be written separate - canon to the games. On June 20, 2016, Scholastic announced that it would be collaborating with Scott Cawthon on a multi-book deal. Five Nights at Freddy 's: The Silver Eyes, was to be re-printed in paperback on October that year. It was then rescheduled for release on September in the same year. The next two novels were scheduled for release in 2017 and 2018 respectively. A guidebook based on the series was also scheduled for release in 2017. The main Five Nights at Freddy 's series consists of horror - themed video games, in which the player usually takes on the role of a night - time employee at a location canonically connected to Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza, a fictional children 's - oriented restaurant similar to Chuck E. Cheese 's and ShowBiz Pizza. The restaurant uses life - size animatronic characters that sing and dance for children 's parties. These animatronics wander in the restaurant at night, and the guard is instructed to keep watch on these, as the restaurants have had "incidents '' of previous guards being attacked and killed by the characters. To progress through the games, the player must guard themself from the animatronics by using various tools to their advantage. For the most part, however, the player must remain stationary in their defence. In the first game, the player can control the two security doors that connect the office to the adjacent hallways, and may close them to provide a barricade against any animatronics in the vicinity. Each night, the player has a limited power supply that depletes quicker when a tool is used; if the player exhausts the power supply, the doors permanently open, allowing any animatronic to breach the office. Five Nights at Freddy 's 2 provides different tools to work with. Protective doors are not present in the office, and the player must instead defend themselves with an empty Freddy Fazbear head, which fools most animatronics. The power usage is also removed, instead being replaced with a limited flashlight, which is used to ward off one animatronic. Lights may also be used to brighten darker areas of the pizzeria. The game introduces the music box, which must be kept wound to prevent an attack from a certain animatronic. 8 - bit minigames make their inauguration, in which the player can interact with randomly after death. Five Nights at Freddy 's 3 replaces these tools with a monitor panel, where the player must keep certain systems from malfunctioning, so as not to hinder the player 's ability to successfully complete the night. These malfunctions can be triggered randomly, or by hallucinations of past iterations of the animatronics. The ability to seal vents is also added, and must be used to prevent the sole tangible animatronic from entering the office. The player can also use an audio - based function as a means of defense, which triggers a childlike voice to play, luring the animatronic away from the player 's office. The 8 - bit minigames return, and are activated via completing certain side - tasks, such as clicking on a poster or inputting a code into the wall. If the player fully completes all minigames, they unlock a secret ending. Five Nights at Freddy 's 4 reintroduces removed tools, specifically the doors and flashlight, albeit with slightly altered usage. The doors can only be closed when the player is next to them, and will re-open if the player moves away. However, if the player shuts the doors too early, the animatronics will jump scare the player when the door is opened. The flashlight can no - longer run out, but only alerts player to the presence of animatronics as opposed to warding them away, excluding the miniature Freddies that appear on the bed. If the player flashes the flashlight while an animatronic is in the doorway, the player will be jumpscared. There is one new mechanic, where the player must listen for breathing audio. This can determine whether to use the flashlight or close the door. Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location once again keeps the doors, albeit for the secret ending. The flashlight returns, but now loses all functionality, only being stuck permanently on when in certain rooms, and permanently off in others. An elevated control pad is introduced in the game, with the ability to light up rooms and / or shock the animatronics. Other mechanics include another control pad inside the "breaker room '', controlling the power to the whole facility, and a flash beacon, which allows the player to see in the darkened "Funtime auditorium '' and avoid the sole animatronic in that room. Sister Location is also the only game where the player is able to move between rooms. Each game requires the player to survive five nights, with each night increasing the difficulty. There is an unlockable sixth night present in all games (excluding Sister Location), with further additional nights varying between games: the first two games feature a customizable seventh night which allows the player to customize the AI level of each animatronic. A custom night DLC is also available for Sister Location. The third game does not feature any night after the sixth, while the fourth game includes a seventh and eighth night, neither of which are customizable. The fifth game is currently the only game with only five nights, if the custom night DLC is not included. The spin - off game, FNaF World, has the player explore a light - hearted RPG world battling for experience points. The player unlocks different areas as they continue on their adventure. Eventually, after completing certain tasks, the player wins one of eight different endings, all of which will unlock a trophy on the title screen once completed. The game also received an update titled "Update 2 '' which introduced the animatronic characters in the FNAF4 Halloween Edition and some characters from Scott Cawthon 's older games. The update also introduced another boss character which the player must defeat as well as minigames to unlock the aforementioned new characters. The ability to use a security camera system is found in all of the main games except the fourth, and is used to observe the positions of the animatronic characters through security cameras that are set throughout the location. However, only one location can be viewed at a time, and some areas are not visible on the aforementioned cameras. Most camera feeds are dull, sometimes close to black and white in color, and covered in static. In the third game, cameras become dysfunctional if the associated system fails. Security cameras are only used in Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location as a mechanic in the "Fake Ending '' and custom night DLC, not in the main game. The lights, and, by extension, the flashlight and flash beacon, are found in all main games, excluding the third. While use varies per game, lights are generally used to ward off animatronics, or warn the player of their presence. Lights in the first game and second games are activated via buttons mounted into the walls, and light up the player 's ' blind spot ', being the doorway or vent exit, respectively. The fifth game has the lights work similarly, however, they are now mounted onto a control pad, and serve no purpose other than the ability to see the animatronics, due to the different gameplay style. The flashlight in the second and fourth game works in the same fashion as its real life counterpart, in the sense that it has a limited battery life, albeit only in the second game, and must be toggled on and off. The flash beacon was introduced in Sister Location, and is used to quickly gather bearings in the pitch black room seen on the third and fifth nights. Jumpscares are present in all of the series ' main games, and occur when any animatronic manages to reach and attack the player - character. Most jumpscares involve an animatronic character suddenly appearing in the player 's view, followed by a loud, bellowing sound. Some jumpscares, including those of Golden Freddy, Nightmare, and Nightmarionne, consist of a single screen supplemented with shrill, distorted audio. These jumpscares usually crash or restart the game. The player can utilise the tools listed above to prevent attacks, thus preventing any jumpscares from occurring. In all games from the second onwards, the player will gain access to a series of (predominantly 8 - bit) minigames, sometimes randomly after death, as in the second game, and sometimes once the player has completed a specific task. These minigames usually tell a story or event relevant to the game 's lore, although mostly presented in a cryptic way. For example, minigames in Five Nights at Freddy 's 2 are speculated to portray the homicidal incidents previously mentioned in the games. Minigames in Five Nights at Freddy 's 4 tell the story of a character, possibly the player character, who dies in a tragic accident. In all main games except for the fourth and fifth, the player receives a telephone voice message from a previous worker, or owner of the location. These "phone calls '' act as a tutorial to the player, and usually go through several gameplay mechanics, and outline the backstory of the players ' location. In the first and second game, the voice heard in the messages remains the same, while in the third game, it holds a strong Californian accent. Sister Location uses something similar, an A.I. voice which acts as a tutor for the player, although it is not from a telephone. Phone calls from the first game can be heard in Five Nights at Freddy 's 4, albeit only as an easter egg. In the first three main games, the location in which the player character is based in closes down shortly after the end of the game. In the first Five Nights at Freddy 's, the location is said to close by the year 's end, due to a "tragedy that took place there many years ago ''. The location of Five Nights at Freddy 's 2 closes down due to malfunctions of the animatronics. Five Nights at Freddy 's 3 's location closed down after it was unexpectedly burnt down. In Sister Location 's case, the location in which the game 's story is centered around, "Circus Baby 's Pizza World '', was closed down prior to the game, apparently due to gas leaks. The main characters in the Five Nights at Freddy 's series are generally security guards working at a Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza or related location. None of them have distinct personalities and most of the gameplay takes place from their point of view. In Five Nights at Freddy 's, the guard 's name is Mike Schmidt. In Five Nights at Freddy 's 2, the guard is named Jeremy Fitzgerald for all of the main five nights and the bonus sixth night, though he is replaced in the custom seventh night by another guard, Fritz Smith. The security guard for Fazbear 's Fright: The Horror Attraction in Five Nights at Freddy 's 3, is unknown. The main character of Five Nights at Freddy 's 4 is an unnamed boy, who experiences nightmares of the animatronics. The player in Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location is a technician who has their name jokingly autocorrected to Eggs Benedict. The technician 's name is assumed, although not confirmed to be, Mike. Apart from Mike Schmidt, Jeremy Fitzgerald, Fritz Smith, and Michael (a character whose voice is heard in Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location), none of the other human characters in the series have any real, or at least confirmed, names. In the first three games, a man simply identified as "Phone Guy '' leaves a recording over the phone at the beginning of each night which serves as advice to the player on how to deal with the animatronics. Phone Guy is present through all five nights of Five Nights at Freddy 's 2, four of the main nights in Five Nights at Freddy 's, and four of the main nights in Five Nights at Freddy 's 3 (as well as in Night 6 for the second and third games.) He is not present in the fourth and fifth games, though his first night recording from the original game is sometimes played backwards as ambiance in Five Nights at Freddy 's 4. His call at the start of Night 4 in Five Nights at Freddy 's implies that he was killed by the animatronics. In the third game, he is heard over archival recordings discovered by the creators of Fazbear 's Fright. Sister Location instead features a human A.I. named "HandUnit '', who like Phone Guy, acts as a tutor to the player. The first two nights of the third game also feature "Phone Dude '', one of the creators of Fazbear 's Fright. The main antagonist of the series is "Purple Guy '', who is presumably a former Fazbear Entertainment employee who murdered at least five children, whose spirits now inhabit the animatronics. In mini-games from the second game, he murders a child, whose spirit is largely believed to inhabit the Puppet. In the third game, it is revealed that he returned to Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza after it closed down to dismantle the animatronics. This released the spirits of the children he murdered, scaring him into hiding inside a spring lock suit, where he was crushed to death by the suit 's faulty internal workings. It is believed that his body resides in Five Nights at Freddy 's 3 's main antagonist, Springtrap. In the novel adaptation of the series, Purple Guy receives a possible identity, with the name William Afton. It was also revealed that he was the co-owner of Fazbear Entertainment. Scott Cawthon has stated that although "the book is canon, just as the games are (, t) hat does n't mean that they are intended to fit together like two puzzle pieces ''. Most of the gaming community accepts it as Purple Guy 's true name and work. A certain "Mr. Afton '', mentioned in Sister Location 's prologue, is thought to be Purple Guy, creating the possibility of him being the creator of the animatronics seen in game. A character named Michael was introduced in Sister Location, whose identity and motives are currently unknown. The character was introduced in a cutscene, in which he seems to be speaking to his father. There are four main animatronics in the first game: Freddy Fazbear, Bonnie the Bunny (referred to as "Bonnie the Rabbit '' in copyright catalogs), Chica the Chicken, and Foxy the Pirate Fox. A fifth animatronic, Golden Freddy, occasionally appears, albeit in the form of a hallucination. His jumpscare is capable of crashing the game. The animatronics return in various forms throughout the following games, except in the fifth installment, in which Chica is completely absent. Despite being a prequel, the second game introduces upgraded versions of the original characters called Toy Freddy, Toy Bonnie, Toy Chica, and Mangle, along with old, ripped, and worn out versions of the original animatronics. Mangle is meant to be a "toy '' version of Foxy, but was ripped apart so much by children that the staff got tired of reassembling it and left it as a "take apart, put back together '' attraction, according to Phone Guy. He also mentions that the employees nicknamed it "the Mangle ''. Two new characters are also introduced: BB (known as Balloon Boy), who has no jumpscare and can only disable the players ' lights, and The Puppet (also known as The Marionette), who must be quelled by constantly winding up a music box. The only true animatronic in the third game is Springtrap, who looks like a decayed golden version of Bonnie. Additionally, Freddy, Chica, Foxy, Balloon Boy, Mangle, and The Puppet return as hallucinations (or "phantoms ''), and although their jumpscares do n't kill the player, they can disable certain features that are essential for the player to complete the night easily. In the fourth game, nightmare versions of the original four animatronics - Nightmare Bonnie, Nightmare Chica, Nightmare Foxy, and Nightmare Freddy -- appear, haunting a small boy. A nightmare version of Golden Freddy is also featured, identified as Nightmare Fredbear, who replaces all animatronics on the fifth night. Two new animatronics also make their debut: Plushtrap, a finger trap toy version of Springtrap, and Nightmare, a version of Nightmare Fredbear whose jumpscare causes the game to reset. The "Halloween Edition '' of the game also features Nightmare Balloon Boy (who replaces Plushtrap), Nightmare Mangle (who replaces Nightmare Foxy), and Nightmarionne, a nightmare version of the Puppet, who replaces Nightmare. Nightmare Bonnie and Nightmare Chica also receive reskins in the Halloween Edition, giving them a resemblance to Jack - O ' - Lanterns. In the fifth game, Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location, "Funtime '' versions of Freddy and Foxy appear as well as multiple new characters: Circus Baby, a female humanoid and the main animatronic, Ballora, who appears to be a dancing ballerina animatronic, Bonnet, a miniature rabbit animatronic, Electrobab, a small animatronic capable of draining power in the game 's "custom night '', a bear - like endoskeleton named Yenndo, Lolbit (an alternately coloured Funtime Foxy), and Ennard, who is a hive - mind animatronic and is a hybrid of the endoskeletons of other animatronics from the game. Three of these animatronics are accompanied with smaller companion animatronics: Funtime Freddy, who is accompanied by "Bon - Bon '', a hand - puppet version of Bonnie; Ballora, who is accompanied by Minireenas (small, ballet - dancer like animatronics); and Baby, who is accompanied by multiple baby - shaped animatronics called Bidybabs. In the spin - off game, FNaF World, there are up to 30 characters the player can unlock, consisting of characters from the first four games, as well as Coffee from The Desolate Hope, Chipper from Chipper and Sons Lumber Co, Funtime Foxy from Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location, and Animdude, the character in Scott Cawthon 's logo. Lolbit (a character from Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location 's custom night) is also featured in its debut appearance, but is only an NPC, and thus is not playable. Enemies in FNaF World either resemble original characters in some way, for example "Ballboy '' to Balloon Boy, and "White Rabbit '' to Toy Bonnie, or are designed and named to match their home location, for example "Chop ' N Roll '' in the wood predominated forest, and "Chillax '' in the snowy fields. After Scott Cawthon 's previous game (Chipper & Sons Lumber Co.) received bad reception for the unsettling appearance of the supposedly kid - friendly characters, Cawthon decided to use these ideas to create an intentionally scary game, Five Nights at Freddy 's. The game involves a character, whose name is later revealed to be Mike Schmidt, who has started a job working as a night watch security guard at the restaurant Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza, where the animatronics move at night and will kill anyone they see by stuffing them in a spare animatronic suit. Apparently, this is due to their misinterpretation of the player character as a metal endoskeleton without their costume on. Animatronic movement is explained to the player as a purposely programmed "free - roaming '' mode, as to prevent animatronic servomotors from locking up. The player must survive from midnight to 6 AM. The player is not able to leave the room, and must use a camera system and two doors with lights in order to defend themselves from the animatronics. The hostility of the animatronics appear to be the result of possession by the vengeful souls of children who were killed on the restaurant 's site. The player is guided by an unknown entity known as "Phone Guy '', who assists them in their defense from the animatronics. Mike is fired from his job after the seventh night, due to tampering with the animatronics, odor and general unprofessionalism. Five Nights at Freddy 's was first released for Microsoft Windows on August 8, 2014, followed by ports for Android and iOS on August 27, 2014 and September 11, 2014, respectively. A version for the Windows Phone was also released, but was taken down soon after due to the down - scaled graphics of the port. Shortly after the release of the first game, developer Cawthon began to confirm rumors of a sequel. Just one month after the original game 's release, Cawthon posted a teaser of the sequel on his webpage, and continued to post teasers until the game 's release. A teaser trailer was released on October 21, 2015, introducing various new animatronic characters and the absence of doors. Five Nights at Freddy 's 2 was first released for Microsoft Windows on November 10, 2014, earlier of its planned release of December 25, 2014. Ports for Android and iOS were released on November 13 and 20 of the same year. A Windows Phone port was also released, but was taken down for the same reasons as the first game. Set some time before the events of the first game, the main character, whose name is later revealed to be Jeremy Fitzgerald, has started working as a night watch security guard at the "new and improved '' Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza. The "upgraded '' versions of the animatronic characters, which have special facial recognition software to protect the children from potential harm, were not programmed with a proper night mode; when things go silent, their programming tells them that they are in the wrong room and they seek out the nearest source of noise to find people to entertain, which happens to be in the player 's office. The player must again listen to the instructions of a "phone guy '', and attempt to defend themselves from the animatronics using several mechanics. Like the previous game, the player must survive from midnight to 6 AM. Jeremy is apparently moved to day shift after Night 6 as the animatronics ' hostility becomes too dangerous, with the restaurant closing down shortly after. 8 - bit minigames are made available randomly after death, which are thought to portray the restaurants ' past and the several murders that occurred on site. An entity portrayed as a purple sprite is also introduced, who is speculated to be the culpable murderer who murdered the children. In January 2015, a new image was uploaded to Cawthon 's website, teasing a third entry in the series. Various teaser images followed, before a trailer was released on January 26, 2015. On February 15, 2015, Cawthon made a post on Steam stating that Five Nights at Freddy 's 3 had been cancelled after a hacker supposedly leaked the game. This was later discovered to be a joke, as the "leaked '' download link lead to a humorous clone of Scott 's previous game, There is No Pause Button!. Five Nights at Freddy 's 3 was legitimately released for Microsoft Windows on March 3, 2015, with Android and iOS ports following on March 7, 2015 and March 12, 2015. Set thirty years after the events of the first game, the main character (who remains unnamed) works at "Fazbear 's Fright '', a horror attraction based off the long - gone Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza. The player must defend themselves from a deteriorated animatronic - costume hybrid known as "Springtrap '', which was the sole animatronic the attraction workers were able to discover. Burnt and tattered hallucinations of previous games ' animatronics also appear, but can not directly kill the player, and instead hinder ventilation, sound, and camera systems, which may also fail by other means. Failure to maintain these systems can create many issues for the player, including dysfunctional cameras, and the inability to play audio in order to lure away the animatronic. The player receives guidance from a founder of the horror attraction for the first couple of nights, but also listens to old tape recordings discovered by the attraction workers related to the backstory of previous locations. The game has two endings, a good ending and a bad ending. The good ending can only be achieved by completing secret minigames, in which various animatronic characters bring a cake to what seems to be a sorrowful child 's soul. This ending is thought to imply that the souls of the murdered children have been set free, although connoted meanings are disputed. Beginning April 27, 2015, Cawthon posted images on his website teasing at another game in the series, originally known as Five Nights at Freddy 's: The Final Chapter. A trailer was released on July 13, 2015, hinting that the game took place in the main character 's house. Five Nights at Freddy 's 4 was first announced with a release date of October 31, 2015, before being pushed forward to August 8, 2015, and again to July 23 of the same year, when the game was unexpectedly released on Microsoft Windows through Steam. Android and iOS ports were released on July 25, 2015 and August 3, 2015. The player character is a young boy suffering from delusions of being attacked by nightmarish versions of the original animatronic characters. The player must defend themselves using only a flashlight, doors, and their sense of hearing, to attempt to locate the animatronics. The story of possibly the same young boy is told through minigames, in which he is shown to be bullied due to his irrational fear of a restaurant featuring a yellow animatronic bear and rabbit. He is guided by an animatronic plush toy, whom speaks to the character in times when he is alone. The child is eventually killed by the bear animatronic, "Fredbear '', in a freak accident. The game received a Halloween - style DLC, in which features "nightmare '' versions of animatronics from the Five Nights at Freddy 's 2. The DLC also gives halloween - themed reskins to Nightmare Bonnie and Nightmare Chica. In April 2016, Cawthon released a teaser image of an upcoming game on his website, entitled Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location, featuring a clown - like animatronic, revealed to be named "Circus Baby ''. Several teaser images followed, revealing different characters and hints at their origins. The trailer for the game was released on Cawthon 's official YouTube page featuring new animatronics and a new location. The release date was later confirmed to be October 7, 2016. Cawthon made a joke release of the game on October 5, apparently releasing a "mature '' edition of the game after the decision to delay the game to make it more "kid friendly ''. The download link led to a clone of Cawthon 's previous game, Sit ' N Survive. Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location was first released for Microsoft Windows on October 7, 2016, followed by ports for Android and iOS on December 22, 2016 and January 3, 2017, respectively. The player character, seemingly named Mike, and jokingly referred to as "Eggs Benedict '', is a new employee of the underground Circus Baby 's Rentals and Entertainment, a sister company of Fazbear Entertainment featuring animatronics that are rented out to children 's birthday parties; they were originally intended for use in a pizzeria called Circus Baby 's Pizza World, but the pizzeria never officially opened due to gas leaks. ' Mike ' is guided by HandUnit, an AI character similar to the Phone ' Guy ' from previous games. HandUnit instructs him about his job, often telling the player to disregard safety, however, an animatronic called Circus Baby often gives instructions that directly contradict that of HandUnit 's, and are vital to survival. The game also offers a "custom night '' DLC, in which the player is able to use mechanics reminiscing those of the first game (such as interactive doors and a camera system), which were absent from the main game. New minigames are also made available in this DLC, describing the fate of ' Mike ' after the events of Sister Location. A cutscene is also shown after the completion of the "Golden Freddy '' custom night preset, in which a character named "Michael '' speaks to his father in a foreboding manner. On September 15, 2015, Cawthon announced a spin - off of his series, entitled FNAF World. Unlike the main series, the game is a RPG - based video game, using the various animatronic characters from the first four games. The game takes place in a fanciful world, where the characters must fight enemies and progress through the game by unlocking certain perks and items. Though originally planned for release on February 2, 2016, Cawthon rescheduled the release to January 22, 2016, but eventually launched yet another day earlier, on January 21, 2016, respectively. Post-release, community and critics criticized the game for missing key features, being unstable and unfinished, for which Cawthon later apologized, stating, "I got too eager to show the things that were finished, that I neglected to pay attention to the things that were n't. '' The game was subsequently removed by Steam per Cawthon 's decision, and he stated that the game would be improved upon and re-released for no charge at a later date. Cawthon also announced that he asked Valve to refund everyone 's money who bought the game. In February 2016, Cawthon released a free version of the game, which featured a 3D overworld and an updated character selection screen. In March 2016, Cawthon updated his website with a new teaser, which featured new characters, like the infamous "Purple Guy '' from the main series, and most of the characters from the Halloween update for Five Nights at Freddy 's 4. Cawthon also created minigames for the second update of the game, including Foxy Fighters, FOXY. exe, Chica 's Magic Rainbow, and FNAF 57: Freddy In Space. In June 2017, Cawthon hinted towards the development of a sixth main game in the series. On July 2, 2017, he announced his decision to cancel this game, stating that he had been "neglecting other things in (his) life for the sake of trying to keep up with (the) mounting expectations ''. Cawthon noted that he was not planning on abandoning the series, and may even return with a game of a different style, such as one similar to FNaF World. He also announced his plans to develop a virtual reality Five Nights at Freddy 's game in the future. Ambient music for the first four Five Nights at Freddy 's games consisted mostly of stock music, altered by Cawthon according to the game 's needs. Notable music found in the games include the "Toreador Song '', which is played when the player runs out of power in the first game, and a music box rendition of "My Grandfather 's Clock '', played from The Puppet 's music box as it winds down in Five Nights at Freddy 's 2. FNaF World and Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location instead receive their own OST, composed by Leon Riskin specifically for the games. Music created for FNaF World varied from battle themes to general ambience for various locations, for example "Dungeon Theme '', for when the player is in the Mysterious Mine, and "Water Theme '', for when they are in Lilygear Lake. Music in Sister Location had a variety of uses: music such as "Turtle Crusher '' and "MVP '' are used for minigames, while ambiance such as "Crumbling Dreams '' play during the main game. A musical piece titled "Dramatic Soap Opera '' was created specifically for the between - night soap opera, The Immortal and The Restless. Additional numbers were added in the Custom Night DLC, notably "Watch Your 6 '', the main ambiance for Custom Night (although this music was also used for the main game 's alternate ending), and "Demolition Inevitable '', music played in the final cutscene of the game. Five Nights at Freddy 's: The Silver Eyes is the first novel written by Scott Cawthon and Kira Breed - Wrisley, released earlier than planned on December 17, 2015 for the Amazon Kindle and with a printed paperback released on September 27, 2016. The story follows a group of childhood friends who meet in their hometown and discover unnerving secrets of the once - loved restaurant Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza. According to Cawthon, the novel "expands the mythos and reveals a human element never before seen in the games ''. However, he stated that, though the book is technically canon to the Five Nights at Freddy 's universe, the book and the game series may not be "intended to fit together like two puzzle pieces ''. The novel became a # 1 The New York Times best seller in Young Adult Paperbacks soon after its release. Five Nights at Freddy 's: The Twisted Ones is the second novel written by Cawthon and Breed - Wrisley. A sequel to Five Nights at Freddy 's: The Silver Eyes, the book was first discovered on Amazon in early 2017. While the discovery sparked controversy on the legitimacy of the product, Cawthon confirmed that the novel was in fact official. The book had an early release in some bookstores, but was released publicly on June 27, 2017. The book involves Charlie, the main character from The Silver Eyes, who is inevitably "drawn back into the world of her father 's frightening creations '' after trying to move on. The Freddy Files is the first official guidebook of the series, containing character profiles, outlining several in - game mechanics, and expanding on fan theories sprouted from the games. The book was again released in some bookstores earlier than planned, but released publicly on August 29, 2017. Warner Bros. Pictures announced in April 2015 that it had acquired the rights to adapt the series to film. Roy Lee, David Katzenberg, and Seth Grahame - Smith were set to produce. Grahame - Smith stated that they would collaborate with Cawthon "to make an insane, terrifying and weirdly adorable movie ''. In July 2015, Gil Kenan signed to direct the adaptation and co-write it with Tyler Burton Smith. In January 2017, Cawthon stated that partially due to "problems within the movie industry as a whole '', the film "was met with several delays and roadblocks '' and it was "back at square one '', but promised "to be involved with the movie from day one this time, and that 's something extremely important to me. I want this movie to be something that I 'm excited for the fanbase to see. '' In March 2017, Cawthon tweeted a picture at Blumhouse Productions, suggesting the film had a new production company. In May 2017, producer Jason Blum confirmed the news, claiming he was excited and working closely with Cawthon on the adaptation. In June 2017, Kenan said he was no longer directing the film after Warner Bros. Pictures ' turnaround. The first game has been praised by critics. Indie Game Magazine praised the first game 's artistic design, commenting that "it 's an incredibly terrifying experience to try to save yourself from the single jump scare that ends the game '' and that it was a "fantastic example of how cleverness in design and subtlety can be used to make an experience terrifying ''. PC Gamer, when reviewing the first game, commented on the fact that players will likely experience familiarity with the setting due to restaurants such as Chuck E. Cheese 's. They also noted that while "the AI is n't some masterwork of procedural unpredictability, it would (still) head straight to you and eat your face off, or it 'll play around like an innocent child before closing in for the kill. Your mind will fill in the rest. '' The second game received mixed to positive reviews, with PC Gamer commenting that what he had hoped for in the sequel "was more mind games and more uncertainty. I wanted the plodding animatronic suits to find me and rip my face off in new and interesting ways. I wanted working legs '', and that "what I got was a horror game dipping heavily into deception and subtlety ''. However, he also noted that "enjoying the good parts, though, comes with a cost of a frustratingly steep difficulty ''. Destructoid also gave the game a positive review, saying that "It 's absolutely terrifying to know that you could be attacked at any moment from multiple avenues '' and also praised the introduction of new animatronics and mechanics, but also criticizing the jumpscares and calling the game "too hard for its own good ''. The third game has, however, proven to be slightly less popular among critics, though it received similar reception to the first two games. Critics from PC Gamer stated that although they enjoyed the new reworked camera system, the jumpscares from the animatronics "felt a little stale by the third night '', to the point of becoming a mere annoyance. Destructoid commented that while Five Nights at Freddy 's 3 is "by far the most technically proficient and mechanically satisfying installment yet '', he was disappointed that Fazbear 's Fright and Springtrap "(lacked) charm of the original cast and locations ''. The fourth game received mixed reviews from critics. Destructoid criticized the fourth game for its excessively - loud jumpscares and the breathing mechanic being too difficult and confusing for players. Despite this, it was praised by one reviewer at GameZebo for its intense environment and creepy sounds and graphics, as well as its jumpscares. It was also given a mixed review by PC Gamer, who called it "another rivet in the series ' steel - clad design which immortalized its Let 's Play legacy in a few short months '' and "certainly the scariest of the four (games) '', but also criticized the gameplay, saying that "the humdrum repetition of the same sequence over and over... is too much of a chore to fully pull me in '', as well as criticizing the game 's lack of the series 's signature camera system. The fifth game has also received mixed reviews. Destructoid called it "slightly above average '' and noted that "fans of the genre should enjoy this game, but a fair few will be left unfulfilled. '' GameCrate summarized that "Sister Location is a fantastic horror game, even if it does n't particularly feel like the rest of the FNaF series. '' In 2016, a horror attraction based on the series was featured in the Adventuredome during the Halloween season. From the first game 's release, the Five Nights at Freddy 's series has become increasingly popular among a large group of people, effectively creating a "fan base '' for the game. The series is discussed by fans on many platforms such as Reddit. The Five Nights at Freddy 's games have proven popular to be played by video streamers to their audience, so as to capture the players ' jump scares and other frightened reactions, becoming a common game for Let 's Play videos. Popular video streamers such as PewDiePie, Markiplier, and Jacksepticeye helped the games to receive additional attention through their playthroughs. In May 2015, YouTube reported that playthroughs of the Five Nights at Freddy 's series were the eighth most - watched of all video game series on the service. Channels such as Game Theory do occasionally feature Five Nights at Freddy 's related videos, although they seldom provide gameplay footage, giving more attention to discussion of the game. There are a number of fan made games based on the series, inspired by what is often described as the viable, yet intriguing game mechanics Five Nights at Freddy 's offers. The Five Nights at Freddy 's fandom is often criticized, mostly due to negative generalization of the community. Scott Cawthon made a post on Steam regarding these claims, defending the fandom and criticizing the wider community for the unfair generalization. In April 2015, fans mistook random numbers that were placed by Cawthon into the source code of the game 's official website to be coordinates that pointed to a location significant to the games. Fans entered these numbers into Google Maps and consequently discovered a pizzeria in Virginia. Mass phone calls were made to the pizzeria by fans, attempting to discover if the company had a connection to the upcoming installment, Five Nights at Freddy 's 4. It was later confirmed by Cawthon that this pizzeria had no connection with the Five Nights at Freddy 's series. In June the next year, fans discovered a pizzeria and restaurant in Long Branch, New Jersey called Freddie 's, and again called the restaurant in mass numbers to determine affiliation to Five Nights at Freddy 's. The hundreds of phone calls received by the restaurant each day caused difficulty for legitimate customers to be able to place orders through the phone line. A pizzeria called Freddie 's Pizza & Pasta in Roseville, California also suffered from this. Cawthon has since asked fans to refrain from calling numbers that they believe are associated with the game, as seen in the footer of his webpage. Five Nights at Freddy 's merchandise is predominantly produces by two companies, Sanshee and Funko. Products created through these companies include stuffed toys, action figures, posters, clothing, keychains, and even stationery. McFarlane also has a line of Five Nights at Freddy 's merchandise, consisting mostly of construction sets. These merchandise items are available internationally, and have been a large factor for the franchise 's commercial success.

select the year in which the state's first oil field came in near jennings louisiana

Jennings, Louisiana - wikipedia Jennings is a city in and the parish seat of Jefferson Davis Parish, Louisiana, United States, near Lake Charles. The population was 10,383 at the 2010 census, a small decline from the 2000 tabulation. The city is 68 percent white. Jennings is the principal city of the Jennings Micropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Jefferson Davis Parish. It is also part of the larger Lake Charles - Jennings Combined Statistical Area. It is also part of the large, 22 - parish Acadiana region of the state, with a large Francophone population, many descended from early Acadian settlers. The City of Jennings is also the home to musical artist Jamie Bergeron. An event called "Turn It Up Tuesdays '' occurs here. At this event, different artists perform at Founder 's Park on Tuesdays. Jennings McComb, for whom the town was named, was an Irish contractor of the Southern Pacific Railroad. He built the Jennings depot on a divide peculiar to southwest Louisiana. This became the center of new development based on the railroad. The first settler was recorded as A.D. McFarlain, who came in 1881 from St. Mary Parish and opened a store. McFarlain also became the first rice grower, postmaster, brick maker, and builder in the community. Prospering with Jennings ' growth, McFarlain was considered one of the town 's prominent businessmen and civic leaders. The Jennings area attracted numerous wheat farmers from Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska and other Midwestern states. The new settlers of southwest Louisiana were referred to as "Yankees '' by the natives, who were of Acadian French and African - American descent. They had settled along the waterways in the parish, which they had relied on for transportation before the railroad. They fished in the bayous. The Cajuns gave appreciable aid to the settlers in homesteading and homemaking. The people grew rice, cotton, sweet potatoes and corn. Sylvester L. Cary reached this area on February 7, 1883 from Iowa. He became known as the town 's "father, '' as he persuaded other Iowans to relocate there. He said he was "seeking a home where there was neither winter or mortgages. '' So impressed was Cary by the fertile country around the Jennings depot that he shared his findings with others. He attracted fellow Midwesterners to southwest Louisiana by writing to friends in Iowa, extolling the area. When he returned to Iowa to pack up his family for the move to Jennings, he persuaded several neighbors preparing to migrate west, to follow him to Jennings and southwest Louisiana. Much of southwest Louisiana was developed by the North American Land and Timber Co, which owned large portions of land. Seaman A. Knapp, president of the Iowa State College of Agriculture, was engaged in 1885 to demonstrate the region 's suitability for rice production. Knapp attracted a number of Iowans to settle the area. The land company placed advertisements in newspapers published in the Midwestern states. On May 2, 1888 the settlement of Jennings was incorporated as a village. In 1901, a fire destroyed a large portion of the wooden structures in Jennings. That same year, Jennings was the site of the first oil well to produce in the state of Louisiana, revealing its first oil field. Oil brought a boom to the town for a period. When oil production declined, the basic agricultural economy of the parish supported the town. Jennings is located at 30 ° 13 ′ 20 '' N 92 ° 39 ′ 25 '' W  /  30.22222 ° N 92.65694 ° W  / 30.22222; - 92.65694 (30.222207, - 92.656880) and has an elevation of 26 feet (7.9 m). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 10.3 square miles (27 km), of which 10.2 square miles (26 km) is land and 0.04 square miles (0.10 km) (0.19 %) is water. As of the census of 2000, there were 10,986 people, 4,090 households, and 2,875 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,072.6 people per square mile (414.2 / km2). There were 4,541 housing units at an average density of 443.4 per square mile (171.2 / km2). The racial makeup of the city was 70.42 % White, 28.00 % African American, 0.37 % Native American, 0.29 % Asian, 0.22 % from other races, and 0.70 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.92 % of the population. There were 4,090 households out of which 34.8 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.1 % were married couples living together, 18.4 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.7 % were non-families. 26.3 % of all households were made up of individuals and 12.9 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 3.16. In the city, the population was spread out with 28.8 % under the age of 18, 9.6 % from 18 to 24, 25.7 % from 25 to 44, 20.2 % from 45 to 64, and 15.7 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 87.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 81.3 males. The median income for a household in the city was $24,410, and the median income for a family was $30,783. Males had a median income of $26,630 versus $19,010 for females. The per capita income for the city was $12,357. About 22.4 % of families and 26.2 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 34.3 % of those under the age of 18 and 18.1 % of those ages 65 or older. Jefferson Davis Parish Public Schools operates public schools serving Jennings. The schools serving Jennings, all within the city, include Ward Elementary School (PK - 2), Jennings Elementary School (3 - 6), and Jennings High School (7 - 12) (1). Bethel Christian School is a PreK - 12 Christian school located in unincorporated Jefferson Davis Parish, near Jennings. Jefferson Davis Parish Library operates the Headquarters Branch at 118 West Plaquemine Street in Jennings. In addition the City of Jennings operates the Jennings Carnegie Public Library at 303 North Cary Avenue. The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Jennings has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa '' on climate maps.

who has played for the most teams in mlb history

Octavio Dotel - wikipedia Octavio Eduardo Dotel Diaz (born November 25, 1973) is a Dominican former professional baseball pitcher. Dotel played for thirteen major league teams, more than any other player in the history of Major League Baseball (MLB), setting the mark when he pitched for the Detroit Tigers on April 7, 2012, breaking a record previously held by Mike Morgan, Matt Stairs, and Ron Villone. Edwin Jackson tied this record in 2018. He was a member of the Houston Astros for 5 seasons. Dotel made his MLB debut on June 26, 1999, for the New York Mets and lost. His first MLB win came July 1, 1999, against the Florida Marlins. He ended the season as the winning pitcher in the 1999 National League Championship Series game five against the Atlanta Braves. He was voted Player of the Week for the week of July 25, 1999. Dotel won the 2011 World Series as a member of the St. Louis Cardinals. In 2013, as part of the World Baseball Classic champions along with fellow Dominicans Robinson Canó and Santiago Casilla, Dotel became one of the few players in history to win both a World Series and a World Baseball Classic. Dotel graduated from Liceo Cansino Afuera in the Dominican Republic and was signed by the New York Mets as an amateur free agent in 1993. He played for their minor league affiliate in the Dominican Summer League through 1994 and then promoted through the Mets ' minor league system for the next several seasons. On December 23, 1999, Dotel was traded by the Mets with Roger Cedeño and minor leaguer Kyle Kessel to the Houston Astros for Mike Hampton and Derek Bell. In 2000 Dotel amassed three wins in 16 games started as well as 16 saves as his role converted from starter to relief pitcher for the Astros, filling in as closer for an injured Billy Wagner. This season marked the first time in National League history that a pitcher had over 15 starts and 15 saves (the only other season in MLB history came in the American League in 1999, when Tim Wakefield won six games in 17 starts and attained 15 saves for the Boston Red Sox). In 2001, Dotel again began the season as a starter but moved into the bullpen as the setup man for closer Billy Wagner. Dotel had an excellent season in 2002; he led all relievers with 118 strikeouts, helping secure a well - reputed bullpen for the Astros at that time. By 2003, Dotel and Wagner were joined by future Astros closer Brad Lidge and all three partook in a historic event when six Astros pitchers combined for a no - hitter against the New York Yankees on June 11, 2003. After the 2003 season, Wagner was traded to the Philadelphia Phillies and Dotel started 2004 as the closer for the Astros. On June 24, 2004, Dotel was traded to the Oakland Athletics in a three - team trade that sent Carlos Beltrán to the Astros, minor leaguer Mike Wood, Mark Teahen, and John Buck to the Kansas City Royals. Dotel served as closer for the Athletics and finished the 2004 season with a career - high 36 saves (22 for the A 's and 14 for the Astros). Dotel began 2005 as closer for the Athletics again, but had a rough start and went on the 60 - day disabled list on 19 May. He underwent Tommy John surgery on June 1, ending his season after just 15 games. Dotel signed a one - year deal with the New York Yankees in December 2005. He missed the first four months of the 2006 season, recovering from his Tommy John surgery. Dotel had a setback after developing tendinitis in his elbow while on a rehab assignment with the Trenton Thunder. This pushed his return into August as he went through another minor league assignment with the Columbus Clippers. Dotel pitched his first game in a Yankees uniform on August 16, coming into the game in the eighth inning against the Baltimore Orioles, facing two batters with one strikeout and one walk. He finished the season playing in 14 games with no record and an ERA of 10.80. Dotel became a free agent at the end of the 2006 MLB season. On December 8, 2006, he agreed to a one - year contract with the Kansas City Royals for $5 million. On July 31, 2007 the Royals traded Dotel to the Atlanta Braves in exchange for pitcher Kyle Davies. He made his Braves debut on August 1, throwing a scoreless ninth inning in a 12 -- 3 rout of the Astros. On August 10, Dotel was placed on the disabled list with a right shoulder strain. He made his return on September 22 escaping a bases - loaded jam which eventually led to a Braves win. He finished the season 2 -- 1 with a 3.76 ERA. On January 21, 2008 he agreed to a two - year, $11 million deal with the Chicago White Sox. On January 21, 2010, Dotel agreed to a one - year, $3.25 million deal with the Pittsburgh Pirates, plus bonuses for games finished. The deal also included a club option for 2011 for $4.5 million with a $250,000 buyout. Dotel started the year as the Pirates closer and stayed the closer until he was traded. Dotel recorded 21 saves in 2010 with the Pirates. On July 31, 2010, Dotel was traded to the Los Angeles Dodgers for James McDonald and Andrew Lambo. He appeared in 19 games with the Dodgers and had a 3.38 ERA and one save. On September 18, 2010, Dotel was traded to the Colorado Rockies for a player to be named later. Dotel was ineligible to play on the postseason roster, but it made no difference as Colorado missed the playoffs. Dotel finished playing in eight games with the Rockies, going 0 -- 1 with a 5.06 ERA. Dotel agreed to a one - year, $3.5 million deal with the Toronto Blue Jays with a club option for 2012. He earned his 50th career victory on April 8, 2011 against the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim. On July 27, 2011, Dotel was traded to the St. Louis Cardinals with Edwin Jackson, Marc Rzepczynski and Corey Patterson for Colby Rasmus, P.J. Walters, Trever Miller and Brian Tallet. Dotel got his first championship title when the Cardinals beat the Texas Rangers in the 2011 World Series. On October 31, 2011 it was announced that Cardinals would not pick up his team option for the 2012 season, making Dotel a type A free agent. Dotel signed with the Detroit Tigers on December 7, 2011. He made his debut for them on April 7, 2012. The Tigers were Dotel 's thirteenth major league team, allowing him to pass Matt Stairs, Mike Morgan and Ron Villone for the MLB record of the most teams for which a player played. Octavio Dotel Dotel made his 700th appearance in a major - league game on April 21, 2012, in the nightcap of a double - header against the Texas Rangers. Dotel entered the World Series for the second year in a row but lost to the San Francisco Giants in a 4 - game sweep. On June 8, 2013, Dotel was placed on the 60 - day DL due to right elbow inflammation. On October 3, 2014, Dotel announced his retirement from professional baseball at the age of 40 after pitching 15 seasons for 13 MLB teams. His career strikeout rate of 10.8 per nine innings is the best in the history of baseball for right - handed pitchers with at least 900 innings pitched. Dotel mainly threw a four - seam fastball from 90 -- 93 mph. He had two breaking balls, mostly used in 2 - strike counts: a sweeping slider in the low 80s and a curveball in the upper 70s. The slider was used against right - handed hitters, the curveball against left - handers. He was a strikeout pitcher throughout his career, finishing above 10 strikeouts per 9 innings in 10 full seasons. In November 1993, not long after Dotel signed his first contract with the New York Mets, his father was murdered. Emilio Dotel, 53, entered a taxi cab on his way home from work and was robbed, strangled, and killed. His body was found a day later 5 miles (8.0 km) from his house in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. The late Emilio Dotel and his wife, Maria Magdalena Dotel, had three sons and two daughters. Octavio Dotel is married to Massiel. While playing for the St. Louis Cardinals, Dotel served as a mentor to fellow reliever Marc Rzepczynski.

which of the following are organisms that feed on other organisms

Organism - wikipedia In biology, an organism (from Greek: οργανισμός, organismos) is any individual entity that exhibits the properties of life. It is a synonym for "life form ''. Organisms are classified by taxonomy into specified groups such as the multicellular animals, plants, and fungi; or unicellular microorganisms such as a protists, bacteria, and archaea. All types of organisms are capable of reproduction, growth and development, maintenance, and some degree of response to stimuli. Humans are multicellular animals composed of many trillions of cells which differentiate during development into specialized tissues and organs. An organism may be either a prokaryote or a eukaryote. Prokaryotes are represented by two separate domains -- bacteria and archaea. Eukaryotic organisms are characterized by the presence of a membrane - bound cell nucleus and contain additional membrane - bound compartments called organelles (such as mitochondria in animals and plants and plastids in plants and algae, all generally considered to be derived from endosymbiotic bacteria). Fungi, animals and plants are examples of kingdoms of organisms within the eukaryotes. Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which only about 1.2 million have been documented. More than 99 % of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived are estimated to be extinct. In 2016, a set of 355 genes from the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) of all living organisms living was identified. The term "organism '' (from Greek ὀργανισμός, organismos, from ὄργανον, organon, i.e. "instrument, implement, tool, organ of sense or apprehension '') first appeared in the English language in 1703 and took on its current definition by 1834 (Oxford English Dictionary). It is directly related to the term "organization ''. There is a long tradition of defining organisms as self - organizing beings, going back at least to Immanuel Kant 's 1790 Critique of Judgment. An organism may be defined as an assembly of molecules functioning as a more or less stable whole that exhibits the properties of life. Dictionary definitions can be broad, using phrases such as "any living structure, such as a plant, animal, fungus or bacterium, capable of growth and reproduction ''. Many definitions exclude viruses and possible man - made non-organic life forms, as viruses are dependent on the biochemical machinery of a host cell for reproduction. A superorganism is an organism consisting of many individuals working together as a single functional or social unit. There has been controversy about the best way to define the organism and indeed about whether or not such a definition is necessary. Several contributions are responses to the suggestion that the category of "organism '' may well not be adequate in biology. Viruses are not typically considered to be organisms because they are incapable of autonomous reproduction, growth or metabolism. This controversy is problematic because some cellular organisms are also incapable of independent survival (but are capable of independent metabolism and procreation) and live as obligatory intracellular parasites. Although viruses have a few enzymes and molecules characteristic of living organisms, they have no metabolism of their own; they can not synthesize and organize the organic compounds from which they are formed. Naturally, this rules out autonomous reproduction: they can only be passively replicated by the machinery of the host cell. In this sense, they are similar to inanimate matter. While viruses sustain no independent metabolism, and thus are usually not classified as organisms, they do have their own genes, and they do evolve by mechanisms similar to the evolutionary mechanisms of organisms. The most common argument in support of viruses as living organisms is their ability to undergo evolution and replicate through self - assembly. Some scientists argue that viruses neither evolve, nor self - reproduce. In fact, viruses are evolved by their host cells, meaning that there was co-evolution of viruses and host cells. If host cells did not exist, viral evolution would be impossible. This is not true for cells. If viruses did not exist, the direction of cellular evolution could be different, but cells would nevertheless be able to evolve. As for the reproduction, viruses totally rely on hosts ' machinery to replicate. The discovery of viral megagenomes with genes coding for energy metabolism and protein synthesis fueled the debate about whether viruses belong in the tree of life. The presence of these genes suggested that viruses were once able to metabolize. However, it was found later that the genes coding for energy and protein metabolism have a cellular origin. Most likely, these genes were acquired through horizontal gene transfer from viral hosts. Organisms are complex chemical systems, organized in ways that promote reproduction and some measure of sustainability or survival. The same laws that govern non-living chemistry govern the chemical processes of life. It is generally the phenomena of entire organisms that determine their fitness to an environment and therefore the survivability of their DNA - based genes. Organisms clearly owe their origin, metabolism, and many other internal functions to chemical phenomena, especially the chemistry of large organic molecules. Organisms are complex systems of chemical compounds that, through interaction and environment, play a wide variety of roles. Organisms are semi-closed chemical systems. Although they are individual units of life (as the definition requires), they are not closed to the environment around them. To operate they constantly take in and release energy. Autotrophs produce usable energy (in the form of organic compounds) using light from the sun or inorganic compounds while heterotrophs take in organic compounds from the environment. The primary chemical element in these compounds is carbon. The chemical properties of this element such as its great affinity for bonding with other small atoms, including other carbon atoms, and its small size making it capable of forming multiple bonds, make it ideal as the basis of organic life. It is able to form small three - atom compounds (such as carbon dioxide), as well as large chains of many thousands of atoms that can store data (nucleic acids), hold cells together, and transmit information (protein). Compounds that make up organisms may be divided into macromolecules and other, smaller molecules. The four groups of macromolecule are nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. Nucleic acids (specifically deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA) store genetic data as a sequence of nucleotides. The particular sequence of the four different types of nucleotides (adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine) dictate many characteristics that constitute the organism. The sequence is divided up into codons, each of which is a particular sequence of three nucleotides and corresponds to a particular amino acid. Thus a sequence of DNA codes for a particular protein that, due to the chemical properties of the amino acids it is made from, folds in a particular manner and so performs a particular function. These protein functions have been recognized: A bilayer of phospholipids makes up the membrane of cells that constitutes a barrier, containing everything within the cell and preventing compounds from freely passing into, and out of, the cell. Due to the selective permeability of the phospholipid membrane only specific compounds can pass through it. In some multicellular organisms they serve as a storage of energy and mediate communication between cells. Carbohydrates are more easily broken down than lipids and yield more energy to compare to lipids and proteins. In fact, carbohydrates are the number one source of energy for all living organisms. All organisms consist of structural units called cells; some contain a single cell (unicellular) and others contain many units (multicellular). Multicellular organisms are able to specialize cells to perform specific functions. A group of such cells is a tissue, and in animals these occur as four basic types, namely epithelium, nervous tissue, muscle tissue, and connective tissue. Several types of tissue work together in the form of an organ to produce a particular function (such as the pumping of the blood by the heart, or as a barrier to the environment as the skin). This pattern continues to a higher level with several organs functioning as an organ system such as the reproductive system, and digestive system. Many multicellular organisms consist of several organ systems, which coordinate to allow for life. The cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Schleiden and Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells; all cells come from preexisting cells; and cells contain the hereditary information necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells. There are two types of cells, eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are usually singletons, while eukaryotic cells are usually found in multicellular organisms. Prokaryotic cells lack a nuclear membrane so DNA is unbound within the cell; eukaryotic cells have nuclear membranes. All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have a membrane, which envelops the cell, separates its interior from its environment, regulates what moves in and out, and maintains the electric potential of the cell. Inside the membrane, a salty cytoplasm takes up most of the cell volume. All cells possess DNA, the hereditary material of genes, and RNA, containing the information necessary to build various proteins such as enzymes, the cell 's primary machinery. There are also other kinds of biomolecules in cells. All cells share several similar characteristics of: The last universal common ancestor (LUCA) is the most recent organism from which all organisms now living on Earth descend. Thus it is the most recent common ancestor of all current life on Earth. The LUCA is estimated to have lived some 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago (sometime in the Paleoarchean era). The earliest evidence for life on Earth is graphite found to be biogenic in 3.7 billion - year - old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion - year - old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. Although more than 99 percent of all species that ever lived on the planet are estimated to be extinct, there are currently 10 -- 14 million species of life on Earth. Information about the early development of life includes input from many different fields, including geology and planetary science. These sciences provide information about the history of the Earth and the changes produced by life. However, a great deal of information about the early Earth has been destroyed by geological processes over the course of time. All organisms are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral gene pool. Evidence for common descent may be found in traits shared between all living organisms. In Darwin 's day, the evidence of shared traits was based solely on visible observation of morphologic similarities, such as the fact that all birds have wings, even those that do not fly. There is strong evidence from genetics that all organisms have a common ancestor. For example, every living cell makes use of nucleic acids as its genetic material, and uses the same twenty amino acids as the building blocks for proteins. All organisms use the same genetic code (with some extremely rare and minor deviations) to translate nucleic acid sequences into proteins. The universality of these traits strongly suggests common ancestry, because the selection of many of these traits seems arbitrary. Horizontal gene transfer makes it more difficult to study the last universal ancestor. However, the universal use of the same genetic code, same nucleotides, and same amino acids makes the existence of such an ancestor overwhelmingly likely. The most commonly accepted location of the root of the tree of life is between a monophyletic domain Bacteria and a clade formed by Archaea and Eukaryota of what is referred to as the "traditional tree of life '' based on several molecular studies. A very small minority of studies have concluded differently, namely that the root is in the domain Bacteria, either in the phylum Firmicutes or that the phylum Chloroflexi is basal to a clade with Archaea and Eukaryotes and the rest of Bacteria as proposed by Thomas Cavalier - Smith. Research published in 2016, by William F. Martin, by genetically analyzing 6.1 million protein coding genes from sequenced prokaryotic genomes of various phylogenetic trees, identified 355 protein clusters from amongst 286,514 protein clusters that were probably common to the LUCA. The results "depict LUCA as anaerobic, CO-fixing, H - dependent with a Wood -- Ljungdahl pathway (the reductive acetyl - coenzyme A pathway), N - fixing and thermophilic. LUCA 's biochemistry was replete with FeS clusters and radical reaction mechanisms. Its cofactors reveal dependence upon transition metals, flavins, S - adenosyl methionine, coenzyme A, ferredoxin, molybdopterin, corrins and selenium. Its genetic code required nucleoside modifications and S - adenosylmethionine - dependent methylations. '' The results depict methanogenic clostria as a basal clade in the 355 lineages examined, and suggest that the LUCA inhabited an anaerobic hydrothermal vent setting in a geochemically active environment rich in H, CO, and iron. However, the identification of these genes as being present in LUCA was criticized, suggesting that many of the proteins assumed to be present in LUCA represent later horizontal gene transfers between archaea and bacteria. Sexual reproduction is widespread among current eukaryotes, and was likely present in the last common ancestor. This is suggested by the finding of a core set of genes for meiosis in the descendants of lineages that diverged early form the eukaryotic evolutionary tree. and Malik et al. It is further supported by evidence that eukaryotes previously regarded as "ancient asexuals '', such as Amoeba, were likely sexual in the past, and that most present day asexual amoeboid lineages likely arose recently and independently. In prokaryotes, natural bacterial transformation involves the transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another and integration of the donor DNA into the recipient chromosome by recombination. Natural bacterial transformation is considered to be a primitive sexual process and occurs in both bacteria and archaea, although it has been studied mainly in bacteria. Transformation is clearly a bacterial adaptation and not an accidental occurrence, because it depends on numerous gene products that specifically interact with each other to enter a state of natural competence to perform this complex process. Transformation is a common mode of DNA transfer among prokaryotes. The ancestry of living organisms has traditionally been reconstructed from morphology, but is increasingly supplemented with phylogenetics -- the reconstruction of phylogenies by the comparison of genetic (DNA) sequence. Sequence comparisons suggest recent horizontal transfer of many genes among diverse species including across the boundaries of phylogenetic "domains ''. Thus determining the phylogenetic history of a species can not be done conclusively by determining evolutionary trees for single genes. Biologist Gogarten suggests "the original metaphor of a tree no longer fits the data from recent genome research '', therefore "biologists (should) use the metaphor of a mosaic to describe the different histories combined in individual genomes and use (the) metaphor of a net to visualize the rich exchange and cooperative effects of HGT among microbes. '' Modern biotechnology is challenging traditional concepts of organism and species. Cloning is the process of creating a new multicellular organism, genetically identical to another, with the potential of creating entirely new species of organisms. Cloning is the subject of much ethical debate. In 2008, the J. Craig Venter Institute assembled a synthetic bacterial genome, Mycoplasma genitalium, by using recombination in yeast of 25 overlapping DNA fragments in a single step. The use of yeast recombination greatly simplifies the assembly of large DNA molecules from both synthetic and natural fragments. Other companies, such as Synthetic Genomics, have already been formed to take advantage of the many commercial uses of custom designed genomes.

