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which of the following describes the outcome of om decisions

Theory of Constraints - wikipedia The theory of constraints (TOC) is a management paradigm that views any manageable system as being limited in achieving more of its goals by a very small number of constraints. There is always at least one constraint, and TOC uses a focusing process to identify the constraint and restructure the rest of the organization around it. TOC adopts the common idiom "a chain is no stronger than its weakest link ''. This means that processes, organizations, etc., are vulnerable because the weakest person or part can always damage or break them or at least adversely affect the outcome. The theory of constraints (TOC) is an overall management philosophy introduced by Eliyahu M. Goldratt in his 1984 book titled The Goal, that is geared to help organizations continually achieve their goals. Goldratt adapted the concept to project management with his book Critical Chain, published in 1997. An earlier propagator of a similar concept was Wolfgang Mewes in Germany with publications on power - oriented management theory (Machtorientierte Führungstheorie, 1963) and following with his Energo - Kybernetic System (EKS, 1971), later renamed Engpasskonzentrierte Strategie (Bottleneck - focused Strategy) as a more advanced theory of bottlenecks. The publications of Wolfgang Mewes are marketed through the FAZ Verlag, publishing house of the German newspaper Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (Frankfurt General Newspaper). However, the paradigm Theory of constraints was first used by Goldratt. The underlying premise of the theory of constraints is that organizations can be measured and controlled by variations on three measures: throughput, operational expense, and inventory. Inventory is all the money that the system has invested in purchasing things which it intends to sell. Operational expense is all the money the system spends in order to turn inventory into throughput. Throughput is the rate at which the system generates money through sales. Before the goal itself can be reached, necessary conditions must first be met. These typically include safety, quality, legal obligations, etc. For most businesses, the goal itself is to make money. However, for many organizations and non-profit businesses, making money is a necessary condition for pursuing the goal. Whether it is the goal or a necessary condition, understanding how to make sound financial decisions based on throughput, inventory, and operating expense is a critical requirement. Theory of constraints is based on the premise that the rate of goal achievement by a goal - oriented system (i.e., the system 's throughput) is limited by at least one constraint. The argument by reductio ad absurdum is as follows: If there was nothing preventing a system from achieving higher throughput (i.e., more goal units in a unit of time), its throughput would be infinite -- which is impossible in a real - life system. Only by increasing flow through the constraint can overall throughput be increased. Assuming the goal of a system has been articulated and its measurements defined, the steps are: The goal of a commercial organization is: "Make more money now and in the future '', and its measurements are given by throughput accounting as: throughput, inventory, and operating expenses. The five focusing steps aim to ensure ongoing improvement efforts are centered on the organization 's constraint (s). In the TOC literature, this is referred to as the process of ongoing improvement (POOGI). These focusing steps are the key steps to developing the specific applications mentioned below. A constraint is anything that prevents the system from achieving its goal. There are many ways that constraints can show up, but a core principle within TOC is that there are not tens or hundreds of constraints. There is at least one, but at most only a few in any given system. Constraints can be internal or external to the system. An internal constraint is in evidence when the market demands more from the system than it can deliver. If this is the case, then the focus of the organization should be on discovering that constraint and following the five focusing steps to open it up (and potentially remove it). An external constraint exists when the system can produce more than the market will bear. If this is the case, then the organization should focus on mechanisms to create more demand for its products or services. Types of (internal) constraints The concept of the constraint in Theory of Constraints is analogous to but differs from the constraint that shows up in mathematical optimization. In TOC, the constraint is used as a focusing mechanism for management of the system. In optimization, the constraint is written into the mathematical expressions to limit the scope of the solution (X can be no greater than 5). Please note: organizations have many problems with equipment, people, policies, etc. (A breakdown is just that -- a breakdown -- and is not a constraint in the true sense of the TOC concept). The constraint is the limiting factor that is preventing the organization from getting more throughput (typically, revenue through sales) even when nothing goes wrong. If a constraint 's throughput capacity is elevated to the point where it is no longer the system 's limiting factor, this is said to "break '' the constraint. The limiting factor is now some other part of the system, or may be external to the system (an external constraint). This is not to be confused with a breakdown. Buffers are used throughout the theory of constraints. They often result as part of the exploit and subordinate steps of the five focusing steps. Buffers are placed before the governing constraint, thus ensuring that the constraint is never starved. Buffers are also placed behind the constraint to prevent downstream failure from blocking the constraint 's output. Buffers used in this way protect the constraint from variations in the rest of the system and should allow for normal variation of processing time and the occasional upset (Murphy) before and behind the constraint. Buffers can be a bank of physical objects before a work center, waiting to be processed by that work center. Buffers ultimately buy you time, as in the time before work reaches the constraint and are often verbalized as time buffers. There should always be enough (but not excessive) work in the time queue before the constraint and adequate offloading space behind the constraint. Buffers are not the small queue of work that sits before every work center in a Kanban system although it is similar if you regard the assembly line as the governing constraint. A prerequisite in the theory is that with one constraint in the system, all other parts of the system must have sufficient capacity to keep up with the work at the constraint and to catch up if time was lost. In a balanced line, as espoused by Kanban, when one work center goes down for a period longer than the buffer allows, then the entire system must wait until that work center is restored. In a TOC system, the only situation where work is in danger is if the constraint is unable to process (either due to malfunction, sickness or a "hole '' in the buffer -- if something goes wrong that the time buffer can not protect). Buffer management, therefore, represents a crucial attribute of the theory of constraints. There are many ways to apply buffers, but the most often used is a visual system of designating the buffer in three colors: green (okay), yellow (caution) and red (action required). Creating this kind of visibility enables the system as a whole to align and thus subordinate to the need of the constraint in a holistic manner. This can also be done daily in a central operations room that is accessible to everybody. There are four primary types of plants in the TOC lexicon. Draw the flow of material from the bottom of a page to the top, and you get the four types. They specify the general flow of materials through a system, and also provide some hints about where to look for typical problems. This type of analysis is known as VATI analysis as it uses the bottom - up shapes of the letters V, A, T, and I to describe the types of plants. The four types can be combined in many ways in larger facilities, e.g. "an A plant feeding a V plant ''. From the above list, one can deduce that for non-material systems one could draw the flow of work or the flow of processes, instead of physical flows, and arrive at similar basic V, A, T, or I structures. A project, for example, is an A-shaped sequence of work, culminating in a delivered project. The focusing steps, this process of ongoing improvement, have been applied to manufacturing, project management, supply chain / distribution generated specific solutions. Other tools (mainly the "thinking process '') also led to TOC applications in the fields of marketing and sales, and finance. The solution as applied to each of these areas are listed below. Within manufacturing operations and operations management, the solution seeks to pull materials through the system, rather than push them into the system. The primary methodology used is drum - buffer - rope (DBR) and a variation called simplified drum - buffer - rope (S - DBR). Drum - buffer - rope is a manufacturing execution methodology based on the fact the output of a system can only be the same as the output at the constraint of the system. Any attempt to produce more than what the constraint can process just leads to excess inventory piling up. The method is named for its three components. The drum is the rate at which the physical constraint of the plant can work: the work center or machine or operation that limits the ability of the entire system to produce more. The rest of the plant follows the beat of the drum. Schedule at the drum decides what the system should produce, in what sequence to produce and how much to produce. They make sure the drum has work and that anything the drum has processed does not get wasted. The buffer protects the drum, so that it always has work flowing to it. Buffers in DBR provide the additional lead time beyond the required set up and process times, for materials in the product flow. Since these buffers have time as their unit of measure, rather than quantity of material, this makes the priority system operate strictly based on the time an order is expected to be at the drum. Each work order will have a remaining buffer status that can be calculated. Based on this buffer status, work orders can be color coded into Red, Yellow and Green. The red orders have the highest priority and must worked on first, since they have penetrated most into their buffers followed by yellow and green. As time evolves, this buffer status might change and the color assigned to the particular work order change with it. Traditional DBR usually calls for buffers at several points in the system: the constraint, synchronization points and at shipping. S - DBR has a buffer at shipping and manages the flow of work across the drum through a load planning mechanism. The rope is the work release mechanism for the plant. Orders are released to the shop floor at one "buffer time '' before they are due to be processed by the constraint. In other words, if the buffer is 5 days, the order is released 5 days before it is due at the constraint. Putting work into the system earlier than this buffer time is likely to generate too - high work - in - process and slow down the entire system. Automated production lines that are used in the beverage industry to fill containers usually have several machines executing parts of the complete process, from filling primary containers to secondary packaging and palletisation. These machines operate at different speeds and capacities and have varying efficiency levels. To be able to maximize the throughput, the production line usually has a designed constraint. This constraint is typically the slowest and often the most expensive machine on the line. The overall throughput of the line is determined by this machine. All other machines can operate faster and are connected by conveyors. The conveyors usually have the ability to buffer product. In the event of a stoppage at a machine other than the constraint, the conveyor can buffer the product enabling the constraint machine to keep on running. A typical line setup is such that in normal operation the upstream conveyors from the constraint machine are always run full to prevent starvation at the constraint and the downstream conveyors are run empty to prevent a back up at the constraint. The overall aim is to prevent minor stoppages at the machines from impacting the constraint. For this reason as the machines get further from the constraint, they have the ability to run faster than the previous machine and this creates a V curve. In general, the solution for supply chains is to create flow of inventory so as to ensure greater availability and to eliminate surpluses. The TOC distribution solution is effective when used to address a single link in the supply chain and more so across the entire system, even if that system comprises many different companies. The purpose of the TOC distribution solution is to establish a decisive competitive edge based on extraordinary availability by dramatically reducing the damages caused when the flow of goods is interrupted by shortages and surpluses. This approach uses several new rules to protect availability with less inventory than is conventionally required. Before explaining these new rules, the term Replenishment Time must be defined. Replenishment Time (RT) is the sum of the delay, after the first consumption following a delivery, before an order is placed plus the delay after the order is placed until the ordered goods arrive at the ordering location. Once inventory is managed as described above, continuous efforts should be undertaken to reduce RT, late deliveries, supplier minimum order quantities (both per SKU and per order) and customer order batching. Any improvements in these areas will automatically improve both availability and inventory turns, thanks to the adaptive nature of Buffer Management. A stocking location that manages inventory according to the TOC should help a non-TOC customer (downstream link in a supply chain, whether internal or external) manage their inventory according to the TOC process. This type of help can take the form of a vendor managed inventory (VMI). The TOC distribution link simply extends its buffer sizing and management techniques to its customers ' inventories. Doing so has the effect of smoothing the demand from the customer and reducing order sizes per SKU. VMI results in better availability and inventory turns for both supplier and customer. More than that, the benefits to the non-TOC customers are sufficient to meet the purpose of capitalizing on the decisive competitive edge by giving the customer a powerful reason to be more loyal and give more business to the upstream link. When the end consumers buy more, the whole supply chain sells more. One caveat should be considered. Initially and only temporarily, the supply chain or a specific link may sell less as the surplus inventory in the system is sold. However, the sales lift due to improved availability is a countervailing factor. The current levels of surpluses and shortages make each case different. The solution for finance and accounting is to apply holistic thinking to the finance application. This has been termed throughput accounting. Throughput accounting suggests that one examine the impact of investments and operational changes in terms of the impact on the throughput of the business. It is an alternative to cost accounting. The primary measures for a TOC view of finance and accounting are: throughput, operating expense and investment. Throughput is calculated from sales minus "totally variable cost '', where totally variable cost is usually calculated as the cost of raw materials that go into creating the item sold. Critical Chain Project Management (CCPM) are utilized in this area. CCPM is based on the idea that all projects look like A-plants: all activities converge to a final deliverable. As such, to protect the project, there must be internal buffers to protect synchronization points and a final project buffer to protect the overall project. While originally focused on manufacturing and logistics, TOC has expanded lately into sales management and marketing. Its role is explicitly acknowledged in the field of sales process engineering. For effective sales management one can apply Drum Buffer Rope to the sales process similar to the way it is applied to operations (see Reengineering the Sales Process book reference below). This technique is appropriate when your constraint is in the sales process itself, or if you just want an effective sales management technique which includes the topics of funnel management and conversion rates. The thinking processes are a set of tools to help managers walk through the steps of initiating and implementing a project. When used in a logical flow, the thinking processes help walk through a buy - in process: TOC practitioners sometimes refer to these in the negative as working through layers of resistance to a change. Recently, the current reality tree (CRT) and future reality tree (FRT) have been applied to an argumentative academic paper. Despite its origins as a manufacturing approach (Goldratt & Cox, The Goal: A process of Ongoing Improvement, 1992), Goldratt 's Theory of Constraints (TOC) methodology is now regarded as a systems methodology with strong foundations in the hard sciences (Mabin, 1999). Through its tools for convergent thinking and synthesis, the "Thinking processes '', which underpin the entire TOC methodology, help identify and manage constraints and guide continuous improvement and change in organizations (Dettmer H., 1998). The process of change requires the identification and acceptance of core issues; the goal and the means to the goal. This comprehensive set of logical tools can be used for exploration, solution development and solution implementation for individuals, groups or organizations. Each tool has a purpose and nearly all tools can be used independently (Cox & Spencer, 1998). Since these thinking tools are designed to address successive "layers of resistance '' and enable communication, it expedites securing "buy in '' of groups. While CRT (current reality tree) represents the undesirable effects of the current situation, the FRT (the future reality tree), NBR (negative branch) help people plan and understand the possible results of their actions. The PRT (prerequisite tree) and TRT (transition tree) are designed to build collective buy in and aid in the Implementation phase. The logical constructs of these tools or diagrams are the necessary condition logic, the sufficient cause logic and the strict logic rules that are used to validate cause - effect relationships which are modelled with these tools (Dettmer W., 2006). A summary of these tools, the questions they help answer and the associated logical constructs used is presented in the table below. "If....... then '' "In order to... we must '' Negative Branch Reservations TOC Thinking Process Tools: Use of these tools are based on the fundamental beliefs of TOC that organizations a) are inherently simple (interdependencies exist in organizations) b) desire inherent harmony (win -- win solutions are possible) c) are inherently good (people are good) and have inherent potential (people and organizations have potential to do better) (Goldratt E., 2009). In the book "Through the clouds to solutions '' Jelena Fedurko (Fedurko, 2013) states that the major areas for application of TP tools as: TOC was initiated by Goldratt, who until his recent death was still the main driving force behind the development and practice of TOC. There is a network of individuals and small companies loosely coupled as practitioners around the world. TOC is sometimes referred to as "constraint management ''. TOC is a large body of knowledge with a strong guiding philosophy of growth. Criticisms that have been leveled against TOC include: While TOC has been compared favorably to linear programming techniques, D. Trietsch from University of Auckland argues that DBR methodology is inferior to competing methodologies. Linhares, from the Getulio Vargas Foundation, has shown that the TOC approach to establishing an optimal product mix is unlikely to yield optimum results, as it would imply that P = NP. Duncan (as cited by Steyn) says that TOC borrows heavily from systems dynamics developed by Forrester in the 1950s and from statistical process control which dates back to World War II. And Noreen Smith and Mackey, in their independent report on TOC, point out that several key concepts in TOC "have been topics in management accounting textbooks for decades. '' People claim Goldratt 's books fail to acknowledge that TOC borrows from more than 40 years of previous management science research and practice, particularly from program evaluation and review technique / critical path method (PERT / CPM) and the just in time strategy. A rebuttal to these criticisms is offered in Goldratt 's "What is the Theory of Constraints and How Should it be Implemented? '', and in his audio program, "Beyond The Goal ''. In these, Goldratt discusses the history of disciplinary sciences, compares the strengths and weaknesses of the various disciplines, and acknowledges the sources of information and inspiration for the thinking processes and critical chain methodologies. Articles published in the now - defunct Journal of Theory of Constraints referenced foundational materials. Goldratt published an article and gave talks with the title "Standing on the Shoulders of Giants '' in which he gives credit for many of the core ideas of Theory of Constraints. Goldratt has sought many times to show the correlation between various improvement methods. Goldratt has been criticized on lack of openness in his theories, an example being him not releasing the algorithm he used for the Optimum Performance Training system. Some view him as unscientific with many of his theories, tools and techniques not being a part of the public domain, rather a part of his own framework of profiting on his ideas. According to Gupta and Snyder (2009), despite being recognized as a genuine management philosophy nowadays, TOC has yet failed to demonstrate its effectiveness in the academic literature and as such, can not be considered academically worthy enough to be called a widely recognized theory. TOC needs more case studies that prove a connection between implementation and improved financial performance. Nave (2002) argues that TOC does not take employees into account and fails to empower them in the production process. He also states that TOC fails to address unsuccessful policies as constraints. In contrast, Mukherjee and Chatterjee (2007) state that much of the criticism of Goldratt 's work has been focused on the lack of rigour in his work, but not of the bottleneck approach, which are two different aspects of the issue. The Theory of Constraints International Certification Organization (TOCICO) is an independent not - for - profit incorporated society that sets exams to ensure a consistent standard of competence. It is overseen by a board of academic and industrial experts. It also hosts an annual international conference. The work presented at these conferences constitutes a core repository of the current knowledge.

when does the next season of last kingdom start

The Last Kingdom (TV series) - wikipedia The Last Kingdom is a British historical fiction television series based on Bernard Cornwell 's The Saxon Stories series of novels. The series premiered on 10 October 2015 on BBC America, and on BBC Two in the UK on 22 October 2015. A second series of eight episodes, co-produced by Netflix after the exit of BBC America, began airing on BBC Two in the UK in March 2017. In April 2018 it was reported that Netflix was in production of a third season, exclusively to air on the streaming service in 2018. The series is set in the late 9th century AD, when England is divided into seven separate kingdoms. The Anglo - Saxon lands are gradually attacked, plundered, and effectively ruled by Viking Danes in many areas. The Kingdom of Wessex remains the last major stronghold against the Danes. The protagonist is Uhtred of Bebbanburg. Several men of that name existed and ruled Bebbanburg (Bamburgh Castle), but little is known of their actual lives. Bernard Cornwell is descended from them and decided to invent a history based on actual historic events. The tale has its main character be re-baptised as Uhtred after his elder brother is killed by the invading Danes. Then his father along with other Saxon noblemen of Northumbria are killed in battle with these same Danes. Only his uncle and step - mother survive. Uhtred and a Saxon girl named Brida are taken as slaves by Earl Ragnar, now settled in Danish Northumbria which becomes their adopted home as they grow older. Time passes and Ragnar 's daughter Thyra is about to be married, but the Danes attack the night before the wedding and set the hall ablaze in which the whole family are sleeping. Ragnar is burned alive, and Thyra is taken a slave. Only Uhtred and Brida escape, as they had been in the woods watching the charcoal burn. The attackers are led by Kjartan, a disgruntled Viking who had been banished by Ragnar from his lands years earlier for an offense committed by Kjartan 's son Sven. Uhtred vows to avenge his adoptive father 's death, while simultaneously hoping to reclaim Bebbanburg from his uncle -- who seeks to kill Uhtred in order to hold onto the land of Bebbanburg. Uhtred is forced to choose between a kingdom that shares his ancestry and the people of his upbringing, and his loyalties are constantly tested. The first series ' story line roughly covers the plots of the novels The Last Kingdom and The Pale Horseman, although they are condensed for the purposes of television. The second series covers the plots of Cornwell 's novels The Lords of the North and Sword Song. The series started shooting in November 2014. It is produced by Carnival Films for BBC Two and BBC America with filming in Hungary and the United Kingdom. Nick Murphy (Prey, Occupation) is co-executive producing and directing multiple episodes. Filming for the second series began in Budapest in June 2016. Richard Rankin, Gerard Kearns, Thure Lindhardt, Millie Brady, Erik Madsen, and Peter McDonald will join the cast. In August 2016, Aftonbladet reported that Swedish actors Björn Bengtsson, and Magnus Samuelsson would join the main cast. Also that month, it was reported that Stephen Butchard would returned as the sole script writer and that Netflix had signed on as an international co-production partner for the second series. In April 2018, Bernard Cornwell confirmed that a third series is in production and that he had been offered a cameo appearance in it. The Last Kingdom premiered on 10 October 2015 in the United States on BBC America, and was broadcast shortly after in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on 22 October 2015. It became available online in the United States via Netflix on 6 July 2016. It was added to Netflix on 28 December 2015 in the following countries: Australia, Austria, Canada, Germany, Japan, New Zealand, Portugal, Spain and Switzerland. The first season was broadcast in the Spanish region of Catalonia on TV3 on 24 July 2017. The second season was released on Netflix in the U.S., Canada, Denmark, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Spain, Japan, Australia, Portugal and Italy. The series has been met with a positive critical response. It has a 92 % Tomatometer rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 25 reviews, with an average rating of 7.4 / 10. On Metacritic, it holds a score of 78 / 100 based on 15 reviews. Sam Wollaston reviewed the first episode in The Guardian and warned, "It 's wise not to get too attached to anyone in The Last Kingdom. '' Charlotte Runcie gave the opening episode 4 stars out of 5 in The Daily Telegraph. Wollaston and Runcie both remarked on the similarities between Last Kingdom and Game of Thrones. Sean O'Grady in The Independent found that some of the language gave the series "a satisfyingly earthy quality, '' but he thought that the plot was "a little convoluted ''. The television reviewer for Private Eye was more critical, arguing that The Last Kingdom demonstrates how Game of Thrones "haunts the BBC, '' and that the series was directly derivative of both fantasy series and European dramas such as The Killing and Wallander, yet lacking the features that have made such series successful.