who has been re nominated by india for another term as a judge at the international court of justice

Dalveer Bhandari - wikipedia Dalveer Bhandari (born 1 October 1947) is an Indian member of the International Court of Justice and was a judge of the Supreme Court of India. Dalveer Bhandari comes from an illustrious line of lawyers. Both his father, Mahaveer Chand Bhandari, and grandfather, B.C. Bhandari, were members of the Rajasthan bar. He acquired degrees in the humanities and law from Jodhpur University and practised in the Rajasthan High Court from 1968 to 1970. In June 1970, he was then invited to a six - week workshop organized by the University of Chicago on research on Indian law in Chicago on an international scholarship and subsequently on another international scholarship, he obtained a Masters of Law from Northwestern University School of Law. He worked at the Northwestern Legal Assistance Clinic and appeared in Chicago courts on behalf of litigants of that clinic. He also worked with the Centre for Research in Chicago. In June 1973, on an international fellowship, he visited Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and Sri Lanka on an observational - cum - lecture tour on legal aid and clinical legal educational programmes associated with the law courts and law schools. He also worked with a United Nations project called "Delay in the Administration of Criminal Justice in India. '' Tumkur University, Karnataka, conferred the degree of Doctor of Laws (LL. D) on Justice Bhandari for his magnanimous contribution to law and justice. Following his return to India, he again took up a law practice in the Rajasthan High Court from 1973 to 1976. He shifted his practice to Delhi in 1977 and was a Supreme Court lawyer till his elevation to the Delhi High Court in March 1991. As a judge in the Delhi High Court, Bhandari also chaired the Delhi High Court Legal Services Committee, the Advisory Board of Delhi State, and the Delhi chapter of the International Law Association for a number of years. He was also the Chairperson of the Advisory Board of Delhi State on the Conservation of Foreign Exchange and Prevention of Smuggling Activities Act, 1974 (COFEPOSA) and the National Security Act (NSA) for a number of years. On 25 July 2004 he gained appointment as Chief Justice of the Bombay High Court. As the Chief Justice he delivered a number of judgements in various branches of the law. His judgements and orders have led to a much larger allocation of funds for malnutrition in the five most backward districts of Maharashtra. By his judgement 100, judicial officers were appointed to deal with the cases pertaining to section 138 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881. He was instrumental in setting up mediation and conciliation centres all over the states of Maharashtra and Goa. He also organized an International Conference on Mediation and Conciliation in Mumbai. He ensured better infrastructural facilities, particularly for the subordinate judiciary in the states of Maharashtra and Goa. He also took keen interest in computerization, videoconferencing facilities, legal aid and legal literacy programmes. He was instrumental in setting up the Information Centre for Litigants in the Bombay High Court. Just over a year later, on 28 October 2005, he was elevated to the Supreme Court of India. He has delivered a large number of judgements while exercising the Supreme Court 's jurisdiction under article 131 between the Government of India and one or more States; between the Government of India and any State or States on one side and one or more other States on the other; or between two or more States. He has also delivered a large number of judgements on comparative law, public interest litigation, constitutional law, criminal law, civil procedure code, administrative law, arbitration laws, insurance and banking and family laws. Keeping in view his landmark judgement in a divorce case, the Union of India is seriously considering his suggestion and amending the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, incorporating irretrievable breakdown of marriage as a ground for divorce. His various orders in the food - grains matter led to the release of a higher quantum of supply of food grains to the population living below the poverty line. His several orders in the night - shelter matter led to state governments making provision for night shelters for homeless people all over the country. His orders in the right to free and compulsory education for children matter led to availability of basic infrastructural amenities in primary and secondary schools all over the country. He has also served as the chairman of the Supreme Court Legal Services Committee and was nominated as the Chairman of the Mediation and Conciliation Project Committee and was supervising mediation and conciliation programmes all over the country. He swore in as a member of the International Court of Justice on 19 June 2012. Bhandari is notable for his interest in computerization and intellectual property law. Also he has a history of promoting legal education, both to professionals and to the general public who might be litigants. He has established mediation and conciliation centers in Maharashtra and an information centre for litigants in the Bombay High Court. Justice Bhandari was nominated by the Government of India as its official candidate in January 2012. The vacancy arose after the resignation of sitting Court Judge Awn Shawkat Al - Khasawneh from Jordan on being appointed as Prime Minister. In the elections held on 27 April 2012, Bhandari secured 122 votes in the United Nations General Assembly against 58 for his rival, Florentino Feliciano, who was nominated by the Government of the Philippines. He was re-elected for a second term on 20 November 2017 after UK 's nominee Christopher Greenwood withdrew his nomination

where is the original guru granth sahib kept

Guru Granth Sahib - Wikipedia Guru Granth Sahib (Punjabi (Gurmukhi) eg. ਓ: (Gurū Gra ° th Sāhib Jī), Punjabi pronunciation: (ɡʊɾu ɡɾənth sɑhɪb), / ˈɡʊəruː ɡrʌnt səˈhɪb /) is the religious scripture of Sikhism, regarded by Sikhs as the final, sovereign, and eternal living Guru following the lineage of the ten human Gurus of the Sikh religion. Adi Granth, the first rendition, was compiled by the fifth Sikh Guru, Guru Arjan. Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Sikh Guru, added one salok, dohra mahala 9 ang, 1429 and all 115 hymns of Guru Tegh Bahadur. This second rendition came to be known as Sri Guru Granth Sahib. After Guru Gobind Singh passed on, Baba Deep Singh and Bhai Mani Singh prepared many copies of the Sri Guru Granth Sahib Ji for distribution. The text consists of 1430 angs (pages) and 6,000 śabads (line compositions), which are poetically rendered and set to a rhythmic ancient north Indian classical form of music. The bulk of the scripture is divided into thirty - one rāgas, with each Granth rāga subdivided according to length and author. The hymns in the scripture are arranged primarily by the rāgas in which they are read. The Guru Granth Sahib is written in the Gurmukhī script, in various languages, including Lahnda (Western Punjabi), Braj Bhasha, Khariboli, Sanskrit, Sindhi, and Persian. Copies in these languages often have the generic title of Sant Bhasha. Guru Granth Sahib was composed by seven Sikh Gurus: Guru Nanak Dev, Guru Angad Dev, Guru Amar Das, Guru Ram Das, Guru Arjan Dev, Guru Hargobind added the tunes 9 out 22 Vars and Guru Tegh Bahadur. Guru Gobind Singh added 1 sloakh in mahala 9 Ang 1429. It also contains the traditions and teachings of Indian sants (saints), such as Ravidas, Ramananda, Kabir and Namdev among others, and two Muslim Sufi saints Bhagat Bhikan and: Sheikh Farid. The vision in the Guru Granth Sahib is of a society based on divine justice without oppression of any kind. While the Granth acknowledges and respects the scriptures of Hinduism and Islam, it does not imply a moral reconciliation with either of these religions. It is installed in a Sikh gurdwara (temple); all Sikhs bow or prostrate before it on entering such a temple. The Granth is revered as eternal gurbānī and the spiritual authority in Sikhism. During the guruship of Guru Nanak Dev, collections of his holy hymns were compiled and sent to distant Sikh communities for use in morning and evening prayers. His successor Guru Angad Dev began collecting his predecessor 's writings. This tradition was continued by the third and fifth gurus as well. When the fifth guru Guru Arjan Dev was collecting religious writings of his predecessor, he discovered that pretenders to the guruship were releasing what he considered as forged anthologies of writings of the previous guru and including their own writings with them. In order to prevent spurious scriptures from gaining legitimacy, Guru Arjan Dev began compiling a sacred scripture for the Sikh community. He finished collecting the religious writings of Guru Ram Das, his immediate predecessor, and convinced Mohan, the son of Guru Amar Das, to give him the collection of the religious writings of the first three gurus. In addition, he sent disciples to go across the country to find and bring back any previously unknown religious writings of theirs. He also invited members of other religions and contemporary religious writers to submit writings for possible inclusion. Guru Arjan pitched a tent by the side of Ramsar tank in Amritsar and started the task of compiling the holy Granth. He selected hymns for inclusion in the Adi Granth and Bhai Gurdas acted as his scribe. While the holy hymns and verses were being put together Akbar, the Mughal Emperor, received a report that the Adi Granth contained passages vilifying Islam. Therefore, while travelling north, he stopped en route and asked to inspect it. Baba Buddha and Bhai Gurdas brought him a copy of the Adi Granth as it existed then. After choosing three random passages to be read, Akbar decided that this report had been false. In 1604, Adi Granth was completed and installed at the Harmandir Sahib, with Baba Buddha as the first granthi, or reader. Since communities of Sikh disciples were scattered all over northern India, copies of the holy scripture needed to be made for them. The sixth guru added the tunes of 9 out of 22 Vars. Seventh and eighth guru did not have writings of their own added to the holy scripture; however, the ninth guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, did. The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh, included writings of his father Guru Tegh Bahadur in the Guru Granth Sahib, and included 1 salokh in mahala 9 Ang 1429. In 1704 at Damdama Sahib, during a one - year respite from the heavy fighting with Aurangzeb which the Khalsa was engaged in at the time, Guru Gobind Singh and Bhai Mani Singh added the religious compositions of Guru Tegh Bahadur to Adi Granth to create a definitive compilation. Religious verses of Guru Gobind Singh were not included in Guru Granth Sahib, but he added 1 sloak in mahala 9 Ang 1429. His banis are found in the Sri Dasam Granth, they are part in the daily prayers of Sikhs During this period, Bhai Mani Singh also collected Guru Gobind Singh 's religious writings, as well as his court poems, and included them in a secondary religious volume, today known as the Dasam Granth Sahib. Sikhs consider the Guru Granth Sahib as the Eternal living Guru, the highest religious and spiritual guide for Sikhs and inspires all of humanity; it plays a central role in guiding the Sikh 's way of life. Its place in Sikh devotional life is based on two fundamental principles: on the "Gurbani '' (the word of Guru / God) which was received by the Sikh Gurus in their divine consciousness from God and revealed to mankind. The Guru Granth Sahib answers all questions regarding religion and that morality can be discovered within it. The Word is the Guru and the Guru is the word. Thus, in Sikh theology, the revealed divine word was written by past Gurus. Numerous holy men, aside from the Sikh Gurus, are collectively referred to as Bhagats or "devotees. '' In 1708 Guru Gobind Singh conferred the title of "Guru of the Sikhs '' upon the Adi Granth. The event was recorded in a Bhatt Vahi (a bard 's scroll) by an eyewitness, Narbud Singh, who was a bard at the Rajput rulers ' court associated with gurus. A variety of other documents also attest to this proclamation by the tenth Guru. Thus, despite some aberrations, Sikhs since then have accepted Guru Granth Sahib, the sacred scripture, as their eternal - living Guru, as embodiment of the ten Sikh Gurus. The entire Guru Granth Sahib is written in the Gurmukhi script, which was standardized by Guru Angad Dev in the 16th century. According to Sikh tradition and the Mahman Prakash, an early Sikh manuscript, Guru Angad Dev had taught and spread the Gurmukhi script at the suggestion of Guru Nanak Dev which has invented the Gurmukhi script. The word Gurmukhī translates to "from the mouth of the Guru ''. It descended from the Laṇḍā scripts and was used from the outset for compiling Sikh scriptures. The Sikhs assign a high degree of sanctity to the Gurmukhī script. It is the official script for writing Punjabi in the Indian State of Punjab. Gurus considered divine worship through shabad kirtan as the best means of attaining that state of bliss - vismad - which resulted in communion with the God. Guru Granth Sahib is divided by musical settings or ragas into 1,430 pages known as Angs (limbs) in Sikh tradition. It can be categorized into two sections: The word raga refers to the "color '' and, more specifically, the emotion or mood produced by a combination or sequence of pitches. A raga is composed of a series of melodic motifs, based upon a definite scale or mode of the seven Swara psalmizations, that provide a basic structure around which the musician performs. Some ragas may be associated with times of the day and year. There are 31 main ragas in the Sikh system, divided into 14 ragas and 17 raginis (minor or less definite ragas), 31 mishrat ragas in 17 taala. Within the raga division, the songs are arranged in order of the Sikh gurus and Sikh bhagats with whom they are associated. The ragas are, in order: Sri, Manjh, Gauri, Asa, Gujri, Devagandhari, Bihagara, Wadahans, Sorath, Dhanasri, Jaitsri, Todi, Bairari, Tilang, Suhi, Bilaval, Gond (Gaund), Ramkali, Nut - Narayan, Mali - Gaura, Maru, Tukhari, Kedara, Bhairav (Bhairo), Basant, Sarang, Malar, Kanra, Kalyan, Prabhati and Jaijawanti. In addition there are 22 compositions of Vars (traditional ballads). Nine of these have specific tunes, and the rest can be sung to any tune. Ragas such as Megh (raga), Hindol (raga) which were jubilant tone or ragas such as Jog (raga), deepak etc. which were melancholy were not selected for these compositions. Following is a list of contributors whose hymns are present in Guru Granth Sahib: No one can change or alter any of the writings of the Sikh gurus written in the Adi Granth. This includes sentences, words, structure, grammar, and meanings. Following the example of the gurus themselves, Sikhs observe total sanctity of the holy text of Guru Granth Sahib. Guru Har Rai, for example, disowned one of his sons, Ram Rai, because he had attempted to alter the wording of a hymn by Guru Nanak Dev. Guru Har Rai had sent Ram Rai to Delhi in order to explain Gurbani to the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. To please the Emperor he altered the wording of a hymn, which was reported to the guru. Displeased with his son, the guru disowned him and forbade his Sikhs to associate with him or his descendants. A partial English translation of Guru Granth Sahib by Ernest Trumpp was published in 1877. The work was for use by Christian missionaries, and received extremely negative feedback from Sikhs. Max Arthur Macauliffe also partially translated the text for inclusion in his six - volume The Sikh Religion, published by Oxford University Press in 1909. His translations are closer to the Sikhs ' own interpretation of the holy scripture, and were received well by them. The first complete English translation of Guru Granth Sahib, by Gopal Singh, was published in 1960. A revised version published in 1978 removed the obsolete English words like "thee '' and "thou ''. In 1962, an eight - volume translation into English and Punjabi by Manmohan Singh was published by the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee. In the 2000s, a translation by Sant Singh Khalsa (referred to as the "Khalsa Consensus Translation '') became popular through its inclusion on major Sikhism - related websites. Guru Granth Sahib is always the focal point in any Gurudwara, being placed in the centre on a raised platform known as a Takht (throne), while the congregation of devotees sits on the floor and bow before the Guru as a sign of respect. Guru Granth Sahib is given the greatest respect and honour. Sikhs cover their heads and remove their shoes while in the presence of this sacred scripture, their eternal living Guru. Guru Granth Sahib is normally carried on the head and as a sign of respect, never touched with unwashed hands or put on the floor. It is attended with all signs of royalty, with a canopy placed over it. A chaur sahib is waved above the Guru Granth Sahib. Peacock - feather fans were waved over royal or saintly beings as a mark of great spiritual or temporal status; this was later replaced by the modern Chaur sahib. The Guru Granth Sahib is taken care of by a Granthi, who is responsible for reciting from the sacred hymns and leading Sikh prayers. The Granthi also acts as caretaker for the Guru Granth Sahib, keeping the Guru Granth Sahib covered in clean cloths, known as rumala, to protect from heat, dust, pollution, etc. The Guru Granth Sahib rests on a manji sahib under a rumala until brought out again. The printing of Guru Granth Sahib is done by the official religious body of Sikhs based in Amritsar. Great care is taken while making printed copies and a strict code of conduct is observed during the task of printing. Before the late nineteenth century, only handwritten copies were prepared. The first printed copy of the Guru Granth Sahib was made in 1864. Since the early 20th century, it has been printed in a standard edition of 1430 Angs. Only machine printed copies of 20th century and Not Hand written of Guru Granth Sahib deemed unfit to be read from are cremated. Such cremating is called Agan Bheta and no burning material such as wood is used. Guru Granth Sahib is currently printed in an authorized printing press in the basement of the Gurudwara Ramsar in Amritsar; misprints and set - up sheets, and printer 's waste with any of its sacred text on, are cremated at Goindval. Punjab Digital Library, in collaboration with the Nanakshahi Trust, began digitization of the centuries - old manuscripts in 2003.

who did the chicago bulls play in the nba finals

List of NBA champions - wikipedia The National Basketball Association (NBA) (formerly Basketball Association of America (BAA) from 1946 to 1949) Finals is the championship series for the NBA and the conclusion of the NBA 's postseason. All Finals have been played in a best - of - seven format, and contested between the winners of the Eastern Conference and the Western Conference (formerly Divisions before 1970), except in 1950 in which the Eastern Division champion faced the winner between the Western and Central Division champions. Prior to 1949, the playoffs were instituted a three - stage tournament where the two semifinal winners played each other in the finals. The winning team of the series receives the Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy. The home - and - away format in the NBA Finals is in a 2 -- 2 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 format (the team with the better regular season record plays on their home court in Games 1, 2, 5 and 7) during 1947 -- 1948, 1950 -- 1952, 1957 -- 1970, 1972 -- 1974, 1976 -- 1977, 1979 -- 1984, 2014 -- present. It was previously in a 2 -- 3 -- 2 format (the team with the better regular season record plays on their home court in Games 1, 2, 6 and 7) during 1949, 1953 -- 1955, and 1985 -- 2013, in a 1 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 format during 1956 and 1971 and in a 1 -- 2 -- 2 -- 1 -- 1 format during 1975 and 1978. The Eastern Conference / Division leads the Western Conference / Division in series won (38 -- 32). The defunct Central Division won one championship. The Boston Celtics and the Minneapolis / Los Angeles Lakers alone own almost half of the titles, having won a combined 33 of 72 championships.

where was dave and mike need wedding dates filmed

Mike and Dave Need Wedding Dates - wikipedia Mike and Dave Need Wedding Dates is a 2016 American comedy film directed by Jake Szymanski and written by Andrew J. Cohen and Brendan O'Brien. The film stars Zac Efron and Adam DeVine as the title characters, who put out an ad for dates to their sister 's wedding, and features Anna Kendrick and Aubrey Plaza as the girls who answer the ad. The film is based on a real Craigslist ad placed by two brothers who wanted dates for their cousin 's wedding that went viral in February 2013, which they then turned into a book, Mike and Dave Need Wedding Dates: and A Thousand Cocktails. The film premiered in Los Angeles on June 30, 2016 and was theatrically released on July 8, 2016, by 20th Century Fox. It received mixed reviews from critics and grossed over $77 million worldwide. Brothers Mike and Dave Stangle are liquor salesmen whose antics ruin their family 's gatherings. With their younger sister Jeanie 's wedding in Hawaii approaching, their parents tell them they must bring dates to the wedding to keep them out of trouble. Mike and Dave put out an ad for dates on Craigslist. The ad goes viral and the brothers go on The Wendy Williams Show to advertise themselves. Meanwhile, Tatiana and Alice are slacker party girls who have just been fired for showing up to their waitressing jobs drunk. Tatiana sees the brothers ' appearance on TV and decides that this free trip is just the vacation they need. They clean themselves up and Tatiana, to get their attention, throws herself in front of a moving car outside the bar where the brothers are meeting women. After letting the brothers think Mike saved Tatiana 's life, they all go on a date. Tatiana, posing as a school teacher, flirts with Mike but has no intention of having sex with him. Alice, who is pretending to be a hedge fund manager, thinks sleeping with Dave is just what she needs to get over her ex-fiance, who left her at the altar. Thinking their family will like these girls, the brothers invite them to Hawaii. In Hawaii, Tatiana and Alice charm the Stangle family but are almost exposed when Alice, suffering PTSD - like flashbacks of her own wedding, gets drunk and makes jealous, offhanded comments to Jeanie. At the same time Mike and his bisexual female cousin, Terry, begin competing for Tatiana 's attention. The brothers book a swim - with - dolphins package for the family; however, the girls convince Jeanie and her fiance, Eric, to take an ATV tour through the mountains instead. Alice and Tatiana show off and perform tricks on their ATVs. Mike attempts the same trick but ends up crashing into Jeanie and severely bruising her face. Alice feels bad and bribes a masseur to give Jeanie a massage with a tantric style "happy ending ''. Tatiana goes into a sauna and runs into Terry. She offers Tatiana backstage passes to Rihanna if Tatiana fingers her. Dave finds himself falling for Alice and opens up to her about his dream of drawing full - time. Later Mike walks in on Jeanie having an orgasm during the massage. Upon finding Tatiana and Terry together, Mike storms off and Tatiana admits she was only interested in the free vacation. At the rehearsal dinner, Jeanie opens up to Alice about her fears about getting married. To help calm her nerves, Alice gives her ecstasy, which causes a bad trip. Mike drags Dave backstage and demands he practice their speech instead of spending more time with Alice. They get into an argument, and Mike reveals what happened in the massage parlor - unaware that they are being broadcast over the speaker system. The argument gets physical in front of the entire wedding party. Jeanie and Alice take off their clothes and release a stable of horses. After yelling at Alice, Dave gets them both back to the resort, where Jeanie and Eric get into an argument and call off the wedding. The next day, the brothers make up and agree to work together to get the wedding back on track. At the same time, Tatiana and Alice feel guilty and also agree to fix the wedding. All four of them go to Jeanie and Eric 's room to apologize, which ends in an argument. Eric silences all of them, and gives Jeanie an early honeymoon present: tickets for a hot air balloon ride. With the wedding back on, the four scramble to get a venue for the reception and food for dinner. Jeanie and Eric end up getting married outside the stables. After the wedding, Tatiana and Mike decide to get into business together. Alice deletes her wedding video before making out with Dave in front of everyone. The brothers perform a heartfelt duet to celebrate Jeanie 's marriage. Alice and Tatiana then join them for a raunchy dance number. The fireworks display the brothers set off catches fire, scattering the wedding party. Tatiana and Mike later have sex in the stables. In January 2015, Zac Efron joined the cast of the film, with Jake Szymanski directing from a screenplay by Andrew J. Cohen and Brendan O'Brien, while Peter Chernin, David Ready, Jenno Topping, and Jonathan Levine were set to produce under their Chernin Entertainment banner. In February, Adam DeVine joined the cast of the film. In April 2015, Aubrey Plaza and Anna Kendrick joined the cast. In May 2015, Stephen Root joined the cast of the film, portraying the role of Efron and DeVine 's characters ' father. In June 2015, Sam Richardson and Alice Wetterlund joined the cast of the film. Principal photography began on May 25, 2015, and lasted through August 13, 2015. On June 2, the main cast began filming in Oahu, Hawaii. On June 3, Efron was spotted filming. On June 11, Kendrick was spotted filming. On June 12, Efron and DeVine were filming on a Hawaiian beach. On June 15, Efron was on set with DeVine. On June 16, more filming occurred involving the film 's main characters. The film was released on July 8, 2016 by 20th Century Fox. Mike and Dave Need Wedding Dates grossed $46 million in North America and $31 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $77 million, against a budget of $33 million. The film opened alongside The Secret Life of Pets and was projected to gross $13 -- 17 million in its opening weekend. It grossed $1.6 million from its Thursday night previews, on par with Efron 's Neighbors 2: Sorority Rising ($1.7 million), and $6.7 million on its first day. In its opening weekend the film grossed $16.6 million, finishing fourth at the box office behind Secret Life of Pets ($103.2 million), The Legend of Tarzan ($20.6 million) and Finding Dory ($20.3 million). Mike and Dave Need Wedding Dates received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 35 % based on 146 reviews with an average rating of 4.8 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Mike and Dave Need Wedding Dates benefits from the screwball premise and the efforts of a game cast, even if the sporadically hilarious results do n't quite live up to either. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 51 out of 100 based on 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale. Aubrey Plaza 's performance was praised, often noted as a highlight of the film. The Guardian wrote, "Mike and Dave Need Wedding Dates is very much an ensemble comedy, but much like A Fish Called Wanda earned Kevin Kline the Oscar, Plaza 's ineffable style of comedy (which weirdly teeters between broad farce and muted disinterest) suits the material so perfectly she leaves the others in the dust. '' Variety stated "where the comedy really takes off, Aubrey Plaza, who was so sharp playing a good girl pretending to be bad in The To Do List, is even sharper playing a bad girl pretending to be good. She 's got a face made for deception -- she 's like a devil doll, eyebrows lowering with cunning -- and her line readings are killer. ''

brook benton and dinah washington rockin good way

A Rockin ' Good Way (to Mess Around and Fall in Love) - Wikipedia "A Rockin ' Good Way (to Mess Around and Fall in Love) '' is a song first recorded in 1958 by Priscilla Bowman, on the Abner Records label (ABNER DJ 1018). Bowman was given vocal backing by The Spaniels. In 1960, the song was recorded as a pop and R&B duet by Dinah Washington and Brook Benton. The single was the second pairing for the singers and, like their first single together, it went to number 1 on the R&B chart and was a top ten pop single as well. The song was written by Benton, Clyde Otis and Luchi de Jesus. The single, with the song title styled "A ROCKIN ' GOOD WAY (To Mess Around And Fall I Love) '', included orchestra arranged and conducted by Belford Hendricks. A cover version of the duet by the UK 's Shakin ' Stevens and Bonnie Tyler was released in 1983 and made number 5 in the UK singles chart and number 1 in Ireland. It was included on Stevens ' 1984 album "The Bop Wo n't Stop ''. Australia: (1) Austria (2) Sweden (3) Ireland (4) UK (5) Switzerland (6) New Zealand (7) Holland (8) Germany (9) Norway (10)

what port is associated with the dns service

List of TCP and UDP port numbers - Wikipedia This is a list of TCP and UDP port numbers used by protocols of the transport layer of the Internet protocol suite for the establishment of host - to - host connectivity. Originally, port numbers were used by the Network Control Program (NCP) in the ARPANET for which two ports were required for half - duplex transmission. Later, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) needed only one port for full - duplex, bidirectional traffic. The even - numbered ports were not used, and this resulted in some even numbers in the well - known port number range being unassigned. The Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) and the Datagram Congestion Control Protocol (DCCP) also use port numbers. They usually use port numbers that match the services of the corresponding TCP or UDP implementation, if they exist. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) is responsible for maintaining the official assignments of port numbers for specific uses. However, many unofficial uses of both well - known and registered port numbers occur in practice. Similarly many of the official assignments refer to protocols that were never or are no longer in common use. This article lists port numbers and their associated protocols that have experienced significant uptake. The port numbers in the range from 0 to 1023 are the well - known ports or system ports. They are used by system processes that provide widely used types of network services. On Unix - like operating systems, a process must execute with superuser privileges to be able to bind a network socket to an IP address using one of the well - known ports. < / ref > Unofficial The range of port numbers from 1024 to 49151 are the registered ports. They are assigned by IANA for specific service upon application by a requesting entity. On most systems, registered ports can be used without superuser privileges. The range 49152 -- 65535 (2 + 2 to 2 − 1) contains dynamic or private ports that can not be registered with IANA. This range is used for private or customized services, for temporary purposes, and for automatic allocation of ephemeral ports.

transnational association of christian colleges and schools (tracs)

Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools - wikipedia The Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools (TRACS) is a national educational accreditation agency that focuses on Christian colleges, universities, and seminaries seeking collegiate accreditation in the United States. TRACS, which is based in Forest, Virginia, is recognized by the United States Department of Education and the Council for Higher Education Accreditation. Despite the transnational in its name, almost all of the schools the organization reviews are located in the United States. The organization was founded in 1979 to "promote the welfare, interests, and development of post-secondary institutions, whose mission is characterized by a distinctly Christian purpose. '' According to the Institute for Creation Research (ICR), TRACS is a "product of the ICR '' and was created "Because of the prejudice against creation - science, outspoken creationist schools '' that had "little or no chance of getting recognition through accreditation. '' TRACS requires all accredited schools to have a statement of faith that affirms "the inerrancy and historicity of the Bible '' and "the divine work of non-evolutionary creation including persons in God 's image ''. TRACS 's first application for federal recognition in 1987 was denied, but in 1991 under President George H.W. Bush, U.S. Education Secretary Lamar Alexander "approved TRACS, despite his advisory panel 's repeatedly recommending against recognition. '' Approval came following TRACS ' third rejection by the board in which Secretary Alexander "arranged for an appeal hearing, '' and critics of the approval said the move was about politics. TRACS ' approval "worried '' accrediting officials who concluded that TRACS was not a qualified accreditor and the move was criticized by education officials. Another source of criticism was the 1991 granting of accreditation to the Institute for Creation Research. One of TRACS ' board members was Henry M. Morris, founder of ICR. Attorney Timothy Sandefur called Morris 's position on the board "highly questionable ''. In 2007 John D. Morris, Henry Morris ' son, asked TRACS to terminate the ICR 's accreditation. The reason was, in part, that the ICR moved to Texas and the state did not recognize TRACS. In 1993, Steve Levicoff published a book - length critical discussion of TRACS, When the TRACS Stop Short: An Evaluation and Critique of the Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools. Levicoff criticized TRACS 's expedited accreditation of Liberty University and its creation of a category for schools which it called associate schools. While this category "was not considered an official accreditation, '' Levicoff argued that TRACS lent its name to a number of "blatantly fraudulent institutions. '' Liberty gained TRACS accreditation in September 1984, but resigned its accreditation on November 6, 2008. In 1995, a federal review was conducted and National Advisory Committee on Institutional Quality and Integrity placed TRACS on 18 months probation. Critics argued that TRACS should have never had approval and the reason for the initial rejections "was n't over doctrine, but whether they were in the process of accrediting schools which truly gave degrees in line with other similar degrees. '' One reason for the probation was TRACS starting the accrediting process for schools that could not meet basic requirements, such as Nashville Bible College, which was granted "accreditation candidate status '' when it had twelve full - time students, seven part - time students, and two part - time faculty members. Improvements were made, including eliminating the "associate schools '' category and changing chairmen. It has authority for the "accreditation and preaccreditation ('' Candidate '' status) of postsecondary institutions in the United States that offer certificates, diplomas, and associate, baccalaureate, and graduate degrees, including institutions that offer distance education. '' Its most recent scheduled review for recognition was in 2016. TRACS was granted reauthorization after their latest appearance before NACIQI in August 2016.

who chooses the florida speaker of the house

Florida House of Representatives - wikipedia Majority Minority The Florida House of Representatives is the lower house of the Legislature of the U.S. State of Florida. Along with the Senate, it composes the Florida Legislature. Article III, Section 1 of the Florida Constitution, adopted in 1968, defines the role of the Legislature and how it is to be constituted. The House is composed of 120 members, each elected from a single - member district with a population of approximately 157,000 residents. Legislative districts are drawn on the basis of population figures, provided by the federal decennial census. Senators ' terms begin immediately, upon their election. As of 2017, Republicans hold the majority in the State House with seventy - six seats; Democrats hold the minority with forty seats. Four seats are currently vacant, due to the resignations. The House Chamber is located in the State Capitol building. Members of the Senate are referred to as Senators. Because this shadows the terminology used to describe member of U.S. Senate, constituents and the news media, using The Associated Press Stylebook, often refer to State Senators as State Senators to avoid confusion with their Federal counterparts. Article III, of the Florida Constitution, defines the terms for State Legislators. The Constitution requires State Representatives to be elected on a partisan basis for two - year terms. Legislators take office immediately, upon election. On November 3, 1992, almost 77 percent of Florida voters backed Amendment 9, the Florida Term Limits Amendment, which amended the State Constitution, to enact eight year term limits on federal and state officials. Under the Amendment, former members can be elected again after a two - year break. In 1995, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that states could not enact congressional term limits, but ruled that the state level term limits remain. Each legislator shall be at least twenty - one years of age, an elector and resident of the District from which elected and shall have resided in the state for a period of two years prior to election. Each year during which the Legislature meets constitutes a new Legislative Session. Legislators start Committee activity in September of the year prior to the Regular Legislative Session. Because Florida is a part - time legislature, this is necessary to allow legislators time to work their bills through the Committee process, prior to the Regular Legislative Session. The Florida Legislature meets in a 60 - day Regular Legislative Session each year. Regular Legislative Sessions in odd - numbered years must begin on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in March. Under the State Constitution, the Legislature can begin even - numbered year Regular Legislative Sessions at a time of it 's choosing. Prior to 1991, the Regular Legislative Session began in April. Senate Joint Resolution 380 (1989) proposed to the voters a Constitutional Amendment (approved November 1990) that shifted the starting date of Regular Legislative Session from April to February. Subsequently, Senate Joint Resolution 2606 (1994) proposed to the voters a Constitutional Amendment (approved November 1994) shifting the start date to March, where it remains. The reason for the "first Tuesday after the first Monday '' requirement stems back to the time when Regular Legislative Session began in April. Regular Legislative Session could start any day from April 2 through April 8, but never on April 1 -- April Fool 's Day. In recent years, the Legislature has opted to start in January in order to allow lawmakers to be home with their families during school spring breaks, and to give more time ahead of the legislative elections in the Fall. On the fourteenth day following each General Election, the Legislature meets for an Organizational Session to organize and select officers. Special Legislative Sessions may be called by the Governor, by a joint proclamation of the Senate President and House Speaker, or by a three - fifths vote of all Legislators. During any Special Session the Legislature may only address legislative business that is within the purview of the purpose or purposes stated in the Special Session Proclamation. The Florida House is authorized by the Florida Constitution to create and amend the laws of the U.S. state of Florida, subject to the Governor 's power to veto legislation. To do so, Legislators propose legislation in the forms of bills drafted by a nonpartisan, professional staff. Successful legislation must undergo Committee review, three readings on the floor of each house, with appropriate voting majorities, as required, and either be signed into law by the Governor or enacted through a veto override approved by two - thirds of the membership of each legislative house. Its statutes, called "chapter laws '' or generically as "slip laws '' when printed separately, are compiled into the Laws of Florida and are called "session laws ''. The Florida Statutes are the codified statutory laws of the state. In 2009, legislators filed 2,138 bills for consideration. On average, the Legislature has passed about 300 bills into law annually. In 2013, the Legislature filed about 2000 bills. About 1000 of these are "member bills. '' The remainder are bills by committees responsible for certain functions, such as budget. In 2016, about 15 % of the bills were passed. In 2017, 1,885 lobbyists registered to represent 3,724 entities. The House also has the power to propose Amendments to the Florida Constitution. Additionally, the House has the exclusive power to impeach officials, who are then tried by the Senate. The House is headed by the Speaker of the House. The Speaker of the House is elected by the members of the Chamber to a two - year term. The Speaker has the power to preside over the Chamber during Session, to appoint committee members and chairs of committees, to influence the placement of bills on the calendar, and to rule on procedural motions. The Speaker Pro Tempore presides if the Speaker leaves the Chair or if there is a vacancy. The Speaker, along with the Senate President and Governor of Florida, control most of the agenda of state business in Florida.