when does english dragon ball super come out

List of Dragon Ball Super episodes - wikipedia Dragon Ball Super is a Japanese anime television series produced by Toei Animation that began airing on July 5, 2015 on Fuji TV. It is the first Dragon Ball television series featuring a new storyline in 18 years. Storywise, the series retells the events of the last two Dragon Ball Z films, Battle of Gods and Resurrection ' F ', which themselves follow the events of Dragon Ball Z. Afterward, the series proceeds to tell an original story about the exploration of other universes, the reemergence of Future Trunks, and new threats to the Future Earth known as Goku Black and a Supreme Kai from Universe 10 named Zamasu. Later on, Goku, Vegeta, Gohan, Krillin, Android 17, Android 18, Piccolo, Tien, Master Roshi, and a temporarily revived Frieza participate in a universal tournament held by Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō to decide the fate of multiple universes. If they lose in the universal tournament then Universe Seven will be erased. Thirteen pieces of theme music are used: two opening themes and eleven ending themes. The first opening theme song for episodes 1 to 76 is "Chōzetsu Dynamic! '' (超絶 ☆ ダイナミック!, Chōzetsu Dainamikku, "Excellent Dynamic! '') performed by Kazuya Yoshii of The Yellow Monkey. The lyrics were penned by Yukinojo Mori who has written numerous songs for the Dragon Ball series. The second opening theme song for episodes 77 to 131 is "Limit - Break x Survivor '' (限界 突破 × サバイバー, Genkai Toppa x Sabaibā) by Kiyoshi Hikawa. Mori wrote the lyrics for the rock number "Genkai Toppa x Survivor ''. Takafumi Iwasaki composed the music. The first ending theme song for episodes 1 to 12 is "Hello Hello Hello '' (ハロー ハロー ハロー, Harō Harō Harō) by Japanese rock band Good Morning America. The second ending theme song for episodes 13 to 25 is "Starring Star '' (スターリング スター, Sutāringu Sutā) by Key Talk. The third ending theme song for episodes 26 to 36 is "Usubeni '' (薄 紅, "Light Pink '') by Lacco Tower. The fourth ending theme song for episodes 37 to 49 is "Forever Dreaming '' (フォーエバー ドリーミング, Fōebā Dorīmingu) by Czecho No Republic. The fifth ending theme song for episodes 50 to 59 is "Yokayoka Dance '' (よかよか ダンス, Yokayoka Dansu, "It 's Fine Dance '') by idol group Batten Showjo Tai. The sixth ending theme for episodes 60 to 72 is "Chao Han Music '' (炒飯 MUSIC, Chāhan Myūjikku) by Arukara. The seventh ending theme song for episodes 73 to 83 is "Aku no Tenshi to Seigi no Akuma '' (悪 の 天使 と 正義 の 悪魔, An Evil Angel and the Righteous Devil) by THE COLLECTORS. The eighth ending theme song for episodes 84 to 96 is "Boogie Back '' by Miyu Innoue. The ninth ending theme song for episodes 97 to 108 is "Haruka '' by Lacco Tower. The tenth ending theme song for episodes 109 to 121 is "By A 70cm Square Window '' by RottenGraffty. The eleventh ending theme song for episodes 122 to 131 is "Lagrima '' by OnePixcel. The first series set was released on Japanese Blu - ray and DVD sets that contain twelve episodes each. The first set was released on December 2, 2015. The second set was released on March 2, 2016. The third set was released on July 2, 2016. The fourth set was released on October 10, 2016. Dragon Ball Super received an English - language dub that premiered on the Toonami channel in Southeast Asia in January 2017. The series has been aired in Israel on Nickelodeon and in Portugal on SIC. Toei Animation Europe announced that Dragon Ball Super would be broadcast in France, Italy, Spain, and English - speaking Africa in Fall 2016. An official English sub of the series would be simulcasted legally on Crunchyroll, Daisuki.net, and Anime Lab beginning October 22, 2016. Funimation announced the company acquired the rights to the series and will be producing an English dub. As well as officially announcing the dub, it was also announced they will be simulcasting the series on their streaming platform, FunimationNow. Funimation 's English dub of Dragon Ball Super began airing on Adult Swim 's Toonami block starting on January 7, 2017. The Supreme Kais are surprised that the universe is still intact following the battle, but they fear the worst is still to come. On Earth, Vegeta, Whis, and the others are still standing by while watching the battle. Whis is surprised by the Super Saiyan God 's power and its ability to keep up with his trainee. In space, Goku struggles to keep up with Beerus ' attack, which ultimately ends up in a massive explosion that blinds everyone on Earth. Shortly after, the light clears out, which reveals everything to be as it was prior to the explosion. Beerus explains that he used his full power to negate the explosion, which saved the universe. Seeing it as a perfect opportunity to boast, Mr. Satan arranges to have himself be falsely credited with saving the planet yet again. Despite being at his limit, Goku remains calm, which annoys the God of Destruction. Beerus thinks Goku might have a strategy that he has been hiding, which Goku promptly denies. Goku says that everything he had been doing was improvised as they fought. The Gods quickly power up and continue fighting, but this time both are at their limit. As soon as they start, Goku loses his Super Saiyan God aura and reverts to the ordinary Super Saiyan form. Upon noticing that, Beerus decides to quit. He thinks it is pointless to fight an ordinary Super Saiyan. However, Goku does not notice and keeps going at it. Whis is able to sense Goku 's mortal energy. Whis assumes that the battle has concluded and that Goku has lost. However, Piccolo begs to differ. Surprised that Goku is still able to hit him even after losing his Super Saiyan God form, Beerus surmises that Goku 's body has adjusted to the Super Saiyan God power. This made him stronger in his ordinary form. With or without the Super Saiyan God form, Goku proclaims that it is still him that Beerus is up against. Beerus and Goku resume their battle of Gods. To counter Goku 's increase in power, Kefla powers up to Super Saiyan 2, and the two of them face off. Goku still easily dodges Kefla 's attacks, but his own attacks are not strong enough to take her down. Whis explains that when Goku launches his attacks, it interferes with his concentration and prevents him from using Ultra Instinct to its full potential. Jiren senses the energy from the battle, which prompts him to awaken from his meditation and rejoin Toppo and Dyspo. Vegeta realizes that Ultra Instinct is the level of skill that Whis was training him and Goku to attain, and decides that he must reach it too. Goku begins running low on stamina, so he declares that he will end the fight with his next attack. Kefla panics and unleashes a multitude of deadly energy beams. Her ultimate attack devastates the ring, but Goku easily dodges her blasts while charging a Kamehameha. Goku jumps into the air, so Kefla focuses all of her power into a single blast and launches it at him, taking advantage of his apparent inability to dodge. However, he backflips and uses the charged - up energy to slide over her attack, and launches his Kamehameha at point - blank range, blasting Kefla out of the ring and eliminating her. Her Potara earrings shatter, and she splits back into Kale and Caulifla. With both of them eliminated, Saonel and Pirina are the only remaining warriors from Team Universe 6.