when do you find out snape is good

Severus Snape - wikipedia Severus Snape is a fictional character in J.K. Rowling 's Harry Potter series. An exceptionally skilful wizard, his coldly sarcastic and controlled exterior conceals deep emotions and anguish. A Professor at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, Snape is hostile to the series ' protagonist, Harry, the moment he sets foot in Snape 's classroom; this hostility is rooted in Harry 's resemblance to Harry 's father James, who bullied and harassed Snape during their time at Hogwarts. Though philosophically attracted to the Dark Arts and Lord Voldemort 's ideology of wizard supremacy, Snape 's love for Muggle - born Lily Evans, Harry 's mother, eventually compels him to defect from the Death Eaters. Snape becomes a double - agent on behalf of Albus Dumbledore and the Order of the Phoenix, and protects Harry throughout the series. A central mystery of the series concerns Snape 's loyalties. For much of the series, Snape 's actions seem to serve Harry 's nemesis, Lord Voldemort, although Harry 's mentor, Dumbledore insists that he trusts Snape. Snape dies at the hands of Voldemort in the final chapters of the seventh book, at which time his back story is revealed: as a teenager, Snape was a close friend of Harry 's mother Lily, and he turned on Voldemort after the latter sought to kill Lily and her family. Snape 's character, which becomes more layered and enigmatic as the series progresses, was widely acclaimed by readers and critics. Rowling described him as "a gift of a character '' whose story she had known since the first book, and Elizabeth Hand of The Washington Post opined that Snape 's life "is the most heartbreaking, surprising and satisfying of all of Rowling 's achievements ''. Actor Alan Rickman portrayed Snape in all eight Harry Potter films, released between 2001 and 2011. In an interview, Rowling described Snape 's character as an "antihero ''. She has said that she drew inspiration for Snape 's character from a disliked teacher from her own childhood, and described Snape as a horrible teacher, saying the "worst, shabbiest thing you can do as a teacher is to bully students. '' However, she does suggest in the books that he is generally an effective teacher. Although Rowling has said that Gilderoy Lockhart is her only character that she "deliberately based on a real person '', Snape was reportedly based, at least in part, on John Nettleship, who taught Rowling chemistry and employed her mother as an assistant at Wyedean School near Chepstow. For Snape 's surname, Rowling borrowed the name of the village of Snape, Suffolk. In a 1999 interview and again in 2004, Rowling singled out Snape as one of her favourite characters to write. Rowling was less forthcoming about Snape than she was for other characters, because his true loyalties and motivations were not revealed until the final book. However, she hinted numerous times at Snape 's important role, suggesting that people should "keep their eye on Snape ''. In 1999, answering a question regarding Snape 's love life and the redemptive pattern to his character, Rowling expressed her surprise at the foresight. Rowling also disclosed that after the publication of Prisoner of Azkaban, there was one female fan who guessed Snape loved Lily Potter, making Rowling wonder how she had given herself away. After the completion of the series, Rowling began to speak openly about Snape, discussing the contrast between his character arc and that of Albus Dumbledore. Rowling said "the series is built around (the Dumbledore and Snape storylines) '', and maintained that she always knew what Snape would turn out to be at the end and that she carefully plotted his storyline throughout the series. "I had to drop clues all the way through because as you know in the seventh book when you have the revelation scene where everything shifts and you realise... what Snape 's motivation was. I had to plot that through the books because at the point where you see what was really going on, it would have been an absolute cheat on the reader at that point just to show a bunch of stuff you 've never seen before. '' Rowling further said in an interview that she wanted Snape to find redemption and forgiveness: "Snape is a complicated man... he was a flawed human being, like all of us. Harry forgives him... Harry really sees the good in Snape ultimately... I wanted there to be redemption. '' Snape first appears in Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, shortly after Harry arrives at Hogwarts. He is the school 's Potions Master, though he is widely rumoured to covet the Defence Against the Dark Arts post. Snape himself confirms the rumour in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. Snape is a sinister and malicious teacher who makes frequent snide and disparaging remarks at Harry 's expense. He quickly becomes the primary antagonist of the book, as Harry suspects him of plotting to steal the philosopher 's stone, and of attempting to kill him. Only the climax of the book reveals that Professor Quirrell, in league with Lord Voldemort, is the real enemy; Snape, suspicious of Quirrell, had been looking out for Harry throughout the book. In the final chapter, Dumbledore suggests that because Harry 's father James had saved Snape 's life when they were both students, even though the two detested each other, Snape felt responsible for Harry in return. As the final book reveals, this is not the full story. In any case, even after Quirrell 's true role is revealed, Harry retains feelings of suspicion and resentment towards Snape, and their relationship remains tense. Snape 's behaviour and attitude towards Harry also remain unchanged. Snape has a minor role in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, where he helps Gilderoy Lockhart oversee Hogwarts ' short - lived Duelling Club, but he has little interaction with the main plot. It is while attending the Duelling Club that Harry learns the Expelliarmus spell, which plays a significant role in later books, by seeing Snape use it. In Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, Snape demonstrates his expertise with potions by brewing the complex Wolfsbane potion for the new Defence Against the Dark Arts professor, Remus Lupin. Throughout the third book, Snape suspects that Lupin may be helping Harry 's godfather Sirius Black enter Hogwarts castle; Sirius had been convicted (wrongly, as it is later revealed) of murdering Peter Pettigrew and innocent bystanders, and betraying the Potter family 's hiding place to Voldemort. This suspicion stems from Lupin 's friendship with Sirius and Harry 's father, James, while they were all at Hogwarts as students. Near the climax of the book, Snape attempts to apprehend Sirius, but Sirius escapes with Harry 's aid. Snape informs Dumbledore of this circumstance, and when Harry and Lupin are not punished, Snape retaliates by revealing to the entire school that Lupin is a werewolf, forcing the latter to resign his post. Prisoner of Azkaban reveals more details about the connection between Snape and James. While in school together, Sirius once tricked Snape into almost entering the Shrieking Shack while Lupin was there, transformed into a werewolf. James realised the danger and stopped Snape, saving his life; this is the incident Dumbledore referred to at the end of the first book. Snape, however, believes James ' actions were self - serving, to avoid being expelled. Snape 's role in the fourth novel, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, is not substantially different from that of the previous three books. He is apoplectic when Harry is unexpectedly entered into the Triwizard Tournament. Later Harry accidentally falls into Dumbledore 's Pensieve and views memories of several Death Eater trials from years before. At one point, Snape is named as a Death Eater by Igor Karkaroff, but Dumbledore comes to Snape 's defence, claiming that although Snape had indeed been a Death Eater, he changed sides before Voldemort 's downfall and turned spy against him. Later, Dumbledore assures Harry that Snape 's reformation is genuine, though he refuses to tell Harry how he knows this, saying the information "is a matter between Professor Snape and myself ''. At the end of the book, Dumbledore attempts to convince a disbelieving Minister for Magic, Cornelius Fudge, that Voldemort has returned. As proof, Snape willingly shows Fudge the restored Dark Mark on his arm. He is subsequently sent on a secret mission by Dumbledore. This mission, as had been implied in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix and revealed in Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, was to rejoin the Death Eaters and spy on Voldemort as a re-doubled agent, while pretending to spy on Dumbledore on behalf of Voldemort. In the fifth novel, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Snape returns to a more prominent role. With Voldemort having returned to a fully corporeal body, Snape continues working as a re-doubled agent for Dumbledore. He is seen prior to the start of school at Number 12, Grimmauld Place giving reports to the Order of the Phoenix. He has a very strained relationship with Sirius, who owns Grimmauld Place and must remain there in hiding. The two trade frequent snide remarks and at one point almost begin a duel. Snape taunts Sirius about the latter 's not being able to take an active role in the Order 's missions because of his fugitive status. Harry feels later that this taunting contributed to Sirius ' willingness to take unsafe risks. Back at school, Snape 's allegiance to the Order has no effect on his dislike for Harry. Later in the book, Dumbledore has Snape teach Harry Occlumency, the protection of the mind from outside intrusion or influence. The sessions are made difficult by their mutual hostility and end prematurely when Harry uses Dumbledore 's Pensieve to view one of Snape 's worst childhood memories without the latter 's permission. He sees the memory of Snape being bullied by James and Sirius, and of calling Harry 's mother Lily a Mudblood (a highly offensive term). Only in the final book is it revealed that, prior to this confrontation, Snape and Lily had been close friends. Towards the end of the novel, Dolores Umbridge -- the school 's politically appointed headmistress -- captures Harry and interrogates him about Dumbledore 's whereabouts. She sends for Snape, demanding that he provide the magical truth serum Veritaserum in order to force Harry to reveal any information he may be hiding. Snape claims that his supplies of the serum have been exhausted after Umbridge used the drug to force information about Dumbledore 's Army from Cho Chang. It is later revealed that Snape had in fact supplied Umbridge with fake Veritaserum on the prior attempt. Snape then carries Harry 's cryptic warning about Sirius ' capture to the other Order members, allowing them to come to the rescue in the Department of Mysteries. Harry still holds Snape partly responsible for Sirius ' death, believing Snape 's goading spurred Sirius into joining the battle. In the second chapter of Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, Bellatrix Lestrange and Narcissa Malfoy visit Snape at his home in Spinner 's End. Narcissa 's son Draco has been given a difficult task by Voldemort, and Narcissa swears Snape to an Unbreakable Vow that he will protect Draco, help him complete Voldemort 's task, and finish the task himself if Draco fails. When questioned by Bellatrix about his loyalties, Snape says he has been working for Voldemort ever since Voldemort 's return, and explains his actions in the previous books in that light. He points out that gaining Dumbledore 's trust and protection has kept him out of Azkaban and free to operate on Voldemort 's behalf. At the start - of - term feast at Hogwarts, Dumbledore announces Snape as the new Defence Against the Dark Arts professor. Horace Slughorn, a retired Hogwarts teacher, replaces Snape as Potions Master. With Snape no longer teaching Potions, Harry enrolls in Slughorn 's class and is lent an old textbook until his new one arrives. Harry finds marginalia, including a variety of hexes and jinxes seemingly invented by an unknown student, and substantial improvements to the book 's standard potion - making instructions. The text is inscribed as being "the Property of the Half - Blood Prince ''. The notes greatly bolster Harry 's performance in Potions, so much so that he impresses Slughorn. Snape, who maintains that he "never had the impression that (he) had been able to teach Potter anything at all '', is suspicious of Harry 's newfound Potions success. Later, during a fight with Draco, Harry casts one of the Prince 's spells marked "For Enemies, '' and is horrified by the devastating wounds it inflicts to Draco 's face and chest. Snape rushes to the scene and heals Draco, then interrogates Harry regarding the spell, using Legilimency to extract the source of Harry 's knowledge (the Potions textbook) from Harry 's mind. When Snape insists that Harry show him his Potions textbook, Harry hides the Prince 's book and gives him Ron Weasley 's book instead. As punishment for the attack and knowing Harry is lying about the textbook, Snape assigns Harry detention during the final Quidditch match of the year. Before leaving Hogwarts to accompany Dumbledore in locating another horcrux -- part of Voldemort 's soul -- Harry discovers from Professor Trelawney that it was Snape who overheard the prophecy and told it to Voldemort, resulting in Voldemort hunting down Harry and his parents. Despite this and Harry 's angry questions, Dumbledore avers his trust in Snape. Returning to Hogwarts after retrieving Voldemort 's Horcrux, Harry and Dumbledore alight atop the school 's astronomy tower. Gravely weakened by the horcrux 's protective potion, Dumbledore tells Harry he must fetch Snape, but before Harry can leave, Draco suddenly arrives, intending to carry out Voldemort 's order to assassinate Dumbledore, closely followed by other Death Eaters (followers of Voldemort), and Snape. Snape interrupts the planned murder, killing the headmaster himself. Harry, who is paralysed under his invisibility cloak by Dumbledore for his own protection, witnesses the kill, and is released upon Dumbledore 's death. Enraged, he pursues Snape, Draco, and the Death Eaters as they flee the castle. Snape easily blocks Harry 's spells and jeeringly points out Harry 's mistakes, but never strikes back. During the confrontation, Snape reveals himself as the eponymous "Half - Blood Prince '' (being the half - blood son of Muggle Tobias Snape and pure - blood Eileen Prince). Snape passes through the school gates and Disapparates with Draco in tow at the book 's end. The full relationship between Dumbledore and Snape and the reason for Snape 's actions remain unknown until the final book. In an interview, Rowling mentioned that at this point in the series, the Harry -- Snape relationship has become "as personal, if not more so, than Harry -- Voldemort. '' In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Voldemort and his Death Eaters have tightened their grip on the wizarding world. Snape is named Headmaster of Hogwarts, while Death Eaters Alecto and Amycus Carrow are appointed as Hogwarts staff. The novel focuses largely on Harry and his friends, and events outside the school; therefore Snape plays a limited role at the start. In the course of the book, Harry and Ron are led to find the Sword of Godric Gryffindor by a Patronus taking the form of a doe. (Towards the end of the book, Harry learns that this was Snape 's Patronus, taking the same shape as Harry 's mother Lily 's Patronus, a visible sign of his lifelong love for Harry 's mother, and that Dumbledore had asked Snape to ensure that Harry gained possession of the sword. The novel also reveals that Snape had covertly used his position as Headmaster to protect the students and to contain the Carrows.) Towards the end of the school year, Professors McGonagall, Flitwick, and Sprout force Snape to flee the school. Voldemort summons Snape to the Shrieking Shack. Erroneously believing Snape is the master of the Elder Wand and that Snape 's death will make him the master of the Wand, Voldemort kills Snape by having his pet snake Nagini bite him through the neck. The dying Snape releases a cloud of memories and tells Harry, who has watched the entire scene from a hidden spot, to take and view them. From these memories, Harry sees Snape 's childhood and learns his true loyalties. In this vision, Harry learns that Snape befriended Lily as a child when they lived near each other. Upon their arrival at Hogwarts, the Sorting Hat placed Snape and Lily into Slytherin and Gryffindor Houses, respectively. They remained friends for the next few years until they were driven apart by Snape 's interest in the Dark Arts; the friendship finally ended following the bullying episode that Harry had briefly seen in the fifth book, in which Snape calls Lily "Mudblood ''. Despite this separation and Snape 's enduring animosity toward Lily 's eventual husband James Potter, Snape continued to love Lily for the rest of his life. The memories also show that as a Death Eater, Snape had revealed to Voldemort a prophecy made by Sybill Trelawney, causing Voldemort to attempt to prevent it by killing Harry and his parents. Snape, who had not realised until too late that the prophecy was referring to Lily and her family, asked Voldemort to spare Lily. Still in terror for her life, he also approached Dumbledore, admitted his actions, and begged him to protect the Potters. Dumbledore chided him for thinking only of himself and not of Lily 's husband and child, but agreed and ensured that they were placed under the Fidelius Charm. In return, Snape secretly allied himself with Dumbledore and the Order of the Phoenix as a double agent against Voldemort, using his powers of Occlumency to hide his betrayal from Voldemort. However, Snape demanded of Dumbledore that his love for Lily (his reason for switching sides) be kept a secret, especially from Harry, because of the deep animosity he felt towards Harry 's father and his mixed feelings towards Harry (who reminded him of both his love for Lily Potter and her death, and his animosity towards James Potter). Dumbledore agreed and kept the secret throughout his life, although questioning Snape 's request to "never reveal the best of you ''. Even with his efforts to protect her, Snape felt responsible for Lily 's death at Voldemort 's hands. Snape 's memories then reveal that Dumbledore had impetuously tried to use the Gaunt ring which had been cursed by Voldemort, and had been suffering from a powerful curse. Snape 's knowledge of the Dark Arts enabled him to slow the spread of the curse from Dumbledore 's hand through his body, but he would have died within a year. Dumbledore, aware that Voldemort had ordered Draco to kill him, had asked Snape to kill him instead as a way of sparing the boy 's soul and of preventing his own otherwise slow, painful death. Although Snape was reluctant, even asking about the impact of such an action on his own soul, Dumbledore implied that this kind of coup de grâce would not damage a human 's soul in the same way murder would. Snape agreed to do as the Headmaster requested. Snape 's memories also provide Harry with the information he needs to ensure Voldemort 's final defeat, in the form of conversations Snape had with Dumbledore. Rowling noted in an interview that because Snape abandoned his post before dying or officially retiring, a portrait of him does not immediately appear in the Headmaster 's office following his death. She adds, however, that she would like to think Harry made Snape 's true loyalty and heroism known in the Wizarding world, and that he lobbied to ensure that a portrait be installed in the office. In a separate interview, Rowling discussed Snape 's back story, saying she had planned it ever since she wrote the first book because the whole series is built around it and she considers him one of the most important characters of the seventh book. In the epilogue to Deathly Hallows, set nineteen years after Harry defeats Voldemort, Harry has named his second - born son Albus Severus, after Albus Dumbledore and Severus Snape. As Albus is about to enter his first year at Hogwarts, he expresses concern that he will be sorted into Slytherin. Harry tells his son, "you were named for two headmasters of Hogwarts. One of them (Snape) was a Slytherin and he was probably the bravest man I ever knew. '' When Draco and Astoria Greengrass ' son Scorpius Malfoy finds himself in an alternate timeline in which Voldemort won the Battle of Hogwarts, killed Harry and his allies and instituted a terrible reign of terror, he desperately searches for help in restoring history to its original course. He finds that in this reality Snape is still alive and still teaches at Hogwarts, and asks for his help. At first Snape is suspicious of him, since this timeline 's version of Scorpius is a bully and a Voldemort stalwart. But when Scorpius shows that he knows of Snape having been in love with Lily, Harry 's mother - Snape 's most closely guarded secret - Snape becomes convinced that he does indeed come from a different timeline where Harry and his friends won. Snape then reveals that he, together with the fugitive Ron and Hermione Granger, maintain the last remnants of Dumbledore 's Army - still waging hopeless resistance against the all - powerful Voldemort. In talking with Scorpius, Snape had learned that Harry would name his son "Albus Severus '' and would regard Snape as "probably the bravest man I ever knew '' - and is deeply moved. Though having guessed that in the other timeline he would die, Snape nevertheless willingly helps Scorpius recreate this timeline - and being discovered by Dementors, Snape sacrifices himself in order to cover Scorpius ' escape. Severus Snape appears in all eight Harry Potter films, portrayed by British actor Alan Rickman. Rickman was Rowling 's personal choice to portray the character. He had conversations with Rowling about his character and is one of the few Harry Potter actors that she spoke to prior to the completion of the book series about the future direction of the character. "He knew very early on that he 'd been in love with Lily, '' said Rowling. "He needed to understand (...) where this bitterness towards this boy who 's the living example of her preference for another man came from. '' Rickman used this knowledge of Snape 's ultimate loyalties throughout the films to decide how to play certain scenes, deliver specific lines, or use body language to convey specific emotions. When the directors of the films would ask him why he was doing a scene a certain way or delivering a line in a specific manner, Rickman would simply reply that he knew something they did n't. Rickman himself refrained from talking about Snape, asking readers to wait and "see what unfolds '' in the course of the novels; however, he did say Snape is a complicated person, very rigid and full of himself; in an interview he went further, saying: "Snape is n't one who enjoys jokes and I strongly fear that his sense of humour is extremely limited... But in his defence, I will add that he did n't have an easy adolescence, particularly during his studies at Hogwarts. '' He also said Snape is a fascinating character, and that he takes immense pleasure in playing such an ambiguous person. Rickman 's performance as Snape was widely acclaimed by critics, fans and Rowling herself. Entertainment Weekly listed Rickman as one of the most popular movie stars in 2007 for his performance as Snape, saying: "As the icy, humourless magic instructor Severus Snape, Rickman may not be on screen long -- but he owns every minute. '' Rickman also noted fans ' reactions; in an interview, he said he found "that people in general adore Snape. He is sarcastic, stubborn, etc, etc. But he is also fascinating. I have a lot of fun impersonating him. '' Rickman was nominated for several awards for his portrayal of Snape, and in 2011, was elected the best character portrayal in all the Harry Potter films series. In 2011, Empire magazine published an open letter from Rickman to J.K. Rowling, ruminating on the ten years of working on the Potter films and thanking her for telling the story. In Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, the fifteen - year - old Snape (portrayed by Alec Hopkins) makes a brief appearance in a flashback to Snape 's youth. In the final film, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2, the younger Snape, perhaps ten or eleven, is played by Benedict Clarke. In 2016, a fan film prequel, Severus Snape and the Marauders, was released online and Snape was played by Mick Ignis. Before Alan Rickman was offered the role of Severus Snape, the role was originally offered to Tim Roth, who turned the role down in favour of portraying General Thade in Planet of the Apes. Snape is described as a thin man with sallow skin, a large, hooked nose, and yellow, uneven teeth. He has shoulder - length, greasy black hair which frames his face, and cold, black eyes. He wears black, flowing robes which give him the appearance of "an overgrown bat ''. The youthful Snape had a "stringy, pallid look '', being "round - shouldered yet angular '', having a "twitchy '' walk "that recalled a spider '' and "long oily hair that jumped about his face ''. In the chapter illustrations by Mary GrandPré in the American editions of The Prisoner of Azkaban, The Order of the Phoenix, and The Half - Blood Prince, Snape is depicted with a moustache and goatee, long black hair, and a receding hairline. Snape is generally depicted as being cold, calculating, precise, sarcastic, and bitter. He strongly dislikes Harry and often insults him by insulting his father James. As the series progresses, it is revealed that his treatment of Harry stems from Snape 's bitter rivalry with James when they were in school together. In particular, James and Sirius bullied Snape, which according to Alan Rickman caused the already lonely boy to further "shut himself in ''. Rowling further described the young Snape as insecure and vulnerable: "Given his time over again (Snape) would not have become a Death Eater, but like many insecure, vulnerable people he craved membership of something big and powerful, something impressive. (...) (He) was so blinded by his attraction to the dark side he thought (Lily) would find him impressive if he became a real Death Eater. '' The adult Snape, on the other hand, is portrayed as very self - assured and confident of his abilities, to a degree that Rickman described as "full of himself. '' Director David Yates said Snape is a character with gravitas, authority and power. Snape typically displays a very calm and collected demeanour, rarely at a loss for words or taken off guard. His temper, however, is sometimes short where Harry is concerned and positively flares when dealing with his erstwhile tormentor Sirius, or when accused of cowardice. His otherwise impassive and aloof attitude seems to stem from his belief that people who can not control their emotions are weak. Like some other prominent members of Slytherin house, Snape is shown to be a clever and cunning wizard. He is intelligent and has a keen, analytical mind. In an interview, Rowling adds that Snape is immensely brave, and when asked if she considers Snape a hero, replied: "Yes, I do; though a very flawed hero. An anti-hero, perhaps. He is not a particularly likeable man in many ways. He remains rather cruel, a bully, riddled with bitterness and insecurity -- and yet he loved, and showed loyalty to that love and, ultimately, laid down his life because of it. That 's pretty heroic! '' All seven novels show Snape to be a very powerful wizard and to have been outstanding while a student. He specialises in potion making and has talent and passion for the Dark Arts. Sirius claimed that Snape knew more hexes and curses as a first - year student at Hogwarts than most seventh - years knew. Particularly gifted in potion making, Snape added major improvements to his Potions textbook while still a student. Also as a student, Snape shows a rare gift for discovering new spells. Lupin describes Sectumsempra as Snape 's "speciality '' in Deathly Hallows. Snape is shown using this spell as a teenager against Harry 's father James and in the aerial battle in the last novel when he accidentally hits George Weasley (acting as a Potter decoy) with it while actually aiming for a Death Eater who was trying to attack Lupin, causing George 's right ear to be severed off permanently. Despite Sectumsempra 's deadly power, Snape can also heal the wounds it causes. Snape is adept at reversing or containing fatal damage from other dark curses as well, due to his vast knowledge of Dark Arts, as he does when Dumbledore and then Katie Bell are cursed. Skilful in the arts of Legilimency and especially Occlumency, Snape is able to both access the minds of others and protect his own thoughts -- indeed, though Snape does not care for the term himself, Harry forms the uncomfortable impression early in the series that the Potions Master is able to "read minds. '' Being an Occlumens, Snape is able to keep his betrayal from Voldemort, who is himself described as being "the greatest Legilimens '' in history. According to Rowling, Snape is the only Death Eater capable of producing a full Patronus, which, like Lily 's, is a doe. Snape is a talented duellist, able to hold off by himself (if only briefly) a group of three Hogwarts professors that included former duelling champion Filius Flitwick. Professor McGonagall later implies that Snape learned to fly without the use of a broom, a rare skill previously displayed only by Voldemort. Snape 's family background is mostly shown in flashbacks during the course of the last three novels. Snape was born to Eileen Prince, a witch, and Tobias Snape, a Muggle, making him a half - blood (hence the name, "Half - Blood Prince ''). This is rare for a Death Eater, as remarked in the last book, though Voldemort himself also had a Muggle father. Snape spent his early childhood living with his parents in a small house in Spinner 's End. Snape 's family was a poor one and he is described as wearing ill - fitting clothes "that were so mis - matched that it looked deliberate ''. As a child, Snape was apparently neglected and his parents often fought with one another. Snape was very eager to leave his home to go to Hogwarts. Towards the end of the last novel, Harry draws parallels between his childhood, Snape 's, and Voldemort 's. Snape 's true loyalty was one of the most significant questions in the series up until the end of the final instalment, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows. Although the first five novels depict him as unfair and vindictive towards Harry and his friends, he invariably ends up protecting or otherwise helping them when they or their allies are in danger. Several characters express doubts about his loyalty, but Dumbledore 's trust in him is generally taken to be the final word. The sixth novel, Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, departs from that model. In the second chapter, Snape claims to have been working for Voldemort ever since the latter 's return, and only pretending to help Dumbledore. By killing Dumbledore toward the end of the novel, Snape seems to place himself firmly in Voldemort 's camp. Rowling maintains this impression through the early chapters of the seventh novel. However, near the climax of the book, Snape leaves Harry his dying thoughts (to be viewed in the Pensieve) and ultimately reveals to Harry that he had been loyal to Albus Dumbledore throughout the series. Snape 's fierce devotion to and love of his childhood friend Lily, Harry 's mother, is the foundation of that loyalty. After Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, Snape 's loyalty was a matter of intense debate among the fans. The issue was given special attention in the marketing campaigns on behalf of the last book, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows. "Is Snape Good or Evil? '' was one of the questions in Scholastic Inc. 's seven - question series, part of its marketing campaign for the book. As part of the Waldenbooks marketing campaign, two free stickers, one that said "Trust Snape '' and another that stated "Snape Is A Very Bad Man '' were available with the book. Borders Group published a separate book on the topic, The Great Snape Debate, containing essays and arguments from both sides of the debate. The secretive attitude and gradual unfolding of Snape 's character was broadly admired, with Stephen Fry, the UK audio books narrator, saying in 2003: "Most characters like Snape are hard to love but there is a sort of ambiguity -- you ca n't quite decide -- something sad about him -- lonely and it 's fascinating when you think he 's going to be the evil one..., then slowly you get this idea he 's not so bad after all. '' David Yates, who directed the final four films of the series, also expressed his views on the character, saying: "A character like Snape, where you 're not really sure if he 's a good guy or a bad guy, that gives you a latent tension... I think the coolest thing you can do with an audience is deny them a little bit of information. '' Despite being less than kind, the character quickly gained popularity within fandom to a level that surprised Rowling herself. Joyce Millman suggests in her essay "To Sir with Love '' in the book Mapping the World of Harry Potter, that Snape is derived from a tradition of Byronic heroes such as Wuthering Heights ' Heathcliff. Jenny Sawyer from The Christian Science Monitor commented on the character 's development in the series. She claimed that Snape is the only protagonist who genuinely has a choice to make and who struggles to do the right thing, hence the only one to face a "compelling inner crisis ''. She believed the popularity of the character is due to the moral journey and inner conflict that Snape undergoes within the series, as it is the hero 's struggle and costly redemption that really matter: "(Snape 's) character ached for resolution. And it is precisely this need for resolution -- our desire to know the real Snape and to understand his choices -- that makes him the most compelling character in the Potter epic. '' The final revelation of Snape 's loyalty in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows was viewed positively by fans and critics alike. Daniel Radcliffe, who portrays Harry Potter in the movie series, expressed his delight, saying he was pleased to see that his theory that Snape would end up being a sort of tragic hero came through. Elizabeth Hand from The Washington Post wrote, "The much - maligned loner Snape does not come onstage until the latter part of "Deathly Hallows, '' but when he does the book becomes his: Snape 's fate, more than Voldemort 's, perhaps more even than Harry 's, is the most heartbreaking, surprising and satisfying of all of Rowling 's achievements. '' IGN listed Snape as their 4th top Harry Potter character, saying that he makes "quite an impact in the Harry Potter series '', and IGN 's Joe Utichi called Snape his favourite Harry Potter character and praised his character development. Shortly after the release of the final film, MTV held a public poll for fans to vote for the best character in the series, and Snape was voted # 1. Around the same time, Empire magazine held a public poll for fans to vote for the 25 greatest characters in the series, and Snape once again came in at # 1. In May 2011, Snape was again voted as the # 1 favourite Harry Potter character in a public poll held by the Bloomsbury publishing house. In 2014, Watchmojo.com ranked him # 1 on their "Top 10 Harry Potter Characters '' list (beating Harry Potter; who is ranked # 2) while they ranked him # 3 on their "Top 10 Most Gut - Wrenching Harry Potter Deaths '' list two years later. The character of Severus Snape has appeared in various animated parodies of Harry Potter. He is a starring character in Neil Cicierega 's online Potter Puppet Pals parodies, and has a centric episode titled Bothering Snape. Also, the video The Mysterious Ticking Noise with the chorus "Snape, Snape, Severus Snape '' was the winner for "Best Comedy '' of the year 2007 at YouTube; it currently has over 170 million views. Snape is also parodied as Professor Santory Snapekin in Sluggy Freelance 's webcomic entitled Torg Potter. In the first parody, Torg defeats a plot by Professor Snapekin to achieve ultimate power. In a 2004 sketch on Saturday Night Live in which Lindsay Lohan appears as Hermione Granger, Snape is portrayed by Will Forte. Snape has also been parodied in UK television. Comic Relief released a story called Harry Potter and the Secret Chamberpot of Azerbaijan, in which Snape is played by Jeremy Irons. Alan Rickman appeared himself as Snape in a Harry Potter parody named "Louis Potter and the Philosopher 's Scone '' in Alistair McGowan 's Big Impression show. In the Harry Bladder sketches in All That, Snape appears as Professor Chafe (portrayed by Jeremy Rowley), whose legs were badly chafed, causing him to be unnecessarily mean. Many sketches feature students brewing potions that did silly things, like enlarge students ' behinds, give males large breasts, or change people into bras. In a sketch comedy named "Cooking With... '' on Australian TV series The Wedge, Snape catches Harry and Hermione making love. In A Very Potter Musical, Snape is played by actor Joe Moses.

who died in season 14 of grey's anatomy

Grey 's Anatomy (season 14) - wikipedia The fourteenth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy was ordered on February 10, 2017, by American Broadcasting Company (ABC), and premiered on September 28, 2017 with a special two - hour premiere. The season will consist of 24 episodes, with the season 's seventh episode marking the 300th episode for the series overall. The season is produced by ABC Studios, in association with Shondaland Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company; the showrunners being Krista Vernoff and William Harper. The fourteenth season is the first not to feature Jerrika Hinton as Dr. Stephanie Edwards since her introduction in the ninth season, following her departure at the conclusion of the previous season. The season marks the last appearance of Martin Henderson, Jason George, Jessica Capshaw, and Sarah Drew as series regulars, as well as the first appearance of Jaina Lee Ortiz as Andy Herrera, the lead character of Grey 's Anatomy 's second spin - off series, Station 19. On April 20, 2018, ABC officially renewed Grey 's Anatomy for a network primetime drama record - setting fifteenth season. The season follows the story of surgical residents, fellows, and attendings as they experience the difficulties of the competitive careers they have chosen. It is set in the surgical wing of the fictional Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, located in Seattle, Washington. After the explosion at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, Chief Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) finds it the perfect time to give the place a much needed upgrade in look and functionality. During the construction, Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) struggles with the shocking reunion with his sister, Megan (Abigail Spencer), who was recently found in a hostage camp overseas. The discovery also welcomes back Teddy Altman (Kim Raver), the former chief cardiothoracic surgery and Owen 's best friend, which leads to awkward moments with Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone). Of course, Nathan Riggs (Martin Henderson), who was once in love with Megan, is torn between his love for her and his most recent interest in Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo). Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) learns what "ghosting '' is after Eliza Minnick (Marika Dominczyk) vanishes without a trace, but she quickly finds company in an Italian girl she met at the bar, Carina DeLuca (Stefania Spampinato), sister to Andrew DeLuca (Giacomo Gianniotti). Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington) struggles to patch her relationship with Alex Karev (Justin Chambers), but when her attempts fail, she finds herself sleeping with one of the new interns. When Carina finds that Amelia has a brain tumor, she brings her former mentor / professor Dr Tom Koracek (Greg Germann) to create a treatment plan. But when he points out how the tumor has affected her judgment, she fears that it might have ruined her patient 's lives or put them in more danger -- specifically Dr Nicole Herman (Geena Davis), who despite saving her life, left her blind. After the tumor is removed, Amelia and Owen reflect on their marriage and decide that everything up to that point has been misguided; the tumor made Amelia someone she was not, and they ultimately decide to get a divorce. With all the changes happening at Grey Sloan, Harper Avery (Chelcie Ross) shows up to discuss everything with Bailey and then ends up firing her. Shortly after, he immediately dies from cardiac arrest. Before they have to find another chief, Catherine (Debbie Allen) and Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) reinstate Bailey to her position. At a family dinner hosted by Catherine and Richard Weber (James Pickens Jr.), Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary) and Jackson learn that he 'll be receiving his grandfather 's inheritance, a quarter billion dollars, which he 'll eventually use to fund a medical research contest. Now that Megan is healthy again, Meredith and Nathan work together to bring her son over to the United States. Upon arrival, Nathan, Megan, and Farouk all move to California to start a life together, which officially ends Nathan 's relationship with Meredith. Despite the breakup, Meredith has more exciting news on the horizon when she learns at the intern mixer that a ground breaking surgery has earned her a nomination for the highly - esteemed Harper Avery Foundation Award, which she goes on to win. While the joyous news spreads around the hospital, Bailey learns that Ben Warren (Jason George) wants to leave surgery to join the Seattle Fire Department. With Jo and Alex now living together again, she realizes how much control her estranged husband, Dr Paul Stadler (Matthew Morrison), has over her. Now in the running for chief resident, Jo decides to file for divorce. With her mind on her secret relationship with Paul, she 's surprised to find him in the hospital. Jo attempts to steer clear of him, but at the same time also believes she has a duty to inform Paul 's fiancé of what type of man he really is. As Paul keeps trying to find Jo, Meredith pretends to call security to have him removed, but he leaves before they can get there. However, he winds up back in the ER as a victim of a hit and run accident. With everyone running around the ER, April Kepner (Sarah Drew) sees a familiar face in Matthew (Justin Bruening), the paramedic she left at the altar for Jackson. He 's there with his wife who is now pregnant. After Jo talks to Jenny (Bethany Joy Lenz), Paul 's fiancé, they venture to Paul 's room to tell him they 're taking him to court. Upon receiving the news, he tries to attack them in a bout of rage; however, he falls out of bed and hits his head knocking him unconscious, rendering him brain dead. Still legally his wife, Jo decides to have them remove all life - sustaining support. April struggles with the idea that the man she left to pursue her own happiness is now married and expecting a child, while she 's alone and a single mother. As she begins to question her faith, she acts out and sleeps with an intern. With all the stress and work that comes with being Chief of Surgery, Bailey begins to show signs of a heart attack. She winds up at Seattle Presbyterian Hospital, where the doctors take her concerns less than seriously. They see in her chart a history of OCD and believe that is the underlying issue, since the tests they are running are coming back negative. Bailey calls on Maggie to save her, and after she does, Bailey decides to support Ben 's decision to become a firefighter, as she realizes life is too short to do anything than what makes you happy. With the medical research contest, funded by Jackson 's money, getting underway, the doctors begin to team up and brainstorm ideas that will help them win the top prize of a grant that will fund their research even further. Meredith learns that for her project, she 'll need to acquire a patent that is owned by Marie Cerone... a former friend of her mother 's. When Marie denies access to the patent, Meredith is forced to investigate further into the reason why. According to Richard, there was a falling out of some sort, but he never knew what happened between the two women. At a dinner party hosted by Amelia, Maggie brings her new boyfriend around to meet her friends. However, it 's soon revealed that her boyfriend is a married man. Quick to call it off, Jackson sees his opportunity to invest in his love interest with Maggie. In Meredith 's search for answers, she learns that Ellis Grey left Marie 's name off the surgical method they created together. If she is to acquire the patent, she must publicly announce a change the method 's name to the Grey - Cerone Method. Meredith denies the ultimatum. While Maggie and Jackson try to get past the quirks of their relationship and the fact that their step - siblings, Jo shockingly asks Alex to marry him. He quickly accepts. With the research projects humming along, Owen and Amelia continue to take advantage of their "friends with benefits '' relationship, that is until Amelia learns how close Owen is with Teddy. She advises him to go after her if she 's the love of his life. The advice sends him to Germany where he surprises Teddy. The two talk all night and make plans to stay together, but when she learns that Amelia had just told him the night before to pursue her, she refuses to be his backup plan and kicks him out. Bailey is surprised to learn that one of her interns, Sam Bello (Jeanine Mason), is a "Dreamer '' protected by (DACA). Meredith designs a plan to keep from being deported. Despite pleas from Andrew (Sam 's boyfriend), Meredith sends to work under Dr Cristina Yang in Switzerland. While the research contest reaches the next milestone, presentation day, Catherine confronts Jackson about a major secret concerning his grandfather. The man had 13 cases of sexual harassment filed against him, and she herself paid the women major settlements to keep it all covered up. Meredith learns of this truth and also that Marie Cerone was one of the 13. Disgusted with the whole situation, Meredith decides to return her and her mother 's Harper Avery awards and Bailey shuts down the research contest. In the meantime, Catherine tries with all her might to save the face of the foundation since the news has spread. While in surgery, Jackson and Meredith come up with their own plan, which is to rename the foundation in honor of Catherine (née Fox) to the Catherine Fox Foundation. When Alex learns that his mom has n't been cashing the checks he 's been sending, he and Jo take off to Iowa to check on her. He surprisingly finds that she is doing well and even works her old job at the library. The two extend an invitation to the wedding, but she declines stating it would be too much for her. While Owen and Amelia struggle with adjusting to being foster parents -- Owen to a baby and Amelia to the baby 's teenaged mother on drugs, Arizona continues to battle with Sofia who wants to move back to New York to be with her other mom, Callie. After calling Callie to tell her they 're moving to the east coast to be closer to her, Arizona announced her impeding departure to Bailey. However, an unexpected visit from Nicole Herman changes those plans just slightly. Nicole has been following Arizona 's work and she would like to partner with her in creating the Robbins - Herman Center for Women 's Health. Knowing that she 's headed to New York, Arizona asks that it be there, and Nicole obliges. Matthew winds up in the ER again, but this time for himself, after he rolled his car. Trying to get information from him about what happened, he mentions April 's name, which sends the doctors into a frenzy trying to make sure she 's safe. Owen finds her unconscious at the site of the accident, down in a ravine nearby. After he rushes her back to the hospital, the team rallies to save her, and after extreme measures have been taken to bring her back to life, she wakes up, fully functional. Alex and Jo 's wedding day has arrived, and though most details have come together, April (who has been planning the wedding) panics when multiple guests go to the wrong ceremony. While trying to escape, the mother of the bride faints, keeping Ben and Bailey behind. Once at the hospital, Bailey struggles to find an available cardio surgeon until Teddy unexpectedly arrives looking for a job. Jo learns she 's been accepted into Mass Gen 's fellowship program, but fearful of losing Alex, Meredith offers Jo the general surgery attending position. The wedding is delayed when the wedding planner goes into anaphylactic shock and an emergency tracheotomy is performed to save her. After the guests leave thinking there 'll be no wedding, the pastor finally arrives in time to marry April and Matthew after a surprise re-engagement. On a ferry back to the main land, Maggie has the idea to have Meredith ordained online to officiate the wedding right there on the ferry. Bailey, wanting to take a break from being chief to focus on her passions, offers Teddy the chance to be interim chief. Watching the wedding happening at the hospital on a tablet, in the ICU with the bride 's mother, Teddy reveals she 's pregnant. Arizona says her sad goodbyes before heading to New York, but is giddy to be closer to Callie who is recently single. Series regular Jerrika Hinton does not appear for the first time since her introduction at the start of the 9th season, after it was announced she landed a starring role in Alan Ball 's new HBO drama series Here and Now. Hinton had previously been in talks of leaving the show at the end of the 12th season when she was cast in the Shondaland comedy pilot Toast, but ABC passed on the project. Renewing her contract for another three seasons as Dr. Arizona Robbins after the eleventh season, Jessica Capshaw returned for the 14th season. On June 20, 2017, it was announced that Kim Raver would reprise her role as Dr. Teddy Altman for a guest arc. In August 2017, it was announced that Abigail Spencer would replace Bridget Regan as Megan Hunt for a multi-episode arc this season. After recurring in the previous season as the controversial character, Eliza Minnick, it was announced in August 2017 that Marika Dominczyk would not return to the show. On September 13, 2017, another guest star was announced in Greg Germann (Ally McBeal), and later it was revealed that his character would be Tom Koracick, Amelia 's neurosurgery mentor. On October 9, 2017, the new group of interns to join the cast in the fourth episode "Ai n't That a Kick in the Head '' was announced to include Jeanine Mason (So You Think You Can Dance) as Sam, Alex Blue Davis as Casey, Rushi Kota as Vik, Jaicy Elliot as Taryn, Sophia Ali as Dahlia, and Jake Borelli as Levi. On October 26, 2017, it was announced that Martin Henderson 's appearance in the fifth episode titled "Danger Zone '' would be his last. On January 31, 2018, it was announced that Candis Cayne would be joining the show as Dr. Michelle Velez for a multi-episode arc revolving around a transgender character receiving a ground breaking surgery. On March 8, 2018, it was announced that both Jessica Capshaw and Sarah Drew would leave the series following the conclusion of the season. It was released on April 4, 2018 that a familiar character would be returning to the set later on in the season as Sarah Utterback 's Nurse Olivia Harper would be revisiting Grey Sloan, not as a nurse but as mom of a patient. Details of her storyline or duration of arc have yet to be released. On April 20, 2018, it was released that Geena Davis would return for the episode "Cold as Ice '' as Dr. Herman to present a new opportunity for Arizona. Grey 's Anatomy was renewed for a 14th season on February 10, 2017. It premiered on September 28, 2017, with a two - hour premiere. Ellen Pompeo announced that she would be directing several episodes in the 14th season. On April 28, 2017, veteran writer Krista Vernoff announced that she would return to the show as a writer after leaving the show after the seventh season. On January 11, 2018, ABC released a six - episode web series following the new surgical interns at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. The web series was written by Barbara Kaye Friend and directed by series regular Sarah Drew. The number in the "No. overall '' column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the "No. in season '' column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season. "U.S. viewers in millions '' refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live. While the staff of the hospital fawns over Dr. Paul Stadler and his legendary work as a surgeon, Jo tries to steer clear of him. Alex and Meredith team up to do their best to protect Jo during the process of filing for divorce. Drenched in blood, Jackson and Maggie save their patient 's life and then bond in the locker room after showers; April and Owen use their trauma skills to work on patients in less than ideal and extremely hot conditions, very similar to when they were overseas. Bailey works with an exceptionally computer - savvy intern to take back the power against those who hacked the hospital; this intern later outs himself as "a proud trans man ''. After Paul 's fiancée, Jenny, tells him about her secret exchange with Jo, Meredith pretends to call in security to remove Paul from the hospital. However, he soon winds back up in the ER as a victim of a hit - and - run.

who were the etruscans and where did they come from

Etruscan civilization - wikipedia Timeline The Etruscan civilization (/ ɪˈtrʌskən /) is the modern name given to a powerful and wealthy civilization of ancient Italy in the area corresponding roughly to Tuscany, western Umbria and northern Lazio. As distinguished by its unique language, this civilization endured from before the time of the earliest Etruscan inscriptions (c. 700 BC) until its assimilation into the Roman Republic, beginning in the late 4th century BC with the Roman -- Etruscan Wars. Culture that is identifiably Etruscan developed in Italy after about 800 BC, approximately over the range of the preceding Iron Age Villanovan culture. The latter gave way in the 7th century BC to a culture that was influenced by Ancient Greek culture. At its maximum extent, during the foundational period of Rome and the Roman Kingdom, Etruscan civilization flourished in three confederacies of cities: of Etruria, of the Po Valley with the eastern Alps and of Latium and Campania. The decline was gradual, but by 500 BC the political destiny of Italy had passed out of Etruscan hands. The last Etruscan cities were formally absorbed by Rome around 100 BC. Although the Etruscans developed a system of writing, the Etruscan language remains only partly understood, and only a handful of texts of any length survive, making modern understanding of their society and culture heavily dependent on much later and generally disapproving Roman sources. Politics was based on the small city and probably the family unit. In their heyday, the Etruscan elite grew very rich through trade with the Celtic world to the north and the Greeks to the south and filled their large family tombs with imported luxuries. Archaic Greece had a huge influence on their art and architecture, and Greek mythology was evidently very familiar to them. The ancient Romans referred to the Etruscans as the Tuscī or Etruscī. Their Roman name is the origin of the terms "Tuscany '', which refers to their heartland, and "Etruria '', which can refer to their wider region. In Attic Greek, the Etruscans were known as Tyrrhenians (Τυρρηνοί, Turrhēnoi, earlier Τυρσηνοί Tursēnoi), from which the Romans derived the names Tyrrhēnī, Tyrrhēnia (Etruria), and Mare Tyrrhēnum (Tyrrhenian Sea), prompting some to associate them with the Teresh (Sea Peoples). The word may also be related to the Hittite Taruisa. The Etruscans called themselves Rasenna, which was syncopated to Rasna or Raśna. The origins of the Etruscans are mostly lost in prehistory, although Greek historians as early as the 5th century BC repeatedly associated the Tyrrhenians (Turrhēnoi / Τυρρηνοί, Tursēnoi / Τυρσηνοί) with Pelasgians. Thucydides, Herodotus and Strabo all denote Lemnos as settled by Pelasgians whom Thucydides identifies as "belonging to the Tyrrhenians '' (τὸ δὲ πλεῖστον Πελασγικόν, τῶν καὶ Λῆμνόν ποτε καὶ Ἀθήνας Τυρσηνῶν), and although both Strabo and Herodotus agree that Tyrrhenus / Tyrsenos, son of Atys, king of Lydia, led the migration, Strabo specifies that it was the Pelasgians of Lemnos and Imbros who followed Tyrrhenus / Tyrsenos to the Italian Peninsula. The Lemnian - Pelasgian link was further manifested by the discovery of the Lemnos Stele, whose inscriptions were written in a language which shows strong structural resemblances to the language of the Tyrrhenians (Etruscans). Dionysius of Halicarnassus records a Pelasgian migration from Thessaly to the Italian peninsula, noting that "the Pelasgi made themselves masters of some of the lands belonging to the Umbri ''; Herodotus describes how the Tyrrheni migrated from Lydia to the lands of the Umbri (Ὀμβρικοί). Strabo as well as the Homeric Hymn to Dionysus make mention of the Tyrrhenians as pirates. Pliny the Elder put the Etruscans in the context of the Rhaetian people to the north and wrote in his Natural History (AD 79): Adjoining these the (Alpine) Noricans are the Raeti and Vindelici. All are divided into a number of states. The Raeti are believed to be people of Tuscan race driven out by the Gauls, their leader was named Raetus. Historians have no literature and no original Etruscan texts of religion or philosophy; therefore, much of what is known about this civilization derives from grave goods and tomb findings. An mtDNA study in 2007 suggested that the Etruscans were not related substantially to the Upper Paleolithic hunter - gatherer populations of Europe and that they showed no similarities to populations in the Near East. An earlier DNA study performed in Italy, however, partly gave credence to the theory of Herodotus, as the results showed that 11 minor mitochondrial DNA lineages extracted from different Etruscan remains occur nowhere else in Europe and are shared only with Near Eastern samples. Another source of genetic data on Etruscan origins comes from four ancient breeds of cattle. Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA of these and seven other breeds of Italian cattle found that the Tuscan breeds genetically resembled cattle of the Near East. The other Italian breeds were linked to northern Europe. One other hypothesis gives credence to a claim made by a DNA study, which states that the Etruscans are indigenous, probably stemming from the Villanovan culture, while the latest mitochondrial DNA study (2013) also suggests that the Etruscans were probably an indigenous population, showing that Etruscans appear to fall very close to a Neolithic population from Central Europe and to other Tuscan populations, strongly suggesting that the Etruscan civilization developed locally from the Villanovan culture, and genetic links between Tuscany and Anatolia date back to at least 5,000 years ago during the Neolithic. Etruscan expansion was focused both to the north beyond the Apennine Mountains and into Campania. Some small towns in the sixth century BC disappeared during this time, ostensibly consumed by greater, more powerful neighbours. However, it is certain that the political structure of the Etruscan culture was similar to, albeit more aristocratic than, Magna Graecia in the south. The mining and commerce of metal, especially copper and iron, led to an enrichment of the Etruscans and to the expansion of their influence in the Italian peninsula and the western Mediterranean Sea. Here, their interests collided with those of the Greeks, especially in the sixth century BC, when Phocaeans of Italy founded colonies along the coast of Sardinia, Spain and Corsica. This led the Etruscans to ally themselves with Carthage, whose interests also collided with the Greeks. Around 540 BC, the Battle of Alalia led to a new distribution of power in the western Mediterranean. Though the battle had no clear winner, Carthage managed to expand its sphere of influence at the expense of the Greeks, and Etruria saw itself relegated to the northern Tyrrhenian Sea with full ownership of Corsica. From the first half of the 5th century BC, the new political situation meant the beginning of the Etruscan decline after losing their southern provinces. In 480 BC, Etruria 's ally Carthage was defeated by a coalition of Magna Graecia cities led by Syracuse, Sicily. A few years later, in 474, Syracuse 's tyrant Hiero defeated the Etruscans at the Battle of Cumae. Etruria 's influence over the cities of Latium and Campania weakened, and the area was taken over by Romans and Samnites. In the 4th century BC, Etruria saw a Gallic invasion end its influence over the Po Valley and the Adriatic coast. Meanwhile, Rome had started annexing Etruscan cities. This led to the loss of the northern Etruscan provinces. During the Roman -- Etruscan Wars, Etruria was conquered by Rome in the 3rd century BC. According to legend, there was a period between 600 BC and 500 BC in which an alliance was formed among twelve Etruscan settlements, known today as the Etruscan League, Etruscan Federation, or Dodecapolis (in Greek Δωδεκάπολις). The Etruscan League of twelve cities was founded by two Lydian noblemen: Tarchon and his brother Tyrrhenus. Tarchon lent his name to the city of Tarchna, or Tarquinnii, as it was known by the Romans. Tyrrhenus gave his name to the Tyrrhenians, the alternative name for the Etruscans. Although there is no consensus on which cities were in the league, the following list may be close to the mark: Arretium, Caisra, Clevsin, Curtun, Perusna, Pupluna, Veii, Tarchna, Vetluna, Volterra, Velzna, and Velch. Some modern authors include Rusellae. The league was mostly an economic and religious league, or a loose confederation, similar to the Greek states. During the later imperial times, when Etruria was just one of many regions controlled by Rome, the number of cities in the league increased by three. This is noted on many later grave stones from the 2nd century BC onwards. According to Livy, the twelve city - states met once a year at the Fanum Voltumnae at Volsinii, where a leader was chosen to represent the league. There were two other Etruscan leagues ("Lega dei popoli ''): that of Campania, the main city of which was Capua, and the Po Valley city - states in the North, which included Spina and Adria. Those who subscribe to an Italian foundation of Rome followed by an Etruscan invasion typically speak of an Etruscan "influence '' on Roman culture -- that is, cultural objects which were adopted by Rome from neighbouring Etruria. The prevailing view is that Rome was founded by Italians who later merged with Etruscans. In this interpretation, Etruscan cultural objects are considered influences rather than part of a heritage. Rome was probably a small settlement until the arrival of the Etruscans, who constructed the first elements of its urban infrastructure such as the drainage system. The main criterion for deciding whether an object originated at Rome and traveled by influence to the Etruscans, or descended to the Romans from the Etruscans, is date. Many, if not most, of the Etruscan cities were older than Rome. If one finds that a given feature was there first, it can not have originated at Rome. A second criterion is the opinion of the ancient sources. These would indicate that certain institutions and customs came directly from the Etruscans. Rome is located on the edge of what was Etruscan territory. When Etruscan settlements turned up south of the border, it was presumed that the Etruscans spread there after the foundation of Rome, but the settlements are now known to have preceded Rome. Etruscan settlements were frequently built on hills -- the steeper the better -- and surrounded by thick walls. According to Roman mythology, when Romulus and Remus founded Rome, they did so on the Palatine Hill according to Etruscan ritual; that is, they began with a pomerium or sacred ditch. Then, they proceeded to the walls. Romulus was required to kill Remus when the latter jumped over the wall, breaking its magic spell (see also under Pons Sublicius). The name of Rome is attested in Etruscan in the form Ruma - χ meaning ' Roman ', a form that mirrors other attested ethnonyms in that language with the same suffix - χ: Velzna - χ ' (someone) from Volsinii ' and Sveama - χ ' (someone) from Sovana '. This in itself, however, is not enough to prove Etruscan origin conclusively. If Tiberius is from θefarie, then Ruma would have been placed on the Thefar (Tiber) river. A heavily discussed topic among scholars is who was the founding population of Rome. In 390 BC, the city of Rome was attacked by the Gauls, and as a result may have lost many -- though not all -- of its earlier records. Certainly, the history of Rome before that date is not as secure as it later becomes, but enough material remains to give a good picture of the development of the city and its institutions. Later history relates that some Etruscans lived in the Vicus Tuscus, the "Etruscan quarter '', and that there was an Etruscan line of kings (albeit ones descended from a Greek, Demaratus of Corinth) that succeeded kings of Latin and Sabine origin. Etruscophile historians would argue that this, together with evidence for institutions, religious elements and other cultural elements, proves that Rome was founded by Italics. The true picture is rather more complicated, not least because the Etruscan cities were separate entities which never came together to form a single Etruscan state. Furthermore, there were strong Latin and Italic elements to Roman culture, and later Romans proudly celebrated these multiple, ' multicultural ' influences on the city. Under Romulus and Numa Pompilius, the people were said to have been divided into thirty curiae and three tribes. Few Etruscan words entered Latin, but the names of at least two of the tribes -- Ramnes and Luceres -- seem to be Etruscan. The last kings may have borne the Etruscan title lucumo, while the regalia were traditionally considered of Etruscan origin: the golden crown, the sceptre, the toga palmata (a special robe), the sella curulis (curule chair), and above all the primary symbol of state power: the fasces. The latter was a bundle of whipping rods surrounding a double - bladed axe, carried by the king 's lictors. An example of the fasces are the remains of bronze rods and the axe from a tomb in Etruscan Vetulonia. This allowed archaeologists to identify the depiction of a fasces on the grave stele of Avele Feluske, who is shown as a warrior wielding the fasces. The most telling Etruscan feature is the word populus, which appears as an Etruscan deity, Fufluns. Populus seems to mean the people assembled in a military body, rather than the general populace. The historical Etruscans had achieved a state system of society, with remnants of the chiefdom and tribal forms. In this, they were different from the surrounding Italics, who had chiefs and tribes. Rome was in a sense the first Italic state, but it began as an Etruscan one. It is believed that the Etruscan government style changed from total monarchy to oligarchic republic (as the Roman Republic) in the 6th century BC, although it is important to note this did not happen to all the city - states. The government was viewed as being a central authority, ruling over all tribal and clan organizations. It retained the power of life and death; in fact, the gorgon, an ancient symbol of that power, appears as a motif in Etruscan decoration. The adherents to this state power were united by a common religion. Political unity in Etruscan society was the city - state, which was probably the referent of methlum, "district ''. Etruscan texts name quite a number of magistrates, without much of a hint as to their function: the camthi, the parnich, the purth, the tamera, the macstrev, and so on. The people were the mech. The chief ruler of a methlum was perhaps a zilach. The princely tombs were not of individuals. The inscription evidence shows that families were interred there over long periods, marking the growth of the aristocratic family as a fixed institution, parallel to the gens at Rome and perhaps even its model. There is no sign of such a hereditary aristocracy in the preceding Villanovan culture. The Etruscans could have used any model of the eastern Mediterranean. That the growth of this class is related to the new acquisition of wealth through trade is unquestioned. The wealthiest cities were located near the coast. At the centre of the society was the married couple, tusurthir. The Etruscans were a monogamous society that emphasized pairing. Similarly, the behaviour of some wealthy women is not uniquely Etruscan. The apparent promiscuous revelry has a spiritual explanation. Swaddling and Bonfante (among others) explain that depictions of the nude embrace, or symplegma, "had the power to ward off evil '', as did baring the breast, which was adopted by western culture as an apotropaic device, appearing finally on the figureheads of sailing ships as a nude female upper torso. It is also possible that Greek and Roman attitudes to the Etruscans were based on a misunderstanding of the place of women within their society. In both Greece and Republican Rome, respectable women were confined to the house and mixed - sex socialising did not occur. Thus, the freedom of women within Etruscan society could have been misunderstood as implying their sexual availability. It is worth noting that a number of Etruscan tombs carry funerary inscriptions in the form "X son of (father) and (mother) '', indicating the importance of the mother 's side of the family. The Etruscans, like the contemporary cultures of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, had a significant military tradition. In addition to marking the rank and power of certain individuals, warfare was a considerable economic advantage to Etruscan civilization. Like many ancient societies, the Etruscans conducted campaigns during summer months, raiding neighboring areas, attempting to gain territory and combating piracy as a means of acquiring valuable resources, such as land, prestige, goods, and slaves. It is likely that individuals taken in battle would be ransomed back to their families and clans at high cost. Prisoners could also potentially be sacrificed on tombs as an honor to fallen leaders of Etruscan society, not unlike the sacrifices made by Achilles for Patrocles. The range of Etruscan civilization is marked by its cities. They were entirely assimilated by Italic, Celtic, or Roman ethnic groups, but the names survive from inscriptions and their ruins are of aesthetic and historic interest in most of the cities of central Italy. Etruscan cities flourished over most of Italy during the Roman Iron Age, marking the farthest extent of Etruscan civilization. They were gradually assimilated first by Italics in the south, then by Celts in the north and finally in Etruria itself by the growing Roman Republic. That many Roman cities were formerly Etruscan was well known to all the Roman authors. Some cities were founded by Etruscans in prehistoric times, and bore entirely Etruscan names. Others were colonized by Etruscans who Etruscanized the name, usually Italic. The Etruscan system of belief was an immanent polytheism; that is, all visible phenomena were considered to be a manifestation of divine power and that power was subdivided into deities that acted continually on the world of man and could be dissuaded or persuaded in favour of human affairs. How to understand the will of deities, and how to behave, had been revealed to the Etruscans by two initiators, Tages, a childlike figure born from tilled land and immediately gifted with prescience, and Vegoia, a female figure. Their teachings were kept in a series of sacred books. Three layers of deities are evident in the extensive Etruscan art motifs. One appears to be divinities of an indigenous nature: Catha and Usil, the sun; Tivr, the moon; Selvans, a civil god; Turan, the goddess of love; Laran, the god of war; Leinth, the goddess of death; Maris; Thalna; Turms; and the ever - popular Fufluns, whose name is related in some way to the city of Populonia and the populus Romanus, possibly, the god of the people. Ruling over this pantheon of lesser deities were higher ones that seem to reflect the Indo - European system: Tin or Tinia, the sky, Uni his wife (Juno), and Cel, the earth goddess. In addition, some Greek and Roman gods were taken into the Etruscan system: Aritimi (Artemis), Menrva (Minerva), Pacha (Dionysus). The Greek heroes taken from Homer also appear extensively in art motifs. Relatively little is known about the architecture of the ancient Etruscans. They adapted the native Italic styles with influence from the external appearance of Greek architecture. In turn, Ancient Roman architecture began with Etruscan styles, and then accepted still further Greek influence. Roman temples show many of the same differences in form to Greek ones that Etruscan temples do, but like the Greeks, use stone, in which they closely copy Greek conventions. The houses of the wealthy were evidently often large and comfortable, but the burial chambers of tombs, often filled with grave - goods, are the nearest approach to them to survive. In the southern Etruscan area, tombs have large rock - cut chambers under a tumulus in large necropoleis, and these, together with some city walls, are the only Etruscan constructions to survive. Etruscan architecture is not generally considered as part of the body of Greco - Roman classical architecture. Etruscan art was produced by the Etruscan civilization between the 9th and 2nd centuries BC. Particularly strong in this tradition were figurative sculpture in terracotta (particularly lifesize on sarcophagi or temples), wall - painting and metalworking (especially engraved bronze mirrors). Etruscan sculpture in cast bronze was famous and widely exported, but few large examples have survived (the material was too valuable, and recycled later). In contrast to terracotta and bronze, there was apparently little Etruscan sculpture in stone, despite the Etruscans controlling fine sources of marble, including Carrara marble, which seems not to have been exploited until the Romans. Most surviving Etruscan art comes from tombs, including all the fresco wall - paintings, which show scenes of feasting and some narrative mythological subjects. Bucchero wares in black were the early and native styles of fine Etruscan pottery. There was also a tradition of elaborate Etruscan vase painting, which sprung from its Greek equivalent; the Etruscans were the main export market for Greek vases. Etruscan temples were heavily decorated with colourfully painted terracotta antefixes and other fittings, which survive in large numbers where the wooden superstructure has vanished. Etruscan art was strongly connected to religion; the afterlife was of major importance in Etruscan art. The Etruscan musical instruments seen in frescoes and bas - reliefs are different types of pipes, such as the plagiaulos (the pipes of Pan or Syrinx), the alabaster pipe and the famous double pipes, accompanied on percussion instruments such as the tintinnabulum, tympanum and crotales, and later by stringed instruments like the lyre and kithara. Knowledge of the Etruscan language is still far from complete. The Etruscans are believed to have spoken a non-Indo - European language; the majority consensus is that Etruscan is related only to other members of what is called the Tyrsenian language family, which in itself is an isolate family, that is, unrelated directly to other known language groups. Since Rix (1998), it is widely accepted that the Tyrsenian family groups Raetic and Lemnian are related to Etruscan. No etymology exists for Rasna, the Etruscans ' name for themselves, although Italian historic linguist Massimo Pittau has proposed the meaning of ' Shaved ' or ' Beardless ', backing the opinion of ancient figurines collector and author Paolo Campidori. The etymology of Tusci is based on a beneficiary phrase in the third Iguvine tablet, which is a major source for the Umbrian language. The phrase is turskum... nomen, "the Tuscan name '', from which a root * Tursci can be reconstructed. A metathesis and a word - initial epenthesis produce E-trus - ci. A common hypothesis is that * Turs - along with Latin turris, "tower '', come from Greek τύρσις, "tower. '' The Tusci were therefore the "people who build towers '' or "the tower builders. '' This venerable etymology is at least as old as Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who said "And there is no reason that the Greeks should not have called them by this name, both from their living in towers and from the name of one of their rulers. '' Giuliano and Larissa Bonfante (Bonfante, 2002) speculate that Etruscan houses seemed like towers to the simple Latins. It is true that the Etruscans preferred to build hill towns on high precipices enhanced by walls. On the other hand, if the Tyrrhenian name came from an incursion of Sea Peoples or later migrants, then it might well be related to the name of Troy, the city of towers in that case. Etruscan texts, written in a space of seven centuries, use a form of the Greek alphabet due to close contact between the Etruscans and the Greek colonies at Pithecusae and Cumae in the 8th century BC (until it was no longer used, at the beginning of the 1st century AD). Etruscan inscriptions disappeared from Chiusi, Perugia and Arezzo around this time. Only a few fragments survive, religious and especially funeral texts most of which are late (from the 4th century BC). In addition to the original texts that have survived to this day, we have a large number of quotations and allusions from classical authors. In the 1st century BC, Diodorus Siculus wrote that literary culture was one of the great achievements of the Etruscans. Little is known of it and even what is known of their language is due to the repetition of the same few words in the many inscriptions found (by way of the modern epitaphs) contrasted in bilingual or trilingual texts with Latin and Punic. Out of the aforementioned genres, is just one such Vorrio (Vorrius) cited in classical sources mention. With a few exceptions, such as the Liber Linteus, the only written records in the Etruscan language that remain are inscriptions, mainly funerary. The language is written in the Etruscan alphabet, a script related to the early Euboean Greek alphabet. Many thousand inscriptions in Etruscan are known, mostly epitaphs, and a few very short texts have survived, which are mainly religious. Etruscan imaginative literature is evidenced only in references by later Roman authors, but it is evident from their visual art that the Greek myths were well - known.

what is north campus and south campus in du

University of Delhi - wikipedia The University of Delhi (UOD) informally known as Delhi University (DU) is a public central collegiate university, located in New Delhi, India. The University of Delhi was established in 1922 as a unitary, teaching and residential university by an Act of the then Central Legislative Assembly of the British India. The University was originally to be named Prince Charles University, but Rai Kedarnath, counselor to the Chief Commissioner of Delhi and founder of Ramjas College, argued that if the university should fail, that would certainly antagonise the Prince. He suggested the name by which it is known today. Only four colleges existed in Delhi at the time: St. Stephen 's College founded in 1881, Hindu College founded in 1899, Zakir Husain Delhi College (then known as The Delhi College), founded in 1692 and Ramjas College founded in 1917, which were subsequently affiliated to the university. The university initially had two faculties (Arts and Science) and about 750 students. The seat of power in British India had been transferred from Calcutta to Delhi in 1911. The Viceregal Lodge Estate became the residence of the Viceroy of India until October 1933, when it was given to the University of Delhi. Since then, it has housed the office of the vice-chancellor and other offices. When Sir Maurice Gwyer came to India in 1937 to serve as Chief Justice of British India, he became the Vice-Chancellor of the University of Delhi. During his time, postgraduate teaching courses were introduced and laboratories were established at the university. Members of the faculty included Daulat Singh Kothari in Physics and Panchanan Maheshwari in Botany. Gwyer has been called the "maker of university ''. He served as Vice-Chancellor until 1950. The silver jubilee year of the university in 1947 coincided with India 's independence, and the national flag was hoisted in the main building for the first time by VKRV Rao. In that year there was no convocation ceremony due to the partition of India. Instead a special ceremony was held in 1948, attended by the Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru, as well as by Lord Mountbatten, Lady Mountbatten, Abul Kalam Azad, Zakir Hussain and S.S. Bhatnagar. Twenty - five years later the golden jubilee celebrations of 1973 were attended by then Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi, Satyajit Ray, Amrita Pritam and MS Subbulakshmi. The University has grown into one of the largest universities in India. At present, there are 16 faculties, 86 academic departments, 77 colleges and 5 other recognised institutes spread all over the city, with 132,435 regular students which includes 114,494 undergraduates & 17,941 postgraduates. There are also 261,169 students in non-formal education programme, of which UG students make up 258,831 where as PG students are 2,338 in number. Five departments namely Chemistry, Geology, Zoology, Sociology and History have been awarded the status of the Centres of Advanced Studies. These Centres of Advanced Studies have carved a niche for themselves as centres of excellence in teaching and research in their respective areas. In addition, a good number of university departments are also receiving grants under the Special Assistance Programme of the UGC in recognition of their outstanding academic work. DU is one of the most sought after institution of higher education in India. It is also among the university with highest publication count in India. The annual honorary degree ceremony of the University have been conferred upon several distinguished people, which includes Amitabh Bachchan, former Chief Minister of Delhi - Sheila Dikshit, Cartoonist R.K. Laxman, Scientist CNR Rao and former Prime Minister of United Kingdom - Gordon Brown. There are about 77 colleges affiliated to the University of Delhi, spread out all over Delhi. There are two main campuses of the University: the North Campus & the South Campus. North Campus hosts the three founding colleges of the university which constituted the University of Delhi when it was founded. North campus proper now has 10 colleges geographically centred on the Faculty of Arts, Science and Law which are Kirori Mal College Daulat Ram College, Hansraj College, Hindu College, Indraprastha College for Women, Miranda House, SGTB Khalsa College. Ramjas College, St. Stephen 's College and Shri Ram College of Commerce. The extended off campus also has colleges in Old Rajendra Nagar, Pitampura and Ashok Vihar areas of Delhi. The campus also houses other centres and institutes of Delhi which includes Cluster Innovation Centre, Delhi School of Economics, etc. The University of Delhi started the south campus in 1973 as an effort to cope with the expansion. It moved to its present location on Benito Juarez Road, near Dhaula Kuan, in 1984. The campus is spread across 28 hectares (69 acres). The various departments are located in the Faculty of Arts, Inter-disciplinary, Applied Sciences and the S.P. Jain Centre for Management Studies. South Campus has the following colleges: Acharya Narendra Dev College, Aryabhatta College, Atma Ram Sanatan Dharma College, College of Vocational Studies, Deshbandhu college, Jesus and Mary College, Maitreyi College, Moti Lal Nehru College, Ram Lal Anand College, Pannalal Girdharlal Dayanand Anglo Vedic College, Sri Aurobindo College, Shaheed Bhagat Singh College and Sri Venkateswara College. Zakir Husain Delhi College which is situated in the central part of New Delhi is the oldest college in Delhi carrying 300 years of legacy. The East Campus is being developed with the University College of Medical Sciences as its nucleus, while the West Campus will have as its focus on Engineering and Technology. The west campus currently contains faculty of technology along with its affiliate Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology located in Dwarka suburbs is University 's only top tier engineering college Hari Singh Gour (1922 - 1926) The University of Delhi has 16 faculties and 86 academic departments which offer courses in a wide variety of subjects and concentrations. University of Delhi has two affiliated facilities: University of Delhi have colleges and some other institutions as its constituents. Though the colleges are all constituent to the University of Delhi, as it is a collegiate university, depending upon the funding Delhi Colleges broadly fall into three categories: The colleges maintained by university get 100 % deficit maintenance grant while the colleges run by trusts get 95 % deficit grants. The university has 65 colleges that have liberal courses in humanities, social sciences and science. Twenty - five of these colleges are affiliated with the South Campus while the others are to the North Campus. These colleges except two -- Lady Irwin College and Institute of Home Economics -- are undergraduates The number of colleges under the university goes up to 77, if the colleges that run professional courses are included. Some colleges also offer evening courses. For all the colleges of the University of Delhi, see: Colleges of the University of Delhi. There are about 28 centres and institutes of DU. These are divided into four categories: Internationally, the University of Delhi was ranked 481 - 490 in the QS World University Rankings of 2018. The same institute ranked it 66 in Asia and 41 among BRICS nations in 2016. It was ranked 601 - 800 in the world by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings of 2018, 131 - 140 in Asia and 109 among BRICS & Emerging Economies University Rankings in 2017. In India, Careers360 ranked it 11th among all universities in 2017. It was ranked 15 in India overall by the National Institutional Ranking Framework in 2017 and 8th among universities. The Faculty of Law was ranked third in India by The Week 's "Top Law Colleges In 2016 '' and seventh by Careers360 's "Top Law Colleges in India 2017 '', sixth among government institutes. There are 240 courses available in University of Delhi for UG (87) and PG (153). UG Course Intake Education, Computer Science, Engineering, Information Technology, Manufacturing Process and Automation Engineering, Biotechnology, Unani Medicine, Ayurveda PG Course Intake Political Science, Sanskrit, English, Mathematics, Commerce, History, Chemistry, Philosophy, Economics, Others College AIR - 15, Overall Score - 289.54, National Rating - AAAA+ There are as many as 75 courses in University running under the 3 - year under - graduate programme structure, with few exceptions like MBBS, BTech etc. Courses are mainly classified under the three faculties of the central university, including arts, commerce and science. The University offers 70 post-graduate degrees. DU also offers MPhil in about 28 subjects. In addition to these, it offers 90 + Certificate courses and 28 Diplomas. There are also 15 Advanced Diplomas offered in various languages. The University offers PhD courses, which may be awarded by any faculty of university under ordinance VI - B. But, speciality and super speciality medical degrees like DM, DCh etc., could only be awarded by the faculty of medical sciences. Due to lack of surety in quality of legal education, The Bar Council of India has issued a notification asking Delhi University (DU) to shut down law courses offered in evening shift at its colleges. hindi - A, political science, globalisation, education The President of India is the Visitor, the Vice President of India is the Chancellor and the Chief Justice of India is the Pro-Chancellor of the University. The Court, the Executive Council, the Academic Council and the Finance Committee are the administrative authorities of the University. The Court is the supreme authority of the University and has the power to review the acts of the Executive Council and the Academic Council. The Executive Council is the highest executive body of the University. The Academic Council is the highest academic body of the University and is responsible for the maintenance of standards of instruction, education and examination within the University. It has the right to advise the Executive Council on all academic matters. The committee is responsible for recommending financial policies, goals, and budgets that support the mission, values and strategic goals of the university. Students of the university are involved in various national and state level social activism. One of such student run endeavors is Campus Drift, which is a student - run newspaper and it functions as an information base for the updates regarding all the colleges. There are various MUN circuits associated with Delhi University and they hold the events throughout the year. Each college has its own annual cultural fest, some known fests are Crossroads of SRCC, Nexus of Sri Venkateswara College, Mecca of Hindu college, Renaissance of Kirori Mal College, Tryst of Keshav Mahavidyalaya and Confluence held in Hansraj College. Each college has their own societies promoting a variety of ECAs. Delhi University Stadium is a Rugby 7s stadium, situated within the North Campus of Delhi University. Spread over 10,000 square metres (110,000 sq ft), the stadium has a seating capacity of 2,500 permanent and 7,500 temporary seats. The construction work began in 2008 and it was inaugurated in July 2010, ahead of the 2010 Commonwealth Games, and also includes training area for Netball, Boxing, Women 's Wrestling and Athletics. After the games the stadium was handed over to the university by Commonwealth Games Organising Committee, there after in 2011, the university initiated an extensive upgrade plan, to create a multi-purpose arena with both outdoor and indoor facilities, after its completion the university students could access its facilities in late 2011. The University of Delhi has produced many distinguished personalities, including at least seven Heads of state or government and two Nobel Laureates. Notable alumni of Delhi University include major politicians of India, including Foreign notable DU alumni include In science and engineering, notable alumni of DU include physicists In humanities and social sciences, notable alumni include Historians such as The university also has produced a large number of major actors of Indian cinema and theatre including In the field of arts the University has notable alumni such as Sahitya Akademi Award winner Punjabi playwright Dr. Harcharan Singh, Kathak exponent Uma Sharma, Bharatnatyam exponent Geeta Chandran, Odissi exponent Baisali Mohanty. The notable faculty members of DU include eminent historian Professor R.S. Sharma; Amartya Sen, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences; Manmohan Singh, former Prime Minister of India; Sukhamoy Chakravarty, economist and a key architect of the Five - Year plans of India; Jagdish N. Bhagwati, economist at Columbia University; and Ra'ana Liaquat Ali Khan, wife of the first Prime Minister of Pakistan, Liaquat Ali Khan.

what age do you have to be to drive in japan

Japanese used vehicle exporting - wikipedia Japanese used vehicle exporting is a grey market international trade involving the export of used cars and other vehicles from Japan to other markets around the world. Despite the high cost of transport, the sale of used cars and other vehicles to other countries is still profitable due to the relatively low cost and good condition of the vehicles being purchased. Contributing factors to the feasibility of such export include Japan 's strict motor - vehicle inspections and high depreciation which make such vehicles worth very little in Japan after six years, and strict environmental - protection regulations that make vehicle disposal very expensive in Japan. Japan has very stringent vehicle emission test standards. Due to progressively escalating costs of passing the mandatory periodic vehicle inspection, cars are typically scrapped or exported for sale abroad by the time they are about 10 years old. Engines removed from scrapped vehicles are in some cases exported for sale outside Japan. Nearly 1.4 million used vehicles were exported from Japan in 2006. The most popular destinations for used cars from Japan are Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Russia, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Trinidad and Tobago, New Zealand, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malaysia, Australia, Canada, Congo, Ireland, Pakistan, Georgia, Dominican Republic, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Kenya, the United Kingdom, United States, Thailand, Myanmar and (until recently) Philippines. Additionally, Chile, Singapore, South Africa and the United Arab Emirates are used as popular transit hubs. In Japan, used cars are mainly sold at auto auctions by car owners and dealers. At auto auctions, owners are hidden from bidders while the auctioneers provide independent car evaluations called inspection sheets. Exporters, acting as bidding agents for importers, use the auto auctions as their main supply. There are over 200 auto auction groups operating throughout Japan including JAA, JU Group, TAA, USS, and ZIP. Besides auto auctions, Japanese exports have access to vehicles from dealerships and private sellers. Vehicles which will be exported from Japan must be prepared before shipping. This includes de-registering the vehicle with the government, getting an export certificate, and cleaning the car to remove biosecurity risks. Car cleaning is especially necessary for the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS) and New Zealand 's Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF) agencies ' clearances. Exporters can ship the car that is ready by ro - ro or container according to customer specification, ship schedules, and the capabilities of the destination port. The suitability of Japan 's domestically sold cars for export to other countries is constrained by various factors. Vehicles in Japan have right - hand drive -- the driver 's seat is on the right side of the vehicle -- in accord with Japan 's left - hand traffic. Some countries with right - hand traffic permit right - hand drive vehicles, though right - traffic headlamps are generally unavailable for models exclusive to Japan. Some countries with right traffic do not allow right - hand drive cars, but in some such markets the extensive labor required to convert a car to left - hand drive is economically feasible; such conversions are sometimes done by the local importers. The Philippines is an example of a market where such conversion is common, until recently, when the importation of such used vehicles (except for heavy vehicles) was banned by E0 156. Japan 's automobile safety regulations also differ substantially from the ECE Regulations used throughout most of the world and the U.S. North American regulations that apply in the United States and Canada. Vehicle components such as windows and windshields, seat belts, lamps and reflectors, and mirrors, as well as design features for crashworthiness such as bumpers, fuel tanks, and structural rigidity of vehicles meant for the Japanese market may not comply with non-Japanese standards. They often lack structural reinforcements needed to meet side - impact crashworthiness standards in effect outside Japan. Moreover, entire categories of vehicle, such as Kei cars, do not exist in regulations outside Japan. Generally, most exporters are responsible for the organization and completion of the vehicle 's transportation until it arrives at the importer 's Port of Destination (POD). At the POD, possession of the vehicle, and the responsibility of possession, is laid on the importer. Financial responsibility, on the other hand, is transferred when ownership is handed over. Ownership is switched after the car has been purchased and before being exported. In the case of damage or losses occurring during shipping, the buyer is the one bears all financial loss. Whilst the vast majority of websites in Japan are of genuine business companies, but it is also a fact (1) that online scams and fraud are alive, well and very big business in Japan. It is very important for foreign importers to verify each company and to not send money until full satisfaction. Verification of each Japanese companies under "Japan Company Trust Organization '' can also be helpful. Any vehicle more than 15 years old may be imported to Canada without regard to its compliance with Canada Motor Vehicle Safety Standards. However, vehicles are registered at the provincial level in Canada, and increasingly stringent sub-national vehicle safety requirements make it difficult to register a Japanese - market vehicle without replacement or modifications to the headlamps and other lights and reflectors, the window glass, the tires, the seatbelts, and other equipment. In Chile, second hand imported vehicles may only be registered in the extreme regions of Arica and Parinacota, Tarapacá, Aisén and Magallanes. Japanese used vehicles must meet emission standards and be converted to left hand drive. However, a big market of non converted cars exists in the duty - free zone of Iquique, where customers from other countries buy them and sometimes drive them home. There are quite a lot of used cars from Japan registered in Hong Kong, including both Japanese makes and even European makes, since both Hong Kong and Japan are right hand drive. In order to register the car in Hong Kong, the car must be less than 7 years old, gasoline powered, meets Euro V emission and noise standard, with E-mark for all glass and safety belts, and unleaded - fuel restrictor installed. For cars over 20 years old, they can be imported as classic cars and need not meet Euro V emission standard. In addition, Hong Kong does not accept privacy windows. If a Japanese used car is fitted with privacy windows, it must be converted to clear glass in order to register in Hong Kong. Ireland has relatively loose vehicle importing laws for Japanese cars. To keep imports down, Irish Revenue Commissioners require all new and imported cars to pay the VRT. Also, every car, both domestic and imported over four years old must pass the stringent National Car Test (NCT) in order to be given a road worthiness certificate. In the case of cars imported from Japan, all glass, tyres, noise, must meet EU approved levels. In Kenya, second - hand imported Japanese vehicles must undergo Worthiness inspection conducted by the Japan Export Vehicle Inspection Center as per mandate from the Kenya Bureau of Standards. The Inspection aims to ensure that the vehicles are not more than 8 years old, are right hand drive, have genuine mileage and that the vehicles pass a safety & mechanical inspection similar to the Japanese periodic inspection. Although Macau is right hand drive, it does not allow imports of used car from Japan or any other country, unlike Hong Kong. However, brand new parallel imported cars from Japan are allowed in Macau. In Malta, second - hand imported Japanese vehicles must comply with Road Worthiness regulations which take care of Emissions, Lights Operability & Mechanical Operability... Other than that such vehicles can be imported and registered without any problems. Some Maltese importers also apply corrosion protection to these vehicles due to high humidity and heat levels imposed via the weather. New Zealand has stringent safety and emission standards. Besides Biosecurity clearance and Customs clearance, a vehicle must be Entry Certified by a Transport Services Delivery Agent (TSDA) which includes checking that paper data and physical data meet safety, emissions, and fuel consumption standards. Pakistan also applies strict control on imports. In order to import a car, it must be not more than 3 years old. Extremely high importation taxes are levied on imported vehicles. Special ships are sometimes used for exporting vehicles to Pakistan, to meet the rising demand. While Russia has right hand traffic, it allows the importation of LHT vehicles, providing that they pass the Technical Inspection test which is compulsory for all street - legal vehicles in Russia. Although a prohibitively high import tariff is levied on the cars more than 7 years old, to protect the local industry, even the oldest Japanese vehicles usually pass the inspection, if they were originally well maintained, and are registered without any problem. Vehicles imported to Russia are sometimes exported to North Korea and Central Asia. Importing rules for the UK are stringent; all vehicles must undergo Individual Vehicle Approval to assure compliance with applicable ECE Regulations or British national equivalents. The speedometer must be converted from kilometres per hour to miles per hour, a rear fog light and unleaded - fuel restrictor installed. Vehicles at least 25 years old may be imported to the U.S. regardless of non-compliance with that country 's Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards. However, vehicles are registered at the state level in the U.S., and increasingly stringent sub-national vehicle safety requirements make it difficult to register a Japanese - market vehicle without replacement or modifications to the headlamps and other lights and reflectors, the window glass, the tires, the seatbelts, and other equipment.

is the mass of water equal to its volume

Displacement (fluid) - wikipedia In fluid mechanics, displacement occurs when an object is immersed in a fluid, pushing it out of the way and taking its place. The volume of the fluid displaced can then be measured, and from this, the volume of the immersed object can be deduced (the volume of the immersed object will be exactly equal to the volume of the displaced fluid). An object that sinks displaces an amount of fluid equal to the object 's volume. Thus buoyancy is expressed through Archimedes ' principle, which states that the weight of the object is reduced by its volume multiplied by the density of the fluid. If the weight of the object is less than this displaced quantity, the object floats; if more, it sinks. The amount of fluid displaced is directly related (via Archimedes ' Principle) to its volume. In the case of an object that sinks (is totally submerged), the volume of the object is displaced. In the case of an object that floats, the amount of fluid displaced will be equal in weight to the displacing object. Archimedes ' principle, a physical law of buoyancy, states that any body completely or partially submerged in a fluid (gas or liquid) at rest is acted upon by an upward, or buoyant, force the magnitude of which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body. The volume of displaced fluid is equivalent to the volume of an object fully immersed in a fluid or to that fraction of the volume below the surface of an object partially submerged in a liquid. The weight of the displaced portion of the fluid is equivalent to the magnitude of the buoyant force. The buoyant force on a body floating in a liquid or gas is also equivalent in magnitude to the weight of the floating object and is opposite in direction; the object neither rises nor sinks. If the weight of an object is less than that of the displaced fluid, the object rises, as in the case of a block of wood that is released beneath the surface of water or a helium - filled balloon that is let loose in the air. An object heavier than the amount of the fluid it displaces, though it sinks when released, has an apparent weight loss equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. In fact, in some accurate weighing, a correction must be made in order to compensate for the buoyancy effect of the surrounding air. The buoyant force, which always opposes gravity, is nevertheless caused by gravity. Fluid pressure increases with depth because of the (gravitational) weight of the fluid above. This increasing pressure applies a force on a submerged object that increases with depth. The result is buoyancy. This method can be used to measure the volume of a solid object, even if its form is not regular. Several methods of such measuring exist. In one case the increase of liquid level is registered as the object is immersed in the liquid (usually water). In the second case, the object is immersed into a vessel full of liquid (called an overflow can), causing it to overflow. Then the spilled liquid is collected and its volume measured. In the third case, the object is suspended under the surface of the liquid and the increase of weight of the vessel is measured. The increase in weight is equal to the amount of liquid displaced by the object, which is the same as the volume of the suspended object times the density of the liquid. The concept of Archimedes ' principle is that an object immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. The weight of the displaced fluid can be found mathematically. The mass of the displaced fluid can be expressed in terms of the density and its volume, m = ρV. The fluid displaced has a weight W = mg, where g is acceleration due to gravity. Therefore, the weight of the displaced fluid can be expressed as W = ρVg. The weight of an object or substance can be measured by floating a sufficiently buoyant receptacle in the cylinder and noting the water level. After placing the object or substance in the receptacle, the difference in weight of the water level volumes will equal the weight of the object.