when was the last time there was acid rain

Acid rain - wikipedia Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it has elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals and infrastructure. Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids. Some governments have made efforts since the 1970s to reduce the release of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide into the atmosphere with positive results. Nitrogen oxides can also be produced naturally by lightning strikes, and sulfur dioxide is produced by volcanic eruptions. Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on forests, freshwaters and soils, killing insect and aquatic life - forms, causing paint to peel, corrosion of steel structures such as bridges, and weathering of stone buildings and statues as well as having impacts on human health. "Acid rain '' is a popular term referring to the deposition of a mixture from wet (rain, snow, sleet, fog, cloudwater, and dew) and dry (acidifying particles and gases) acidic components. Distilled water, once carbon dioxide is removed, has a neutral pH of 7. Liquids with a pH less than 7 are acidic, and those with a pH greater than 7 are alkaline. "Clean '' or unpolluted rain has an acidic pH, but usually no lower than 5.7, because carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to form carbonic acid, a weak acid according to the following reaction: Carbonic acid then can ionize in water forming low concentrations of hydronium and carbonate ions: However, unpolluted rain can also contain other chemicals which affect its pH (acidity level). A common example is nitric acid produced by electric discharge in the atmosphere such as lightning. Acid deposition as an environmental issue (discussed later in the article) would include additional acids other than H C O. The corrosive effect of polluted, acidic city air on limestone and marble was noted in the 17th century by John Evelyn, who remarked upon the poor condition of the Arundel marbles. Since the Industrial Revolution, emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere have increased. In 1852, Robert Angus Smith was the first to show the relationship between acid rain and atmospheric pollution in Manchester, England. Though acidic rain was discovered in 1853, it was not until the late 1960s that scientists began widely observing and studying the phenomenon. The term "acid rain '' was coined in 1872 by Robert Angus Smith. Canadian Harold Harvey was among the first to research a "dead '' lake. At first the main focus in research lay on local affects of acid rain. Waldemar Christofer Brøgger was the first to acknowledge long - distance transportation of pollutants crossing borders from the United Kingdom to Norway. Public awareness of acid rain in the U.S increased in the 1970s after The New York Times published reports from the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire of the myriad deleterious environmental effects shown to result from it. Occasional pH readings in rain and fog water of well below 2.4 have been reported in industrialized areas. Industrial acid rain is a substantial problem in China and Russia and areas downwind from them. These areas all burn sulfur - containing coal to generate heat and electricity. The problem of acid rain has not only increased with population and industrial growth, but has become more widespread. The use of tall smokestacks to reduce local pollution has contributed to the spread of acid rain by releasing gases into regional atmospheric circulation. Often deposition occurs a considerable distance downwind of the emissions, with mountainous regions tending to receive the greatest deposition (simply because of their higher rainfall). An example of this effect is the low pH of rain which falls in Scandinavia. The earliest report about acid rain in the United States was from the chemical evidence from Hubbard Brook Valley. In 1972, a group of scientists including Gene Likens discovered the rain that was deposited at White Mountains of New Hampshire was acidic. The pH of the sample was measured to be 4.03 at Hubbard Brook. The Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study followed up with a series of research that analyzed the environmental effects of acid rain. Acid rain that mixed with stream water at Hubbard Brook was neutralized by the alumina from soils. The result of this research indicates the chemical reaction between acid rain and aluminum leads to increasing rate of soil weathering. Experimental research was done to examine the effects of increased acidity in stream on ecological species. In 1980, a group of scientists modified the acidity of Norris Brook, New Hampshire, and observed the change in species ' behaviors. There was a decrease in species diversity, an increase in community dominants, and a decrease in the food web complexity. In 1980, the U.S. Congress passed an Acid Deposition Act. This Act established an 18 - year assessment and research program under the direction of the National Acidic Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP). NAPAP looked at the entire problem from a scientific perspective. It enlarged a network of monitoring sites to determine how acidic the precipitation actually was, and to determine long - term trends, and established a network for dry deposition. It looked at the effects of acid rain and funded research on the effects of acid precipitation on freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems, historical buildings, monuments, and building materials. It also funded extensive studies on atmospheric processes and potential control programs. From the start, policy advocates from all sides attempted to influence NAPAP activities to support their particular policy advocacy efforts, or to disparage those of their opponents. For the U.S. Government 's scientific enterprise, a significant impact of NAPAP were lessons learned in the assessment process and in environmental research management to a relatively large group of scientists, program managers and the public. In 1981, the National Academy of Sciences was looking into research about the controversial issues regarding acid rain. President Ronald Reagan did not place a huge attention on the issues of acid rain until his personal visit to Canada and confirmed that Canadian border suffered from the drifting pollution from smokestacks in Midwest of US. Reagan honored the agreement to Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau 's enforcement of anti-pollution regulation. In 1982, US President Ronald Reagan commissioned William Nierenberg to serve on the National Science Board. Nierenberg selected scientists including Gene Likens to serve on a panel to draft a report on acid rain. In 1983, the panel of scientists came up with a draft report, which concluded that acid rain is a real problem and solutions should be sought. White House Office of Science and Technology Policy reviewed the draft report and sent Fred Singer 's suggestions of the report, which cast doubt on the cause of acid rain. The panelists revealed rejections against Singer 's positions and submitted the report to Nierenberg in April. In May 1983, the House of Representatives voted against legislations that aimed to control sulfur emissions. There was a debate about whether Nierenberg delayed to release the report. Nierenberg himself denied the saying about his suppression of the report and explained that the withheld of the report after the House 's vote was due to the fact that the report was not ready to be published. In 1991, the US National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP) provided its first assessment of acid rain in the United States. It reported that 5 % of New England Lakes were acidic, with sulfates being the most common problem. They noted that 2 % of the lakes could no longer support Brook Trout, and 6 % of the lakes were unsuitable for the survival of many species of minnow. Subsequent Reports to Congress have documented chemical changes in soil and freshwater ecosystems, nitrogen saturation, decreases in amounts of nutrients in soil, episodic acidification, regional haze, and damage to historical monuments. Meanwhile, in 1990, the U.S. Congress passed a series of amendments to the Clean Air Act. Title IV of these amendments established the a cap and trade system designed to control emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Title IV called for a total reduction of about 10 million tons of SO emissions from power plants. It was implemented in two phases. Phase I began in 1995, and limited sulfur dioxide emissions from 110 of the largest power plants to a combined total of 8.7 million tons of sulfur dioxide. One power plant in New England (Merrimack) was in Phase I. Four other plants (Newington, Mount Tom, Brayton Point, and Salem Harbor) were added under other provisions of the program. Phase II began in 2000, and affects most of the power plants in the country. During the 1990s, research continued. On March 10, 2005, the EPA issued the Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR). This rule provides states with a solution to the problem of power plant pollution that drifts from one state to another. CAIR will permanently cap emissions of SO and NO in the eastern United States. When fully implemented, CAIR will reduce SO emissions in 28 eastern states and the District of Columbia by over 70 % and NO emissions by over 60 % from 2003 levels. Overall, the program 's cap and trade program has been successful in achieving its goals. Since the 1990s, SO emissions have dropped 40 %, and according to the Pacific Research Institute, acid rain levels have dropped 65 % since 1976. Conventional regulation was used in the European Union, which saw a decrease of over 70 % in SO emissions during the same time period. In 2007, total SO emissions were 8.9 million tons, achieving the program 's long - term goal ahead of the 2010 statutory deadline. In 2007 the EPA estimated that by 2010, the overall costs of complying with the program for businesses and consumers would be $1 billion to $2 billion a year, only one fourth of what was originally predicted. Forbes says: In 2010, by which time the cap and trade system had been augmented by the George W. Bush administration 's Clean Air Interstate Rule, SO2 emissions had fallen to 5.1 million tons. The term Citizen science can be traced back as far as January 1989 and a campaign by the Audubon Society to measure Acid rain. Scientist Muki Haklay cites in a policy report for the Wilson Center entitled ' Citizen Science and Policy: A European Perspective ' a first use of the term ' citizen science ' by R. Kerson in the magazine MIT Technology Review from January 1989. Quoting from the Wilson Center report: "The new form of engagement in science received the name "citizen science ''. The first recorded example of the use of the term is from 1989, describing how 225 volunteers across the US collected rain samples to assist the Audubon Society in an acid - rain awareness raising campaign. The volunteers collected samples, checked for acidity, and reported back to the organization. The information was then used to demonstrate the full extent of the phenomenon. '' The most important gas which leads to acidification is sulfur dioxide. Emissions of nitrogen oxides which are oxidized to form nitric acid are of increasing importance due to stricter controls on emissions of sulfur containing compounds. 70 Tg (S) per year in the form of SO comes from fossil fuel combustion and industry, 2.8 Tg (S) from wildfires and 7 -- 8 Tg (S) per year from volcanoes. The principal natural phenomena that contribute acid - producing gases to the atmosphere are emissions from volcanoes. Thus, for example, fumaroles from the Laguna Caliente crater of Poás Volcano create extremely high amounts of acid rain and fog, with acidity as high as a pH of 2, clearing an area of any vegetation and frequently causing irritation to the eyes and lungs of inhabitants in nearby settlements. Acid - producing gasses are also created by biological processes that occur on the land, in wetlands, and in the oceans. The major biological source of sulfur containing compounds is dimethyl sulfide. Nitric acid in rainwater is an important source of fixed nitrogen for plant life, and is also produced by electrical activity in the atmosphere such as lightning. Acidic deposits have been detected in glacial ice thousands of years old in remote parts of the globe. Soils of coniferous forests are naturally very acidic due to the shedding of needles, and the results of this phenomenon should not be confused with acid rain. The principal cause of acid rain is sulfur and nitrogen compounds from human sources, such as electricity generation, factories, and motor vehicles. Electrical power generation using coal is among the greatest contributors to gaseous pollutions that are responsible for acidic rain. The gases can be carried hundreds of kilometers in the atmosphere before they are converted to acids and deposited. In the past, factories had short funnels to let out smoke but this caused many problems locally; thus, factories now have taller smoke funnels. However, dispersal from these taller stacks causes pollutants to be carried farther, causing widespread ecological damage. Combustion of fuels produces sulfur dioxide and nitric oxides. They are converted into sulfuric acid and nitric acid. In the gas phase sulfur dioxide is oxidized by reaction with the hydroxyl radical via an intermolecular reaction: which is followed by: In the presence of water, sulfur trioxide (SO) is converted rapidly to sulfuric acid: Nitrogen dioxide reacts with OH to form nitric acid: When clouds are present, the loss rate of SO is faster than can be explained by gas phase chemistry alone. This is due to reactions in the liquid water droplets. Sulfur dioxide dissolves in water and then, like carbon dioxide, hydrolyses in a series of equilibrium reactions: There are a large number of aqueous reactions that oxidize sulfur from S (IV) to S (VI), leading to the formation of sulfuric acid. The most important oxidation reactions are with ozone, hydrogen peroxide and oxygen (reactions with oxygen are catalyzed by iron and manganese in the cloud droplets). Wet deposition of acids occurs when any form of precipitation (rain, snow, and so on.) removes acids from the atmosphere and delivers it to the Earth 's surface. This can result from the deposition of acids produced in the raindrops (see aqueous phase chemistry above) or by the precipitation removing the acids either in clouds or below clouds. Wet removal of both gases and aerosols are both of importance for wet deposition. Acid deposition also occurs via dry deposition in the absence of precipitation. This can be responsible for as much as 20 to 60 % of total acid deposition. This occurs when particles and gases stick to the ground, plants or other surfaces. Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on forests, freshwaters and soils, killing insect and aquatic life - forms as well as causing damage to buildings and having impacts on human health. Both the lower pH and higher aluminium concentrations in surface water that occur as a result of acid rain can cause damage to fish and other aquatic animals. At pHs lower than 5 most fish eggs will not hatch and lower pHs can kill adult fish. As lakes and rivers become more acidic biodiversity is reduced. Acid rain has eliminated insect life and some fish species, including the brook trout in some lakes, streams, and creeks in geographically sensitive areas, such as the Adirondack Mountains of the United States. However, the extent to which acid rain contributes directly or indirectly via runoff from the catchment to lake and river acidity (i.e., depending on characteristics of the surrounding watershed) is variable. The United States Environmental Protection Agency 's (EPA) website states: "Of the lakes and streams surveyed, acid rain caused acidity in 75 % of the acidic lakes and about 50 % of the acidic streams ''. Lakes hosted by silicate basement rocks are more acidic than lakes within limestone or other basement rocks with a carbonate composition (i.e. marble) due to buffering effects by carbonate minerals, even with the same amount of acid rain. Soil biology and chemistry can be seriously damaged by acid rain. Some microbes are unable to tolerate changes to low pH and are killed. The enzymes of these microbes are denatured (changed in shape so they no longer function) by the acid. The hydronium ions of acid rain