who fought in the second sino japanese war

Second Sino - Japanese War - Wikipedia Pacific War Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Contemporaneous wars Begun in 1931 -- 37 Begun in 1937 -- 39 Begun in 1940 -- 42 Begun in 1943 -- 45 Others Southeast Asia Burma Southwest Pacific North America Japan Manchuria The Second Sino - Japanese War was a military conflict fought primarily between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan from July 7, 1937, to September 2, 1945. It began with the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in 1937 in which a dispute between Japanese and Chinese troops escalated into a battle. During the Marco Polo Bridge Incident Japanese military demanded permission to enter the Chinese city of Wanping to search for a missing soldier. The Chinese refused. Later in the night, a unit of Japanese infantry attempted to breach Wanping 's walled defences and were repulsed. An ultimatum by the Japanese was issued before they would declare war. The Chinese still refused. Although Private Shimura returned to his unit, by this point both sides were mobilising, with the Japanese deploying reinforcements and surrounding Wanping. The conflict then escalated further into a full - scale war. China fought Japan, with aid from the Soviet Union and the United States. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the war merged with other conflicts of World War II as a major sector known as the China Burma India Theater. Some scholars consider the start of the full - scale Second Sino - Japanese War in 1937 to have been the beginning of World War II. The Second Sino - Japanese War was the largest Asian war in the 20th century. It accounted for the majority of civilian and military casualties in the Pacific War, with between 10 and 25 million Chinese civilians and over 4 million Chinese and Japanese military personnel dying from war - related violence, famine, and other causes. The war was the result of a decades - long Japanese imperialist policy to expand its influence politically and militarily in order to secure access to raw material reserves, food, and labor. The period after World War I brought about increasing stress on the Japanese polity. Leftists sought universal suffrage and greater rights for workers. Increasing textile production from Chinese mills was adversely affecting Japanese production. The Great Depression brought about a large slowdown in exports. All of this contributed to militant nationalism, culminating in the rise to power of a militarist fascist faction. This faction was led at its height by the Hideki Tojo cabinet of the Imperial Rule Assistance Association under edict from Emperor Hirohito. In 1931, the Mukden Incident helped spark the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. The Chinese were defeated and Japan created a new puppet state, Manchukuo; many historians cite 1931 as the beginning of the war. The view has been adopted by the PRC government. From 1931 to 1937, China and Japan continued to skirmish in small, localized engagements, so - called "incidents ''. Initially the Japanese scored major victories, capturing both Shanghai and the Chinese capital of Nanking in 1937. After failing to stop the Japanese in the Battle of Wuhan, the Chinese central government was relocated to Chongqing (Chungking) in the Chinese interior. By 1939, after Chinese victories in Changsha and Guangxi, and with Japan 's lines of communications stretched deep into the Chinese interior, the war reached a stalemate. The Japanese were also unable to defeat the Chinese communist forces in Shaanxi, which waged a campaign of sabotage and guerrilla warfare against the invaders. While Japan ruled the large cities, they lacked sufficient manpower to control China 's vast countryside. During this time, Chinese communist forces launched a counter offensive in Central China while Chinese nationalist forces launched a large scale winter offensive. On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, and the following day the United States declared war on Japan. The United States began to aid China by airlifting material over the Himalayas after the Allied defeat in Burma that closed the Burma Road. In 1944 Japan launched the invasion, Operation Ichi - Go, that conquered Henan and Changsha. However, this failed to bring about the surrender of Chinese forces. In 1945, the Chinese Expeditionary Force resumed its advance in Burma and completed the Ledo Road linking India to China. At the same time, China launched large counteroffensives in South China and retook West Hunan and Guangxi. Despite continuing to occupy part of China 's territory, Japan eventually surrendered on September 2, 1945, to Allied forces following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Soviet invasion of Japanese - held Manchuria. The remaining Japanese occupation forces (excluding Manchuria) formally surrendered on September 9, 1945, with the following International Military Tribunal for the Far East convened on April 29, 1946. At the outcome of the Cairo Conference of November 22 -- 26, 1943, the Allies of World War II decided to restrain and punish the aggression of Japan by restoring all the territories that Japan annexed from China, including Manchuria, Taiwan / Formosa, and the Pescadores, to China, and to expel Japan from the Korean Peninsula. China was recognized as one of the Big Four of the Allies during the war and became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. In China, the war is most commonly known as the "War of Resistance against Japan '' (simplified Chinese: 抗日 战争; traditional Chinese: 抗日 戰爭), and shortened to the "Resistance against Japan '' (Chinese: 抗日) or the "War of Resistance '' (simplified Chinese: 抗战; traditional Chinese: 抗戰). It was also called the "Eight Years ' War of Resistance '' (simplified Chinese: 八 年 抗战; traditional Chinese: 八 年 抗戰), but in 2017 the Chinese Ministry of Education issued a directive stating that textbooks were to refer to the war as the "Fourteen Years ' War of Resistance '' (simplified Chinese: 十 四 年 抗战; traditional Chinese: 十 四 年 抗戰), reflecting a focus on the broader conflict with Japan going back to 1931. It is also referred to as part of the "Global Anti-Fascist War '', which is how World War II is perceived by the Communist Party of China and the PRC government. In Japan, nowadays, the name "Japan -- China War '' (Japanese: 日 中 戦 爭, Hepburn: Nitchū Sensō) is most commonly used because of its perceived objectivity. When the invasion of China proper began in earnest in July 1937 near Beijing, the government of Japan used "The North China Incident '' (Japanese: 北 支 事變 / 華北 事變, Hepburn: Hokushi Jihen / Kahoku Jihen), and with the outbreak of the Battle of Shanghai the following month, it was changed to "The China Incident '' (Japanese: 支那 事變, Hepburn: Shina Jihen). The word "incident '' (Japanese: 事變, Hepburn: jihen) was used by Japan, as neither country had made a formal declaration of war. From the Japanese perspective, localizing these conflicts was beneficial in preventing intervention from other nations, particularly the United Kingdom and the United States, which were its primary source of petroleum and steel respectively. A formal expression of these conflicts would potentially lead to American embargo in accordance with the Neutrality Acts of the 1930s. In addition, due to China 's fractured political status, Japan often claimed that China was no longer a recognizable political entity on which war could be declared. In Japanese propaganda, the invasion of China became a "holy war '' (Japanese: 聖戦, Hepburn: seisen), the first step of the Hakkō ichiu (八紘 一 宇, "eight corners of the world under one roof '' slogan). In 1940, Japanese Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe launched the Taisei Yokusankai. When both sides formally declared war in December 1941, the name was replaced by "Greater East Asia War '' (Japanese: 大 東亞 戰爭, Hepburn: Daitōa Sensō). Although the Japanese government still uses the term "China Incident '' in formal documents, the word Shina is considered derogatory by China and therefore the media in Japan often paraphrase with other expressions like "The Japan -- China Incident '' (Japanese: 日 華 事變, Hepburn: Nikka Jiken, 日 支 事變 Nisshi Jiken), which were used by media as early as the 1930s. The name "Second Sino - Japanese War '' is not commonly used in Japan as the war it fought with the Qing dynasty in 1894 is called the Qing - Japanese War (Japanese: 日 清 戦争, Hepburn: Nisshin -- Sensō) rather than the First Sino - Japanese War. The origin of the Second Sino - Japanese War can be traced to the First Sino - Japanese War of 1894 -- 1895, in which China, then under the Qing dynasty, was defeated by Japan and was forced to cede Formosa, and to recognize the full and complete independence of Korea in the Treaty of Shimonoseki; Japan had also allegedly annexed the Diaoyudao / Senkaku islands in early 1895 as a result being the victors of this war (Japan claims the islands to have been uninhabited in 1895). The Qing dynasty was on the brink of collapse from internal revolts and foreign imperialism, while Japan had emerged as a great power through its effective measures of modernization. The Republic of China was founded in 1912, following the Xinhai Revolution which overthrew the last imperial dynasty of China, the Qing dynasty (1644 -- 1911). However, central authority disintegrated and the Republic 's authority succumbed to that of regional warlords, mostly from the former Beiyang Army. Unifying the nation and repelling imperialism seemed a very remote possibility. Some warlords even aligned themselves with various foreign powers in their battles with each other. For example, the warlord Zhang Zuolin of Manchuria from the Zhili clique openly cooperated with the Japanese for military and economic assistance. In 1915, Japan issued the Twenty - One Demands to extort further political and commercial privilege from China, which was accepted by Yuan Shikai. Following World War I, Japan acquired the German Empire 's sphere of influence in Shandong province, leading to nationwide anti-Japanese protests and mass demonstrations in China. Under the Beiyang government, China remained fragmented and was unable to resist foreign incursions. For the purpose of unifying China and defeating the regional warlords, the Kuomintang (KMT, alternatively known as the Chinese Nationalist Party) in Guangzhou launched the Northern Expedition from 1926 to 1928 with limited assistance from the Soviet Union. The National Revolutionary Army (NRA) formed by the KMT swept through southern and central China until it was checked in Shandong, where confrontations with the Japanese garrison escalated into armed conflict. The conflicts were collectively known as the Jinan incident of 1928, during which time the Japanese military violently killed several Chinese officials and fired artillery shells into Jinan. Between 2,000 and 11,000 Chinese and Japanese civilians were believed to have been killed during these conflicts. The Jinan incident severely deteriorated the relations between the Chinese Nationalist government and Japan. As the National Revolutionary Army approached Beijing, Zhang Zuolin decided to retreat back to Manchuria, before he was assassinated by the Kwantung Army in 1928. His son, Zhang Xueliang, took over as the leader of the Fengtian clique in Manchuria. Later in the same year, Zhang decided to declare his allegiance to the Nationalist government in Nanking under Chiang Kai - shek, and consequently, China was nominally reunified under one government. The July -- November 1929 conflict over the Chinese Eastern Railroad (CER) further increased the tensions in the Northeast that would lead to the Mukden Incident and eventually the Second Sino - Japanese War. The Soviet Red Army victory over Zhang Xueiliang 's forces not only reasserted Soviet control over the CER in Manchuria but revealed Chinese military weaknesses that Japanese Kwantung Army officers were quick to note. The Soviet Red Army performance also stunned the Japanese. Manchuria was central to Japan 's East Asia policy. Both the 1921 and 1927 Imperial Eastern Region Conferences reconfirmed Japan 's commitment to be the dominant power in the Northeast. The 1929 Red Army victory shook that policy to the core and reopened the Manchurian problem. By 1930, the Kwantung Army realized they faced a Red Army that was only growing stronger. The time to act was drawing near and Japanese plans to conquer the Northeast were accelerated. In 1930, the Central Plains War broke out across China, involving regional commanders who had fought in alliance with the Kuomintang during the Northern Expedition, and the Nanking government under Chiang. The Communist Party of China (CPC) previously fought openly against the Nanking government after the Shanghai massacre of 1927, and they continued to expand during this civil war. The Kuomintang government in Nanking decided to focus their efforts on suppressing the Chinese Communists through the Encirclement Campaigns, following the policy of "first internal pacification, then external resistance '' (Chinese: 攘 外 必 先 安 內). The internecine warfare in China provided excellent opportunities for Japan, which saw Manchuria as a limitless supply of raw materials, a market for its manufactured goods (now excluded from the influence of many Western countries in Depression - era tariffs), and as a protective buffer state against the Soviet Union in Siberia. Japan invaded Manchuria outright after the Mukden Incident in September 1931. Japan charged that their rights in Manchuria, established by the Russo - Japanese War, had been systematically violated and that there were "more than 120 cases of infringement of rights and interests, interference with business, boycott of Japanese goods, unreasonable taxation, detention of individuals, confiscation of properties, eviction, demand for cessation of business, assault and battery, and the oppression of Korean residents ''. After five months of fighting, Japan established the puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932, and installed the last Emperor of China, Puyi, as its puppet ruler. Militarily too weak to challenge Japan directly, China appealed to the League of Nations for help. The League 's investigation led to the publication of the Lytton Report, condemning Japan for its incursion into Manchuria, causing Japan to withdraw from the League of Nations. No country took action against Japan beyond tepid censure. Incessant fighting followed the Mukden Incident. In 1932, Chinese and Japanese troops fought the January 28 Incident battle. This resulted in the demilitarisation of Shanghai, which forbade the Chinese from deploying troops in their own city. In Manchukuo there was an ongoing campaign to defeat the Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies that arose from widespread outrage over the policy of non-resistance to Japan. In 1933, the Japanese attacked the Great Wall region. The Tanggu Truce established in its aftermath, gave Japan control of Jehol province as well as a demilitarized zone between the Great Wall and Beiping - Tianjin region. Japan aimed to create another buffer zone between Manchukuo and the Chinese Nationalist government in Nanking. Japan increasingly exploited China 's internal conflicts to reduce the strength of its fractious opponents. Even years after the Northern Expedition, the political power of the Nationalist government was limited to just the area of the Yangtze River Delta. Other sections of China were essentially in the hands of local Chinese warlords. Japan sought various Chinese collaborators and helped them establish governments friendly to Japan. This policy was called the Specialization of North China (Chinese: 華北 特殊 化; pinyin: huáběitèshūhùa), more commonly known as the North China Autonomous Movement. The northern provinces affected by this policy were Chahar, Suiyuan, Hebei, Shanxi, and Shandong. This Japanese policy was most effective in the area of what is now Inner Mongolia and Hebei. In 1935, under Japanese pressure, China signed the He -- Umezu Agreement, which forbade the KMT from conducting party operations in Hebei. In the same year, the Chin -- Doihara Agreement was signed expelling the KMT from Chahar. Thus, by the end of 1935 the Chinese government had essentially abandoned northern China. In its place, the Japanese - backed East Hebei Autonomous Council and the Hebei -- Chahar Political Council were established. There in the empty space of Chahar the Mongol Military Government was formed on May 12, 1936. Japan provided all the necessary military and economic aid. Afterwards Chinese volunteer forces continued to resist Japanese aggression in Manchuria, and Chahar and Suiyuan. On the night of July 7, 1937, Chinese and Japanese troops exchanged fire in the vicinity of the Lugou (or Marco Polo) bridge, a crucial access - route to Beijing. What began as confused, sporadic skirmishing soon escalated into a full - scale battle in which Beijing and its port city of Tianjin fell to Japanese forces (July -- August 1937). On July 29, some 5,000 troops of the 1st and 2nd Corps of the East Hopei Army mutinied, turning against the Japanese garrison. In addition to Japanese military personnel, some 260 civilians living in Tongzhou in accordance with the Boxer Protocol of 1901, were killed in the uprising (predominantly Japanese including the police force and also some ethnic Koreans). The Chinese then set fire to and destroyed much of the city. Only around 60 Japanese civilians survived, who provided both journalists and later historians with firsthand witness accounts. As a result of the violence of the mutiny against Japanese civilians, the Tungchow mutiny, as it came to be called, strongly shook public opinion within Japan. The Imperial General Headquarters (GHQ) in Tokyo, content with the gains acquired in northern China following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, initially showed reluctance to escalate the conflict into full - scale war. The KMT, however, determined that the "breaking point '' of Japanese aggression had been reached. Chiang Kai - shek quickly mobilized the central government 's army and air force, placed them under his direct command, and laid siege to the Japanese area of Shanghai International Settlement, where 30,000 Japanese civilians lived with 30,000 troops on August 12, 1937. On August 13, 1937, Kuomintang soldiers and warplanes attacked Japanese Marine positions in Shanghai, leading to the Battle of Shanghai. On August 14, Kuomintang planes accidentally bombed the Shanghai International Settlement, which led to more than 3,000 civilian deaths. In the three days from August 14 through 16, 1937, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) sent many sorties of the then - advanced long - ranged G3M medium - heavy land - based bombers and assorted carrier - based aircraft with the expectation of destroying the Chinese Air Force. However, the Imperial Japanese Navy encountered unexpected resistance from the defending Chinese Hawk III and P - 26 / 281 Peashooter fighter squadrons; suffering heavy (50 %) losses from the defending Chinese pilots (August 14 was subsequently commemorated by the KMT as China 's Air Force Day). The skies of China had become a testing zone for advanced biplane and new - generation monoplane combat - aircraft designs. The introduction of the advanced A5M "Claude '' fighters into the Shanghai - Nanking theater of operations, beginning on September 18, 1937, helped the Japanese achieve a certain level of air superiority. However the few experienced Chinese veteran pilots, even in their older and slower biplanes, proved more than able to hold their own against the sleek A5Ms in dogfights, and it also proved to be a battle of attrition against the Chinese Air Force. At the start of the battle, the local strength of the NRA was around five divisions, or about 70,000 troops, while local Japanese forces comprised about 6,300 marines. On August 23, Japanese Army reinforcements succeeded in landing in northern Shanghai. The Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) ultimately committed over 200,000 troops, along with numerous naval vessels and aircraft, to capture the city. After more than three months of intense fighting, their casualties far exceeded initial expectations. On October 26, the Japanese Army captured Dachang, an important strong - point within Shanghai, and on November 5, additional reinforcements of Japan landed from Hangzhou Bay. Finally, on November 9, the NRA began a general retreat. Building on the hard - won victory in Shanghai, the IJA captured the KMT capital city of Nanking (Nanjing) (December 1937) and Northern Shanxi (September -- November 1937). These campaigns involved approximately 350,000 Japanese soldiers, and considerably more Chinese. Historians estimate that between December 13, 1937, and late January 1938, Japanese forces tortured and murdered up to 300,000 Chinese (mostly civilians and surrendered soldiers) and raped tens of thousands of women during the Nanking Massacre (also known as the "Rape of Nanking ''), after its fall. In 2005, a history textbook prepared by the Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform which had been approved by the government in 2001, sparked huge outcry and protests in China and Korea. It referred to the Nanking Massacre as an "incident '', glossed over the issue of comfort women, and made only brief references to the death of Chinese soldiers and civilians in Nanking. A copy of the 2005 version of a junior high school textbook titled New History Textbook found that there is no mention of the "Nanjing Massacre '' or the "Nanjing Incident ''. Indeed, the only one sentence that referred to this event was: "they (the Japanese troops) occupied that city in December ''. As of 2015, some right - wing Japanese negationists deny that the massacre occurred, and have successfully lobbied for revision and exclusion of information in Japanese schoolbooks. At the start of 1938, the leadership in Tokyo still hoped to limit the scope of the conflict to occupy areas around Shanghai, Nanking and most of northern China. They thought this would preserve strength for an anticipated showdown with the Soviet Union, but by now the Japanese government and GHQ had effectively lost control of the Japanese army in China. With many victories achieved, Japanese field generals escalated the war in Jiangsu in an attempt to wipe out Chinese resistance, but were defeated at the Battle of Taierzhuang (March -- April 1938). Afterwards the IJA changed its strategy and deployed almost all of its existing armies in China to attack the city of Wuhan, which had become the political, economic and military center of rump China, in hopes of destroying the fighting strength of the NRA and of forcing the KMT government to negotiate for peace. The Japanese captured Wuhan on October 27, 1938, forcing the KMT to retreat to Chongqing (Chungking), but Chiang Kai - shek still refused to negotiate, saying he would only consider talks if Japan agreed to withdraw to the pre-1937 borders. With Japanese casualties and costs mounting, the Imperial General Headquarters attempted to break Chinese resistance by ordering the air branches of their navy and army to launch the war 's first massive air raids on civilian targets. Japanese raiders hit the Kuomintang 's newly established provisional capital of Chongqing and most other major cities in unoccupied China, leaving millions dead, injured, and homeless. From the beginning of 1939, the war entered a new phase with the unprecedented defeat of the Japanese at Battle of Suixian -- Zaoyang, 1st Battle of Changsha, Battle of South Guangxi and Battle of Zaoyi. These outcomes encouraged the Chinese to launch their first large - scale counter-offensive against the IJA in early 1940; however, due to its low military - industrial capacity and limited experience in modern warfare, this offensive was defeated. Afterwards Chiang could not risk any more all - out offensive campaigns given the poorly trained, under - equipped, and disorganized state of his armies and opposition to his leadership both within the Kuomintang and in China in general. He had lost a substantial portion of his best trained and equipped troops in the Battle of Shanghai and was at times at the mercy of his generals, who maintained a high degree of autonomy from the central KMT government. During the offensive, Hui forces in Suiyuan under generals Ma Hongbin and Ma Buqing routed the Imperial Japanese Army and their puppet Inner Mongol forces and prevented the planned Japanese advance into northwest China. Ma Hongbin 's father Ma Fulu had fought against Japanese in the Boxer Rebellion. General Ma Biao led Hui, Salar and Dongxiang cavalry to defeat the Japanese at the Battle of Huaiyang. Ma Biao fought against the Japanese in the Boxer Rebellion. After 1940, the Japanese encountered tremendous difficulties in administering and garrisoning the seized territories, and tried to solve its occupation problems by implementing a strategy of creating friendly puppet governments favourable to Japanese interests in the territories conquered, most prominently the Nanking Nationalist Government headed by former KMT premier Wang Jingwei. However, atrocities committed by the Imperial Japanese Army, as well as Japanese refusal to delegate any real power, left the puppets very unpopular and largely ineffective. The only success the Japanese had was to recruit a large Collaborationist Chinese Army to maintain public security in the occupied areas. By 1941, Japan held most of the eastern coastal areas of China and Vietnam, but guerilla fighting continued in these occupied areas. Japan had suffered high casualties from unexpectedly stubborn Chinese resistance, and neither side could make any swift progress in the manner of Nazi Germany in Western Europe. The basis of Chinese strategy before the entrance of the Western Allies can be divided into two periods as follows: Unlike Japan, China was unprepared for total war and had little military - industrial strength, no mechanized divisions, and few armoured forces. Up until the mid-1930s, China had hoped that the League of Nations would provide countermeasures to Japan 's aggression. In addition, the Kuomintang (KMT) government was mired in a civil war against the Communist Party of China (CPC), as Chiang Kai - shek was quoted: "the Japanese are a disease of the skin, the Communists are a disease of the heart ''. The Second United Front between the KMT and CPC was never truly unified, as each side was preparing for a showdown with the other once the Japanese were driven out. Even under these extremely unfavorable circumstances, Chiang realized that to win support from the United States and other foreign nations, China had to prove it was capable of fighting. Knowing a hasty retreat would discourage foreign aid, Chiang resolved to make a stand at Shanghai, using the best of his German - trained divisions to defend China 's largest and most industrialized city from the Japanese. The battle lasted over three months, saw heavy casualties on both sides, and ended with a Chinese retreat towards Nanking, but proved that China would not be easily defeated and showed its determination to the world. The battle became an enormous morale booster for the Chinese people, as it decisively refuted the Japanese boast that Japan could conquer Shanghai in three days and China in three months. Afterwards, China began to adopt the Fabian strategy of "trading space for time '' (simplified Chinese: 以 空间 换取 时间; traditional Chinese: 以 空間 換取 時間). The Chinese army would put up fights to delay the Japanese advance to northern and eastern cities, allowing the home front, with its professionals and key industries, to retreat west into Chongqing. As a result of Chinese troops ' scorched earth strategies, in which dams and levees were intentionally sabotaged to create massive flooding, Japanese advances began to stall in late 1938. During this period, the main Chinese objective was to drag out the war for as long as possible in a war of attrition, thereby exhausting Japanese resources while building up Chinese military capacity. American general Joseph Stilwell called this strategy "winning by outlasting ''. The NRA adopted the concept of "magnetic warfare '' to attract advancing Japanese troops to definite points where they were subjected to ambush, flanking attacks, and encirclements in major engagements. The most prominent example of this tactic was the successful defense of Changsha in 1939 (and again in 1941), in which heavy casualties were inflicted on the IJA. Local Chinese resistance forces, organized separately by both the communists and KMT, continued their resistance in occupied areas to pester the enemy and make their administration over the vast land area of China difficult. In 1940, the Chinese Red Army launched a major offensive in north China, destroying railways and a major coal mine. These constant harassment and sabotage operations deeply frustrated the Imperial Japanese Army and led them to employ the "Three Alls Policy '' (kill all, loot all, burn all) (三光 政策, Hanyu Pinyin: Sānguāng Zhèngcè, Japanese On: Sankō Seisaku). It was during this period that the bulk of Japanese war crimes were committed. By 1941, Japan had occupied much of north and coastal China, but the KMT central government and military had retreated to the western interior to continue their resistance, while the Chinese communists remained in control of base areas in Shaanxi. In the occupied areas, Japanese control was mainly limited to railroads and major cities ("points and lines ''). They did not have a major military or administrative presence in the vast Chinese countryside, where Chinese guerrillas roamed freely. After the Mukden Incident in 1931, Chinese public opinion was strongly critical of Manchuria 's leader, the "young marshal '' Zhang Xueliang, for his nonresistance to the Japanese invasion, even though the Kuomintang central government was also responsible for this policy, giving Zhang an order to "improvise '' while not offering support. After losing Manchuria to the Japanese, Zhang and his Northeast Army were given the duty of suppressing the Red Army of the Chinese Communist Party (CPC) in Shaanxi after their Long March. This resulted in great casualties for his Northeast Army, which received no support in manpower or weaponry from Chiang Kai - shek. On December 12, 1936, a deeply disgruntled Zhang Xueliang kidnapped Chiang Kai - shek in Xi'an, hoping to force an end to the conflict between KMT and CPC. To secure the release of Chiang, the KMT agreed to a temporary end to the Chinese Civil War and, on December 24, the creation of a United Front between the CPC and KMT against Japan. The alliance having salutary effects for the beleaguered CPC, they agreed to form the New Fourth Army and the 8th Route Army and place them under the nominal control of the NRA. The CPC 's Red Army fought alongside KMT forces during the Battle of Taiyuan, and the high point of their cooperation came in 1938 during the Battle of Wuhan. Despite Japan 's steady territorial gains in northern China, the coastal regions, and the rich Yangtze River Valley in central China, the distrust between the two antagonists was scarcely veiled. The uneasy alliance began to break down by late 1938, partially due to the Communists ' aggressive efforts to expand their military strength by absorbing Chinese guerrilla forces behind Japanese lines. Chinese militia who refused to switch their allegiance were often labelled "collaborators '' and attacked by CPC forces. For example, the Red Army led by He Long attacked and wiped out a brigade of Chinese militia led by Zhang Yin - wu in Hebei in June 1939. Starting in 1940, open conflict between Nationalists and Communists became more frequent in the occupied areas outside of Japanese control, culminating in the New Fourth Army Incident in January 1941. Afterwards, the Second United Front completely broke down and Chinese Communists leader Mao Zedong outlined the preliminary plan for the CPC 's eventual seizure of power from Chiang Kai - shek. Mao began his final push for consolidation of CPC power under his authority, and his teachings became the central tenets of the CPC doctrine that came to be formalized as "Mao Zedong Thought ''. The communists also began to focus most of their energy on building up their sphere of influence wherever opportunities were presented, mainly through rural mass organizations, administrative, land and tax reform measures favoring poor peasants; while the Nationalists attempted to neutralize the spread of Communist influence by military blockade of areas controlled by CPC and fighting the Japanese at the same time. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States declared war against Japan, and within days China joined the Allies in formal declaration of war against Japan, Germany and Italy. As the Western Allies entered the war against Japan, the Sino - Japanese War would become part of a greater conflict, the Pacific theatre of World War II. Almost immediately, Chinese troops achieved another decisive victory in the Battle of Changsha, which earned the Chinese government much prestige from the Western Allies. President Franklin D. Roosevelt referred to the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union and China as the world 's "Four Policemen '', elevating the international status of China to an unprecedented height after the century of humiliation at the hands of various imperialist powers. Knowledge of Japanese naval movements in the Pacific was provided to the American Navy by the Sino - American Cooperative Organization (SACO) which was run by the Chinese intelligence head Dai Li. Philippine and Japanese ocean weather was affected by weather originating near northern China. The base of SACO located in Yangjiashan. Chiang Kai - shek continued to receive supplies from the United States. However, in contrast to the Arctic supply route to the Soviet Union which stayed open through most of the war, sea routes to China and the Yunnan -- Vietnam Railway had been closed since 1940. Therefore, between the closing of the Burma Road in 1942 and its re-opening as the Ledo Road in 1945, foreign aid was largely limited to what could be flown in over "The Hump ''. In Burma, on April 16, 1942, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. After the Doolittle Raid, the Imperial Japanese Army conducted a massive sweep through Zhejiang and Jiangxi of China, now known as the Zhejiang - Jiangxi Campaign, with the goal of finding the surviving American airmen, applying retribution on the Chinese who aided them and destroying air bases. The operation started May 15, 1942, with 40 infantry battalions and 15 -- 16 artillery battalions but was repelled by Chinese forces in September. During this campaign, the Imperial Japanese Army left behind a trail of devastation and had also spread cholera, typhoid, plague and dysentery pathogens. Chinese estimates put the death toll at 250,000 civilians. Most of China 's industry had already been captured or destroyed by Japan, and the Soviet Union refused to allow the United States to supply China through Kazakhstan into Xinjiang as the Xinjiang warlord Sheng Shicai had turned anti-Soviet in 1942 with Chiang 's approval. For these reasons, the Chinese government never had the supplies and equipment needed to mount major counter-offensives. Despite the severe shortage of matériel, in 1943, the Chinese were successful in repelling major Japanese offensives in Hubei and Changde. Chiang was named Allied commander - in - chief in the China theater in 1942. American general Joseph Stilwell served for a time as Chiang 's chief of staff, while simultaneously commanding American forces in the China - Burma - India Theater. For many reasons, relations between Stilwell and Chiang soon broke down. Many historians (such as Barbara W. Tuchman) have suggested it was largely due to the corruption and inefficiency of the Kuomintang (KMT) government, while others (such as Ray Huang and Hans van de Ven) have depicted it as a more complicated situation. Stilwell had a strong desire to assume total control of Chinese troops and pursue an aggressive strategy, while Chiang preferred a patient and less expensive strategy of outwaiting the Japanese. Chiang continued to maintain a defensive posture despite Allied pleas to actively break the Japanese blockade, because China had already suffered tens of millions of war casualties and believed that Japan would eventually capitulate in the face of America 's overwhelming industrial output. For these reasons the other Allies gradually began to lose confidence in the Chinese ability to conduct offensive operations from the Asian mainland, and instead concentrated their efforts against the Japanese in the Pacific Ocean Areas and South West Pacific Area, employing an island hopping strategy. Longstanding differences in national interest and political stance among China, the United States, and the United Kingdom remained in place. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill was reluctant to devote British troops, many of whom had been routed by the Japanese in earlier campaigns, to the reopening of the Burma Road; Stilwell, on the other hand, believed that reopening the road was vital, as all China 's mainland ports were under Japanese control. The Allies ' "Europe First '' policy did not sit well with Chiang, while the later British insistence that China send more and more troops to Indochina for use in the Burma Campaign was seen by Chiang as an attempt to use Chinese manpower to defend British colonial holdings. Chiang also believed that China should divert its crack army divisions from Burma to eastern China to defend the airbases of the American bombers that he hoped would defeat Japan through bombing, a strategy that American general Claire Lee Chennault supported but which Stilwell strongly opposed. In addition, Chiang voiced his support of Indian independence in a 1942 meeting with Mahatma Gandhi, which further soured the relationship between China and the United Kingdom. American and Canadian - born Chinese were recruited to act as covert operatives in Japanese - occupied China (Canadian - born Chinese who had not been granted citizenship were trained by the British army). Employing their racial background as a disguise, their mandate was to blend in with local citizens and wage a campaign of sabotage. Activities focused on destruction of Japanese transportation of supplies (signaling bomber destruction of railroads, bridges). Chinese forces invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina and captured Mount Song. The British and Commonwealth forces had their operation in Mission 204 which attempted to provide assistance to the Chinese Nationalist Army. The first phase in 1942 under command of SOE achieved very little, but lessons were learned and a second more successful phase, commenced in February 1943 under British Military command, was conducted before the Japanese Operation Ichi - Go offensive in 1944 compelled evacuation. The United States saw the Chinese theater as a means to tie up a large number of Japanese troops, as well as being a location for American airbases from which to strike the Japanese home islands. In 1944, with the Japanese position in the Pacific deteriorating rapidly, the IJA mobilized over 500,000 men and launched Operation Ichi - Go, their largest offensive of World War II, to attack the American airbases in China and link up the railway between Manchuria and Vietnam. This brought major cities in Hunan, Henan and Guangxi under Japanese occupation. The failure of Chinese forces to defend these areas encouraged Stilwell to attempt to gain overall command of the Chinese army, and his subsequent showdown with Chiang led to his replacement by Major General Albert Coady Wedemeyer. By the end of 1944 Chinese troops under the command of Sun Li - jen attacking from India, and those under Wei Lihuang attacking from Yunnan, joined forces in Mong - Yu, successfully driving the Japanese out of North Burma and securing the Ledo Road, China 's vital supply artery. In Spring 1945 the Chinese launched offensives that retook Hunan and Guangxi. With the Chinese army progressing well in training and equipment, Wedemeyer planned to launch Operation Carbonado in summer 1945 to retake Guangdong, thus obtaining a coastal port, and from there drive northwards toward Shanghai. However, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and Soviet invasion of Manchuria hastened Japanese surrender and these plans were not put into action. Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union provided aid to China at the start of the Second Sino - Japanese War. By 1940 the United States had become China 's main diplomatic, financial and military supporter. Prior to the war, Germany and China were in close economic and military cooperation, with Germany helping China modernize its industry and military in exchange for raw materials. More than half of German arms exports during its rearmament period were to China. Germany sent military advisers such as Alexander von Falkenhausen to China to help the KMT government reform its armed forces. Some divisions began training to German standards and were to form the core of modernized forces in the NRA. While 30 German - trained divisions were proposed originally, the plan failed to materialize as Germany withdrew its support in 1938 in favor of an alliance with Japan against the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union defeated Japan in the Battles of Khalkhin Gol in May -- September 1939, leaving the Japanese reluctant to fight the Soviets again. After Germany and Japan signed the anti-communist Anti-Comintern Pact, the Soviet Union hoped to keep China fighting, in order to deter a Japanese invasion of Siberia and save itself from a two - front war. In September 1937, they signed the Sino - Soviet Non-Aggression Pact and approved Operation Zet, the formation of a secret Soviet volunteer air force, in which Soviet technicians upgraded and ran some of China 's transportation systems. Bombers, fighters, supplies and advisors arrived, including Soviet general Vasily Chuikov, future victor in the Battle of Stalingrad. Prior to the Western Allies, the Soviets provided the most foreign aid to China: some $250 million in credits for munitions and other supplies. In April 1941, Soviet aid ended with the Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact and the beginning of the Great Patriotic War. This pact enabled the Soviet Union to avoid fighting against Germany and Japan at the same time. In August 1945, the Soviet Union annulled the neutrality pact with Japan and invaded Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, the Kuril Islands, and northern Korea. The Soviets also continued to support the Chinese Communist Party. In total, 3,665 Soviet advisors and pilots served in China, and 227 of them died fighting there. From December 1937, events such as the Japanese attack on the USS Panay and the Nanking Massacre swung public opinion in the West sharply against Japan and increased their fear of Japanese expansion, which prompted the United States, the United Kingdom, and France to provide loan assistance for war supply contracts to China. Australia also prevented a Japanese government - owned company from taking over an iron mine in Australia, and banned iron ore exports in 1938. However, in July 1939, negotiations between Japanese Foreign Minister Arita Khatira and the British Ambassador in Tokyo, Robert Craigie, led to an agreement by which Great Britain recognized Japanese conquests in China. At the same time, the US government extended a trade agreement with Japan for six months, then fully restored it. Under the agreement, Japan purchased trucks for the Kwantung Army, machine tools for aircraft factories, strategic materials (steel and scrap iron up to October 16, 1940, petrol and petroleum products up to June 26, 1941), and various other much - needed supplies. Japan invaded and occupied the northern part of French Indochina (present - day Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia) in September 1940 to prevent China from receiving the 10,000 tons of materials delivered monthly by the Allies via the Haiphong -- Yunnan Fou Railway line. On June 22, 1941, Germany attacked the Soviet Union. In spite of non-aggression pacts or trade connections, Hitler 's assault threw the world into a frenzy of re-aligning political outlooks and strategic prospects. On July 21, Japan occupied the southern part of French Indochina (southern Vietnam and Cambodia), contravening a 1940 "gentlemen 's agreement '' not to move into southern French Indochina. From bases in Cambodia and southern Vietnam, Japanese planes could attack Malaya, Singapore, and the Dutch East Indies. As the Japanese occupation of northern French Indochina in 1940 had already cut off supplies from the West to China, the move into southern French Indochina was viewed as a direct threat to British and Dutch colonies. Many principal figures in the Japanese government and military (particularly the navy) were against the move, as they foresaw that it would invite retaliation from the West. On July 24, 1941, Roosevelt requested Japan withdraw all its forces from Indochina. Two days later the USA and the UK began an oil embargo; two days after that the Netherlands joined them. This was a decisive moment in the Second Sino - Japanese War. The loss of oil imports made it impossible for Japan to continue operations in China on a long term basis. It set the stage for Japan to launch a series of military attacks against the Allies, including the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. In mid-1941, the United States government financed the creation of the American Volunteer Group (AVG), or Flying Tigers, to replace the withdrawn Soviet volunteers and aircraft. Contrary to popular perception, the Flying Tigers did not enter actual combat until after the United States had declared war on Japan. Led by Claire Lee Chennault, their early combat success of 300 kills against a loss of 12 of their newly introduced shark painted P - 40 fighters heavily armed with 6X50 caliber machine guns and very fast diving speeds earned them wide recognition at a time when the Chinese Air Force and Allies in the Pacific and SE Asia were suffering heavy losses, and soon afterwards their "boom and zoom '' high - speed hit - and - run dissimilar air combat tactics would be adopted by the United States Army Air Forces. The Sino - American Cooperative Organization was an organization created by the SACO Treaty signed by the Republic of China and the United States of America in 1942 that established a mutual intelligence gathering entity in China between the respective nations against Japan. It operated in China jointly along with the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), America 's first intelligence agency and forerunner of the CIA while also serving as joint training program between the two nations. Among all the wartime missions that Americans set up in China, SACO was the only one that adopted a policy of "total immersion '' with the Chinese. The "Rice Paddy Navy '' or "What - the - Hell Gang '' operated in the China - Burma - India theater, advising and training, forecasting weather and scouting landing areas for USN fleet and Gen Claire Chennault 's 14th AF, rescuing downed American flyers, and intercepting Japanese radio traffic. An underlying mission objective during the last year of war was the development and preparation of the China coast for Allied penetration and occupation. The Foochow (Fujian Province) was scouted as a potential staging area and springboard for the future military landing of Allies of World War II to Japan. A British - Australian commando operation, Mission 204, was initialized in February 1942 to provide training to Chinese guerrilla troops. Commandos working with the Free Thai Movement also operated in China, mostly while on their way into Thailand. The Chinese Kuomintang also supported the Vietnamese Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng (VNQDD) in its battle against French and Japanese imperialism. In Guangxi, Chinese military leaders were organizing Vietnamese nationalists against the Japanese. The VNQDD had been active in Guangxi and some of their members had joined the KMT army. Under the umbrella of KMT activities, a broad alliance of nationalists emerged. With Ho at the forefront, the Viet Nam Doc Lap Dong Minh Hoi (Vietnamese Independence League, usually known as the Viet Minh) was formed and based in the town of Jingxi. The pro-VNQDD nationalist Ho Ngoc Lam, a KMT army officer and former disciple of Phan Bội Châu, was named as the deputy of Phạm Văn Đồng, later to be Ho 's Prime Minister. The front was later broadened and renamed the Viet Nam Giai Phong Dong Minh (Vietnam Liberation League). The Viet Nam Revolutionary League was a union of various Vietnamese nationalist groups, run by the pro Chinese VNQDD. Chinese KMT General Zhang Fakui created the league to further Chinese influence in Indochina, against the French and Japanese. Its stated goal was for unity with China under the Three Principles of the People, created by KMT founder Dr. Sun and opposition to Japanese and French Imperialists. The Revolutionary League was controlled by Nguyen Hai Than, who was born in China and could not speak Vietnamese. General Zhang shrewdly blocked the Communists of Vietnam, and Ho Chi Minh from entering the league, as Zhang 's main goal was Chinese influence in Indochina. The KMT utilized these Vietnamese nationalists during World War II against Japanese forces. Franklin D. Roosevelt, through General Stilwell, privately made it clear that they preferred that the French not reacquire French Indochina (modern day Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos) after the war was over. Roosevelt offered Chiang Kai - shek control of all of Indochina. It was said that Chiang Kai - shek replied: "Under no circumstances! '' After the war, 200,000 Chinese troops under General Lu Han were sent by Chiang Kai - shek to northern Indochina (north of the 16th parallel) to accept the surrender of Japanese occupying forces there, and remained in Indochina until 1946, when the French returned. The Chinese used the VNQDD, the Vietnamese branch of the Chinese Kuomintang, to increase their influence in French Indochina and to put pressure on their opponents. Chiang Kai - shek threatened the French with war in response to manoeuvering by the French and Ho Chi Minh 's forces against each other, forcing them to come to a peace agreement. In February 1946, he also forced the French to surrender all of their concessions in China and to renounce their extraterritorial privileges in exchange for the Chinese withdrawing from northern Indochina and allowing French troops to reoccupy the region. Following France 's agreement to these demands, the withdrawal of Chinese troops began in March 1946. The Chinese were not entirely devoting all their resources to the Japanese, because they were fighting several other wars at the same time. Rebellion occurred in the Xinjiang province in 1937 when a pro-Soviet Hui general Ma Zhanshan invaded the province accompanied by Soviet troops. The invasion was resisted by another Hui general Ma Hushan of the KMT 36th Division. General Ma Hushan was expecting help from Nanking, as he exchanged messages with Chiang regarding the Soviet attack. But, both the Second Sino - Japanese War and the Xinjiang War erupted simultaneously leaving Chiang and Ma Hushan each on their own to confront the Japanese and Soviet forces. The Republic of China government was fully aware of the Soviet invasion of Xinjiang province, and Soviet troops moving around Xinjiang and Gansu, but it was forced to mask these maneuvers to the public as "Japanese propaganda '' to avoid an international incident and for continued military supplies from the Soviets. Because the pro-Soviet governor Sheng Shicai controlled Xinjiang, which was garrisoned with Soviet troops in Turfan, the Chinese government had to keep troops stationed there as well. General Ma Buqing was in virtual control of the Gansu corridor at that time. Ma Buqing had earlier fought against the Japanese, but because the Soviet threat was great, Chiang changed Ma 's position, in July 1942, by instructing Ma to move 30,000 of his troops to the Tsaidam marsh in the Qaidam Basin of Qinghai. Chiang named Ma as Reclamation Commissioner, to threaten Sheng Shicai 's southern flank in Xinjiang, which bordered Tsaidam. After Ma evacuated his positions in Gansu, Kuomintang troops from central China flooded the area, and infiltrated Soviet occupied Xinjiang, gradually reclaiming it and forcing Sheng Shicai to break with the Soviets. The Kuomintang ordered Ma Bufang several times to march his troops into Xinjiang to intimidate the pro-Soviet Governor Sheng Shicai. This helped provide protection for Chinese settling in Xinjiang. The Ili Rebellion broke out in Xinjiang when the Kuomintang Hui Officer Liu Bin - Di was killed while fighting Turkic Uyghur rebels in November 1944. The Soviet Union supported the Turkic rebels against the Kuomintang, and Kuomintang forces were fighting back. Despite Article 23 of the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, article V of the Treaty in Relation to the Use of Submarines and Noxious Gases in Warfare, article 171 of the Treaty of Versailles and a resolution adopted by the League of Nations on May 14, 1938, condemning the use of poison gas by the Empire of Japan, the Imperial Japanese Army frequently used chemical weapons during the war. According to historians Yoshiaki Yoshimi and Seiya Matsuno, the chemical weapons were authorized by specific orders given by Japanese Emperor Hirohito himself, transmitted by the Imperial General Headquarters. For example, the Emperor authorized the use of toxic gas on 375 separate occasions during the Battle of Wuhan from August to October 1938. They were also used during the invasion of Changde. Those orders were transmitted either by Prince Kan'in Kotohito or General Hajime Sugiyama. Bacteriological weapons provided by Shirō Ishii 's units were also profusely used. For example, in 1940, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force bombed Ningbo with fleas carrying the bubonic plague. During the Khabarovsk War Crime Trials the accused, such as Major General Kiyashi Kawashima, testified that, in 1941, some 40 members of Unit 731 air - dropped plague - contaminated fleas on Changde. These attacks caused epidemic plague outbreaks. In the Zhejiang - Jiangxi Campaign, of the 10,000 Japanese soldiers who fell ill with the disease, about 1,700 Japanese troops died when the biological weapons rebounded on their own forces. Chinese armies deployed "dare to die corps '' (traditional Chinese: 敢死隊; simplified Chinese: 敢死队; pinyin: gǎnsǐduì) or "suicide squads '' against the Japanese. A "dare to die corps '' was effectively used against Japanese units at the Battle of Taierzhuang. Suicide bombing was also used against the Japanese. A Chinese soldier detonated a grenade vest and killed 20 Japanese at Sihang Warehouse. Chinese troops strapped explosives like grenade packs or dynamite to their bodies and threw themselves under Japanese tanks to blow them up. This tactic was used during the Battle of Shanghai, where a Chinese suicide bomber stopped a Japanese tank column by exploding himself beneath the lead tank, and at the Battle of Taierzhuang where dynamite and grenades were strapped on by Chinese troops who rushed at Japanese tanks and blew themselves up. During one incident at Taierzhuang, Chinese suicide bombers destroyed four Japanese tanks with grenade bundles. Japan attempted to reach out to Chinese ethnic minorities in order to rally them to their side against the Han Chinese, but only succeeded with certain Manchu, Mongol, Uyghur and Tibetan elements. The Japanese attempt to get the Muslim Hui people on their side failed, as many Chinese generals such as Bai Chongxi, Ma Hongbin, Ma Hongkui, and Ma Bufang were Hui. The Japanese attempted to approach Ma Bufang but were unsuccessful in making any agreement with him. Ma Bufang ended up supporting the anti-Japanese Imam Hu Songshan, who prayed for the destruction of the Japanese. Ma became chairman (governor) of Qinghai in 1938 and commanded a group army. He was appointed because of his anti-Japanese inclinations, and was such an obstruction to Japanese agents trying to contact the Tibetans that he was called an "adversary '' by a Japanese agent. During the Second Sino - Japanese War the Japanese followed what has been referred to as a "killing policy '' and destroyed many mosques. According to Wan Lei, "Statistics showed that the Japanese destroyed 220 mosques and killed countless Hui people by April 1941. '' After the Nanking Massacre mosques in Nanking were found to be filled with dead bodies. They also followed a policy of economic oppression which involved the destruction of mosques and Hui communities and made many Hui jobless and homeless. Another policy was one of deliberate humiliation. This included soldiers smearing mosques with pork fat, forcing Hui to butcher pigs to feed the soldiers, and forcing girls to supposedly train as geishas and singers but in fact made them serve as sex slaves. Hui cemeteries were destroyed for military reasons. Many Hui fought in the war against the Japanese such as Bai Chongxi, Ma Hongbin, Ma Hongkui, Ma Bufang, Ma Zhanshan, Ma Biao, Ma Zhongying, Ma Buqing and Ma Hushan. Qinghai Tibetans served in the Qinghai army against the Japanese. The Qinghai Tibetans view the Tibetans of Central Tibet (Tibet proper, ruled by the Dalai Lamas from Lhasa) as distinct and different from themselves, and even take pride in the fact that they were not ruled by Lhasa ever since the collapse of the Tibetan Empire. Xining was subjected to aerial bombardment by Japanese warplanes in 1941, causing all ethnicities in Qinghai to unite against the Japanese. General Han Youwen directed the defense of the city of Xining during air raids by Japanese planes. Han survived an aerial bombardment by Japanese planes in Xining while he was being directed via telephone by Ma Bufang, who hid in an air raid shelter in a military barrack. The bombing resulted Han being buried in rubble, though he was later rescued. Chinese Muslim Cavalry Chinese Muslim soldiers The United States and the Soviet Union put an end to the war by attacking the Japanese with a new weapon (on the United States ' part) and an incursion into Manchuria (on the Soviet Union 's part). On August 6, 1945, an American B - 29 bomber, the Enola Gay, dropped the first atomic bomb used in combat on Hiroshima, killing tens of thousands and leveling the city. On August 9, 1945, the Soviet Union renounced its non-aggression pact with Japan and attacked the Japanese in Manchuria, fulfilling its Yalta Conference pledge to attack the Japanese within three months after the end of the war in Europe. The attack was made by three Soviet army groups. On that same day, a second equally destructive atomic bomb was dropped by the United States on Nagasaki. In less than two weeks the Kwantung Army, which was the primary Japanese fighting force, consisting of over a million men but lacking in adequate armor, artillery, or air support, had been destroyed by the Soviets. Japanese Emperor Hirohito officially capitulated to the Allies on August 15, 1945. The official surrender was signed aboard the battleship USS Missouri on September 2, 1945 in a ceremony where several Allied commanders including Chinese general Hsu Yung - chang were present. After the Allied victory in the Pacific, General Douglas MacArthur ordered all Japanese forces within China (excluding Manchuria), Formosa and French Indochina north of 16 ° north latitude to surrender to Chiang Kai - shek, and the Japanese troops in China formally surrendered on September 9, 1945, at 9: 00. The ninth hour of the ninth day of the ninth month was chosen in echo of the Armistice of 11 November 1918 (on the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month) and because "nine '' is homophone of the word for "long lasting '' in Chinese (to suggest that the peace won would last forever). In 1945, China emerged from the war nominally a great military power but economically weak and on the verge of all - out civil war. The economy was sapped by the military demands of a long costly war and internal strife, by spiraling inflation, and by corruption in the Nationalist government that included profiteering, speculation and hoarding. Furthermore, as part of the Yalta Conference, which allowed a Soviet sphere of influence in Manchuria, the Soviets dismantled and removed more than half of the industrial equipment left there by the Japanese before handing over Manchuria to China. Large swathes of the prime farming areas had been ravaged by the fighting and there was starvation in the wake of the war. Many towns and cities were destroyed, and millions were rendered homeless by floods. The problems of rehabilitation and reconstruction after the ravages of a protracted war were staggering, and the war left the Nationalists severely weakened, and their policies left them unpopular. Meanwhile, the war strengthened the Communists both in popularity and as a viable fighting force. At Yan'an and elsewhere in the communist controlled areas, Mao Zedong was able to adapt Marxism -- Leninism to Chinese conditions. He taught party cadres to lead the masses by living and working with them, eating their food, and thinking their thoughts. The Chinese Red Army fostered an image of conducting guerrilla warfare in defense of the people. Communist troops adapted to changing wartime conditions and became a seasoned fighting force. With skillful organization and propaganda, the Communists increased party membership from 100,000 in 1937 to 1.2 million by 1945. Mao also began to execute his plan to establish a new China by rapidly moving his forces from Yan'an and elsewhere to Manchuria. This opportunity was available to the Communists because although Nationalist representatives were not invited to Yalta, they had been consulted and had agreed to the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in the belief that the Soviet Union would cooperate only with the Nationalist government after the war. However, the Soviet occupation of Manchuria was long enough to allow the Communist forces to move in en masse and arm themselves with the military hardware surrendered by the Imperial Japanese Army, quickly establish control in the countryside and move into position to encircle the Nationalist government army in major cities of northeast China. Following that, the Chinese Civil War broke out between the Nationalists and Communists, which concluded with the Communist victory in mainland China and the retreat of the Nationalists to Taiwan in 1949. Formosa and the Penghu islands were put under the administrative control of the Republic of China (ROC) government in 1945 by the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration. The ROC proclaimed Taiwan Retrocession Day on October 25, 1945. However, due to the unresolved Chinese Civil War, neither the newly established People 's Republic of China (PRC) in mainland China nor the Nationalist ROC that retreated to Taiwan was invited to sign the Treaty of San Francisco, as neither had shown full and complete legal capacity to enter into an international legally binding agreement. Since China was not present, the Japanese only formally renounced the territorial sovereignty of Taiwan and Penghu islands without specifying to which country Japan relinquished the sovereignty, and the treaty was signed in 1951 and came into force in 1952. In 1952, the Treaty of Taipei was signed separately between the ROC and Japan that basically followed the same guideline of the Treaty of San Francisco, not specifying which country has sovereignty over Taiwan. However, Article 10 of the treaty states that the Taiwanese people and the juridical person should be the people and the juridical person of the ROC. Both the PRC and ROC governments base their claims to Taiwan on the Japanese Instrument of Surrender which specifically accepted the Potsdam Declaration which refers to the Cairo Declaration. Disputes over the precise de jure sovereign of Taiwan persist to the present. On a de facto basis, sovereignty over Taiwan has been and continues to be exercised by the ROC. Japan 's position has been to avoid commenting on Taiwan 's status, maintaining that Japan renounced all claims to sovereignty over its former colonial possessions after World War II, including Taiwan. The question as to which political group directed the Chinese war effort and exerted most of the effort to resist the Japanese remains a controversial issue. In the Chinese People 's War of Resistance Against Japan Memorial near the Marco Polo Bridge and in mainland Chinese textbooks, the People 's Republic of China (PRC) claims that the Nationalists mostly avoided fighting the Japanese to preserve their strength for a final showdown with the Communist Party of China (CPC or CCP), while the Communists were the main military force in the Chinese resistance efforts. Recently, however, with a change in the political climate, the CPC has admitted that certain Nationalist generals made important contributions in resisting the Japanese. The official history in mainland China now states that the KMT fought a bloody, yet indecisive, frontal war against Japan, while the CPC engaged the Japanese forces in far greater numbers behind enemy lines. For the sake of Chinese reunification and appeasing the Republic of China (ROC) on Taiwan, the PRC has begun to "acknowledge '' the Nationalists and the Communists as "equal '' contributors, because the victory over Japan belonged to the Chinese people, rather than to any political party. The Nationalists suffered higher casualties because they were the main combatants opposing the Japanese in each of the 22 major battles (involving more than 100,000 troops on both sides) between China and Japan. The Communist forces, by contrast, usually avoided pitched battles with the Japanese and generally limited their combat to guerilla actions (the Hundred Regiments Offensive and the Battle of Pingxingguan are notable exceptions). The Nationalists committed their strongest divisions in early battle against the Japanese (including the 36th, 87th, 88th divisions, the crack divisions of Chiang 's Central Army) to defend Shanghai and continued to deploy most of their forces to fight the Japanese even as the Communists changed their strategy to engage mainly in a political offensive against the Japanese while declaring that the CPC should "save and preserve our strength and wait for favorable timing '' by the end of 1941. Today, the war is a major point of contention and resentment between China and Japan. The war remains a major roadblock for Sino - Japanese relations, and many people, particularly in China, still harbor grudges over the war and related issues. Issues regarding the current historical outlook on the war exist. For example, the Japanese government has been accused of historical revisionism by allowing the approval of a few school textbooks omitting or glossing over Japan 's militant past, although the most recent controversial book, the New History Textbook was used by only 0.039 % of junior high schools in Japan and despite the efforts of the Japanese nationalist textbook reformers, by the late 1990s the most common Japanese schoolbooks contained references to, for instance, the Nanking Massacre, Unit 731, and the comfort women of World War II, all historical issues which have faced challenges from ultranationalists in the past. In response to criticism of Japanese textbook revisionism, the PRC government has been accused of using the war to stir up already growing anti-Japanese sentiments in order to spur nationalistic feelings. Traditionally, the Republic of China government has held celebrations marking the Victory Day on September 9 (now known as Armed Forces Day) and Taiwan 's Retrocession Day on October 25. However, after the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) won the presidential election in 2000, these national holidays commemorating the war have been cancelled as the pro-independent DPP does not see the relevancy of celebrating events that happened in mainland China. Meanwhile, many KMT supporters, particularly veterans who retreated with the government in 1949, still have an emotional interest in the war. For example, in celebrating the 60th anniversary of the end of war in 2005, the cultural bureau of KMT stronghold Taipei held a series of talks in the Sun Yat - sen Memorial Hall regarding the war and post-war developments, while the KMT held its own exhibit in the KMT headquarters. Whereas the KMT won the presidential election in 2008, the ROC government resumed commemorating the war. Several thousand Japanese who were sent as colonizers to Manchukuo and Inner Mongolia were left behind in China. The majority of Japanese left behind in China were women, and these Japanese women mostly married Chinese men and became known as "stranded war wives '' (zanryu fujin). Because they had children fathered by Chinese men, the Japanese women were not allowed to bring their Chinese families back with them to Japan so most of them stayed. Japanese law only allowed children fathered by Japanese fathers to become Japanese citizens. In China some Korean comfort women stayed behind instead of going back to their native land. Most Korean comfort women left behind in China married Chinese men. The conflict lasted for eight years, two months and two days (measured from July 7, 1937, to September 9, 1945). The casualties from this war in 1937 -- 1945 were more that half of total casualties of the Pacific War. The Japanese recorded around 1.1 to 1.9 million military casualties during all of World War II (which include killed, wounded and missing). The official death toll of Japanese men killed in China, according to the Japan Defense Ministry, is 480,000. Based on the investigation of Japanese Yomiuri Shimbun, the military death toll of Japan in China is about 700,000 since 1937 (excluding the death in Manchuria). Another source from Hilary Conroy claim that a total of 447,000 Japanese soldiers died in China during the Second Sino - Japanese War. Of the 1,130,000 Imperial Japanese Army soldiers who died during World War II, 39 percent died in China. Then in War Without Mercy, John W. Dower claim that a total of 396,000 Japanese soldiers died in China during the Second Sino - Japanese War. Of this number, the Imperial Japanese Army lost 388,605 soldiers and the Imperial Japanese Navy lost 8,000 soldiers. Another 54,000 soldiers also died after the war had ended, mostly from illness and starvation. Of the 1,740,955 Japanese soldiers who died during World War II, 22 percent died in China. Japanese statistics, however, lack complete estimates for the wounded. From 1937 to 1941, 185,647 Japanese soldiers were killed in China and 520,000 were wounded. Disease also incurred critical losses on Japanese forces. From 1937 to 1941, 430,000 Japanese soldiers were recorded as being sick. In North China alone, 18,000 soldiers were evacuated back to Japan for illnesses in 1938, 23,000 in 1939, and 15,000 in 1940. From 1941 to 1945: 202,958 dead; another 54,000 dead after war 's end. Chinese forces also report that by May 1945, 22,293 Japanese soldiers were captured as prisoners. Many more Japanese soldiers surrendered when the war ended. Contemporary studies from the Beijing Central Compilation and Translation Press have revealed that the Japanese suffered a total of 2,227,200 casualties, including 1,055,000 dead and 1,172,341 injured. This Chinese publication analyses statistics provided by Japanese publications and claimed these numbers were largely based on Japanese publications. Both Nationalist and Communist Chinese sources report that their respective forces were responsible for the deaths of over 1.7 million Japanese soldiers. Nationalist War Minister He Yingqin himself contested the Communist 's claim, finding it impossible for a force of "untrained, undisciplined, poorly equipped '' guerrillas of Communist forces to have killed so many enemy soldiers. The National Chinese authorities ridiculed Japanese estimates of Chinese casualties. In 1940, the National Herald stated that the Japanese exaggerated Chinese casualties, while deliberately concealing the true amount of Japanese casualties, releasing false figures that made them appear lower. The article reports on the casualty situation of the war up to 1940. With Chiang Kai - shek as the highest commander, the NRA is recognized as the unified armed force of China during the war. Throughout its lifespan, it employed approximately 4,300,000 regulars, in 370 Standard Divisions (simplified Chinese: 正式 师; traditional Chinese: 正式 師), 46 New Divisions (simplified Chinese: 新 编 师; traditional Chinese: 新編 師), 12 Cavalry Divisions (simplified Chinese: 骑兵 师; traditional Chinese: 騎兵 師), eight New Cavalry Divisions (simplified Chinese: 新 编 骑兵 师; traditional Chinese: 新編 騎兵 師), 66 Temporary Divisions (simplified Chinese: 暂 编 师; traditional Chinese: 暫 編 師), and 13 Reserve Divisions (simplified Chinese: 预备 师; traditional Chinese: 預備 師), for a grand total of 515 divisions. However, many divisions were formed from two or more other divisions, and many were not active at the same time. The number of active divisions, at the start of the war in 1937, was about 170 NRA divisions. The average NRA division had 4,000 -- 5,000 troops. A Chinese army was roughly the equivalent to a Japanese division in terms of manpower but the Chinese forces largely lacked artillery, heavy weapons, and motorized transport. The shortage of military hardware meant that three to four Chinese armies had the firepower of only one Japanese division. Because of these material constraints, available artillery and heavy weapons were usually assigned to specialist brigades rather than to the general division, which caused more problems as the Chinese command structure lacked precise coordination. The relative fighting strength of a Chinese division was even weaker when relative capacity in aspects of warfare, such as intelligence, logistics, communications, and medical services, are taken into account. Although Chiang Kai - shek is recognized as the highest commander in name, his power on NRA was in the effect limited. This was due to the fact that the NRA was an alliance of powers such as warlords, regional militarists and communists. Before the alliance was formed under the pressure of Japanese invasion, these powers had their own land, struggled or allied with each other under their own interests and mutual conflicts were common. Because of this, NRA could be unofficially divided into 3 groups, Central Army, Regional Army and Communist forces. Loyal to Chiang Kai - shek, the Central Army (simplified Chinese: 中央 军; traditional Chinese: 中央 軍) was best equipped. Most of the officers in the Central Army were trained by the Whampoa Military Academy, where Chiang Kai - shek served as the first president. Before the war, the Central Army mainly controlled east China. The Regional Army (simplified Chinese: 省 军; traditional Chinese: 省 軍) consisted of various types of strengths from all the parts of China. Before the war, these strengths governed certain places and most of them admitted Chiang Kai - shek 's leader position. However, they did n't really follow Chiang 's command, nor received Chiang 's assistance. They generally ran independently. The notable strengths under this category included Guangxi, Shanxi, Yunnan and Ma clique. After the Xi'an Incident, Chiang stopped his offensive against the Chinese Red Army. Communists were then incorporated into the NRA to form the Eighth Route Army and the New Fourth Army, although their de facto commander was still Mao Zedong. Communists also led a large number of militias during the war. The NRA expanded from about 1.2 million in 1937 to 5.7 million in August 1945, organized in 300 divisions. The Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) had approximately 3,200,000 regulars. More Japanese troops were quartered in China than deployed elsewhere in the Pacific Theater during the war. Japanese divisions ranged from 20,000 men in its divisions numbered less than 100, to 10,000 men in divisions numbered greater than 100. At the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor, the IJA had 51 divisions, of which 35 were in China, and 39 independent brigades, of which all but one were in China. This represented roughly 80 % of the IJA 's manpower. By October 1944 the IJA in China was divided into three strategic groupings. The Chinese armies allied to Japan had only 78,000 people in 1938, but had grown to around 649,640 men by 1943, and reached a maximum strength of 900,000 troops before the end of the war. Almost all of them belonged to Manchukuo, Provisional Government of the Republic of China (Beijing), Reformed Government of the Republic of China (Nanking) and the later Nanking Nationalist Government (Wang Jingwei regime). These collaborator troops were mainly assigned to garrison and logistics duties in their own territories, and were not fielded in combat very often because of low morale and Japanese distrust. In general, they fared very poorly in skirmishes against both Chinese NRA and Communist forces, although there were some individual collaborationist units that had some success against them. The Central Army possessed 80 Army infantry divisions of 8,000 men each, nine independent brigades, nine cavalry divisions, two artillery brigades, 16 artillery regiments and three armored battalions. The Chinese Navy displaced only 59,000 tonnes and the Chinese Air Force comprised only about 700 obsolete aircraft. For regular provincial Chinese divisions their standard rifles were the Hanyang 88 (copy of Gewehr 88). Central army divisions were typically equipped with the Chiang Kai - shek rifle (copy of Mauser Standard Model) and Czechoslovakian vz. 24. However, for most of the German - trained divisions, the standard firearms were German - made 7.92 mm Gewehr 98 and Karabiner 98k. The standard light machine gun was a local copy of the Czech 7.92 mm Brno ZB26. There were also Belgian and French light machine guns. Provincial units generally did not possess any machine guns. Central Army units had one LMG per platoon on average. German - trained divisions ideally had 1 LMG per squad. Surprisingly, the NRA did not purchase any Maschinengewehr 34s from Germany, but did produce their own copies of them. Heavy machine guns were mainly locally - made Type 24 water - cooled Maxim guns, which were the Chinese copies of the German MG08, and M1917 Browning machine guns chambered for the standard 8mm Mauser round. On average, every Central Army battalion would get one heavy machine gun (about a third to half of what actual German divisions got during World War II). The standard weapon for NCOs and officers was the 7.63 mm Mauser C96 semi-automatic pistol, or full - automatic Mauser M1932 / M712 machine pistol. These full - automatic versions were used as substitutes for submachine guns (such as the MP 18) and rifles that were in short supply within the Chinese army prior to the end of World War II. Among officers, the German Parabellum (Luger) 9 × 19mm semi-automatic pistol was often the weapon of choice. Throughout the Second Sino - Japanese War, particularly in the early years, the NRA also extensively used captured Japanese weapons and equipment as their own were in short supply. Some élite units also used Lend - Lease US equipment as the war progressed. Generally speaking, the regular provincial army divisions did not possess any artillery. However, some Central Army divisions were equipped with 37 mm PaK 35 / 36 anti-tank guns, and / or mortars from Oerlikon, Madsen, and Solothurn. Each infantry division had 6 French Brandt 81 mm mortars and 6 Solothurn 20 mm autocannons. Some independent brigades and artillery regiments were equipped with Bofors 72 mm L / 14, or Krupp 72 mm L / 29 mountain guns and there were 24 Rheinmetall 150 mm L / 32 sFH 18 howitzers (bought in 1934) and 24 Krupp 150 mm L / 30 sFH 18 howitzers (bought in 1936). At the start of the war, the NRA and the Tax Police Regiment had three tank battalions armed with German Panzer I light tanks and CV - 33 tankettes. After defeat in the Battle of Shanghai the remaining tanks, together with several hundred T - 26 and BT - 5 tanks acquired from the Soviet Union were reorganised into the 200th Division. Infantry uniforms were basically redesigned Zhongshan suits. Puttees were standard for soldiers and officers alike since the primary mode of movement for NRA troops was by foot. Troops were also issued sewn field caps. The helmets were the most distinguishing characteristic of these divisions. From the moment German M35 helmets (standard issue for the Wehrmacht until late in the European theatre) rolled off the production lines in 1935, and until 1936, the NRA imported 315,000 of these helmets, each with the Blue Sky with a White Sun emblem of the ROC on the sides. These helmets were worn by both elite German - trained divisions and regular Central Army divisions. Other helmets include the Adrian helmet, Brodie helmet and later M1 helmet. Other equipment included straw shoes for soldiers (cloth shoes for Central Army), leather shoes for officers and leather boots for high - ranking officers. Every soldier was issued ammunition, ammunition pouches or harness, a water flask, combat knives, food bag, and a gas mask. On the other hand, warlord forces varied greatly in terms of equipment and training. Some warlord troops were notoriously under - equipped, such as Shanxi 's Dadao (Chinese: 大刀, a one - edged sword type close combat weapon) Team and the Yunnan clique. Some, however, were highly professional forces with their own air force and navies. The quality of the New Guangxi clique was almost on par with the Central Army, as the Guangzhou region was wealthy and the local army could afford foreign instructors and arms. The Muslim Ma clique to the northwest was famed for its well - trained cavalry divisions. Although Japan possessed significant mobile operational capacity, it did not possess capability for maintaining a long sustained war. At the beginning of the war, the Imperial Japanese Army comprised 17 divisions, each composed of approximately 22,000 men, 5,800 horses, 9,500 rifles and submachine guns, 600 heavy machine guns of assorted types, 108 artillery pieces, and 600 plus of light armor two - men tanks. Special forces were also available. The Imperial Japanese Navy displaced a total of 1,900,000 tonnes, ranking third in the world, and possessed 2,700 aircraft at the time. Each Japanese division was the equivalent in fighting strength of four Chinese regular divisions (at the beginning of the Battle of Shanghai). Chinese Nationalist Party Chinese Communist Party The battles listed here are ones that have corresponding Wikipedia articles. A flag icon to the left of a battle 's name shows the victorious side in the engagement. The date to the right of a battle 's name shows when it began, except in the case of 1942 's Battle of Changsha, which began in December 1941. Numerous monuments and memorials throughout China, including the Museum of the War of Chinese People 's Resistance Against Japanese Aggression in Beijing 's Wanping Fortress.

who according to a g gardiner is a civilised man

Alfred George Gardiner - wikipedia Alfred George Gardiner (1865 -- 1946) was a British journalist, editor and author. His essays, written under the pen - name Alpha of the Plough, are highly regarded. He was also Chairman of the National Anti-Sweating League, an advocacy group which campaigned for a minimum wage in industry. Gardiner was born in Chelmsford, the son of a cabinet - maker and alcoholic. As a boy he worked at the Chelmsford Chronicle and the Bournemouth Directory. He joined the Northern Daily Telegraph in 1887 which had been founded the year before by Thomas Purvis Ritzema. In 1899, he was appointed editor of the Blackburn Weekly Telegraph. In 1902 Ritzema was named general manager of the Daily News. Needing an editor, he turned to his young protégé to fill the role. The choice soon proved a great success; under Gardiner 's direction, it became one of the leading liberal journals its day, as he improved its coverage of both the news and literary matters while crusading against social injustices. Yet while circulation rose from 80,000 when he joined the paper to 151,000 in 1907 and 400,000 with the introduction of a Manchester edition in 1909, the paper continued to run at a loss. Though close to the owner of the Daily News, George Cadbury, Gardiner resigned in 1919 over a disagreement with him over Gardiner 's opposition to David Lloyd George. From 1915 he contributed to The Star under the pseudonym Alpha of the Plough. At the time The Star had several anonymous essayists whose pseudonyms were the names of stars. Invited to choose the name of a star as a pseudonym he chose the name of the brightest (alpha) star in the constellation "the Plough. '' His essays are uniformly elegant, graceful and humorous. His uniqueness lay in his ability to teach the basic truths of life in an easy and amusing manner. Pillars of Society, Pebbles on the Shore, Many Furrows and Leaves in the Wind are some of his best known writings. The end of the essay "The Vanity of Old Age '' is typically neat: "For Nature is a cunning nurse. She gives us lollipops all the way, and when the lollipop of hope and the lollipop of achievement are done, she gently inserts in our toothless gums the lollipop of remembrance. And with that pleasant vanity we are soothed to sleep. ''

when was the last solar eclipse seen in southern california

List of Solar eclipses visible from the United states - wikipedia This is an incomplete list of solar eclipses visible from the United States between 1901 and 2050. All eclipses whose path of totality or annularity passes through the land territory of the current fifty U.S. states are included. For lists of eclipses worldwide, see the list of 20th - century solar eclipses and 21st - century solar eclipses.