also mobilize toxins such as aluminium, and leach away essential nutrients and minerals such as magnesium. Soil chemistry can be dramatically changed when base cations, such as calcium and magnesium, are leached by acid rain thereby affecting sensitive species, such as sugar maple (Acer saccharum). Adverse effects may be indirectly related to acid rain, like the acid 's effects on soil (see above) or high concentration of gaseous precursors to acid rain. High altitude forests are especially vulnerable as they are often surrounded by clouds and fog which are more acidic than rain. Other plants can also be damaged by acid rain, but the effect on food crops is minimized by the application of lime and fertilizers to replace lost nutrients. In cultivated areas, limestone may also be added to increase the ability of the soil to keep the pH stable, but this tactic is largely unusable in the case of wilderness lands. When calcium is leached from the needles of red spruce, these trees become less cold tolerant and exhibit winter injury and even death. Acid rain has a much less harmful effect on the oceans. However, acid rain can cause the oceans acidity to rise, making it more difficult for different coastal species to create their exoskeletons that they need to survive. These coastal species link together as part of the ocean 's food chain and without them being a source for other marine life to feed off of more marine life will die. Coral 's limestone skeletal is sensitive to pH drop, because the calcium carbonate, core component of the limestone dissolves in acidic (low pH) solutions. Acid rain does not directly affect human health. The acid in the rainwater is too dilute to have direct adverse effects. However, the particulates responsible for acid rain (sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) do have an adverse effect. Increased amounts of fine particulate matter in the air do contribute to heart and lung problems including asthma and bronchitis. Acid rain can damage buildings, historic monuments, and statues, especially those made of rocks, such as limestone and marble, that contain large amounts of calcium carbonate. Acids in the rain react with the calcium compounds in the stones to create gypsum, which then flakes off. The effects of this are commonly seen on old gravestones, where acid rain can cause the inscriptions to become completely illegible. Acid rain also increases the corrosion rate of metals, in particular iron, steel, copper and bronze. Places significantly impacted by acid rain around the globe include most of eastern Europe from Poland northward into Scandinavia, the eastern third of the United States, and southeastern Canada. Other affected areas include the southeastern coast of China and Taiwan. Many coal - firing power stations use flue - gas desulfurization (FGD) to remove sulfur - containing gases from their stack gases. For a typical coal - fired power station, FGD will remove 95 % or more of the SO in the flue gases. An example of FGD is the wet scrubber which is commonly used. A wet scrubber is basically a reaction tower equipped with a fan that extracts hot smoke stack gases from a power plant into the tower. Lime or limestone in slurry form is also injected into the tower to mix with the stack gases and combine with the sulfur dioxide present. The calcium carbonate of the limestone produces pH - neutral calcium sulfate that is physically removed from the scrubber. That is, the scrubber turns sulfur pollution into industrial sulfates. In some areas the sulfates are sold to chemical companies as gypsum when the purity of calcium sulfate is high. In others, they are placed in landfill. However, the effects of acid rain can last for generations, as the effects of pH level change can stimulate the continued leaching of undesirable chemicals into otherwise pristine water sources, killing off vulnerable insect and fish species and blocking efforts to restore native life. Fluidized bed combustion also reduces the amount of sulfur emitted by power production. Vehicle emissions control reduces emissions of nitrogen oxides from motor vehicles. A number of international treaties on the long - range transport of atmospheric pollutants have been agreed for example, the 1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions under the Convention on Long - Range Transboundary Air Pollution. Canada and the US signed the Air Quality Agreement in 1991. Most European countries and Canada have signed the treaties. In this regulatory scheme, every current polluting facility is given or may purchase on an open market an emissions allowance for each unit of a designated pollutant it emits. Operators can then install pollution control equipment, and sell portions of their emissions allowances they no longer need for their own operations, thereby recovering some of the capital cost of their investment in such equipment. The intention is to give operators economic incentives to install pollution controls. The first emissions trading market was established in the United States by enactment of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. The overall goal of the Acid Rain Program established by the Act is to achieve significant environmental and public health benefits through reductions in emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO) and nitrogen oxides (NO), the primary causes of acid rain. To achieve this goal at the lowest cost to society, the program employs both regulatory and market based approaches for controlling air pollution.

who did the voice of andy in toy story

Toy Story - wikipedia Toy Story is a 1995 American computer - animated buddy comedy adventure film produced by Pixar Animation Studios for Walt Disney Pictures. The directorial debut of John Lasseter, Toy Story was the first feature - length computer - animated film and the first feature film produced by Pixar. Taking place in a world where anthropomorphic toys pretend to be lifeless whenever humans are present, the film 's plot focuses on the relationship between Woody, an old - fashioned pullstring cowboy doll (voiced by Tom Hanks), and Buzz Lightyear, an astronaut action figure (voiced by Tim Allen), as they evolve from rivals competing for the affections of Andy, their owner, to friends who work together to be reunited with Andy as his family prepares to move to a new home. The screenplay was written by Joss Whedon, Andrew Stanton, Joel Cohen and Alec Sokolow, based on a story by Lasseter, Pete Docter, Stanton and Joe Ranft. The film features music by Randy Newman, and was executive - produced by Steve Jobs and Edwin Catmull. Pixar, which produced short animated films to promote their computers, was approached by Disney to produce a computer - animated feature after the success of their short film Tin Toy (1988), which is told from a small toy 's perspective. Lasseter, Stanton and Docter wrote early story treatments which were thrown out by Disney, as they wanted the film to be edgier. After disastrous story reels, production was halted and the script was re-written, better reflecting the tone and theme Pixar desired: that "toys deeply want children to play with them, and that this desire drives their hopes, fears, and actions ''. The studio, then consisting of a relatively small number of employees, produced the film under minor financial constraints. Toy Story was released in theaters on November 22, 1995, and was the highest - grossing film on its opening weekend, earning over $373 million at the worldwide box office. The film was positively reviewed by critics and audiences, who praised the animation 's technical innovation, the wit and thematic sophistication of the screenplay, and the vocal performances of Hanks and Allen. It is considered by many critics to be one of the best animated films ever made. The film received three Academy Award nominations, including Best Original Screenplay, Best Original Score, and Best Original Song for "You 've Got a Friend in Me '', as well as winning a Special Achievement Academy Award. It was inducted into the National Film Registry as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant '' in 2005, its first year of eligibility. In addition to home media releases and theatrical re-releases, Toy Story - inspired material has