american international school of johannesburg pretoria campus address

American International school of Johannesburg - Wikipedia American International School of Johannesburg (AISJ) is a PreK - 12 (preschool through senior high school) American international school system with two campuses in South Africa: one in Johannesburg and one in Pretoria. It was first founded in 1982. The Pretoria campus, which serves PreK - 8, opened in August 2002. The original Pretoria campus was located in proximity to the U.S. Embassy. In 2010 the school purchased the current Pretoria site. Its mascot is an eagle. Coordinates: 25 ° 56 ′ 48 '' S 28 ° 02 ′ 18 '' E  /  25.9466 ° S 28.0384 ° E  / - 25.9466; 28.0384

who was the union commander that faced the confederates near harpers ferry

Battle of Gettysburg - wikipedia The Battle of Gettysburg (locally / ˈɡɛtɪsbɜːrɡ / (listen)) was fought July 1 -- 3, 1863, in and around the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, by Union and Confederate forces during the American Civil War. The battle involved the largest number of casualties of the entire war and is often described as the war 's turning point. Union Maj. Gen. George Meade 's Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia, halting Lee 's invasion of the North. After his success at Chancellorsville in Virginia in May 1863, Lee led his army through the Shenandoah Valley to begin his second invasion of the North -- the Gettysburg Campaign. With his army in high spirits, Lee intended to shift the focus of the summer campaign from war - ravaged northern Virginia and hoped to influence Northern politicians to give up their prosecution of the war by penetrating as far as Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, or even Philadelphia. Prodded by President Abraham Lincoln, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker moved his army in pursuit, but was relieved of command just three days before the battle and replaced by Meade. Elements of the two armies initially collided at Gettysburg on July 1, 1863, as Lee urgently concentrated his forces there, his objective being to engage the Union army and destroy it. Low ridges to the northwest of town were defended initially by a Union cavalry division under Brig. Gen. John Buford, and soon reinforced with two corps of Union infantry. However, two large Confederate corps assaulted them from the northwest and north, collapsing the hastily developed Union lines, sending the defenders retreating through the streets of the town to the hills just to the south. On the second day of battle, most of both armies had assembled. The Union line was laid out in a defensive formation resembling a fishhook. In the late afternoon of July 2, Lee launched a heavy assault on the Union left flank, and fierce fighting raged at Little Round Top, the Wheatfield, Devil 's Den, and the Peach Orchard. On the Union right, Confederate demonstrations escalated into full - scale assaults on Culp 's Hill and Cemetery Hill. All across the battlefield, despite significant losses, the Union defenders held their lines. On the third day of battle, fighting resumed on Culp 's Hill, and cavalry battles raged to the east and south, but the main event was a dramatic infantry assault by 12,500 Confederates against the center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge, known as Pickett 's Charge. The charge was repulsed by Union rifle and artillery fire, at great loss to the Confederate army. Lee led his army on a torturous retreat back to Virginia. Between 46,000 and 51,000 soldiers from both armies were casualties in the three - day battle, the most costly in US history. On November 19, President Lincoln used the dedication ceremony for the Gettysburg National Cemetery to honor the fallen Union soldiers and redefine the purpose of the war in his historic Gettysburg Address. Shortly after the Army of Northern Virginia won a major victory over the Army of the Potomac at the Battle of Chancellorsville (April 30 -- May 6, 1863), Robert E. Lee decided upon a second invasion of the North (the first was the unsuccessful Maryland Campaign of September 1862, which ended in the bloody Battle of Antietam). Such a move would upset U.S. plans for the summer campaigning season and possibly reduce the pressure on the besieged Confederate garrison at Vicksburg. The invasion would allow the Confederates to live off the bounty of the rich Northern farms while giving war - ravaged Virginia a much - needed rest. In addition, Lee 's 72,000 - man army could threaten Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and possibly strengthen the growing peace movement in the North. Thus, on June 3, Lee 's army began to shift northward from Fredericksburg, Virginia. Following the death of Thomas J. "Stonewall '' Jackson, Lee reorganized his two large corps into three new corps, commanded by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet (First Corps), Lt. Gen. Richard S. Ewell (Second), and Lt. Gen. A.P. Hill (Third); both Ewell and Hill, who had formerly reported to Jackson as division commanders, were new to this level of responsibility. The Cavalry Division remained under the command of Maj. Gen. J.E.B. Stuart. The Union Army of the Potomac, under Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, consisted of seven infantry corps, a cavalry corps, and an Artillery Reserve, for a combined strength of more than 100,000 men. The first major action of the campaign took place on June 9 between cavalry forces at Brandy Station, near Culpeper, Virginia. The 9,500 Confederate cavalrymen under Stuart were surprised by Maj. Gen. Alfred Pleasonton 's combined arms force of two cavalry divisions (8,000 troopers) and 3,000 infantry, but Stuart eventually repulsed the Union attack. The inconclusive battle, the largest predominantly cavalry engagement of the war, proved for the first time that the Union horse soldier was equal to his Southern counterpart. By mid-June, the Army of Northern Virginia was poised to cross the Potomac River and enter Maryland. After defeating the Union garrisons at Winchester and Martinsburg, Ewell 's Second Corps began crossing the river on June 15. Hill 's and Longstreet 's corps followed on June 24 and 25. Hooker 's army pursued, keeping between the U.S. capital and Lee 's army. The Union army crossed the Potomac from June 25 to 27. Lee gave strict orders for his army to minimize any negative impacts on the civilian population. Food, horses, and other supplies were generally not seized outright, although quartermasters reimbursing Northern farmers and merchants with Confederate money were not well received. Various towns, most notably York, Pennsylvania, were required to pay indemnities in lieu of supplies, under threat of destruction. During the invasion, the Confederates seized some 40 northern African Americans. A few of them were escaped fugitive slaves, but most were freemen; all were sent south into slavery under guard. On June 26, elements of Maj. Gen. Jubal Early 's division of Ewell 's Corps occupied the town of Gettysburg after chasing off newly raised Pennsylvania militia in a series of minor skirmishes. Early laid the borough under tribute, but did not collect any significant supplies. Soldiers burned several railroad cars and a covered bridge, and destroyed nearby rails and telegraph lines. The following morning, Early departed for adjacent York County. Meanwhile, in a controversial move, Lee allowed J.E.B. Stuart to take a portion of the army 's cavalry and ride around the east flank of the Union army. Lee 's orders gave Stuart much latitude, and both generals share the blame for the long absence of Stuart 's cavalry, as well as for the failure to assign a more active role to the cavalry left with the army. Stuart and his three best brigades were absent from the army during the crucial phase of the approach to Gettysburg and the first two days of battle. By June 29, Lee 's army was strung out in an arc from Chambersburg (28 miles (45 km) northwest of Gettysburg) to Carlisle (30 miles (48 km) north of Gettysburg) to near Harrisburg and Wrightsville on the Susquehanna River. In a dispute over the use of the forces defending the Harpers Ferry garrison, Hooker offered his resignation, and Abraham Lincoln and General - in - Chief Henry W. Halleck, who were looking for an excuse to rid themselves of him, immediately accepted. They replaced Hooker early on the morning of June 28 with Maj. Gen. George Gordon Meade, then commander of the V Corps. On June 29, when Lee learned that the Army of the Potomac had crossed the Potomac River, he ordered a concentration of his forces around Cashtown, located at the eastern base of South Mountain and eight miles (13 km) west of Gettysburg. On June 30, while part of Hill 's Corps was in Cashtown, one of Hill 's brigades, North Carolinians under Brig. Gen. J. Johnston Pettigrew, ventured toward Gettysburg. In his memoirs, Maj. Gen. Henry Heth, Pettigrew 's division commander, claimed that he sent Pettigrew to search for supplies in town -- especially shoes. When Pettigrew 's troops approached Gettysburg on June 30, they noticed Union cavalry under Brig. Gen. John Buford arriving south of town, and Pettigrew returned to Cashtown without engaging them. When Pettigrew told Hill and Heth what he had seen, neither general believed that there was a substantial Union force in or near the town, suspecting that it had been only Pennsylvania militia. Despite General Lee 's order to avoid a general engagement until his entire army was concentrated, Hill decided to mount a significant reconnaissance in force the following morning to determine the size and strength of the enemy force in his front. Around 5 a.m. on Wednesday, July 1, two brigades of Heth 's division advanced to Gettysburg. The Army of the Potomac, initially under Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker (Maj. Gen. George Meade replaced Hooker in command on June 28), consisted of more than 100,000 men in the following organization: During the advance on Gettysburg, Maj. Gen. Reynolds was in operational command of the left, or advanced, wing of the Army, consisting of the I, III, and XI Corps. Note that many other Union units (not part of the Army of the Potomac) were actively involved in the Gettysburg Campaign, but not directly involved in the Battle of Gettysburg. These included portions of the Union IV Corps, the militia and state troops of the Department of the Susquehanna, and various garrisons, including that at Harpers Ferry. In reaction to the death of Lt. Gen. Thomas J. "Stonewall '' Jackson after Chancellorsville, Lee reorganized his Army of Northern Virginia (75,000 men) from two infantry corps into three. Anticipating that the Confederates would march on Gettysburg from the west on the morning of July 1, Buford laid out his defenses on three ridges west of the town: Herr Ridge, McPherson Ridge and Seminary Ridge. These were appropriate terrain for a delaying action by his small cavalry division against superior Confederate infantry forces, meant to buy time awaiting the arrival of Union infantrymen who could occupy the strong defensive positions south of town at Cemetery Hill, Cemetery Ridge, and Culp 's Hill. Buford understood that if the Confederates could gain control of these heights, Meade 's army would have difficulty dislodging them. Heth 's division advanced with two brigades forward, commanded by Brig. Gens. James J. Archer and Joseph R. Davis. They proceeded easterly in columns along the Chambersburg Pike. Three miles (5 km) west of town, about 7: 30 a.m. on July 1, the two brigades met light resistance from vedettes of Union cavalry, and deployed into line. According to lore, the Union soldier to fire the first shot of the battle was Lt. Marcellus Jones. In 1886 Lt. Jones returned to Gettysburg to mark the spot where he fired the first shot with a monument. Eventually, Heth 's men reached dismounted troopers of Col. William Gamble 's cavalry brigade, who raised determined resistance and delaying tactics from behind fence posts with fire from their breechloading carbines. Still, by 10: 20 a.m., the Confederates had pushed the Union cavalrymen east to McPherson Ridge, when the vanguard of the I Corps (Maj. Gen. John F. Reynolds) finally arrived. North of the pike, Davis gained a temporary success against Brig. Gen. Lysander Cutler 's brigade but was repulsed with heavy losses in an action around an unfinished railroad bed cut in the ridge. South of the pike, Archer 's brigade assaulted through Herbst (also known as McPherson 's) Woods. The U.S. Iron Brigade under Brig. Gen. Solomon Meredith enjoyed initial success against Archer, capturing several hundred men, including Archer himself. General Reynolds was shot and killed early in the fighting while directing troop and artillery placements just to the east of the woods. Shelby Foote wrote that the Union cause lost a man considered by many to be "the best general in the army. '' Maj. Gen. Abner Doubleday assumed command. Fighting in the Chambersburg Pike area lasted until about 12: 30 p.m. It resumed around 2: 30 p.m., when Heth 's entire division engaged, adding the brigades of Pettigrew and Col. John M. Brockenbrough. As Pettigrew 's North Carolina Brigade came on line, they flanked the 19th Indiana and drove the Iron Brigade back. The 26th North Carolina (the largest regiment in the army with 839 men) lost heavily, leaving the first day 's fight with around 212 men. By the end of the three - day battle, they had about 152 men standing, the highest casualty percentage for one battle of any regiment, North or South. Slowly the Iron Brigade was pushed out of the woods toward Seminary Ridge. Hill added Maj. Gen. William Dorsey Pender 's division to the assault, and the I Corps was driven back through the grounds of the Lutheran Seminary and Gettysburg streets. As the fighting to the west proceeded, two divisions of Ewell 's Second Corps, marching west toward Cashtown in accordance with Lee 's order for the army to concentrate in that vicinity, turned south on the Carlisle and Harrisburg roads toward Gettysburg, while the Union XI Corps (Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard) raced north on the Baltimore Pike and Taneytown Road. By early afternoon, the U.S. line ran in a semicircle west, north, and northeast of Gettysburg. However, the U.S. did not have enough troops; Cutler, whose brigade was deployed north of the Chambersburg Pike, had his right flank in the air. The leftmost division of the XI Corps was unable to deploy in time to strengthen the line, so Doubleday was forced to throw in reserve brigades to salvage his line. Around 2 p.m., the Confederate Second Corps divisions of Maj. Gens. Robert E. Rodes and Jubal Early assaulted and out - flanked the Union I and XI Corps positions north and northwest of town. The Confederate brigades of Col. Edward A. O'Neal and Brig. Gen. Alfred Iverson suffered severe losses assaulting the I Corps division of Brig. Gen. John C. Robinson south of Oak Hill. Early 's division profited from a blunder by Brig. Gen. Francis C. Barlow, when he advanced his XI Corps division to Blocher 's Knoll (directly north of town and now known as Barlow 's Knoll); this represented a salient in the corps line, susceptible to attack from multiple sides, and Early 's troops overran Barlow 's division, which constituted the right flank of the Union Army 's position. Barlow was wounded and captured in the attack. As U.S. positions collapsed both north and west of town, Gen. Howard ordered a retreat to the high ground south of town at Cemetery Hill, where he had left the division of Brig. Gen. Adolph von Steinwehr in reserve. Maj. Gen. Winfield S. Hancock assumed command of the battlefield, sent by Meade when he heard that Reynolds had been killed. Hancock, commander of the II Corps and Meade 's most trusted subordinate, was ordered to take command of the field and to determine whether Gettysburg was an appropriate place for a major battle. Hancock told Howard, "I think this the strongest position by nature upon which to fight a battle that I ever saw. '' When Howard agreed, Hancock concluded the discussion: "Very well, sir, I select this as the battle - field. '' Hancock 's determination had a morale - boosting effect on the retreating Union soldiers, but he played no direct tactical role on the first day. General Lee understood the defensive potential to the Union if they held this high ground. He sent orders to Ewell that Cemetery Hill be taken "if practicable. '' Ewell, who had previously served under Stonewall Jackson, a general well known for issuing peremptory orders, determined such an assault was not practicable and, thus, did not attempt it; this decision is considered by historians to be a great missed opportunity. The first day at Gettysburg, more significant than simply a prelude to the bloody second and third days, ranks as the 23rd biggest battle of the war by number of troops engaged. About one quarter of Meade 's army (22,000 men) and one third of Lee 's army (27,000) were engaged. Throughout the evening of July 1 and morning of July 2, most of the remaining infantry of both armies arrived on the field, including the Union II, III, V, VI, and XII Corps. Two of Longstreet 's brigades were on the road: Brig. Gen. George Pickett, had begun the 22 mile (35 km) march from Chambersburg, while Brig. Gen. E.M. Law had begun the march from Guilford. Both arrived late in the morning. Law completed his 28 - mile (45 km) march in eleven hours. The Union line ran from Culp 's Hill southeast of the town, northwest to Cemetery Hill just south of town, then south for nearly two miles (3 km) along Cemetery Ridge, terminating just north of Little Round Top. Most of the XII Corps was on Culp 's Hill; the remnants of I and XI Corps defended Cemetery Hill; II Corps covered most of the northern half of Cemetery Ridge; and III Corps was ordered to take up a position to its flank. The shape of the Union line is popularly described as a "fishhook '' formation. The Confederate line paralleled the Union line about a mile (1,600 m) to the west on Seminary Ridge, ran east through the town, then curved southeast to a point opposite Culp 's Hill. Thus, the Union army had interior lines, while the Confederate line was nearly five miles (8 km) long. Lee 's battle plan for July 2 called for a general assault of Meade 's positions. On the right, Longstreet 's First Corps was to position itself to attack the Union left flank, facing northeast astraddle the Emmitsburg Road, and to roll up the U.S. line. The attack sequence was to begin with Maj. Gens. John Bell Hood 's and Lafayette McLaws 's divisions, followed by Maj. Gen. Richard H. Anderson 's division of Hill 's Third Corps. On the left, Lee instructed Ewell to position his Second Corps to attack Culp 's Hill and Cemetery Hill when he heard the gunfire from Longstreet 's assault, preventing Meade from shifting troops to bolster his left. Though it does not appear in either his or Lee 's Official Report, Ewell claimed years later that Lee had changed the order to simultaneously attack, calling for only a "diversion '', to be turned into a full - scale attack if a favorable opportunity presented itself. Lee 's plan, however, was based on faulty intelligence, exacerbated by Stuart 's continued absence from the battlefield. Though Lee personally reconnoitered his left during the morning, he did not visit Longstreet 's position on the Confederate right. Even so, Lee rejected suggestions that Longstreet move beyond Meade 's left and attack the Union flank, capturing the supply trains and effectively blocking Meade 's escape route. Lee did not issue orders for the attack until 11: 00 a.m. About noon, General Anderson 's advancing troops were discovered by General Sickles ' outpost guard and the Third Corps -- upon which Longstreet 's First Corps was to form -- did not get into position until 1: 00 p.m. Hood and McLaws, after their long march, were not yet in position and did not launch their attacks until just after 4 p.m. and 5 p.m., respectively. As Longstreet 's left division, under Maj. Gen. Lafayette McLaws, advanced, they unexpectedly found Maj. Gen. Daniel Sickles 's III Corps directly in their path. Sickles had been dissatisfied with the position assigned him on the southern end of Cemetery Ridge. Seeing ground better suited for artillery positions a half mile (800 m) to the west -- centered at the Sherfy farm 's Peach Orchard -- he violated orders and advanced his corp to the slightly higher ground along the Emmitsburg Road, moving away from Cemetery Ridge. The new line ran from Devil 's Den, northwest to the Peach Orchard, then northeast along the Emmitsburg Road to south of the Codori farm. This created an untenable salient at the Peach Orchard; Brig. Gen. Andrew A. Humphreys 's division (in position along the Emmitsburg Road) and Maj. Gen. David B. Birney 's division (to the south) were subject to attacks from two sides and were spread out over a longer front than their small corps could defend effectively. The Confederate artillery was ordered to open fire at 3: 00 p.m. After failing to attend a meeting at this time of Meade 's corps commanders, Meade rode to Sickles ' position and demanded an explanation of the situation. Knowing a Confederate attack was imminent and a retreat would be endangered, Meade refused Sickles ' offer to withdraw. Meade was forced to send 20,000 reinforcements: the entire V Corps, Brig. Gen. John C. Caldwell 's division of the II Corps, most of the XII Corps, and portions of the newly arrived VI Corps. Hood 's division moved more to the east than intended, losing its alignment with the Emmitsburg Road, attacking Devil 's Den and Little Round Top. McLaws, coming in on Hood 's left, drove multiple attacks into the thinly stretched III Corps in the Wheatfield and overwhelmed them in Sherfy 's Peach Orchard. McLaws 's attack eventually reached Plum Run Valley (the "Valley of Death '') before being beaten back by the Pennsylvania Reserves division of the V Corps, moving down from Little Round Top. The III Corps was virtually destroyed as a combat unit in this battle, and Sickles 's leg was amputated after it was shattered by a cannonball. Caldwell 's division was destroyed piecemeal in the Wheatfield. Anderson 's division, coming from McLaws 's left and starting forward around 6 p.m., reached the crest of Cemetery Ridge, but could not hold the position in the face of counterattacks from the II Corps, including an almost suicidal bayonet charge by the 1st Minnesota regiment against a Confederate brigade, ordered in desperation by Hancock to buy time for reinforcements to arrive. As fighting raged in the Wheatfield and Devil 's Den, Col. Strong Vincent of V Corps had a precarious hold on Little Round Top, an important hill at the extreme left of the Union line. His brigade of four relatively small regiments was able to resist repeated assaults by Brig. Gen. Evander M. Law 's brigade of Hood 's division. Meade 's chief engineer, Brig. Gen. Gouverneur K. Warren, had realized the importance of this position, and dispatched Vincent 's brigade, an artillery battery, and the 140th New York to occupy Little Round Top mere minutes before Hood 's troops arrived. The defense of Little Round Top with a bayonet charge by the 20th Maine, ordered by Col. Joshua L. Chamberlain but possibly led by Lt. Holman S. Melcher, was one of the most fabled episodes in the Civil War and propelled Col. Chamberlain into prominence after the war. Ewell interpreted his orders as calling only for a cannonade. His 32 guns, along with A.P. Hill 's 55 guns, engaged in a two - hour artillery barrage at extreme range that had little effect. Finally, about six o'clock, Ewell sent orders to each of his division commanders to attack the Union lines in his front. Maj. Gen. Edward "Allegheny '' Johnson 's Division "had not been pushed close to (Culp 's Hill) in preparation for an assault, although one had been contemplated all day. It now had a full mile (1,600 m) to advance and Rock Creek had to be crossed. This could only be done at few places and involved much delay. Only three of Johnson 's four brigades moved to the attack. '' Most of the hill 's defenders, the Union XII Corps, had been sent to the left to defend against Longstreet 's attacks, leaving only a brigade of New Yorkers under Brig. Gen. George S. Greene behind strong, newly constructed defensive works. With reinforcements from the I and XI Corps, Greene 's men held off the Confederate attackers, though giving up some of the lower earthworks on the lower part of Culp 's Hill. Early was similarly unprepared when he ordered Harry T. Hays ' and Isaac E. Avery 's Brigades to attack the Union XI Corps positions on East Cemetery Hill. Once started, fighting was fierce: Col. Andrew L. Harris of the Union 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, came under a withering attack, losing half his men. Avery was wounded early on, but the Confederates reached the crest of the hill and entered the Union breastworks, capturing one or two batteries. Seeing he was not supported on his right, Hays withdrew. His right was to be supported by Robert E. Rodes ' Division, but Rodes -- like Early and Johnson -- had not been ordered up in preparation for the attack. He had twice as far to travel as Early; by the time he came in contact with the Union skirmish line, Early 's troops had already begun to withdraw. Jeb Stuart and his three cavalry brigades arrived in Gettysburg around noon but had no role in the second day 's battle. Brig. Gen. Wade Hampton 's brigade fought a minor engagement with newly promoted 23 - year - old Brig. Gen. George Armstrong Custer 's Michigan cavalry near Hunterstown to the northeast of Gettysburg. General Lee wished to renew the attack on Friday, July 3, using the same basic plan as the previous day: Longstreet would attack the U.S. left, while Ewell attacked Culp 's Hill. However, before Longstreet was ready, Union XII Corps troops started a dawn artillery bombardment against the Confederates on Culp 's Hill in an effort to regain a portion of their lost works. The Confederates attacked, and the second fight for Culp 's Hill ended around 11 a.m. Harry Pfanz judged that, after some seven hours of bitter combat, "the Union line was intact and held more strongly than before. '' Lee was forced to change his plans. Longstreet would command Pickett 's Virginia division of his own First Corps, plus six brigades from Hill 's Corps, in an attack on the U.S. II Corps position at the right center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge. Prior to the attack, all the artillery the Confederacy could bring to bear on the U.S. positions would bombard and weaken the enemy 's line. Much has been made over the years of General Longstreet 's objections to General Lee 's plan. In his memoirs, Longstreet described their discussion as follows: (Lee) rode over after sunrise and gave his orders. His plan was to assault the enemy 's left centre by a column to be composed of McLaws 's and Hood 's divisions reinforced by Pickett 's brigades. I thought that it would not do; that the point had been fully tested the day before, by more men, when all were fresh; that the enemy was there looking for us, as we heard him during the night putting up his defences; that the divisions of McLaws and Hood were holding a mile (1,600 m) along the right of my line against twenty thousand men, who would follow their withdrawal, strike the flank of the assaulting column, crush it, and get on our rear towards the Potomac River; that thirty thousand men was the minimum of force necessary for the work; that even such force would need close co-operation on other parts of the line; that the column as he proposed to organize it would have only about thirteen thousand men (the divisions having lost a third of their numbers the day before); that the column would have to march a mile (1,600 m) under concentrating battery fire, and a thousand yards (900 m) under long - range musketry; that the conditions were different from those in the days of Napoleon, when field batteries had a range of six hundred yards (550 m) and musketry about sixty yards (55 m). He said the distance was not more than fourteen hundred yards (1280 m). General Meade 's estimate was a mile or a mile and a half (1.6 or 2.4 km) (Captain Long, the guide of the field of Gettysburg in 1888, stated that it was a trifle over a mile). He then concluded that the divisions of McLaws and Hood could remain on the defensive line; that he would reinforce by divisions of the Third Corps and Pickett 's brigades, and stated the point to which the march should be directed. I asked the strength of the column. He stated fifteen thousand. Opinion was then expressed that the fifteen thousand men who could make successful assault over that field had never been arrayed for battle; but he was impatient of listening, and tired of talking, and nothing was left but to proceed. Around 1 p.m., from 150 to 170 Confederate guns began an artillery bombardment that was probably the largest of the war. In order to save valuable ammunition for the infantry attack that they knew would follow, the Army of the Potomac 's artillery, under the command of Brig. Gen. Henry Jackson Hunt, at first did not return the enemy 's fire. After waiting about 15 minutes, about 80 U.S. cannons added to the din. The Army of Northern Virginia was critically low on artillery ammunition, and the cannonade did not significantly affect the Union position. Around 3 p.m., the cannon fire subsided, and 12,500 Southern soldiers stepped from the ridgeline and advanced the three - quarters of a mile (1,200 m) to Cemetery Ridge in what is known to history as "Pickett 's Charge ''. As the Confederates approached, there was fierce flanking artillery fire from Union positions on Cemetery Hill and north of Little Round Top, and musket and canister fire from Hancock 's II Corps. In the Union center, the commander of artillery had held fire during the Confederate bombardment (in order to save it for the infantry assault, which Meade had correctly predicted the day before), leading Southern commanders to believe the Northern cannon batteries had been knocked out. However, they opened fire on the Confederate infantry during their approach with devastating results. Nearly one half of the attackers did not return to their own lines. Although the U.S. line wavered and broke temporarily at a jog called the "Angle '' in a low stone fence, just north of a patch of vegetation called the Copse of Trees, reinforcements rushed into the breach, and the Confederate attack was repulsed. The farthest advance of Brig. Gen. Lewis A. Armistead 's brigade of Maj. Gen. George Pickett 's division at the Angle is referred to as the "High - water mark of the Confederacy '', arguably representing the closest the South ever came to its goal of achieving independence from the Union via military victory. Union and Confederate soldiers locked in hand - to - hand combat, attacking with their rifles, bayonets, rocks and even their bare hands. Armistead ordered his Confederates to turn two captured cannons against Union troops, but discovered that there was no ammunition left, the last double canister shots having been used against the charging Confederates. Armistead was wounded shortly afterward three times. There were two significant cavalry engagements on July 3. Stuart was sent to guard the Confederate left flank and was to be prepared to exploit any success the infantry might achieve on Cemetery Hill by flanking the U.S. right and hitting their trains and lines of communications. Three miles (5 km) east of Gettysburg, in what is now called "East Cavalry Field '' (not shown on the accompanying map, but between the York and Hanover Roads), Stuart 's forces collided with U.S. cavalry: Brig. Gen. David McMurtrie Gregg 's division and Brig. Gen. Custer 's brigade. A lengthy mounted battle, including hand - to - hand sabre combat, ensued. Custer 's charge, leading the 1st Michigan Cavalry, blunted the attack by Wade Hampton 's brigade, blocking Stuart from achieving his objectives in the U.S. rear. Meanwhile, after hearing news of the day 's victory, Brig. Gen. Judson Kilpatrick launched a cavalry attack against the infantry positions of Longstreet 's Corps southwest of Big Round Top. Brig. Gen. Elon J. Farnsworth protested against the futility of such a move, but obeyed orders. Farnsworth was killed in the attack, and his brigade suffered significant losses. The two armies suffered between 46,000 and 51,000 casualties. Union casualties were 23,055 (3,155 killed, 14,531 wounded, 5,369 captured or missing), while Confederate casualties are more difficult to estimate. Many authors have referred to as many as 28,000 Confederate casualties, and Busey and Martin 's more recent 2005 work, Regimental Strengths and Losses at Gettysburg, documents 23,231 (4,708 killed, 12,693 wounded, 5,830 captured or missing). Nearly a third of Lee 's general officers were killed, wounded, or captured. The casualties for both sides during the entire campaign were 57,225. In addition to being the deadliest battle of the war in terms of total casualties, Gettysburg also had the highest number of generals killed in action of any battle in the war. The Confederacy lost generals Paul Jones Semmes, William Barksdale, William Dorsey Pender, Richard Garnett, and Lewis Armistead, as well as J. Johnston Pettigrew during the retreat after the battle. The Union lost Generals John Reynolds, Samuel K. Zook, Stephen H. Weed, and Elon J. Farnsworth, as well as Strong Vincent, who after being mortally wounded was given a deathbed promotion to brigadier general. Additional senior officer casualties included the wounding of Union Generals Dan Sickles (lost a leg), Francis C. Barlow, and Winfield Scott Hancock. For the Confederacy, Major General John Bell Hood lost the use of his left arm, while Major General Henry Heth received a shot to the head on the first day of battle (though incapacitated for the rest of the battle, he remarkably survived without long term injuries, credited in part due to his hat stuffed full of paper dispatches). Confederate Generals James Kemper and Isaac R. Trimble were severely wounded during Pickett 's charge and captured during the Confederate retreat. General James J. Archer, in command of a brigade that most likely was responsible for killing Reynolds, was taken prisoner shortly after Reynolds ' death. The following tables summarize casualties by corps for the Union and Confederate forces during the three - day battle. Bruce Catton wrote, "The town of Gettysburg looked as if some universal moving day had been interrupted by catastrophe. '' But there was only one documented civilian death during the battle: Ginnie Wade (also widely known as Jennie), 20 years old, was hit by a stray bullet that passed through her kitchen in town while she was making bread. Another notable civilian casualty was John L. Burns, a 69 - year old veteran of the War of 1812 who walked to the front lines on the first day of battle and participated in heavy combat as a volunteer, receiving numerous wounds in the process. Despite his age and injuries, Burns survived the battle and lived until 1872. Nearly 8,000 had been killed outright; these bodies, lying in the hot summer sun, needed to be buried quickly. Over 3,000 horse carcasses were burned in a series of piles south of town; townsfolk became violently ill from the stench. Meanwhile, the town of Gettysburg, with its population of just 2,400, found itself tasked with taking care of 14,000 wounded Union troops and an additional 8,000 Confederate prisoners. The armies stared at one another in a heavy rain across the bloody fields on July 4, the same day that the Vicksburg garrison surrendered to Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant. Lee had reformed his lines into a defensive position on Seminary Ridge the night of July 3, evacuating the town of Gettysburg. The Confederates remained on the battlefield, hoping that Meade would attack, but the cautious Union commander decided against the risk, a decision for which he would later be criticized. Both armies began to collect their remaining wounded and bury some of the dead. A proposal by Lee for a prisoner exchange was rejected by Meade. Lee started his Army of Northern Virginia in motion late the evening of July 4 towards Fairfield and Chambersburg. Cavalry under Brig. Gen. John D. Imboden was entrusted to escort the miles - long wagon train of supplies and wounded men that Lee wanted to take back to Virginia with him, using the route through Cashtown and Hagerstown to Williamsport, Maryland. Meade 's army followed, although the pursuit was half - spirited. The recently rain - swollen Potomac trapped Lee 's army on the north bank of the river for a time, but when the Union troops finally caught up, the Confederates had forded the river. The rear - guard action at Falling Waters on July 14 added some more names to the long casualty lists, including General Pettigrew, who was mortally wounded. General James Kemper, severely wounded during Pickett 's charge, was captured during Lee 's retreat. In a brief letter to Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck written on July 7, Lincoln remarked on the two major Union victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg. He continued: Now, if Gen. Meade can complete his work so gloriously prosecuted thus far, by the literal or substantial destruction of Lee 's army, the rebellion will be over. Halleck then relayed the contents of Lincoln 's letter to Meade in a telegram. Despite repeated pleas from Lincoln and Halleck, which continued over the next week, Meade did not pursue Lee 's army aggressively enough to destroy it before it crossed back over the Potomac River to safety in the South. The campaign continued into Virginia with light engagements until July 23, in the minor Battle of Manassas Gap, after which Meade abandoned any attempts at pursuit and the two armies took up positions across from each other on the Rappahannock River. The news of the Union victory electrified the North. A headline in The Philadelphia Inquirer proclaimed "VICTORY! WATERLOO ECLIPSED! '' New York diarist George Templeton Strong wrote: The results of this victory are priceless... The charm of Robert E. Lee 's invincibility is broken. The Army of the Potomac has at last found a general that can handle it, and has stood nobly up to its terrible work in spite of its long disheartening list of hard - fought failures... Copperheads are palsied and dumb for the moment at least... Government is strengthened four-fold at home and abroad. However, the Union enthusiasm soon dissipated as the public realized that Lee 's army had escaped destruction and the war would continue. Lincoln complained to Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles that "Our army held the war in the hollow of their hand and they would not close it! '' Brig. Gen. Alexander S. Webb wrote to his father on July 17, stating that such Washington politicians as "Chase, Seward and others, '' disgusted with Meade, "write to me that Lee really won that Battle! '' In fact, the Confederates had lost militarily and also politically. During the final hours of the battle, Confederate Vice President Alexander Stephens was approaching the Union lines at Norfolk, Virginia, under a flag of truce. Although his formal instructions from Confederate President Jefferson Davis had limited his powers to negotiate on prisoner exchanges and other procedural matters, historian James M. McPherson speculates that he had informal goals of presenting peace overtures. Davis had hoped that Stephens would reach Washington from the south while Lee 's victorious army was marching toward it from the north. President Lincoln, upon hearing of the Gettysburg results, refused Stephens 's request to pass through the lines. Furthermore, when the news reached London, any lingering hopes of European recognition of the Confederacy were finally abandoned. Henry Adams wrote, "The disasters of the rebels are unredeemed by even any hope of success. It is now conceded that all idea of intervention is at an end. '' Compounding the effects of the defeat would be end of the Siege of Vicksburg, which surrendered to Grant 's Federal armies in the West on July 4, the day after the Gettysburg battle. The immediate reaction of the Southern military and public sectors was that Gettysburg was a setback, not a disaster. The sentiment was that Lee had been successful on July 1 and had fought a valiant battle on July 2 -- 3, but could not dislodge the Union Army from the strong defensive position to which it fled. The Confederates successfully stood their ground on July 4 and withdrew only after they realized Meade would not attack them. The withdrawal to the Potomac that could have been a disaster was handled masterfully. Furthermore, the Army of the Potomac had been kept away from Virginia farmlands for the summer and all predicted that Meade would be too timid to threaten them for the rest of the year. Lee himself had a positive view of the campaign, writing to his wife that the army had returned "rather sooner than I had originally contemplated, but having accomplished what I proposed on leaving the Rappahannock, viz., relieving the Valley of the presence of the enemy and drawing his Army north of the Potomac. '' He was quoted as saying to Maj. John Seddon, brother of the Confederate secretary of war, "Sir, we did whip them at Gettysburg, and it will be seen for the next six months that that army will be as quiet as a sucking dove. '' Some Southern publications, such as the Charleston Mercury, criticized Lee 's actions in the campaign and on August 8, he offered his resignation to President Davis, who quickly rejected it. Gettysburg became a postbellum focus of the "Lost Cause '', a movement by writers such as Edward A. Pollard and Jubal Early to explain the reasons for the Confederate defeat in the war. A fundamental premise of their argument was that the South was doomed because of the overwhelming advantage in manpower and industrial might possessed by the North. However, they claim it also suffered because Robert E. Lee, who up until this time had been almost invincible, was betrayed by the failures of some of his key subordinates at Gettysburg: Ewell, for failing to seize Cemetery Hill on July 1; Stuart, for depriving the army of cavalry intelligence for a key part of the campaign; and especially Longstreet, for failing to attack on July 2 as early and as forcefully as Lee had originally intended. In this view, Gettysburg was seen as a great lost opportunity, in which a decisive victory by Lee could have meant the end of the war in the Confederacy 's favor. After the war, General Pickett was asked why Confederates lost at Gettysburg. He replied "I always thought the Yankees had something to do with it. '' The ravages of war were still evident in Gettysburg more than four months later when, on November 19, the Soldiers ' National Cemetery was dedicated. During this ceremony, President Abraham Lincoln honored the fallen and redefined the purpose of the war in his historic Gettysburg Address. The nature of the result of the Battle of Gettysburg has been the subject of controversy for years. Although not seen as overwhelmingly significant at the time, particularly since the war continued for almost two years, in retrospect it has often been cited as the "turning point '', usually in combination with the fall of Vicksburg the following day. This is based on the observation that after Gettysburg Lee 's army conducted no more strategic offensives -- his army merely reacted to the initiative of Ulysses S. Grant in 1864 and 1865 -- and by the speculative viewpoint of the Lost Cause writers that a Confederate victory at Gettysburg might have resulted in the end of the war. Bruce Catton, Glory Road It is currently a widely held view that Gettysburg was a decisive victory for the Union, but the term is considered imprecise. It is inarguable that Lee 's offensive on July 3 was turned back decisively and his campaign in Pennsylvania was terminated prematurely (although the Confederates at the time argued that this was a temporary setback and that the goals of the campaign were largely met). However, when the more common definition of "decisive victory '' is intended -- an indisputable military victory of a battle that determines or significantly influences the ultimate result of a conflict -- historians are divided. For example, David J. Eicher called Gettysburg a "strategic loss for the Confederacy '' and James M. McPherson wrote that "Lee and his men would go on to earn further laurels. But they never again possessed the power and reputation they carried into Pennsylvania those palmy summer days of 1863. '' However, Herman Hattaway and Archer Jones wrote that the "strategic impact of the Battle of Gettysburg was... fairly limited. '' Steven E. Woodworth wrote that "Gettysburg proved only the near impossibility of decisive action in the Eastern theater. '' Edwin Coddington pointed out the heavy toll on the Army of the Potomac and that "after the battle Meade no longer possessed a truly effective instrument for the accomplishments of his task. The army needed a thorough reorganization with new commanders and fresh troops, but these changes were not made until Grant appeared on the scene in March 1864. '' Joseph T. Glatthaar wrote that "Lost opportunities and near successes plagued the Army of Northern Virginia during its Northern invasion, '' yet after Gettysburg, "without the distractions of duty as an invading force, without the breakdown of discipline, the Army of Northern Virginia (remained) an extremely formidable force. '' Ed Bearss wrote, "Lee 's invasion of the North had been a costly failure. Nevertheless, at best the Army of the Potomac had simply preserved the strategic stalemate in the Eastern Theater... '' Furthermore, the Confederacy soon proved it was still capable of winning significant victories over the Northern forces in both the East (Battle of Cold Harbor) and West (Battle of Chickamauga). Peter Carmichael refers to the military context for the armies, the "horrendous losses at Chancellorsville and Gettysburg, which effectively destroyed Lee 's offensive capacity, '' implying that these cumulative losses were not the result of a single battle. Thomas Goss, writing in the U.S. Army 's Military Review journal on the definition of "decisive '' and the application of that description to Gettysburg, concludes: "For all that was decided and accomplished, the Battle of Gettysburg fails to earn the label ' decisive battle '. '' The military historian John Keegan agrees. Gettysburg was a landmark battle, the largest of the war and it would not be surpassed. The Union had restored to it the belief in certain victory, and the loss dispirited the Confederacy. If "not exactly a decisive battle '', Gettysburg was the end of Confederate use of Northern Virginia as a military buffer zone, the setting for Grant 's Overland Campaign. Prior to Gettysburg, Robert E. Lee had established a reputation as an almost invincible general, achieving stunning victories against superior numbers -- although usually at the cost of high casualties to his army -- during the Seven Days, the Northern Virginia Campaign (including the Second Battle of Bull Run), Fredericksburg, and Chancellorsville. Only the Maryland Campaign, with its tactically inconclusive Battle of Antietam, had been less than successful. Therefore, historians have attempted to explain how Lee 's winning streak was interrupted so dramatically at Gettysburg. Although the issue is tainted by attempts to portray history and Lee 's reputation in a manner supporting different partisan goals, the major factors in Lee 's loss arguably can be attributed to: (1) his overconfidence in the invincibility of his men; (2) the performance of his subordinates, and his management thereof; (3) his failing health, and (4) the performance of his opponent, George G. Meade, and the Army of the Potomac. Throughout the campaign, Lee was influenced by the belief that his men were invincible; most of Lee 's experiences with the Army of Northern Virginia had convinced him of this, including the great victory at Chancellorsville in early May and the rout of the Union troops at Gettysburg on July 1. Since morale plays an important role in military victory when other factors are equal, Lee did not want to dampen his army 's desire to fight and resisted suggestions, principally by Longstreet, to withdraw from the recently captured Gettysburg to select a ground more favorable to his army. War correspondent Peter W. Alexander wrote that Lee "acted, probably, under the impression that his troops were able to carry any position however formidable. If such was the case, he committed an error, such however as the ablest commanders will sometimes fall into. '' Lee himself concurred with this judgment, writing to President Davis, "No blame can be attached to the army for its failure to accomplish what was projected by me, nor should it be censured for the unreasonable expectations of the public -- I am alone to blame, in perhaps expecting too much of its prowess and valor. '' The most controversial assessments of the battle involve the performance of Lee 's subordinates. The dominant theme of the Lost Cause writers and many other historians is that Lee 's senior generals failed him in crucial ways, directly causing the loss of the battle; the alternative viewpoint is that Lee did not manage his subordinates adequately, and did not thereby compensate for their shortcomings. Two of his corps commanders -- Richard S. Ewell and A.P. Hill -- had only recently been promoted and were not fully accustomed to Lee 's style of command, in which he provided only general objectives and guidance to their former commander, Stonewall Jackson; Jackson translated these into detailed, specific orders to his division commanders. All four of Lee 's principal commanders received criticism during the campaign and battle: In addition to Hill 's illness, Lee 's performance was affected by heart troubles, which would eventually lead to his death in 1870; he had been diagnosed with pericarditis by his staff physicians in March 1863, though modern doctors believe he had in fact suffered a heart attack. He wrote to Jefferson Davis that his physical condition prevented him from offering full supervision in the field, and said, "I am so dull that in making use of the eyes of others I am frequently misled. '' As a final factor, Lee faced a new and formidable opponent in George G. Meade, and the Army of the Potomac fought well on its home territory. Although new to his army command, Meade deployed his forces relatively effectively; relied on strong subordinates such as Winfield S. Hancock to make decisions where and when they were needed; took great advantage of defensive positions; nimbly shifted defensive resources on interior lines to parry strong threats; and, unlike some of his predecessors, stood his ground throughout the battle in the face of fierce Confederate attacks. Lee was quoted before the battle as saying Meade "would commit no blunders on my front and if I make one... will make haste to take advantage of it. '' That prediction proved to be correct at Gettysburg. Stephen Sears wrote, "The fact of the matter is that George G. Meade, unexpectedly and against all odds, thoroughly outgeneraled Robert E. Lee at Gettysburg. '' Edwin B. Coddington wrote that the soldiers of the Army of the Potomac received a "sense of triumph which grew into an imperishable faith in (themselves). The men knew what they could do under an extremely competent general; one of lesser ability and courage could well have lost the battle. '' Meade had his own detractors as well. Similar to the situation with Lee, Meade suffered partisan attacks about his performance at Gettysburg, but he had the misfortune of experiencing them in person. Supporters of his predecessor, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, lambasted Meade before the U.S. Congress 's Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, where Radical Republicans suspected that Meade was a Copperhead and tried in vain to relieve him from command. Daniel E. Sickles and Daniel Butterfield accused Meade of planning to retreat from Gettysburg during the battle. Most politicians, including Lincoln, criticized Meade for what they considered to be his half - hearted pursuit of Lee after the battle. A number of Meade 's most competent subordinates -- Winfield S. Hancock, John Gibbon, Gouverneur K. Warren, and Henry J. Hunt, all heroes of the battle -- defended Meade in print, but Meade was embittered by the overall experience. Today, the Gettysburg National Cemetery and Gettysburg National Military Park are maintained by the U.S. National Park Service as two of the nation 's most revered historical landmarks. Although Gettysburg is one of the best known of all Civil War battlefields, it too faces threats to its preservation and interpretation. Many historically significant locations on the battlefield lie outside the boundaries of Gettysburg National Military Park and are vulnerable to residential or commercial development. On July 20, 2009, a Comfort Inn and Suites opened on Cemetery Hill, adjacent to Evergreen Cemetery, just one of many modern edifices infringing on the historic field. The Baltimore Pike corridor attracts development that concerns preservationists. Some preservation successes have emerged in recent years. Two proposals to open a casino at Gettysburg were defeated in 2006 and most recently in 2011, when public pressure forced the Pennsylvania Gaming Control Board to reject the proposed gambling hub at the intersection of Routes 15 and 30, near East Cavalry Field. The Civil War Trust also successfully purchased and transferred 95 acres at the former site of the Gettysburg Country Club to the control of the U.S. Department of the Interior in 2011. Less than half of the over 11,500 acres on the old Gettysburg Battlefield have been preserved for posterity thus far. The Civil War Trust (a division of the American Battlefield Trust) and its partners have acquired and preserved 1,022 acres (4.14 km) of the battlefield in more than 30 separate transactions since 1997. Some of these acres are now among the 4,998 acres of the Gettysburg National Military Park. In 2015, the Trust made one of its most important and expensive acquisitions, paying $6 million for a four - acre parcel that included the stone house that Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee used as his headquarters during the battle. The Trust razed a motel, restaurant and other buildings within the parcel to restore Lee 's Headquarters and the site to their wartime appearance, adding interpretive signs. It opened the site to the public in October, 2016. During the Civil War Centennial, the U.S. Post Office issued five postage stamps commemorating the 100th anniversaries of famous battles, as they occurred over a four - year period, beginning with the Battle of Fort Sumter Centennial issue of 1961. The Battle of Shiloh commemorative stamp was issued in 1962, the Battle of Gettysburg in 1963, the Battle of the Wilderness in 1964, and the Appomattox Centennial commemorative stamp in 1965. A commemorative half dollar for the battle was produced in 1936. As was typical for the period, mintage for the coin was very low, just 26,928. On January 24, 2011, the America the Beautiful quarters released a 25 - cent coin commemorating Gettysburg National Military Park and the Battle of Gettysburg. The reverse side of the coin depicts the monument on Cemetery Ridge to the 72nd Pennsylvania Infantry. Film records survive of two Gettysburg reunions, held on the battlefield. At the 50th anniversary (1913), veterans re-enacted Pickett 's Charge in a spirit of reconciliation, a meeting that carried great emotional force for both sides. At the 75th anniversary (1938), 2500 veterans attended, and there was a ceremonial mass hand - shake across a stone wall. This was recorded on sound film, and some Confederates can be heard giving the Rebel Yell. The Battle of Gettysburg was depicted in the 1993 film Gettysburg, based on Michael Shaara 's 1974 novel The Killer Angels. The film and novel focused primarily on the actions of Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain, John Buford, Robert E. Lee, and James Longstreet during the battle. The first day focused on Buford 's cavalry defense, the second day on Chamberlain 's defense at Little Round Top, and the third day on Pickett 's Charge. The south winning the Battle of Gettysburg is a popular premise for a point of divergence in American Civil War alternate histories. Here are some examples which either depict or make significant reference to an alternate Battle of Gettysburg (sometimes simply inserting fantasy or sci - fi elements in an account of the battle):

at what temperature would a sample of heavy water freeze

Heavy water - wikipedia Heavy water (deuterium oxide, H O, D O) is a form of water that contains a larger than normal amount of the hydrogen isotope deuterium (H or D, also known as heavy hydrogen), rather than the common hydrogen - 1 isotope (H or H, also called protium) that makes up most of the hydrogen in normal water. The presence of deuterium gives the chemical different nuclear properties, and the increase of mass gives it different physical and chemical properties compared to normal "light water ''. Deuterium is a hydrogen isotope with a nucleus containing a neutron and a proton; the nucleus of a protium (normal hydrogen) atom consists of just a proton. The additional neutron makes a deuterium atom roughly twice as heavy as a protium atom. A molecule of heavy water has two deuterium atoms in place of the two protium atoms of ordinary "light '' water. The weight of a heavy water molecule, however, is not substantially different from that of a normal water molecule, because about 89 % of the molecular weight of water comes from the single oxygen atom rather than the two hydrogen atoms. The colloquial term heavy water refers to a highly enriched water mixture that contains mostly deuterium oxide D O, but also some hydrogen - deuterium oxide (HDO) and a smaller number of ordinary hydrogen oxide H O molecules. For instance, the heavy water used in CANDU reactors is 99.75 % enriched by hydrogen atom - fraction -- meaning that 99.75 % of the hydrogen atoms are of the heavy type. For comparison, ordinary water (the "ordinary water '' used for a deuterium standard) contains only about 156 deuterium atoms per million hydrogen atoms, meaning that 0.0156 % of the hydrogen atoms are of the heavy type. Heavy water is not radioactive. In its pure form, it has a density about 11 % greater than water, but is otherwise physically and chemically similar. Nevertheless, the various differences in deuterium - containing water (especially affecting the biological properties) are larger than in any other commonly occurring isotope - substituted compound because deuterium is unique among heavy stable isotopes in being twice as heavy as the lightest isotope. This difference increases the strength of water 's hydrogen - oxygen bonds, and this in turn is enough to cause differences that are important to some biochemical reactions. The human body naturally contains deuterium equivalent to about five grams of heavy water, which is harmless. When a large fraction of water (> 50 %) in higher organisms is replaced by heavy water, the result is cell dysfunction and death. Heavy water was first produced in 1932, a few months after the discovery of deuterium. With the discovery of nuclear fission in late 1938, and the need for a neutron moderator that captured few neutrons, heavy water became a component of early nuclear energy research. Since then, heavy water has been an essential component in some types of reactors, both those that generate power and those designed to produce isotopes for nuclear weapons. These heavy water reactors have the advantage of being able to run on natural uranium without using graphite moderators that pose radiological and dust explosion hazards in the decommissioning phase. Most modern reactors use enriched uranium with ordinary water as the moderator. Semiheavy water, HDO, exists whenever there is water with light hydrogen (protium, H) and deuterium (D or H) in the mix. This is because hydrogen atoms (hydrogen - 1 and deuterium) are rapidly exchanged between water molecules. Water containing 50 % H and 50 % D in its hydrogen actually contains about 50 % HDO and 25 % each of H O and D O, in dynamic equilibrium. In normal water, about 1 molecule in 3,200 is HDO (one hydrogen in 6,400 is in the form of D), and heavy water molecules (D O) only occur in a proportion of about 1 molecule in 41 million (i.e. one in 6,400). Thus semiheavy water molecules are far more common than "pure '' (homoisotopic) heavy water molecules. Water enriched in the heavier oxygen isotopes O and O is also commercially available, e.g., for use as a non-radioactive isotopic tracer. It is "heavy water '' as it is denser than normal water (H O is approximately as dense as D O, H O is about halfway between H O and D O) -- but is rarely called heavy water, since it does not contain the deuterium that gives D O its unusual nuclear and biological properties. It is more expensive than D O due to the more difficult separation of O and O. H O is also used for production of fluorine - 18 for radiopharmaceuticals and radiotracers and for positron emission tomography. Tritiated water contains tritium (H) in place of protium (H) or deuterium (H), and therefore it is radioactive. The physical properties of water and heavy water differ in several respects. Heavy water is less dissociated than light water at given temperature, and the true concentration of D ions is less than H ions would be for a light water sample at the same temperature. The same is true of OD vs. OH ions. For heavy water Kw D O (25.0 ° C) = 1.35 × 10, and (D) must equal (OD) for neutral water. Thus pKw D O = p (OD) + p (D) = 7.44 + 7.44 = 14.87 (25.0 ° C), and the p (D) of neutral heavy water at 25.0 ° C is 7.44. The pD of heavy water is generally measured using pH electrodes giving a pH (apparent) value, or pHa, and at various temperatures a true acidic pD can be estimated from the directly pH meter measured pHa, such that pD+ = pHa (apparent reading from pH meter) + 0.41. The electrode correction for alkaline conditions is 0.456 for heavy water. The alkaline correction is then pD+ = PHa (apparent reading from pH meter) + 0.456. These corrections are slightly different from the differences in p (D+) and p (OD -) of 0.44 from the corresponding ones in heavy water. Heavy water is 10.6 % denser than ordinary water, and heavy water 's physically different properties can be seen without equipment if a frozen sample is dropped into normal water, as it will sink. If the water is ice - cold the higher melting temperature of heavy ice can also be observed: it melts at 3.7 ° C, and thus does not melt in ice - cold normal water. An early experiment reported not the "slightest difference '' in taste between ordinary and heavy water. However, rats given a choice between distilled normal water and heavy water were able to avoid the heavy water based on smell, and it may have a different taste. No physical properties are listed for "pure '' semi-heavy water, because it is unstable as a bulk liquid. In the liquid state, a few water molecules are always in an ionised state, which means the hydrogen atoms can exchange among different oxygen atoms. Semi-heavy water could, in theory, be created via a chemical method, but it would rapidly transform into a dynamic mixture of 25 % light water, 25 % heavy water, and 50 % semi-heavy water. However, if it were made in the gas phase and directly deposited into a solid, semi heavy water in the form of ice could be stable. This is due to collisions between water vapour molecules being almost completely negligible in the gas phase at standard temperatures, and once crystallized collisions between the molecules cease altogether due to the rigid lattice structure of solid ice. Harold Urey discovered the isotope deuterium in 1931 and was later able to concentrate it in water. Urey 's mentor Gilbert Newton Lewis isolated the first sample of pure heavy water by electrolysis in 1933. George de Hevesy and Erich Hofer used heavy water in 1934 in one of the first biological tracer experiments, to estimate the rate of turnover of water in the human body. The history of large - quantity production and use of heavy water in early nuclear experiments is given below. Emilian Bratu and Otto Redlich studied the autodissociation of heavy water in 1934. Different isotopes of chemical elements have slightly different chemical behaviors, but for most elements the differences are far too small to use, or even detect. For hydrogen, however, this is not true. The larger chemical isotope - effects seen between protium (light hydrogen) versus deuterium and tritium manifest because bond energies in chemistry are determined in quantum mechanics by equations in which the quantity of reduced mass of the nucleus and electrons appears. This quantity is altered in heavy - hydrogen compounds (of which deuterium oxide is the most common) more than for heavy - isotope substitution in other chemical elements. This isotope effect of heavy hydrogen is magnified further in biological systems, which are very sensitive to small changes in the solvent properties of water. Heavy water is the only known chemical substance that affects the period of circadian oscillations, consistently increasing the length of each cycle. The effect is seen in unicellular organisms, green plants, isopods, insects, birds, mice, and hamsters. The mechanism is unknown. To perform their tasks, enzymes rely on their finely tuned networks of hydrogen bonds, both in the active center with their substrates, and outside the active center, to stabilize their tertiary structures. As a hydrogen bond with deuterium is slightly stronger than one involving ordinary hydrogen, in a highly deuterated environment, some normal reactions in cells are disrupted. Particularly hard - hit by heavy water are the delicate assemblies of mitotic spindle formation necessary for cell division in eukaryotes. Plants stop growing and seeds do not germinate when given only heavy water, because heavy water stops eukaryotic cell division. The deuterium cell is larger and it is a modification of the direction of division. The cell membrane also changes, and it reacts first to the impact of heavy water. In 1972 it was demonstrated that an increase in the percentage content of deuterium in water reduces plant growth. Research conducted on the growth of prokaryote microorganisms in artificial conditions of a heavy hydrogen environment showed that in this environment, all the hydrogen atoms of water could be replaced with deuterium. Experiments showed that bacteria can live in 98 % heavy water. However, all concentrations over 50 % of deuterium in the water molecules were found to kill plants. Experiments in mice, rats, and dogs have shown that a degree of 25 % deuteration causes (sometimes irreversible) sterility, because neither gametes nor zygotes can develop. High concentrations of heavy water (90 %) rapidly kill fish, tadpoles, flatworms, and Drosophila. Mammals (for example, rats) given heavy water to drink die after a week, at a time when their body water approaches about 50 % deuteration. The mode of death appears to be the same as that in cytotoxic poisoning (such as chemotherapy) or in acute radiation syndrome (though deuterium is not radioactive), and is due to deuterium 's action in generally inhibiting cell division. It is more toxic to malignant cells than normal cells but the concentrations needed are too high for regular use. As in chemotherapy, deuterium - poisoned mammals die of a failure of bone marrow (bleeding and infection) and intestinal - barrier functions (diarrhea and fluid loss). Despite the problems of plants and animals in living with too much deuterium, prokaryotic organisms such as bacteria, which do not have the mitotic problems induced by deuterium, may be grown and propagated in fully deuterated conditions, resulting in replacement of all hydrogen atoms in the bacterial proteins and DNA with the deuterium isotope. Full replacement with heavy atom isotopes can be accomplished in higher organisms with other non-radioactive heavy isotopes (such as carbon - 13, nitrogen - 15, and oxygen - 18), but this can not be done for the stable heavy isotope of hydrogen. Deuterium oxide is used to enhance boron neutron capture therapy, but this effect does not rely on the biological effects of deuterium per se, but instead on deuterium 's ability to moderate (slow) neutrons without capturing them. Because it would take a very large amount of heavy water to replace 25 % to 50 % of a human being 's body water (water being in turn 50 -- 75 % of body weight) with heavy water, accidental or intentional poisoning with heavy water is unlikely to the point of practical disregard. Poisoning would require that the victim ingest large amounts of heavy water without significant normal water intake for many days to produce any noticeable toxic effects. Oral doses of heavy water in the range of several grams, as well as heavy oxygen O, are routinely used in human metabolic experiments. See doubly labeled water testing. Since one in about every 6,400 hydrogen atoms is deuterium, a 50 kg human containing 32 kg of body water would normally contain enough deuterium (about 1.1 g) to make 5.5 g of pure heavy water, so roughly this dose is required to double the amount of deuterium in the body. A loss of blood pressure may partially explain the reported incidence of dizziness upon ingestion of heavy water. However, it is more likely that this symptom can be attributed to altered vestibular function. Although many people associate heavy water primarily with its use in nuclear reactors, pure heavy water is not radioactive. Commercial - grade heavy water is slightly radioactive due to the presence of minute traces of natural tritium, but the same is true of ordinary water. Heavy water that has been used as a coolant in nuclear power plants contains substantially more tritium as a result of neutron bombardment of the deuterium in the heavy water (tritium is a health risk when ingested in large quantities). In 1990, a disgruntled employee at the Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating Station in Canada obtained a sample (estimated as about a "half cup '') of heavy water from the primary heat transport loop of the nuclear reactor, and loaded it into a cafeteria drink dispenser. Eight employees drank some of the contaminated water. The incident was discovered when employees began leaving bioassay urine samples with elevated tritium levels. The quantity of heavy water involved was far below levels that could induce heavy water toxicity, but several employees received elevated radiation doses from tritium and neutron - activated chemicals in the water. This was not an incident of heavy water poisoning, but rather radiation poisoning from other isotopes in the heavy water. Some news services were not careful to distinguish these points, and some of the public were left with the impression that heavy water is normally radioactive and more severely toxic than it is. Even if pure heavy water had been used in the water cooler indefinitely, it is not likely the incident would have been detected or caused harm, since no employee would be expected to get much more than 25 % of their daily drinking water from such a source. On Earth, deuterated water, HDO, occurs naturally in normal water at a proportion of about 1 molecule in 3,200. This means that 1 in 6,400 hydrogen atoms is deuterium, which is 1 part in 3,200 by weight (hydrogen weight). The HDO may be separated from normal water by distillation or electrolysis and also by various chemical exchange processes, all of which exploit a kinetic isotope effect. (For more information about the isotopic distribution of deuterium in water, see Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water.) In theory, deuterium for heavy water could be created in a nuclear reactor, but separation from ordinary water is the cheapest bulk production process. The difference in mass between the two hydrogen isotopes translates into a difference in the zero - point energy and thus into a slight difference in the speed of the reaction. Once HDO becomes a significant fraction of the water, heavy water becomes more prevalent as water molecules trade hydrogen atoms very frequently. Production of pure heavy water by distillation or electrolysis requires a large cascade of stills or electrolysis chambers and consumes large amounts of power, so the chemical methods are generally preferred. The most cost - effective process for producing heavy water is the dual temperature exchange sulfide process (known as the Girdler sulfide process) developed in parallel by Karl - Hermann Geib and Jerome S. Spevack in 1943. An alternative process, patented by Graham M. Keyser, uses lasers to selectively dissociate deuterated hydrofluorocarbons to form deuterium fluoride, which can then be separated by physical means. Although the energy consumption for this process is much less than for the Girdler sulfide process, this method is currently uneconomical due to the expense of procuring the necessary hydrofluorocarbons. As noted, modern commercial heavy water is almost universally referred to, and sold as, deuterium oxide. It is most often sold in various grades of purity, from 98 % enrichment to 99.75 -- 99.98 % deuterium enrichment (nuclear reactor grade) and occasionally even higher isotopic purity. Argentina is the main producer of heavy water, using an ammonia / hydrogen exchange based plant supplied by Switzerland 's Sulzer company. It is also a major exporter to Canada, USA, Germany, and other countries. The heavy water production facility located at Arroyito, Neuquén Province is the world 's largest heavy water production facility. Argentina produces 200 tons of heavy water per year using, not H S bithermal method, but monothermal ammonia - hydrogen isotopic exchange. In October 1939, Soviet physicists Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich and Yulii Borisovich Khariton concluded that heavy water and carbon were the only feasible moderators for a natural uranium reactor, and in August 1940, along with Georgy Flyorov, submitted a plan to the Russian Academy of Sciences calculating that 15 tons of heavy water were needed for a reactor. With the Soviet Union having no uranium mines at the time, young Academy workers were sent to Leningrad photographic shops to buy uranium nitrate, but the entire heavy water project was halted in 1941 when German forces invaded during Operation Barbarossa. By 1943, Soviet scientists had discovered that all scientific literature relating to heavy water had disappeared from the West, which Flyorov in a letter warned Soviet leader Joseph Stalin about, and at which time there was only 2 -- 3 kg of heavy water in the entire country. In late 1943, the Soviet purchasing commission in the U.S. obtained 1 kg of heavy water and a further 100 kg in February 1945, and upon World War II ending, the NKVD took over the project. In October 1946, as part of the Russian Alsos, the NKVD deported to the Soviet Union from Germany the German scientists who had worked on heavy water production during the war, including Karl - Hermann Geib, the inventor of the Girdler sulfide process. These German scientists worked under the supervision of German physical chemist Max Volmer at the Institute of Physical Chemistry in Moscow with the plant they constructed producing large quantities of heavy water by 1948. During the Manhattan Project the United States constructed three heavy water production plants as part of the P - 9 Project at Morgantown Ordnance Works, near Morgantown, West Virginia; at the Wabash River Ordnance Works, near Dana and Newport, Indiana; and at the Alabama Ordnance Works, near Childersburg and Sylacauga, Alabama. Heavy water was also acquired from the Cominco plant in Trail, British Columbia, Canada. The Chicago Pile - 3 experimental reactor used heavy water as a moderator and went critical in 1944. The three domestic production plants were shut down in 1945 after producing around 20 metric tons of product (around 20,000 litres). The Wabash plant was reopened and began resumption of heavy water production in 1952. In 1953, the United States began using heavy water in plutonium production reactors at the Savannah River Site. The first of the five heavy water reactors came online in 1953, and the last was placed in cold shutdown in 1996. The SRS reactors were heavy water reactors so that they could produce both plutonium and tritium for the US nuclear weapons program. The U.S. developed the Girdler sulfide chemical exchange production process -- which was first demonstrated on a large scale at the Dana, Indiana plant in 1945 and at the Savannah River Plant, South Carolina in 1952. DuPont operated the SRP for the USDOE until 1 April 1989, when Westinghouse took it over. India is one of the world 's largest producers of heavy water through its Heavy Water Board and also exports to countries like Republic of Korea and the US. Development of heavy water process in India happened in three phases: The first phase (late 1950s to mid-1980s) was a period of technology development, the second phase was of deployment of technology and process stabilisation (mid-1980s to early 1990s) and third phase saw consolidation and a shift towards improvement in production and energy conservation. In the 1930s, it was suspected by the United States and Soviet Union that Austrian chemist Fritz Johann Hansgirg built a pilot plant for the Empire of Japan in Japanese ruled northern Korea to produce heavy water by using a new process he had invented. In 1934, Norsk Hydro built the first commercial heavy water plant at Vemork, Tinn, with a capacity of 12 tonnes per year. From 1940 and throughout World War II, the plant was under German control and the Allies decided to destroy the plant and its heavy water to inhibit German development of nuclear weapons. In late 1942, a planned raid by British airborne troops failed, both gliders crashing. The raiders were killed in the crash or subsequently executed by the Germans. On the night of 27 February 1943 Operation Gunnerside succeeded. Norwegian commandos and local resistance managed to demolish small, but key parts of the electrolytic cells, dumping the accumulated heavy water down the factory drains. On 16 November 1943, the Allied air forces dropped more than 400 bombs on the site. The Allied air raid prompted the Nazi government to move all available heavy water to Germany for safekeeping. On 20 February 1944, a Norwegian partisan sank the ferry M / F Hydro carrying heavy water across Lake Tinn, at the cost of 14 Norwegian civilian lives, and most of the heavy water was presumably lost. A few of the barrels were only half full, and therefore could float, and may have been salvaged and transported to Germany. Recent investigation of production records at Norsk Hydro and analysis of an intact barrel that was salvaged in 2004 revealed that although the barrels in this shipment contained water of pH 14 -- indicative of the alkaline electrolytic refinement process -- they did not contain high concentrations of D O. Despite the apparent size of the shipment, the total quantity of pure heavy water was quite small, most barrels only containing 0.5 -- 1 % pure heavy water. The Germans would have needed a total of about 5 tons of heavy water to get a nuclear reactor running. The manifest clearly indicated that there was only half a ton of heavy water being transported to Germany. Hydro was carrying far too little heavy water for one reactor, let alone the 10 or more tons needed to make enough plutonium for a nuclear weapon. Israel admitted running the Dimona reactor with Norwegian heavy water sold to it in 1959. Through re-export using Romania and Germany, India probably also used Norwegian heavy water. As part of its contribution to the Manhattan Project, Canada built and operated a 6 - tonnes - per - year electrolytic heavy water plant at Trail, British Columbia, which started operation in 1943. The Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL) design of power reactor requires large quantities of heavy water to act as a neutron moderator and coolant. AECL ordered two heavy water plants, which were built and operated in Atlantic Canada at Glace Bay, Nova Scotia (by Deuterium of Canada Limited) and Port Hawkesbury, Nova Scotia (by General Electric Canada). These plants proved to have significant design, construction and production problems. Consequently, AECL built the Bruce Heavy Water Plant (44 ° 11 ′ 07 '' N 81 ° 21 ′ 42 '' W  /  44.1854 ° N 81.3618 ° W  / 44.1854; - 81.3618  (Bruce Heavy Water Plant)), which it later sold to Ontario Hydro, to ensure a reliable supply of heavy water for future power plants. The two Nova Scotia plants were shut down in 1985 when their production proved unnecessary. The Bruce Heavy Water Plant (BHWP) in Ontario was the world 's largest heavy water production plant with a capacity of 1600 tonnes per year at its peak (800 tonnes per year per full plant, two fully operational plants at its peak). It used the Girdler sulfide process to produce heavy water, and required 340,000 tonnes of feed water to produce one tonne of heavy water. It was part of a complex that included eight CANDU reactors, which provided heat and power for the heavy water plant. The site was located at Douglas Point / Bruce Nuclear Generating Station near Tiverton, Ontario on Lake Huron where it had access to the waters of the Great Lakes. AECL issued the construction contract in 1969 for the first BHWP unit (BHWP A). Commissioning of BHWP A was done by Ontario Hydro from 1971 through 1973, with the plant entering service on June 28, 1973 and design production capacity being achieved in April 1974. Due to the success of BHWP A and the large amount of heavy water that would be required for the large numbers of upcoming planned CANDU nuclear power plant construction projects, Ontario Hydro commissioned three additional heavy water production plants for the Bruce site (BHWP B, C, and D). BHWP B was placed into service in 1979. These first two plants were significantly more efficient than planned, and the number of CANDU construction projects ended up being significantly lower than originally planned, which led to the cancellation of construction on BHWP C & D. In 1984 BHWP A was shut down. By 1993 Ontario Hydro had produced enough heavy water to meet all of its anticipated domestic needs (which were lower than expected due to improved efficiency in the use and recycling of heavy water), so they shut down and demolished half of the capacity of BHWP B. The remaining capacity continued to operate in order to fulfill demand for heavy water exports until it was permanently shut down in 1997, after which the plant was gradually dismantled and the site cleared. AECL is currently researching other more efficient and environmentally benign processes for creating heavy water. This is essential for the future of the CANDU reactors since heavy water represents about 15 -- 20 % of the total capital cost of each CANDU plant. Since 1996 a plant for production of heavy water was being constructed at Khondab near Arak. On 26 August 2006, Iranian President Ahmadinejad inaugurated the expansion of the country 's heavy - water plant. Iran has indicated that the heavy - water production facility will operate in tandem with a 40 MW research reactor that had a scheduled completion date in 2009. Iran produced deuterated solvents in early 2011 for the first time. The core of the IR - 40 is supposed to be re-designed based on the nuclear agreement in July 2015. Iran is currently allowed to store only 130 Tons of heavy - water. The 50 MW heavy water and natural uranium research reactor at Khushab, in Punjab province, is a central element of Pakistan 's program for production of plutonium, deuterium and tritium for advanced compact warheads (i.e. thermonuclear weapons). Pakistan succeeded in acquiring a tritium purification and storage plant and deuterium and tritium precursor materials from two German firms. Romania produces heavy water at the Drobeta Girdler sulfide plant for domestic and export purposes. France operated a small plant during the 1950s and 1960s. Heavy water exists in elevated concentration in the hypolimnion of Lake Tanganyika in East Africa. It is likely that similar elevated concentrations exist in lakes with similar limnology, but this is only 4 % enrichment (24 vs 28) and surface waters are usually enriched in D O by evaporation to even greater extend by faster H O evaporation. Deuterium oxide is used in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy when using water as solvent if the nuclide of interest is hydrogen. This is because the signal from light - water (H O) solvent molecules interfere with observing the signal from the molecule of interest dissolved in it. Deuterium has a different magnetic moment and therefore does not contribute to the H - NMR signal at the hydrogen - 1 resonance frequency. For some experiments, it may be desirable to identify the labile hydrogens on a compound, that is hydrogens that can easily exchange away as H ions on some positions in a molecule. With addition of D O, sometimes referred to as a D O shake, labile hydrogens exchange away and are substituted by deuterium (H) atoms. These positions in the molecule then do not appear in the H - NMR spectrum. Deuterium oxide is often used as the source of deuterium for preparing specifically labelled isotopologues of organic compounds. For example, C-H bonds adjacent to ketonic carbonyl groups can be replaced by C-D bonds, using acid or base catalysis. Trimethylsulfoxonium iodide, made from dimethyl sulfoxide and methyl iodide can be recrystallized from deuterium oxide, and then dissociated to regenerate methyl iodide and dimethyl sulfoxide, both deuterium labelled. In cases where specific double labelling by deuterium and tritium is contemplated, the researcher must be aware that deuterium oxide, depending upon age and origin, can contain some tritium. Deuterium oxide is often used instead of water when collecting FTIR spectra of proteins in solution. H O creates a strong band that overlaps with the amide I region of proteins. The band from D O is shifted away from the amide I region. Heavy water is used in certain types of nuclear reactors, where it acts as a neutron moderator to slow down neutrons so that they are more likely to react with the fissile uranium - 235 than with uranium - 238, which captures neutrons without fissioning. The CANDU reactor uses this design. Light water also acts as a moderator, but because light water absorbs more neutrons than heavy water, reactors using light water for a reactor moderator must use enriched uranium rather than natural uranium, otherwise criticality is impossible. A significant fraction of outdated power reactors, such as the RBMK reactors in the USSR, were constructed using normal water for cooling but graphite as a moderator. However, the danger of graphite in power reactors (graphite fires in part led to the Chernobyl disaster) has led to the discontinuation of graphite in standard reactor designs. Because they do not require uranium enrichment, heavy water reactors are more of a concern in regards to nuclear proliferation. The breeding and extraction of plutonium can be a relatively rapid and cheap route to building a nuclear weapon, as chemical separation of plutonium from fuel is easier than isotopic separation of U-235 from natural uranium. Among current and past nuclear weapons states, Israel, India, and North Korea first used plutonium from heavy water moderated reactors burning natural uranium, while China, South Africa and Pakistan first built weapons using highly enriched uranium. In the U.S., however, the first experimental atomic reactor (1942), as well as the Manhattan Project Hanford production reactors that produced the plutonium for the Trinity test and Fat Man bombs, all used pure carbon (graphite) neutron moderators combined with normal water cooling pipes. They functioned with neither enriched uranium nor heavy water. Russian and British plutonium production also used graphite - moderated reactors. There is no evidence that civilian heavy water power reactors -- such as the CANDU or Atucha designs -- have been used to produce military fissile materials. In nations that do not already possess nuclear weapons, nuclear material at these facilities is under IAEA safeguards to discourage any diversion. Due to its potential for use in nuclear weapons programs, the possession or import / export of large industrial quantities of heavy water are subject to government control in several countries. Suppliers of heavy water and heavy water production technology typically apply IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) administered safeguards and material accounting to heavy water. (In Australia, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation (Safeguards) Act 1987.) In the U.S. and Canada, non-industrial quantities of heavy water (i.e., in the gram to kg range) are routinely available without special license through chemical supply dealers and commercial companies such as the world 's former major producer Ontario Hydro. The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) in Sudbury, Ontario uses 1,000 tonnes of heavy water on loan from Atomic Energy of Canada Limited. The neutrino detector is 6,800 feet (2,100 m) underground in a mine, to shield it from muons produced by cosmic rays. SNO was built to answer the question of whether or not electron - type neutrinos produced by fusion in the Sun (the only type the Sun should be producing directly, according to theory) might be able to turn into other types of neutrinos on the way to Earth. SNO detects the Cherenkov radiation in the water from high - energy electrons produced from electron - type neutrinos as they undergo charged current (CC) interactions with neutrons in deuterium, turning them into protons and electrons (however, only the electrons are fast enough to produce Cherenkov radiation for detection). SNO also detects neutrino ↔ electron scattering (ES) events, where the neutrino transfers energy to the electron, which then proceeds to generate Cherenkov radiation distinguishable from that produced by CC events. The first of these two reactions is produced only by electron - type neutrinos, while the second can be caused by all of the neutrino flavors. The use of deuterium is critical to the SNO function, because all three "flavours '' (types) of neutrinos may be detected in a third type of reaction as well, neutrino - disintegration, in which a neutrino of any type (electron, muon, or tau) scatters from a deuterium nucleus (deuteron), transferring enough energy to break up the loosely bound deuteron into a free neutron and proton via a neutral current (NC) interaction. This event is detected when the free neutron is absorbed by Cl present from NaCl deliberately dissolved in the heavy water, causing emission of characteristic capture gamma rays. Thus, in this experiment, heavy water not only provides the transparent medium necessary to produce and visualize Cherenkov radiation, but it also provides deuterium to detect exotic mu type (μ) and tau (τ) neutrinos, as well as a non-absorbent moderator medium to preserve free neutrons from this reaction, until they can be absorbed by an easily detected neutron - activated isotope. Heavy water is employed as part of a mixture with H O for a common and safe test of mean metabolic rate in humans and animals undergoing their normal activities. Tritium is the active substance in self - powered lighting and controlled nuclear fusion, its other uses including autoradiography and radioactive labeling. It is also used in nuclear weapon design for boosted fission weapons and initiators. Some tritium is created in heavy water moderated reactors when deuterium captures a neutron. This reaction has a small cross-section (probability of a single neutron - capture event) and produces only small amounts of tritium, although enough to justify cleaning tritium from the moderator every few years to reduce the environmental risk of tritium escape. Producing a lot of tritium in this way would require reactors with very high neutron fluxes, or with a very high proportion of heavy water to nuclear fuel and very low neutron absorption by other reactor material. The tritium would then have to be recovered by isotope separation from a much larger quantity of deuterium, unlike production from lithium - 6 (the present method), where only chemical separation is needed. Deuterium 's absorption cross section for thermal neutrons is 0.52 milli barns (5.2 × 10 m; 1 barn = 10 m), while those of oxygen - 16 and oxygen - 17 are 0.19 and 0.24 millibarns, respectively. O makes up 0.038 % of natural oxygen, making the overall cross section 0.28 millibarns. Therefore, in D O with natural oxygen, 21 % of neutron captures are on oxygen, rising higher as O builds up from neutron capture on O. Also, O may emit an alpha particle on neutron capture, producing radioactive carbon - 14.

why are haiti and dominican republic separate countries

Dominican Republic -- Haiti relations - wikipedia Dominican Republic -- Haiti relations have long been complex due to the substantial cultural differences between the two nations and their sharing the small island of Hispaniola, part of the Greater Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean region. The living standards in the Dominican Republic are considerably higher than those in Haiti. The deep - set cultural differences have contributed to a long - standing conflict. Though having vast demographic and cultural differences since colonial times, the inhabitants of modern - day Dominican Republic and Haiti have at times been allies and foes, constantly vying for dominance of Hispaniola. The conflicts began during the colonial era which developed into military and political conflicts between the two governments. The political division of the island of Hispaniola is due in part to the European struggle for control of the New World during the 17th century, when France and Spain began fighting for control of the island. They resolved their dispute in 1697 by splitting the island into two countries. It was not until the 19th century that Haiti became independent from France on January 1, 1804. Spanish Haiti, the predecessor of the Dominican Republic, became independent from Spain on December 1, 1821, after more than 300 years of Spanish rule. Beginning in 1789, free people of color of Saint - Domingue were inspired by the French Revolution to seek an expansion of their rights. Initially, the slave population did not become involved in the conflict. In August 1791, a Vodou ceremony at Bois Caïman marked the start of a major slave rebellion in the north. Toussaint apparently did not take part in the earliest stages of the rebellion, but after a few weeks he sent his family to safety in Spanish Santo Domingo and helped the overseers of the Breda plantation to leave the island. Throughout 1792, Toussaint, as a leader in an increasingly formal alliance between the black rebellion and the Spanish, ran the fortified post of La Tannerie and maintained the Cordon de l'Ouest, a line of posts between rebel and colonial territory. He gained a reputation for running an orderly camp, trained his men in guerrilla tactics and "the European style of war '', and began to attract soldiers who would play an important role throughout the revolution. After hard fighting, he lost La Tannerie in January 1793 to the French General Étienne Maynaud, but it was in these battles that the French first recognised him as a significant military leader. Despite adhering to royalist political views, Louverture had begun to use the language of freedom and equality associated with the French Revolution. From being willing to bargain for better conditions of slavery late in 1791, he had become committed to its complete abolition. On 29 August 1793 he made his famous declaration of Camp Turel to the blacks of St Domingue: Brothers and friends, I am Toussaint Louverture; perhaps my name has made itself known to you. I have undertaken vengeance. I want Liberty and Equality to reign in St Domingue. I am working to make that happen. Unite yourselves to us, brothers and fight with us for the same cause. Your very humble and obedient servant, Toussaint Louverture, General of the armies of the king, for the public good. On the same day, the beleaguered French commissioner, Léger - Félicité Sonthonax, proclaimed emancipation for all slaves in French Saint - Domingue, hoping to bring the black troops over to his side. Initially, this failed, perhaps because Toussaint and the other leaders knew that Sonthonax was exceeding his authority. However, on 4 February 1794, the French revolutionary government proclaimed the abolition of slavery. For months, Louverture had been in diplomatic contact with the French general Étienne Maynaud de Bizefranc de Lavaux. During this time, competition between him and other rebel leaders was growing, and the Spanish had started to look with disfavour on his near - autonomous control of a large and strategically important region. In May 1794, when the decision of the French government became known in Saint - Domingue, Louverture switched allegiance from the Spanish to the French and rallied his troops to Lavaux. On November 9, 1821 the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo was overthrown by a group of rebels at the command of José Núñez de Cáceres, the colony 's former administrator, as they proclaimed independence from the Spanish crown on December 1, 1821. The new nation was known as Republic of Spanish Haiti (Spanish: República del Haití Español), as Haiti had been the indigenous name of the island. A group of Dominican military officers favored uniting the newly independent nation with Haiti, as they sought for political stability under Haitian president Jean - Pierre Boyer. The Dominicans were unaware that Boyer made a concession with the French, and agreed to pay France for the lost territory of Haiti. Boyer agreed to pay a sum of 150 million Francs (more than twice what France had charged the United States for the much larger Louisiana territory in 1803) thus the Haitians would essentially be forced into paying to maintain their freedom from the French. During twenty - two years of Haitian occupation, the Haitians implemented what some Dominicans viewed as a brutal military regime. Use of the French language over Spanish was enforced, and the army closed La Universidad Santo Tomas de Aquino. In addition, the Haitian army confiscated all church land and property and imposed mandatory military service. This difficult time for the Dominicans created cultural conflicts in language, race, religion and national tradition between the Dominicans and Haitians. Many Dominicans developed a resentment of Haitians, who they saw as oppressors. In order to raise funds for the huge indemnity of 150 million francs that Haiti agreed to pay the former French colonists, and which was subsequently lowered to 60 million francs, Haiti imposed heavy taxes on the Dominicans. Since Haiti was unable to adequately provision its army, the occupying forces largely survived by commandeering or confiscating food and supplies at gunpoint. Attempts to redistribute land conflicted with the system of communal land tenure (terrenos comuneros), which had arisen with the ranching economy, and newly emancipated slaves resented being forced to grow cash crops under Boyer 's Code Rural. In rural areas, the Haitian administration was usually too inefficient to enforce its own laws. It was in the city of Santo Domingo that the effects of the occupation were most acutely felt, and it was there that the movement for independence originated. Haiti 's constitution also forbade white elites from owning land, and the major landowning families were forcibly deprived of their properties. Most emigrated to Cuba, Puerto Rico (these two being Spanish possessions at the time) or Gran Colombia, usually with the encouragement of Haitian officials, who acquired their lands. The Haitians, who associated the Roman Catholic Church with the French slave - masters who had exploited them before independence, confiscated all church property, deported all foreign clergy, and severed the ties of the remaining clergy to the Vatican. Santo Domingo 's university, lacking both students and teachers had to close down, and thus the country suffered from a massive case of human capital flight. Although the occupation effectively eliminated colonial slavery and instated a constitution modeled after the United States Constitution throughout the island, several resolutions and written dispositions were expressly aimed at converting average Dominicans into second - class citizens: restrictions of movement, prohibition to run for public office, night curfews, inability to travel in groups, banning of civilian organizations, and the indefinite closure of the state university (on the alleged grounds of its being a subversive organization) all led to the creation of movements advocating a forceful separation from Haiti with no compromises. In 1838 Juan Pablo Duarte, an educated Dominican nationalist, founded a resistance movement called La Trinitaria. They initially worked with a liberal Haitian party that overthrew President Jean - Pierre Boyer. However, the Trinitarios ' work in the overthrow gained the attention of Boyer 's replacement, Charles Rivière - Hérard. Rivière - Hérard imprisoned some Trinitarios and forced Duarte to leave the island. The rebels decided to take action anyway with the new leadership of Francisco del Rosario Sánchez, Ramón Matías Mella, and Pedro Santana, a wealthy cattle - rancher from El Seibo who commanded a private army who worked on his estates. In the Dominican War of Independence Dominicans fought against the Haitian occupation. On February 27, 1844 the Dominicans gained freedom from Haitian rule, thus giving birth to the Dominican Republic, a self - sufficient nation established on the liberal ideals of a democratic government. After winning the war and ousting the Haitian occupying force from the country, Dominican nationalists fought against a series of attempted invasions at the command of Haitian "emperor '' Faustin Soulouque from 1844 to 1856. Haitian soldiers tried to regain control of lost territory, but these efforts were to no avail as the Dominicans would go on to decisively win every battle henceforth. Since then, Dominican -- Haitian relations have been unstable. In 1937, claiming that Haiti was harboring his former Dominican opponents, Rafael Trujillo ordered an attack on the border, slaughtering tens of thousands of Haitians as they tried to escape. The number of dead is still unknown, though it is now calculated between 20,000 and 30,000. In the mid-twentieth century, the economies of the two countries were comparable. Since that time, the Dominican economy has grown while the Haitian economy has diminished. The economic downturn in Haiti has been the result of factors such as internal power struggles, rapid population growth, environmental degradation, and trade embargoes. Today, Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere. There is a lack of resources, and Haiti 's population density exceeds its neighbor 's by far. Despite the UN sending missions since the 1990s, in order to maintain peace, terrible conditions persist. One large contributor to cultural dissonance is the language barrier, as Spanish is the primary language spoken in the eastern part of Hispaniola (Dominican Republic) while French and Haitian Creole are spoken in the western part (Haiti). Race is another defining factor of Dominican -- Haitian relations. The ethnic composition of the Dominican population is 73 % mixed, 16 % white, and 11 % black; while 95 % of the Haitian population is black. The development of social classes in the Dominican Republic is somewhat based on race. Since the Haitian invasion of 1822 skin color holds importance in Dominican society. Darker - colored Dominicans are usually found in the lower class, while lighter - skinned (mixed, whites and others) Dominicans are found in the middle and upper classes. Most Haitians are darker - skinned with little non-African admixture. In the Dominican Republic there is a stigma against dark - skinned residents. People with darker skin are usually associated with poor, uneducated Haitians because of their past connections with slavery. The Dominican economy is also over 600 % larger than the Haitian economy. The estimated annual per capita income is US $1,300 in Haiti and US $8,200 in Dominican Republic. The divergence between the level of economic development between Haiti and the Dominican Republic makes their border the one with the highest contrast of all Western world borders and it is evident that the Dominican Republic has one of the highest illegal migration issues in the Americas. Some cross-border cooperation exists in areas such as health, business, and infrastructure. Many Haitians travel to the Dominican Republic to find seasonal or long - term work in order to send remittances to their families. Some of these Haitian workers, as well as Dominicans of Haitian descent have reported complaints of discrimination against them by the Dominican majority population. Other Haitians who would seek work, instead remain in Haiti, fearing discrimination on the other side of the border. Migration has been taking place since the 1920s, when Haitian laborers were actively encouraged to come work in the thriving Dominican sugar industry. With modernization from the 1960s on, fewer workers were required, and other Dominican industries and services started employing more Haitian workers, often an inexpensive, less regulated labor source with fewer legal protections. Many Haitian women find work in Dominican households, and Haitian men at Dominican construction sites, often leading to the move of an entire family. A large number of migrated Haitian workers have continued to live in the Dominican Republic over several generations. The two governments have been unable to agree upon a legal framework to address the nationality of these descendants, leaving around one million people of Haitian ancestry in the Dominican Republic effectively stateless, restricting their access to health care, education and employment opportunities. Though migration from Haiti to the Dominican Republic is economically beneficial to both countries, it is one of the leading contributors to tension between the two countries as well; illegal immigration from Haiti resonates high dissonance with the Dominican people. It has led to anti-Haitian feelings and mistrust of the Haitian people. Another problem with Haitian migration into Dominican Republic is that it blurs the line of citizenship. This factor of migration affects not only Dominican economy but its culture as well. Many have observed that there is a clear distinction between Dominicans and Haitians in the Dominican Republic. The two groups of people do not function as one entity and there are many factors that contribute to those tensions. Some Dominicans view Haitians in the Dominican Republic as an invasion of their own space that they have fought very long and hard to live in. Some Dominicans view Haitians as inferior and believe that their only function in the Dominican Republic is as labor. There is a strong sense of Dominican pride in the Dominican Republic, and oftentimes, Haitians can not fit into their culture or way of life. Many of these current day beliefs have been influenced by the former Dominican dictator, Rafael Trujillo. Trujillo strongly disliked the Haitian people and made it his mission to clearly distinguish the Dominican Republic from Haiti. Trujillo was not fond of dark skin, and targeted anyone of dark complexion that appeared to be Haitian. In 1937, Trujillo carried out the Parsley Massacre in which he sought to destroy anyone who looked dark enough to be Haitian and anyone who could not roll the "r '' in "perejil, '' the Spanish word for parsley. Even without Trujillo in power, some still carry these negative connotations and approach Haitians with anger and scorn. After the devastating earthquake of 12 January 2010, countless Haitians fled across the border to escape the quake 's effects. The Dominican government was one of the first to send teams to help distribute food and medicine to the victims and made it easier for Haitians to acquire visas to receive treatment in Dominican hospitals. Supplies were transported to Haiti through the Dominican Republic, and many injured Haitians have been treated in Dominican hospitals. Virtually, every level of the Dominican efforts assisted its neighboring country. Haitian refugees were also taken in and supported by many Dominicans, though relations deteriorated as the refugees have remained in the Dominican Republic. This has led to reported concerns among some Dominicans that quake refugees contribute to rising crime, over-crowding, cholera and unemployment. More and more discrimination has been attributed to the massive numbers of Haitian refugees in the Dominican Republic. Over the past years tensions have risen, causing the International Organization for Migration to offer Haitians $50 each plus additional relocation assistance to return to Haiti. More than 1,500 have accepted that assistance and returned. The baseball federations of the Dominican Republic and Haiti have agreed to develop and promote baseball in Haiti (especially at the border), on the basis that sport is a developmental element to foster peace, as well as strengthening friendship and mutual respect between the two peoples. With the support of the Dominican ministry of Sports, the president of the Dominican Baseball Federation (FEDOBE) was thankful and quoted saying "it allows our federation to fulfill the dream of helping Haiti in baseball. '' He has pledged to put the Haitian Baseball Federation in relation to the international organizations. Coaches will be sent to Haiti for technical courses, referees and scorers by the Dominican Baseball Federation, while the Haitian Federation will support the logistics in the training and training programs.

when does star trek discovery air on cbs

Star Trek: Discovery - wikipedia Star Trek: Discovery is an American television series created for CBS All Access by Bryan Fuller and Alex Kurtzman. It is the first series developed specifically for that service, and the first Star Trek series since Star Trek: Enterprise concluded in 2005. Set roughly a decade before the events of the original Star Trek series and separate from the timeline of the concurrently produced feature films, Discovery explores the Federation -- Klingon war while following the crew of the USS Discovery. Gretchen J. Berg and Aaron Harberts serve as showrunners on the series, with producing support from Akiva Goldsman. Sonequa Martin - Green stars as Michael Burnham, a science specialist on the USS Discovery. Doug Jones, Shazad Latif, Anthony Rapp, Mary Wiseman, and Jason Isaacs also star. The new series was announced in November 2015, with Fuller joining as showrunner and wanting to make an anthology series. CBS asked him to make a single, serialized show first, with the prequel to the original series idea further developed. After further disagreements with CBS and struggles with other commitments, Fuller left the series in October 2016, replaced as showrunner by Berg and Harberts. Star Trek: Discovery premiered on September 19, 2017, at ArcLight Hollywood, before debuting on CBS and All Access on September 24. The rest of the 15 - episode first season are streaming weekly on All Access. The series ' release led to record subscriptions for All Access, and positive reviews from critics who highlighted Martin - Green 's performance. A second season was ordered in October 2017. Set roughly ten years before the events of Star Trek: The Original Series, the show sees the united Klingon houses in a war with the United Federation of Planets that involves the crew of the USS Discovery. On November 2, 2015, CBS announced a new Star Trek television series to premiere in January 2017, "on the heels '' of the original series ' 50th anniversary in 2016. It is the first Star Trek series since Star Trek: Enterprise concluded in 2005, and the first show to be developed specifically for the CBS All Access on demand service. Alex Kurtzman, co-writer of the films Star Trek and Star Trek Into Darkness, and Heather Kadin were set as executive producers on the series, which is "not related '' to the 2016 film Star Trek Beyond. The January 2017 date was the earliest that CBS could release a new Star Trek series after an agreement the company made when it split with Viacom in 2005. Showtime, Netflix, and Amazon Video all offered "a lot of money '' for the rights to release the series, but after heavily investing in the new All Access service, CBS believed that a returning Star Trek could be "the franchise that really puts All Access on the map '' and could earn more money in the long run. In January 2016, CBS president Glenn Geller revealed that he and the CBS network were not involved in the production of the series, saying, "It really is for All Access. While the network will be broadcasting the pilot, I actually ca n't answer any creative questions about it. '' The next month, Bryan Fuller, who began his career writing for the series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine and Star Trek: Voyager, was announced as the new series ' showrunner and co-creator alongside Kurtzman. Nicholas Meyer, writer and director of Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan and Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country, also joined the series as a writer and consulting producer. In March, Rod Roddenberry, the son of Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry, and Trevor Roth of Roddenberry Entertainment also joined the series, as executive producers. Fuller said that working with people previously involved with Star Trek was "really about making sure that we maintain authenticity '', and said that Meyer -- who is widely considered to have made the best Star Trek film in The Wrath of Khan -- brings "a clarity and a cleanliness to the storytelling. An ability to ground science - fiction in a relatable way, and also making sure that we 're telling character stories. '' Fuller had publicly called for Star Trek to return to television for years, particularly because of its impact on minority groups, as he explained, "I could n't stop thinking about how many black people were inspired by seeing Nichelle Nichols on the bridge of a ship. I could n't stop thinking about how many Asian people were inspired by seeing George Takei and feeling that gave them hope for their place in the future. I wanted to be part of that representation for a new era. '' When Fuller first met with CBS about the series, the company did not have a plan for what the new show would be. He proposed an anthology series with each season being a standalone, serialized show set in a different era, beginning with a prequel to the original series, then stories set during the original series, during Star Trek: The Next Generation, and then "beyond to a time in Trek that 's never been seen before ''. Fuller compared this to what American Horror Story did for horror, and described the proposal as a platform for "a universe of Trek shows ''. CBS instead suggested a single serialized show to see how that performed first, and he began further developing the concept of a prequel to the original series. Fuller announced in June 2016 that the first season would consist of 13 episodes, though he would prefer to produce 10 episodes a season. A month later, Fuller announced the series ' title to be Star Trek: Discovery, and revealed that it would be set in the "Prime Timeline '' (which includes the previous Star Trek series, but not the modern reboot films) to keep the concurrent series and films separate, so "we do n't have to track anything (happening in the films) and they do n't have to track what we 're doing ''. Also in July, CBS Studios International licensed the series to Netflix for release outside the United States and Canada, a "blockbuster '' deal that paid for the show 's entire budget (around US $6 -- 7 million per episode). During pre-production on the series, Fuller and CBS continued to disagree on the direction of the show, which was starting to overrun its per - episode budget, and was falling behind schedule due to Fuller supervising all aspects of the series as well as another new show, American Gods. This caused frustration among CBS executives who felt Fuller should be focused on having Discovery ready for release by the January 2017 premiere date. By August 2016, Fuller had hired Gretchen J. Berg and Aaron Harberts, who he had worked with on Pushing Daisies, to serve as co-showrunners with him. A month later, he and Kurtzman asked CBS to delay the series ' release so they could meet the high expectations for it, and the studio pushed the series premiere back to May 2017. '' At the end of October, CBS asked Fuller to step down as showrunner, and announced a restructuring of the production: Berg and Harberts were made sole showrunners, working from a broad story arc and overall mythology established by Fuller; Kurtzman and Fuller would continue as executive producers, but with Fuller moving his attention fully to American Gods; and Akiva Goldsman would join the series in a supporting producer role, similar to the role he held on Fringe alongside Kurtzman. CBS reiterated that they were "extremely happy with (Fuller 's) creative direction '' for the series, though some elements of the series that came directly from Fuller were dropped, including some designs and "more heavily allegorical and complex story '' points. Fuller later confirmed that he was no longer involved with the series, but expressed interest in returning for future seasons. With production set to finally begin in January, "a lot of careful deliberation (was) continuing to go into making Discovery special, from the choice of directors, to set design, to the special effects. '' Ted Sullivan also joined the series to serve as supervising writing producer. At CBS 's 2017 upfront presentation, CBS Interactive president Marc DeBevoise confirmed a "fall '' release date for the series, and announced that the episode order for the first season had been expanded to 15 episodes. In June, CBS announced a new premiere date of September 24, 2017, with the season airing through November 2017, and then beginning again in January 2018. This break gave more time to complete post-production on the second half of the season. Also that month, Kurtzman said that he and Fuller had discussed future seasons before the latter 's departure, and promised that "what 's there in terms of story and certainly in terms of set - up, character, big ideas, the big movement of the season, that 's all stuff that Bryan and I talked about '' and would not be altered. Goldsman said in August that the producers wanted "a hybridized (anthology) approach. I do n't think we 're looking for an endless, continuing nine or 10 year story. We 're looking at arcs which will have characters that we know and characters that we do n't know. '' Kurtzman added that the success of Discovery could lead to other new Star Trek series that could potentially use the anthology format. By the end of August, Berg and Harberts had developed a "road map '' for a second season, and "the beginnings of one '' for a third. It was also revealed that an average episode of the first season had ultimately cost US $8 -- 8.5 million each, making it one of the most expensive television series ever and exceeding the original Netflix deal, though CBS still considered the series to be paid for already due to the number of new All Access subscribers that the show was expected to draw. After the series ' premiere, Kurtzman said that the producers wanted to avoid announcing release dates and having to delay those for any future seasons, due to the external pressure that caused with the first season, but that he hoped a second season would be available in early 2019. The second season was officially ordered a month later in October 2017. The series ' writers are based in Los Angeles, and include "fans who all have very different relationships to Trek, '' which Kurtzman said is "a healthy thing and it 's a good thing ''. Fuller wanted to differentiate the series from the previous 700 + episodes of Star Trek by taking advantage of the streaming format of All Access and telling a single story arc across the entire first season. He and Kurtzman developed this story from "so many elements of Star Trek '', taking certain episodes of the original series and using their "DNA '' to find "the spirit of what Star Trek offers, both in terms of high - concept science fiction storytelling and really wonderful metaphors for the human condition ''. Berg said that the series ' writers "are so in love with '' The Original Series, The Next Generation, and the family aspect of those series, while Harberts added that Meyer 's Star Trek films were an especial influence on Discovery because "his storytelling is complex and intellectual and yet there 's a lot of room for character voices ''. The titular ship was named after Discovery One from 2001: A Space Odyssey, NASA 's Space Shuttle Discovery, and "the sense of discovery... what (that) means to Star Trek audiences who have been promised a future by Gene Roddenberry where we come together as a planet and seek new worlds and new alien races to explore and understand and collaborate with ''. Fuller saw the series as a bridge between Enterprise and the original series -- which are set around 150 years apart -- but set much closer to the latter to allow the series to "play with all the iconography of those ships and those uniforms ''. In May 2017, Sullivan described the series as "a genuine prequel '' to the original series, with Goldsman later adding that there were many classic Star Trek elements that fans among the writers wished to include in the series, but could n't because they were included in the original series as something being discovered by Starfleet for the first time then. The choice to feature a single serlialized story throughout the first season was inspired by the general change in television to tell more realistic and serialized stories rather than the "new destination - based adventure each week '' format mostly used in previous Star Trek series. Fuller had been one of several writers during the 1990s pushing for Deep Space Nine and Voyager to move towards this style. Also inspired by modern, "peak television '' series such as Game of Thrones was a willingness to kill off major characters for dramatic reasons, though the writers wanted to avoid doing so gratuitously or for "shock value ''. Fuller said the series could "push the content envelope since it wo n't be constrained by broadcast standards '', but "it 's still Star Trek. It will probably be slightly more graphic content... I imagine we 're going to shoot scenes a couple of ways and see what feels more authentic in the editing room. '' Harberts ultimately described the series as a "hard PG - 13 '', saying the series could include "some violent things or (a) tiny bit of language '' but they still wanted the show to be for families and to "honor what the franchise is. '' On using time travel in the series, a plot device used in at least two episodes of every previous live - action Star Trek season, Fuller said that it had not yet been used for any episode by the end of August 2016, and, "You never know when you want to pull out that device but I am not anticipating an over-reliance on time travel to tell this season 's stories. '' The series ' writers also chose to ignore Gene Roddenberry 's longstanding rule that Starfleet crew members not have any significant conflict with one another or be depicted negatively (a rule that Roddenberry himself did not always strictly follow). Harberts explained, "We 're trying to do stories that are complicated, with characters with strong points of view and strong passions. People have to make mistakes -- mistakes are still going to be made in the future. We 're still going to argue in the future... the thing we 're taking from Roddenberry is how we solve those conflicts. '' Because of the show 's position as a prequel to the original series, the producers felt it was more important for Discovery to build towards Roddenberry 's ideals, and to show that "you ca n't simply be accepting and tolerant without working for it, and so this show is about that struggle. '' By June 2016, Fuller had met with several actors, and said that "we want to carry on what Star Trek does best, which is being progressive. So it 's fascinating to look at all of these roles through a colorblind prism and a gender - blind prism ''. A month later, Kadin clarified that the series would feature minority, female, and LGBTQ characters. In August, Fuller said the series would feature "about seven '' lead characters, and would star a lieutenant commander, rather than a starship captain like previous Star Trek series, to be played by a non-white actress. He said the series would also include more alien characters than other Star Trek series, and would feature at least one openly gay character. Fuller, who is gay himself, had been determined to see this happen since receiving hate mail while working on Voyager when a character on that show was rumored to be coming out as gay. By this time, Fuller had discussed the series ' casting with Mae Jemison, the first black woman in space (who made a cameo appearance in an episode of The Next Generation). Fuller anticipated casting announcements in October 2016, but none had been made by the end of that month. The majority of the series main characters were believed to have been cast by then, but no actress had been cast for the series ' lead role. This was a source of "some internal stress '' at CBS. Several African American and Latina actresses were being looked at for the role, with CBS "not seeking a huge star and (preferring) a fresh face for the part. '' In October, the cast was believed to include "a female admiral, a male Klingon captain, a male admiral, a male adviser and a British male doctor '', with one of those male leads played by an openly gay actor. The next month, Doug Jones and Anthony Rapp were revealed to be cast, as Science Officers Saru and Stamets, respectively. The former is a Kelpien, an alien race created for the series, while the latter is the first Star Trek character to be conceived and announced as gay. Sonequa Martin - Green was cast in the lead role in December, which was officially confirmed in April 2017, with the character 's name revealed to be Michael Burnham. Also in December, Shazad Latif was cast as the Klingon Kol. In March 2017, Jason Isaacs was cast as Captain Lorca of the USS Discovery, and Mary Wiseman joined as Tilly, a cadet. At the end of April, Latif was revealed to have been recast to the role of Starfleet Lieutenant Tyler. Mark Worthington and Todd Cherniawsky served as initial production designers for the series; Gersha Phillips and Suttirat Anne Larlarb designed the costumes; veteran Star Trek designer John Eaves designed starships, along with Scott Schneider; and Glenn Hetrick and Neville Page of Alchemy Studios provided prosthetics, props, and armor. Page previously served as the concept and creature designer on the three "Kelvin Timeline '' Star Trek films. The series also employed seven art directors, over nine illustrators, more than thirty - five set designers, and over four hundred and fifty painters, carpenters, sculptors, model makers, welders, set dressers, and prop builders. Fuller said on the general approach to design on the show, "we 're producing the show in 2016. We have to update the style of the effects, the style of the sets, the style of the makeup... all of the other series have been produced (at a time that) is n't as sophisticated as we are now with what we can do production-wise, we 're going to be reestablishing an entire look for the series '' and for Star Trek moving forward. Fuller had wanted the series ' uniforms to reflect the primary colors of the original series, but this was discarded after his departure. However, Fuller 's designs for the Klingons, which he "really, really wanted '' to redesign, were retained. 3D Systems ' "cutting edge '' 3D printing techniques were widely used in the making of the series. For the prosthetics, Page and Hetrick took detailed laser scans of the actors so they could simulate make - up and prosthetics in a virtual environment before creating the practical version. Fabric for the Starfleet uniforms seen in the series were custom - dyed in Switzerland; the costumes were cut and assembled in Toronto by Phillips and her department. The main uniforms seen in the series are a navy blue specifically mixed for the show, with gold or silver embellishments depending on the division of the officer. Medical officers wear a "hospital white '' variant, also custom - dyed in Switzerland, while the captain 's uniform is the standard navy blue but with additional gold piping on the shoulders. Starfleet insignia badges were molded from silicon bronze, and then polished and plated by a jeweler to create custom colors for the series, based on the division of the officer wearing the uniform: gold for command, silver for sciences and medical, and copper for operations. Props such as tricorders and hand scanners, communicators, and phasers were produced with 3D printing and heavily inspired by their designs in the original Star Trek series. The design of the USS Discovery is based on an unused Ralph McQuarrie design for the USS Enterprise from the unproduced film Star Trek: Planet of the Titans, which Fuller had noted in July 2016 was "to a point that we ca n't legally comment on it until (our legal team) figures out some things ''. McQuarrie 's designs were based on the concepts created by Ken Adam to feature a vessel with a flattened secondary hull. Fuller wanted "something distinct about what our Star Trek was going to look '' like, and after seeing McQuarrie 's design "saw sort of harder lines of a ship and started talking about race cars and Lamborghinis in the ' 70s and James Bond cars and started working on the designs, taking those inspirations and coming up with something completely unique to us. '' The design for the Discovery went through several revisions and refinements before the final version was approved in December 2016. The sickbay on the Discovery was inspired by that of the Enterprise from the original series. Other Federation starships created for the show include the USS Shenzhou and the USS Europa. Sets for the Discovery 's interiors were described as a "tangle of corridors and rooms '', and were designed to match with the exterior design of the ship, so "the rooms (could believably) fit inside the house '', but there was some artistic license taken in places. The graphics used for the Starfleet computer systems were designed to be believably more advanced than modern technology, but to also "honor the look and feel '' of the designs used in previous series. The initial colors allowed for the graphics were mostly restricted to blues, with the intention of these becoming more colorful the closer the series gets to the time period of the original series. Star Trek: Discovery is filmed at Pinewood Toronto Studios, with Vincenzo Natali serving as producing director for the series. Some of the series ' sets took over six weeks to create, and new sets were being built up until the end of production of the season. Discovery took advantage of multiple soundstages at the studio, including the largest soundstage in North America. Some episodes for the show were filmed solely on existing sets, making them bottle episodes, though Harberts said the series would not do anything "as bottle - y as ' everyone is stuck in the mess hall! ' '' For the visual scope of the series, Kurtzman felt that the show had to "justify being on a premium cable service ''. The showrunners were particularly inspired by Star Trek: The Motion Picture and its "wider scope '', with Harberts explaining that the series is shot in a 2: 1 aspect ratio which "just lends itself to a very lyrical way of telling the story. '' He added that some of the series ' visuals were influenced by the modern Star Trek films from J.J. Abrams. Some of these influences, per Goldsman, are "the ability to be creative cinematically... the intimate discourse, the humanistic storytelling with the giant canvas that is Star Trek. A more kinetic camera, a more dynamic way of existing, a much greater use of practical sets so when you 're running down a corridor, you 're running down a corridor. A sense of rhythm... there is a sense of litheness, a kind of fluidity in the characterizations. '' The producers worked closely with pilot director David Semel to make the series look as cinematic as possible, including filming the bridge of Starfleet 's ships in such a way as "not to shoot in a sort of proscenium box... to be able to get the camera into spaces where, you know, to shoot it in interesting ways, which is a combination of choreographing a scene to motivate the camera moving, and also lighting. '' The cinematographers for the series wanted to emphasize on set sourcing, with lighting built in wherever it would naturally appear to help create a more realistic feel, and distance the series from the "stage '' feel of the original series. The lighting could also be controlled to create completely different situations, such as the lighting of a Starfleet red alert. Harberts said that the cinematographers wanted the series to have a "Rembrandt texture ''. Visual effects producers were hired to begin work on the series during the initial writing period, with Fuller explaining that the series would require such things as "digital augmentation on certain alien species '' and "the transporter beams ''. He said, "We 're trying to cultivate distinct looks for all of those things that are unique to our version of Star Trek and carry through the themes we love seeing in fifty years of Star Trek, but doing a slightly different approach. '' Pixomondo is the primary visual effects vendor for the series, with Spin VFX also working on the show. Kurtzman noted that the series utilizes multiple CG environments which take several months to properly render. The shuttle bay of the Discovery is completely computer - generated, with actors performing in front of a green screen for scenes in that environment; using the digital set is more expensive than any other set created for the series, including the practically - built ones. The first teaser for the series featured music composed by Fil Eisler, which he "threw together as an audition '' within three weeks. Before production on the series began, Charles Henri Avelange had also composed and recorded music for the series, which he described as "a showcase for CBS ''. In July 2017, Jeff Russo was announced as composer for the series. Russo recorded the series ' score with a 60 - piece orchestra. The show 's main theme incorporates elements from the original Star Trek theme. The first episode of Star Trek: Discovery aired in a "preview broadcast '' on CBS in the United States on September 24, as well as being made available with the second episode on CBS All Access. Subsequent first - run episodes, making up the first chapter of the season, were streamed weekly on All Access through November 12. The second chapter will begin streaming January 2018. CBS Studios International licensed the series to Bell Media for broadcast in Canada, and to Netflix for another 188 countries. In Canada, the premiere was simulcast with CBS on September 24, 2017, on both the CTV Television Network and on the specialty channel Space before being streamed on CraveTV; it was also broadcast in French on the specialty channel Z. Subsequent episodes will be released through Space, Z, and CraveTV, with Space airing each episode 30 minutes before it 's streamed on All Access. In the other countries, Netflix will release each episode of the series for streaming within 24 hours of its U.S. debut. This agreement also saw Bell Media and Netflix acquire all previous Star Trek series to stream in their entirety, and to broadcast on Bell Media television channels. The first full trailer for the series was released in May 2017. Forbes 's Merrill Barr noted that the trailer was a good sign for many who believed the series would never be released following the many production setbacks and delays, saying, "Having a legitimate trailer that can be watched over and over again brings signs of hope, particularly for fans that have been waiting over a year for this moment. Star Trek: Discovery is real, and now we have proof. '' Chris Harnick of E! News described the trailer as "gorgeous '' and "truly cinematic '', and because of the appearances of Sarek and the Klingons in the footage, "this is the Star Trek you know and love. '' Aja Romano at Vox called the trailer 's visuals "sumptuous '' and "modern, but still very much in keeping with the aesthetic of previous Trek series ''. She continued, "What gets short shrift in this trailer is the series ' overarching plot... In any case, seeing the Klingons in all their combative glory feels a bit like coming home for Trek fans. '' Also in May, McFarlane Toys signed a toy license deal with CBS to produce "figures, role play weapons and accessories '' for Discovery. CBS Consumer Products senior vice president Veronica Hart explained that McFarlane was chosen as the first licensee for the series because of its "commitment to quality and dedication to fans ''. The deal will also see the company "create merchandise from the entire Star Trek universe, ranging from the classic Star Trek: The Original Series to its popular movie franchise. '' The first merchandise produced under the deal are set for release in mid-2018. According to Nielsen Media Research, the CBS broadcast of the first episode was watched by a "decent '' audience of 9.5 million viewers. The premiere of the series led to record subscriptions for All Access, with the service having its biggest day of signups, as well as its biggest week and month of signups thanks to the series. According to "app analytics specialist '' App Annie, the premiere of the series also caused the number of downloads of the All Access mobile app to more than double, with revenue from the app for CBS doubling compared to the average in - app revenue during the previous 30 days. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 83 % approval rating for the first season, with an average rating of 7.13 / 10 based on 51 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Although it takes an episode to achieve liftoff, Star Trek: Discovery delivers a solid franchise installment for the next generation -- boldly led by the charismatic Sonequa Martin - Green. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 72 out of 100 based on 20 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. By July 2016, CBS was working on an aftershow companion series to Discovery similar in format to AMC 's Talking Dead, a companion to The Walking Dead. The show would air live after each episode of Discovery, and would feature "guests, celebrity Trekkies, former Star Trek actors, along with cast members and crew '' from Discovery. The companion series was confirmed in 2017, with the title After Trek and host Matt Mira. It is produced by Embassy Row in association with Roddenberry Entertainment. In September 2016, Discovery writer Kirsten Beyer announced that CBS was working with IDW and Simon & Schuster to produce more content revolving around the setting of the series, starting with at least one novel and a comic series tied to the television show. Beyer, the writer of many Star Trek: Voyager novels, explained that she would work with fellow Star Trek novelist David Mack and Star Trek comic writer Mike Johnson to ensure that all three media "are coming from the same place ''. The release of the books and comics was set to coincide with the series ' premiere. Mack described writing around the continuity of Discovery as "tricky to get right '', as the time period "is light on detail and almost unique within the Star Trek continuity. That made it a challenge to represent that era faithfully while also staying true to the new elements being introduced '' in the new series. In August 2017, Beyer explained the series ' writers ' intentions for the additional content, saying, "We want to be able to take the story opportunities that we 're just frankly not going to have time to cover in the show, and go as deep into those into the various formats as we can. It 's not that you have to read these stories to understand everything, but the story will be incredibly enhanced if you do. '' Regarding whether this content would be considered canonical, Beyer said that the stories of the comics and novels are briefed back to the show 's writing staff so "the stories we created get integrated into their brains '', but she also said, "Because of the collaborative nature of this process, we 're able to go farther, take bigger risks. The danger is that, in the future, somebody will come upon with an amazing story idea that would be incompatible with what we 've already established and just like always, the series is going to take priority. But the hope is that we can carve out these places that are safe and that we can continue to protect because as much as possible we want this to be one integrated universe... we 're doing what we can to make sure these stories all fit together moving forward. '' The first tie - in to the show is Desperate Hours, a prequel set a year before Discovery and a year after "The Cage ''. Written by Mack, the novel was released on September 26, and follows Burnham as she serves aboard the Shenzhou. Fuller had asked for a book to be written based on that premise, and Mack had worked with the Discovery writers to stay "in the loop throughout the season with all the scripts and the story development. There were a few false starts, but eventually it allowed us to collaboratively create this story ''. Mack hinted that the USS Enterprise could also appear in the novel. The second Discovery novel is being written by Dayton Ward, is set 10 years before the show, and is intended to be released in early 2018. In July 2017, IDW announced the first tie - in comic series, also titled Star Trek: Discovery, to be written by Johnson and Beyer with art by Tony Shasteen, who previously worked with Johnson on the comic Star Trek: Boldly Go. IDW described the comic as "Klingon - centric '', and set the first issue for release on October 25. Johnson compared working with Beyer on the comic to his work on the Star Trek: Countdown comic, a tie - in to the 2009 Star Trek film that he wrote with Kurtzman and Roberto Orci, saying that her position as a staff writer on the Discovery show "means we have all the inside access that we need. So the story in the comic will really matter and not just feel like a one - off. It is actually able to expand the story you guys are going to see in the show itself. '' In August, it was clarified that the first comic would be a four - issue miniseries focused on T'Kuvma and his followers, and that IDW intended to create a series of comic miniseries based on different aspects of the series to create "targeted stories on some different subjects ''. Johnson stated that they were "building out the characters in the Klingon world with these comics, and we ca n't wait to show you. '' He added that discussions were being held regarding the subject of the next miniseries. IDW editor Sarah Gaydos said, "The access we 're getting to the show to create these comics that are integral to fleshing out the backstories of the characters is unheard of, and I do a lot of licensed comics. '' In late 2017, "hours '' of Discovery - based content will be added to the role playing video game Star Trek Timelines, including Michael Burnham and Saru as new crew members for the game and new ships from the show, both Federation and otherwise. A month long "Mega-Event '' based on the series will also take place.

where does the battle river start and end

Battle River - wikipedia Battle River is a river in central Alberta and western Saskatchewan. It is a major tributary of the North Saskatchewan River. The Battle River flows for 570 kilometres (350 mi) and has a total drainage area of 30,300 square kilometres (11,700 sq mi). The mean discharge is 10 m3 / s at its mouth. The river did not gain its current name until relatively recently. When Anthony Henday passed through the region in the 1750s, he did not mention a river with this name. But by 1793 Peter Fidler mentions arriving at the "Battle or Fighting River '', likely so named because of the beginning of a period of rivalry between the Iron Confederacy (Cree and Assiniboine) and the Blackfoot Confederacy. The headwaters of Battle River is Battle Lake in west - central Alberta, east of Winfield. The river meanders through Alberta eastward into Saskatchewan, where it discharges into the North Saskatchewan River at Battleford. Over its course, the river flows through Ponoka and by Hardisty and Fabyan within Alberta. Big Knife Provincial Park is situation on the south bank of the river west of Highway 855, approximately 15 km (9.3 mi) southwest of Forestburg. The Fabyan Trestle Bridge crosses the river. Battle Lake, Samson Lake, Driedmeat Lake and Big Knife Lake are formed along the river, and numerous other lakes (such as Pigeon Lake, Coal Lake, Bittern Lake, Vernon Lake, Ernest Lake, Soda Lake) lie in the Battle River hydrographic basin.

victoria (tv series) season 2 full cast

Victoria (TV series) - wikipedia Victoria is a British drama television series created by Daisy Goodwin and stars Jenna Coleman as Queen Victoria. The series was announced in September 2015. Victoria premiered on 28 August 2016 on ITV. The first series consisted of eight episodes, and concluded on 9 October 2016. In September 2016, ITV renewed Victoria for an eight - episode second series, which premiered on 27 August 2017, and will be followed by a 2017 Christmas special. The first series depicts the first few years of the reign of Queen Victoria, portrayed by Jenna Coleman, from her accession to the throne at the age of eighteen, to her intense friendship and infatuation with Lord Melbourne, to her courtship and early marriage to Prince Albert (Tom Hughes) and finally to the birth of their first child, Victoria. The second series follows Victoria 's struggles on managing her role as Queen with that of her duties to her husband and children. The theme song is by Martin Phipps, sung by the Mediæval Bæbes. Phipps also wrote and conducted incidental music for the early episodes. For later episodes the conducting role was undertaken by Ruth Barrett. An official soundtrack for the first series was released on 12 January 2017. The series was announced in September 2015, following Coleman 's decision to leave Doctor Who to join the cast as Queen Victoria. Much of Victoria was filmed in Yorkshire. The interiors of Castle Howard double as Kensington Palace, Harewood House stands in for Buckingham Palace, with Bramham Park and Wentworth Woodhouse also being in use for both royal residences. Carlton Towers is in use as Windsor Castle, while Beverley Minster replaces Westminster Abbey. Other locations include Raby Castle, Wentworth Woodhouse, Allerton Castle, Newby Hall and Whitby pier. Church Fenton Studios, a converted aircraft hangar at Leeds East Airport near Selby, was in use to recreate some interiors of the Buckingham Palace. Daisy Goodwin said in October 2016 that a Christmas special episode for the 2016 season had been proposed and was rejected by ITV; one was subsequently commissioned for 2017 after the rising ratings popularity for Victoria. In September 2016, ITV renewed Victoria for a second series, followed by a Christmas special. Beyond the renewal, ITV administration reportedly expects Victoria to run for a total of six series, although whether Jenna Coleman will remain as the lead actress as the series moves into depicting Victoria 's later years is uncertain. The series premiered on 28 August 2016 on ITV in the UK, and on 15 January 2017 on PBS in the United States as part of Masterpiece. The series premiered on 4 April 2017 in Canada on Vision TV. The eight - episode second series premiered on ITV on 27 August 2017 in the UK, and will premiere on 14 January 2018 on PBS in the United States. The critics ' reviews, of the first series, have been positive. On Rotten Tomatoes the first season holds a rating of 81 %, based on 37 reviews, with an average rating of 6, 83 / 10. The site 's consensus reads, "Strong performances by Jenna Coleman and Rufus Sewell hint at Downton-esque potential for Victoria, but the narrative falls just shy of that soapy mark ''. On Metacritic season one has a score of 67 out of 100, based on 22 critics, indicating "generally favourable reviews ''.

where is the lowest elevation in the world

List of places on land with elevations below sea level - wikipedia This is a list of places below mean sea level that are on land. Places in tunnels, mines, basements, dug holes (also with open sky), under water, under ice, or existing temporarily as a result of ebbing of sea tide etc. are not included. Places where seawater and rainwater is pumped away are included. Fully natural places below sea level require a dry climate, otherwise rain would exceed evaporation and fill the area. All figures are in meters below sea level, arranged by depth, lowest first: Deeper and larger than any of the trenches in the list above is the Bentley Subglacial Trench in Antarctica, at a depth of 2,540 m (8,330 ft). It is subglacial, meaning that it is permanently covered by the largest ice cap in the world. Therefore, it is not included in any list on the page. If the ice melted it would be covered by sea. The biggest dry land area below sea level that has been known to exist in the geological past, as measured by continuous volume of atmospheric air below sea level, was the dry bed of the Mediterranean Sea in the late Miocene period during the Messinian salinity crisis.

what are the parts of the body use for circulation

Circulatory system - wikipedia The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system or the vascular system, is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells in the body to provide nourishment and help in fighting diseases, stabilize temperature and pH, and maintain homeostasis. The circulatory system includes the lymphatic system, which circulates lymph. The passage of lymph for example takes much longer than that of blood. Blood is a fluid consisting of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets that is circulated by the heart through the vertebrate vascular system, carrying oxygen and nutrients to and waste materials away from all body tissues. Lymph is essentially recycled excess blood plasma after it has been filtered from the interstitial fluid (between cells) and returned to the lymphatic system. The cardiovascular (from Latin words meaning "heart '' and "vessel '') system comprises the blood, heart, and blood vessels. The lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph vessels form the lymphatic system, which returns filtered blood plasma from the interstitial fluid (between cells) as lymph. The circulatory system of the blood is seen as having two components, a systemic circulation and a pulmonary circulation. While humans, as well as other vertebrates, have a closed cardiovascular system (meaning that the blood never leaves the network of arteries, veins and capillaries), some invertebrate groups have an open cardiovascular system. The lymphatic system, on the other hand, is an open system providing an accessory route for excess interstitial fluid to be returned to the blood. The more primitive, diploblastic animal phyla lack circulatory systems. Many diseases affect the circulatory system. This includes cardiovascular disease, affecting the cardiovascular system, and lymphatic disease affecting the lymphatic system. Cardiologists are medical professionals which specialise in the heart, and cardiothoracic surgeons specialise in operating on the heart and its surrounding areas. Vascular surgeons focus on other parts of the circulatory system. The essential components of the human cardiovascular system are the heart, blood and blood vessels. It includes the pulmonary circulation, a "loop '' through the lungs where blood is oxygenated; and the systemic circulation, a "loop '' through the rest of the body to provide oxygenated blood. The systemic circulation can also be seen to function in two parts -- a macrocirculation and a microcirculation. An average adult contains five to six quarts (roughly 4.7 to 5.7 liters) of blood, accounting for approximately 7 % of their total body weight. Blood consists of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Also, the digestive system works with the circulatory system to provide the nutrients the system needs to keep the heart pumping. The cardiovascular systems of humans are closed, meaning that the blood never leaves the network of blood vessels. In contrast, oxygen and nutrients diffuse across the blood vessel layers and enter interstitial fluid, which carries oxygen and nutrients to the target cells, and carbon dioxide and wastes in the opposite direction. The other component of the circulatory system, the lymphatic system, is open. Oxygenated blood enters the systemic circulation when leaving the left ventricle, through the aortic semilunar valve. The first part of the systemic circulation is the aorta, a massive and thick - walled artery. The aorta arches and gives branches supplying the upper part of the body after passing through the aortic opening of the diaphragm at the level of thoracic ten vertebra, it enters the abdomen. Later it descends down and supplies branches to abdomen, pelvis, perineum and the lower limbs. The walls of aorta are elastic. This elasticity helps to maintain the blood pressure throughout the body. When the aorta receives almost five litres of blood from the heart, it recoils and is responsible for pulsating blood pressure. Moreover, as aorta branches into smaller arteries, their elasticity goes on decreasing and their compliance goes on increasing. Arteries branch into small passages called arterioles and then into the capillaries. The capillaries merge to bring blood into the venous system. After their passage through body tissues, capillaries merge once again into venules, which continue to merge into veins. The venous system finally coalesces into two major veins: the superior vena cava (roughly speaking draining the areas above the heart) and the inferior vena cava (roughly speaking from areas below the heart). These two great vessels empty into the right atrium of the heart. The heart itself is supplied with oxygen and nutrients through a small "loop '' of the systemic circulation and derives very little from the blood contained within the four chambers. The general rule is that arteries from the heart branch out into capillaries, which collect into veins leading back to the heart. Portal veins are a slight exception to this. In humans the only significant example is the hepatic portal vein which combines from capillaries around the gastrointestinal tract where the blood absorbs the various products of digestion; rather than leading directly back to the heart, the hepatic portal vein branches into a second capillary system in the liver. The heart pumps oxygenated blood to the body and deoxygenated blood to the lungs. In the human heart there is one atrium and one ventricle for each circulation, and with both a systemic and a pulmonary circulation there are four chambers in total: left atrium, left ventricle, right atrium and right ventricle. The right atrium is the upper chamber of the right side of the heart. The blood that is returned to the right atrium is deoxygenated (poor in oxygen) and passed into the right ventricle to be pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs for re-oxygenation and removal of carbon dioxide. The left atrium receives newly oxygenated blood from the lungs as well as the pulmonary vein which is passed into the strong left ventricle to be pumped through the aorta to the different organs of the body. The coronary circulation system provides a blood supply to the heart muscle itself. The coronary circulation begins near the origin of the aorta by two coronary arteries: the right coronary artery and the left coronary artery. After nourishing the heart muscle, blood returns through the coronary veins into the coronary sinus and from this one into the right atrium. Back flow of blood through its opening during atrial systole is prevented by the Thebesian valve. The smallest cardiac veins drain directly into the heart chambers. The circulatory system of the lungs is the portion of the cardiovascular system in which oxygen - depleted blood is pumped away from the heart, via the pulmonary artery, to the lungs and returned, oxygenated, to the heart via the pulmonary vein. Oxygen deprived blood from the superior and inferior vena cava enters the right atrium of the heart and flows through the tricuspid valve (right atrioventricular valve) into the right ventricle, from which it is then pumped through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary artery to the lungs. Gas exchange occurs in the lungs, whereby CO is released from the blood, and oxygen is absorbed. The pulmonary vein returns the now oxygen - rich blood to the left atrium. A separate system known as the bronchial circulation supplies blood to the tissue of the larger airways of the lung. Systemic circulation is the portion of the cardiovascular system which transports oxygenated blood away from the heart through the aorta from the left ventricle where the blood has been previously deposited from pulmonary circulation, to the rest of the body, and returns oxygen - depleted blood back to the heart. The brain has a dual blood supply that comes from arteries at its front and back. These are called the "anterior '' and "posterior '' circulation respectively. The anterior circulation arises from the internal carotid arteries and supplies the front of the brain. The posterior circulation arises from the vertebral arteries, and supplies the back of the brain and brainstem. The circulation from the front and the back join together (anastomise) at the Circle of Willis. The renal circulation receives around 20 % of the cardiac output. It branches from the abdominal aorta and returns blood to the ascending vena cava. It is the blood supply to the kidneys, and contains many specialized blood vessels. The lymphatic system is part of the circulatory system. It is a network of lymphatic vessels and lymph capillaries, lymph nodes and organs, and lymphatic tissues and circulating lymph. One of its major functions is to carry the lymph, draining and returning interstitial fluid back towards the heart for return to the cardiovascular system, by emptying into the lymphatic ducts. Its other main function is in the adaptive immune system. The development of the circulatory system starts with vasculogenesis in the embryo. The human arterial and venous systems develop from different areas in the embryo. The arterial system develops mainly from the aortic arches, six pairs of arches which develop on the upper part of the embryo. The venous system arises from three bilateral veins during weeks 4 -- 8 of embryogenesis. Fetal circulation begins within the 8th week of development. Fetal circulation does not include the lungs, which are bypassed via the truncus arteriosus. Before birth the fetus obtains oxygen (and nutrients) from the mother through the placenta and the umbilical cord. The human arterial system originates from the aortic arches and from the dorsal aortae starting from week 4 of embryonic life. The first and second aortic arches regress and forms only the maxillary arteries and stapedial arteries respectively. The arterial system itself arises from aortic arches 3, 4 and 6 (aortic arch 5 completely regresses). The dorsal aortae, present on the dorsal side of the embryo, are initially present on both sides of the embryo. They later fuse to form the basis for the aorta itself. Approximately thirty smaller arteries branch from this at the back and sides. These branches form the intercostal arteries, arteries of the arms and legs, lumbar arteries and the lateral sacral arteries. Branches to the sides of the aorta will form the definitive renal, suprarenal and gonadal arteries. Finally, branches at the front of the aorta consist of the vitelline arteries and umbilical arteries. The vitelline arteries form the celiac, superior and inferior mesenteric arteries of the gastrointestinal tract. After birth, the umbilical arteries will form the internal iliac arteries. The human venous system develops mainly from the vitelline veins, the umbilical veins and the cardinal veins, all of which empty into the sinus venosus. About 98.5 % of the oxygen in a sample of arterial blood in a healthy human, breathing air at sea - level pressure, is chemically combined with hemoglobin molecules. About 1.5 % is physically dissolved in the other blood liquids and not connected to hemoglobin. The hemoglobin molecule is the primary transporter of oxygen in mammals and many other species. Many diseases affect the circulatory system. These include a number of cardiovascular diseases, affecting the cardiovascular system, and lymphatic diseases affecting the lymphatic system. Cardiologists are medical professionals which specialise in the heart, and cardiothoracic surgeons specialise in operating on the heart and its surrounding areas. Vascular surgeons focus on other parts of the circulatory system. Diseases affecting the cardiovascular system are called cardiovascular disease. Many of these diseases are called "lifestyle diseases '' because they develop over time and are related to a person 's exercise habits, diet, whether they smoke, and other lifestyle choices a person makes. Atherosclerosis is the precursor to many of these diseases. It is where small atheromatous plaques build up in the walls of medium and large arteries. This may eventually grow or rupture to occlude the arteries. It is also a risk factor for acute coronary syndromes, which are diseases which are characterised by a sudden deficit of oxygenated blood to the heart tissue. Atherosclerosis is also associated with problems such as aneurysm formation or splitting ("dissection '') of arteries. Another major cardiovascular disease involves the creation of a clot, called a "thrombus ''. These can originate in veins or arteries. Deep venous thrombosis, which mostly occurs in the legs, is one cause of clots in the veins of the legs, particularly when a person has been stationary for a long time. These clots may embolise, meaning travel to another location in the body. The results of this may include pulmonary embolus, transient ischaemic attacks, or stroke. Cardiovascular diseases may also be congenital in nature, such as heart defects or persistent fetal circulation, where the circulatory changes that are supposed to happen after birth do not. Not all congenital changes to the circulatory system are associated with diseases, a large number are anatomical variations. The function and health of the circulatory system and its parts are measured in a variety of manual and automated ways. These include simple methods such as those that are part of the cardiovascular examination, including the taking of a person 's pulse as an indicator of a person 's heart rate, the taking of blood pressure through a sphygmomanometer or the use of a stethoscope to listen to the heart for murmurs which may indicate problems with the heart 's valves. An electrocardiogram can also be used to evaluate the way in which electricity is conducted through the heart. Other more invasive means can also be used. A cannula or catheter inserted into an artery may be used to measure pulse pressure or pulmonary wedge pressures. Angiography, which involves injecting a dye into an artery to visualise an arterial tree, can be used in the heart (coronary angiography) or brain. At the same time as the arteries are visualised, blockages or narrowings may be fixed through the insertion of stents, and active bleeds may be managed by the insertion of coils. An MRI may be used to image arteries, called an MRI angiogram. For evaluation of the blood supply to the lungs a CT pulmonary angiogram may be used. Vascular ultrasonography include for example: There are a number of surgical procedures performed on the circulatory system: Cardiovascular procedures are more likely to be performed in an inpatient setting than in an ambulatory care setting; in the United States, only 28 % of cardiovascular surgeries were performed in the ambulatory care setting. While humans, as well as other vertebrates, have a closed cardiovascular system (meaning that the blood never leaves the network of arteries, veins and capillaries), some invertebrate groups have an open cardiovascular system. The lymphatic system, on the other hand, is an open system providing an accessory route for excess interstitial fluid to be returned to the blood. The more primitive, diploblastic animal phyla lack circulatory systems. The blood vascular system first appeared probably in an ancestor of the triploblasts over 600 million years ago, overcoming the time - distance constraints of diffusion, while endothelium evolved in an ancestral vertebrate some 540 -- 510 million years ago. In arthropods, the open circulatory system is a system in which a fluid in a cavity called the hemocoel bathes the organs directly with oxygen and nutrients and there is no distinction between blood and interstitial fluid; this combined fluid is called hemolymph or haemolymph. Muscular movements by the animal during locomotion can facilitate hemolymph movement, but diverting flow from one area to another is limited. When the heart relaxes, blood is drawn back toward the heart through open - ended pores (ostia). Hemolymph fills all of the interior hemocoel of the body and surrounds all cells. Hemolymph is composed of water, inorganic salts (mostly sodium, chlorine, potassium, magnesium, and calcium), and organic compounds (mostly carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids). The primary oxygen transporter molecule is hemocyanin. There are free - floating cells, the hemocytes, within the hemolymph. They play a role in the arthropod immune system. The circulatory systems of all vertebrates, as well as of annelids (for example, earthworms) and cephalopods (squids, octopuses and relatives) are closed, just as in humans. Still, the systems of fish, amphibians, reptiles, and birds show various stages of the evolution of the circulatory system. In fish, the system has only one circuit, with the blood being pumped through the capillaries of the gills and on to the capillaries of the body tissues. This is known as single cycle circulation. The heart of fish is, therefore, only a single pump (consisting of two chambers). In amphibians and most reptiles, a double circulatory system is used, but the heart is not always completely separated into two pumps. Amphibians have a three - chambered heart. In reptiles, the ventricular septum of the heart is incomplete and the pulmonary artery is equipped with a sphincter muscle. This allows a second possible route of blood flow. Instead of blood flowing through the pulmonary artery to the lungs, the sphincter may be contracted to divert this blood flow through the incomplete ventricular septum into the left ventricle and out through the aorta. This means the blood flows from the capillaries to the heart and back to the capillaries instead of to the lungs. This process is useful to ectothermic (cold - blooded) animals in the regulation of their body temperature. Birds, mammals, and crocodilians show complete separation of the heart into two pumps, for a total of four heart chambers; it is thought that the four - chambered heart of birds and crocodilians evolved independently from that of mammals. Circulatory systems are absent in some animals, including flatworms. Their body cavity has no lining or enclosed fluid. Instead a muscular pharynx leads to an extensively branched digestive system that facilitates direct diffusion of nutrients to all cells. The flatworm 's dorso - ventrally flattened body shape also restricts the distance of any cell from the digestive system or the exterior of the organism. Oxygen can diffuse from the surrounding water into the cells, and carbon dioxide can diffuse out. Consequently, every cell is able to obtain nutrients, water and oxygen without the need of a transport system. Some animals, such as jellyfish, have more extensive branching from their gastrovascular cavity (which functions as both a place of digestion and a form of circulation), this branching allows for bodily fluids to reach the outer layers, since the digestion begins in the inner layers. The earliest known writings on the circulatory system are found in the Ebers Papyrus (16th century BCE), an ancient Egyptian medical papyrus containing over 700 prescriptions and remedies, both physical and spiritual. In the papyrus, it acknowledges the connection of the heart to the arteries. The Egyptians thought air came in through the mouth and into the lungs and heart. From the heart, the air travelled to every member through the arteries. Although this concept of the circulatory system is only partially correct, it represents one of the earliest accounts of scientific thought. In the 6th century BCE, the knowledge of circulation of vital fluids through the body was known to the Ayurvedic physician Sushruta in ancient India. He also seems to have possessed knowledge of the arteries, described as ' channels ' by Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007). The valves of the heart were discovered by a physician of the Hippocratean school around the 4th century BCE. However their function was not properly understood then. Because blood pools in the veins after death, arteries look empty. Ancient anatomists assumed they were filled with air and that they were for transport of air. The Greek physician, Herophilus, distinguished veins from arteries but thought that the pulse was a property of arteries themselves. Greek anatomist Erasistratus observed that arteries that were cut during life bleed. He ascribed the fact to the phenomenon that air escaping from an artery is replaced with blood that entered by very small vessels between veins and arteries. Thus he apparently postulated capillaries but with reversed flow of blood. In 2nd century AD Rome, the Greek physician Galen knew that blood vessels carried blood and identified venous (dark red) and arterial (brighter and thinner) blood, each with distinct and separate functions. Growth and energy were derived from venous blood created in the liver from chyle, while arterial blood gave vitality by containing pneuma (air) and originated in the heart. Blood flowed from both creating organs to all parts of the body where it was consumed and there was no return of blood to the heart or liver. The heart did not pump blood around, the heart 's motion sucked blood in during diastole and the blood moved by the pulsation of the arteries themselves. Galen believed that the arterial blood was created by venous blood passing from the left ventricle to the right by passing through ' pores ' in the interventricular septum, air passed from the lungs via the pulmonary artery to the left side of the heart. As the arterial blood was created ' sooty ' vapors were created and passed to the lungs also via the pulmonary artery to be exhaled. In 1025, The Canon of Medicine by the Persian physician, Avicenna, "erroneously accepted the Greek notion regarding the existence of a hole in the ventricular septum by which the blood traveled between the ventricles. '' Despite this, Avicenna "correctly wrote on the cardiac cycles and valvular function '', and "had a vision of blood circulation '' in his Treatise on Pulse. While also refining Galen 's erroneous theory of the pulse, Avicenna provided the first correct explanation of pulsation: "Every beat of the pulse comprises two movements and two pauses. Thus, expansion: pause: contraction: pause. (...) The pulse is a movement in the heart and arteries... which takes the form of alternate expansion and contraction. '' In 1242, the Arabian physician, Ibn al - Nafis, became the first person to accurately describe the process of pulmonary circulation, for which he is sometimes considered the father of circulatory physiology. Ibn al - Nafis stated in his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna 's Canon: "... the blood from the right chamber of the heart must arrive at the left chamber but there is no direct pathway between them. The thick septum of the heart is not perforated and does not have visible pores as some people thought or invisible pores as Galen thought. The blood from the right chamber must flow through the vena arteriosa (pulmonary artery) to the lungs, spread through its substances, be mingled there with air, pass through the arteria venosa (pulmonary vein) to reach the left chamber of the heart and there form the vital spirit... '' In addition, Ibn al - Nafis had an insight into what would become a larger theory of the capillary circulation. He stated that "there must be small communications or pores (manafidh in Arabic) between the pulmonary artery and vein, '' a prediction that preceded the discovery of the capillary system by more than 400 years. Ibn al - Nafis ' theory, however, was confined to blood transit in the lungs and did not extend to the entire body. Michael Servetus was the first European to describe the function of pulmonary circulation, although his achievement was not widely recognized at the time, for a few reasons. He firstly described it in the "Manuscript of Paris '' (near 1546), but this work was never published. And later he published this description, but in a theological treatise, Christianismi Restitutio, not in a book on medicine. Only three copies of the book survived but these remained hidden for decades, the rest were burned shortly after its publication in 1553 because of persecution of Servetus by religious authorities. Better known discovery of pulmonary circulation was by Vesalius 's successor at Padua, Realdo Colombo, in 1559. Finally, William Harvey, a pupil of Hieronymus Fabricius (who had earlier described the valves of the veins without recognizing their function), performed a sequence of experiments, and published Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus in 1628, which "demonstrated that there had to be a direct connection between the venous and arterial systems throughout the body, and not just the lungs. Most importantly, he argued that the beat of the heart produced a continuous circulation of blood through minute connections at the extremities of the body. This is a conceptual leap that was quite different from Ibn al - Nafis ' refinement of the anatomy and bloodflow in the heart and lungs. '' This work, with its essentially correct exposition, slowly convinced the medical world. However, Harvey was not able to identify the capillary system connecting arteries and veins; these were later discovered by Marcello Malpighi in 1661. In 1956, André Frédéric Cournand, Werner Forssmann and Dickinson W. Richards were awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine "for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system. '' In his Nobel lecture, Forssmann credits Harvey as birthing cardiology with the publication of his book in 1628. In the 1970s, Diana McSherry developed computer - based systems to create images of the circulatory system and heart without the need for surgery.

prison break - season 4 episode 23 the final break

Prison Break: the final Break - Wikipedia Prison Break: The Final Break is a 2009 television movie of the Prison Break franchise. The movie aired May 27 in the United Kingdom on Sky1. In the United States and Canada, the movie was first released on DVD and Blu - ray on July 21, 2009. The movie covers the events which occurred in between the downfall of The Company, and the revelation of Michael Scofield 's (Wentworth Miller) death. It details the manipulated arrest and incarceration of Sara Tancredi (Sarah Wayne Callies) for the murder of Christina Scofield (Kathleen Quinlan), the final escape plan which Michael devises for Sara, and the details surrounding Michael 's death. It also reveals the ultimate fate of Gretchen Morgan (Jodi Lyn O'Keefe). The story starts off with Sara being arrested for the murder of Christina (Scofield) Hampton, during her and Michael 's wedding reception. It is implied that surveillance video was altered by agents loyal to the General (Jonathan Krantz) (Leon Russom) by removing Christina 's gun to make it look as if Sara shot Christina in cold blood rather than self - defence. She is held in the Miami - Dade State Penitentiary, where overcrowding necessitates that the female prison and jail inmates are housed in the same building. Gretchen Morgan watches from a distance, having been imprisoned after the events in "The Sunshine State ''. Sara is attacked as revenge by the Miami - Dade COs for having left the infirmary door unlocked, allowing the "Fox River Eight '' to escape and eventual dismissal or suspension of several staff members of Fox River. Across the yard is the neighboring men 's jail and prison, where Krantz and Theodore "T - Bag '' Bagwell (Robert Knepper) are being held. T - Bag continues to help the general, even though the General claims poverty when asked to pay for contraband T - Bag gets him. The General contacts Gretchen and offers her $100,000 to kill Sara. When Gretchen does not get the job done immediately, it is offered as a bounty for whoever kills Sara. Sara is quickly poisoned with strychnine, but is given medical treatment in the infirmary that saves her life and pregnancy. The correctional physician informs her that she will have thirty minutes with her baby when she gives birth before the baby is taken away from her. His advice is to consider herself to be a surrogate mother to her own fetus so as to avoid crippling depression due to the inevitable separation. Michael learns of the attacks from Sara 's lawyer, and asks the warden to protect her, which she declines to do. She also denies Sara visits from anyone except her lawyer. After learning about the bounty on her head, Michael decides the only way to keep her alive is to break her out. He once again enlists Lincoln Burrows (Dominic Purcell) and Fernando Sucre 's (Amaury Nolasco) help. Lincoln and Sucre scope out the prison, taking measurements and photographs to create a map of the prison. Gretchen sees Lincoln and Sucre, and demands Sara include her in any escape plan that may be developing. After analyzing the photographs and plans of the prison, Michael finds a fault in the security system: a blind spot the cameras can not see. Alexander Mahone (William Fichtner) then arrives and offers his aid, although his true intentions are unclear. He has just been offered reinstatement with the FBI if he finds and reports any evidence incriminating Michael. Michael develops an escape plan which he relays to Sara using a hidden message in a letter. While he is out however, FBI Agent Todd Wheatley (Chris Bruno) breaks into Michael 's apartment, and sees the plans laid out on table. When Michael arrives, he points out that while the plans may look incriminating, he was merely looking for weaknesses to report to the prison warden (Amy Aquino) in the hopes that she may grant him visitation rights. Sara 's attorney secures a court order allowing Michael to visit her. Because the visit is supervised, he subtly asks her if she understood the hidden message, and she indicates she did. As he is leaving the prison, however, Michael sees the camera system being adjusted to eliminate the blind spot he planned to exploit. Special Agent Wheatley apparently discovered it while looking at the documents he had seen in Michael 's apartment. Meanwhile, Sara joins the "Family '' of the leader of the prisoners, an inmate who goes by the name of "Daddy '' (Lori Petty). Daddy helps her get work in the motor pool, which makes Wife jealous and other Family members suspicious. Michael comes up with a new plan to parachute into the prison and rescue Sara. Lincoln is sent to offer T - Bag $5,000 to light a fire and set off the fire alarm at 7: 00 the night of the escape. T - Bag demands $100,000, and suggests they can get it by robbing the General of the money he has to pay the bounty on Sara. T - Bag did this to settle grudges with the General, including the General 's refusal to pay T - Bag for favors in jail. T - Bag provides Lincoln with the name and phone number of Joe Daniels, (Richmond Arquette) the General 's agent. Lincoln agrees to steal the money and put it in T - Bag 's account by 7: 00. Lincoln and Sucre then steal the $100,000 from Daniels. Wanting to get to Sara away from the Family, Gretchen persuades one of the guards to search Daddy 's room. The guards do so, and take Daddy to solitary confinement after finding drugs in her cell. Sara is attacked by a fellow Family member (Alicia Lagano) but Gretchen comes to her rescue, killing the attacker in the process. Gretchen again demands Sara include her in the escape because she wishes to see her daughter, Emily, and give her a gift. When one of the guards tells Daddy of the death of her family member, and mentions that Sara and Gretchen are thought to be behind her killing, Daddy becomes infuriated. Following several phone calls with Agent Wheatley in which Mahone divulged Michael 's parachute plot, it appears that Mahone has betrayed Michael. But Michael continues to trust him, and gives him a piece of paper and a DVD which he asks Mahone to give to Sara in the event of his death. Michael then visits Sara once more, telling her that the previous escape plan was now impossible. He cryptically tells her of the new plan, in which she must get to the chapel. Michael has discovered they can get from the chapel to an administrative building that has an emergency escape tunnel. Daddy is eventually freed from lockup, and appears to be stalking Sara and Gretchen. Just before the escape begins, Gretchen distracts a guard, and Sara confronts Daddy. Sara picks a fight with Daddy and purposely pushes her into a powerful and frightening inmate Skittlez (Dot Marie Jones), who then retaliates by attacking Daddy. At the same time, Gretchen punches the guard and knocks her to the ground, but gets stabbed in the leg during the altercation. Sara quickly grabs the guard 's keys, and the two of them hide in the kitchen amidst the chaos. Michael then begins the escape. Knowing of the plan thanks to Mahone 's information, agent Wheatley orders all lights shut off, and positions armed officers near Michael 's expected landing site. When the parachute comes down, it is riddled with bullets. Upon inspection, Wheatley discovers the parachute is attached to a dummy. Michael is then seen sneaking out from under Wheatley 's car and running into the prison. With the escape underway, Gretchen admits to Sara that she can not continue on without help due to her injuries. Gretchen then asks her to choose, either to leave her behind or help her. Sara chooses to help Gretchen, however, as they run to the chapel, Gretchen is spotted by guards. She is asked if she 's alone but Gretchen covers Sara 's presence and stalls the guards. Though Sara is almost spotted by a guard, she manages to unlock the door and get into the chapel undetected. The guards are recalled and they take Gretchen. Sara picks up the necklace that Gretchen made for her daughter, Emily, presumably so she may pass it on to Emily later. Michael meets Sara in the chapel, and they wait for 7: 00 when T - Bag was to start the fire to trip the fire alarm. We see Sucre racing to a money transfer store to transfer the $100,000, but he gets there after the shop is closed. When T - Bag finds out that the transfer did not take place by 7: 00 as promised, he angrily reveals the plot to the warden, and tells her that he was instructed to set off the fire alarm. Special Agent Wheatley responds by demanding the fire alarm and other systems that would cover other noises be turned off. This however, turns out to be part of Michael 's plan, as he assumed that T - Bag would double - cross them. With the alarms off, he burns through a locked door with a blowtorch. However, the electronic lock on the next door does not open with the device Michael brought. He needs to cause a power surge from a fuse panel to unlock the door, so he instructs Sara to leave him behind. Sara refuses to leave if Michael can not go with her, but he emphasizes that there is no other way, touching her stomach and saying that he will be going with her. In one final act of sacrifice, Michael causes the surge, and sparks are shown coming from the fuse box. Sara runs, meeting Lincoln, Sucre, and Mahone just outside the fence. Stunned, Sara is unable to describe to Lincoln what just happened. Mahone revealed that he knew of Michael 's plan from a previous discussion and tells Lincoln, "He 's gone. '' They get into the van and drive away, still shocked over Michael 's fate. Back at the prison, T - Bag is put into solitary confinement for aiding Sara 's escape. The next day, just before Lincoln and Sara board a boat to escape to the Dominican Republic, Sucre gives Sara the $100,000 they stole from the General, apologizing for not being able to wire the money to them the night before as planned. Mahone gives Sara the paper Michael asked him to deliver, the results of a medical exam revealing that his brain tumor had returned and his condition was terminal. Mahone also gives the DVD to Lincoln who watches it with Sara while they escape on the boat. In the video, Michael tells Sara and Lincoln that he would n't have had much time to live because of his tumor, and that he does n't regret his choice. He asks Lincoln to promise that he will always be there for his child (which turns out to be a son) no matter what, and he asks Sara to watch out for Lincoln. He says that life is wasted on what people want to, but do n't ever, say. He then says what he wants to say is that he loves them both, very much. He tells them to make sure his child is told every day how much he is loved and how lucky he is to be free. The video, and the entire series, ends with Michael 's message that they are finally free: You know, we spend so much of our lives not saying the things we want to say. The things we should say. We speak in code and we send little messages, origami. So now, plainly, simply... I want to say that I love you both... very much. And I want you to promise me that you 're going to tell my child... that you 're going to tell my child how much they 're loved every day. And remind them how lucky they are to be free. Because we are. We 're free now. Finally. We 're free.

scrubs i will follow you into the dark

My Last Words - wikipedia "My Last Words '' is the 152nd episode of the television series Scrubs, and the second of its eighth season. The episode first aired on January 6, 2009 on ABC, following the show 's departure from NBC. It aired immediately after the season 's first episode, "My Jerks '', that same evening. The episode was written by Aseem Batra and directed by Bill Lawrence, the creator of the show. The episode was awarded the 2009 Humanitas Prize in the 30 Minute Category. The episode begins as Turk and J.D. are making plans for the continuation of their "bro - mantic '' tradition, "Steak Night, '' but plans are put on hold when they encounter George Valentine (Glynn Turman), a terminally ill patient with ischemic bowel disease who will probably die in the night. George convinces J.D. and Turk to leave the hospital, putting him in Denise 's care. Turk and J.D. return after finding out that George has lied to them and has no family to comfort him, relieving Denise of her duties. J.D. and Turk decide to stay and talk George through his fears of death. George mentions that he would like a beer after being denied a cigar, sending J.D. and Turk out on a beer run (in which they also purchase a flare gun and a box of condoms so as to not "seem like losers for purchasing one can of beer ''). The night soon turns into an evening of talking about life and death in an effort to comfort George. He initially finds it hard to open up to Turk and J.D. but soon finds comfort in the company that they bring. George questions J.D. and Turk about death and how his will occur, highlighting the duo 's own fears of passing in the process, but eventually finding some happiness. George soon becomes drowsy and falls asleep, asking J.D. and Turk if they 'll be around when he wakes up, to which they reply yes. He does not wake up, and Turk and J.D. celebrate their meeting and honor his passing on the roof of the hospital by shooting off the flare gun. "I Will Follow You Into the Dark '' by Death Cab for Cutie This episode did not feature Dr. Cox, Dr. Kelso, Janitor, or Elliot. The only major characters appearing were J.D., Turk, Ted, and Carla (but only in one of J.D. 's fantasies). This is the first time the Janitor has not appeared in an episode since "My Lucky Day ''. The Season 8 premiere of Scrubs was run by ABC in an hour long slot comprising two separate episodes, "My Jerks '' and "My Last Words ''. Scrubs obtained 6.7 million viewers for this hour long slot, around as many as the season 7 premiere on NBC. The two episodes together were the two most viewed shows in the 18 - 49 demographic.