run the gamut from toys, video games, theme park attractions, spin - offs, merchandise, and two sequels -- Toy Story 2 (1999) and Toy Story 3 (2010) -- both of which also garnered massive commercial success and critical acclaim, with a third sequel, Toy Story 4, slated for a 2019 release. In a world where toys are living things who pretend to be lifeless when humans are present, a group of toys, owned by six - year - old Andy Davis, are caught off - guard when Andy 's birthday party is moved up a week, as Andy, his mother, and infant sister Molly, are preparing to move the following week. The toys ' leader and Andy 's favorite toy, a pull - string cowboy doll named Sheriff Woody, organizes the other toys, including Bo Peep the shepherdess, Mr. Potato Head, Rex the Dinosaur, Hamm the Piggy Bank, and Slinky Dog, into a scouting mission. Green army men, led by Sarge, spy on the party, and report the results to the others via baby monitors. The toys are relieved when the party appears to end with none of them having been replaced, but then Andy receives a surprise gift -- an electronic toy space ranger action figure named Buzz Lightyear, who thinks he is an actual space ranger. Buzz impresses the other toys with his various features, and Andy begins to favor him, making Woody feel left out. As Andy prepares for a family outing at Pizza Planet, his mother allows him to bring one toy. Fearing Andy will choose Buzz, Woody attempts to trap Buzz behind a desk, but ends up accidentally knocking him out a window, and the other toys rebel against Woody by accusing him of knocking Buzz out of jealousy. Before they can exact revenge, Andy takes Woody instead and leaves for Pizza Planet. When the family stops for gas, Woody finds that Buzz has hitched a ride on the car as well, and fight, only to find the family has left without them. They manage to make their way to the restaurant by stowing away on a pizza delivery truck, where Buzz, still thinking he is a real space ranger, despite Woody 's attempts to convince him otherwise, gets them stuck in a crane game, where they are salvaged by Andy 's mischievous neighbor, Sid Phillips. Woody attempts to escape from Sid 's house, but Buzz, finally realizing he is a toy after watching a Buzz Lightyear TV ad, sinks into despondency. Sid plans to launch Buzz on a firework rocket, but his plans are delayed by a thunderstorm. Woody tells Buzz about the joy he can bring to Andy as a toy, restoring his confidence. The next day, Woody and Sid 's mutant toy creations rescue Buzz just as Sid is about to launch the rocket and scare Sid into no longer abusing toys by coming to life in front of him, and he runs into his house screaming in horror. Woody and Buzz then leave Sid 's house just as Andy and his family drive away toward their new home. The duo tries to make it to the moving truck, but Sid 's dog, Scud, sees them, and gives chase. Buzz gets left behind while saving Woody from Scud, and Woody tries rescuing him with Andy 's RC car, but the other toys, thinking Woody eliminated RC as well, attack and toss him off the truck. Having evaded Scud, Buzz and RC retrieve Woody, and continue after the truck. Upon seeing Woody and Buzz together on RC, the other toys realize their mistake, and try to help them get back aboard, but RC 's batteries become depleted, stranding them. Woody ignites the rocket on Buzz 's back and manages to throw RC into the truck before they soar into the air. Buzz opens his wings to free himself from the rocket before it explodes, gliding with Woody to land safely into a box in the car, right next to Andy. On Christmas Day, at their new house, Woody and Buzz stage another reconnaissance mission to prepare for the new toy arrivals. As Woody jokingly asks what might be worse than Buzz, they discover Andy 's new gift is a puppy, and the two share a worried smile. Director John Lasseter 's first experience with computer animation was during his work as an animator at Walt Disney Feature Animation, when two of his friends showed him the lightcycle scene from Tron. It was an eye - opening experience which awakened Lasseter to the possibilities offered by the new medium of computer - generated animation. Lasseter tried to pitch The Brave Little Toaster as a fully computer - animated film to Disney, but the idea was rejected and Lasseter was fired. He then went on to work at Lucasfilm and later as a founding member of Pixar, which was purchased by entrepreneur and Apple Inc. co-founder Steve Jobs in 1986. At Pixar, Lasseter created short, computer - animated films to show off the Pixar Image Computer 's capabilities, and Tin Toy (1988) -- a short story told from the perspective of a toy, referencing Lasseter 's love of classic toys -- would go on to claim the 1988 Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film, the first computer - generated film to do so. Tin Toy gained Disney 's attention, and the new team at The Walt Disney Company -- CEO Michael Eisner and chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg in the film division -- began a quest to get Lasseter to come back. Lasseter, grateful for Jobs ' faith in him, felt compelled to stay with Pixar, telling co-founder Ed Catmull, "I can go to Disney and be a director, or I can stay here and make history. '' Katzenberg realized he could not lure Lasseter back to Disney and therefore set plans into motion to ink a production deal with Pixar to produce a film. Disney had always made all their movies in - house and refused to change this. But when Tim Burton, who used to work at Disney, wanted to buy back the rights to The Nightmare Before Christmas, Disney struck a deal allowing him to make it as a Disney movie outside the studio. This opened the door for Pixar to make their movies outside Disney. Both sides were willing. Catmull and fellow Pixar co-founder Alvy Ray Smith had long wanted to produce a computer - animated feature. In addition, Disney had licensed Pixar 's Computer Animation Production System (CAPS), and that made it the largest customer for Pixar 's computers. Jobs made it apparent to Katzenberg that although Disney was happy with Pixar, it was not the other way around: "We want to do a film with you, '' said Jobs. "That would make us happy. '' At this same time, Peter Schneider, president of Walt Disney Feature Animation, was potentially interested in making a feature film with Pixar. When Catmull, Smith and head of animation Ralph Guggenheim met with Schneider in the summer of 1990, they found the atmosphere to be puzzling and contentious. They later learned that Katzenberg intended that if Disney were to make a film with Pixar, it would be outside Schneider 's purview, which aggravated Schneider. After that first meeting, the Pixar contingent went home with low expectations and was surprised when Katzenberg called for another conference. Catmull, Smith, and Guggenheim were joined by Bill Reeves (head of animation research and development), Jobs, and Lasseter. They brought with them an idea for a half - hour television special called A Tin Toy Christmas. They reasoned that a television program would be a sensible way to gain experience before tackling a feature film. They met with Katzenberg at a conference table in the Team Disney building at the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank. Catmull and Smith considered it would be difficult to keep Katzenberg interested in working with the company over time. They considered it even more difficult to sell Lasseter and the junior animators on the idea of working with Disney, who had a bad reputation for how they treated their animators, and Katzenberg, who had built a reputation as a micromanaging tyrant. Katzenberg asserted this himself in the meeting: "Everybody thinks I 'm a tyrant. I am a tyrant. But I 'm usually right. '' He threw out the idea of a half - hour special and eyed Lasseter as the key talent in the room: "John, since you wo n't come work for me, I 'm going to make it work this way. '' He invited the six visitors to mingle with the animators -- "ask them anything at all '' -- and the men did so, finding they all backed up Katzenberg 's statements. Lasseter felt he would be able to work with Disney and the two companies began negotiations. Pixar at this time was on the verge of bankruptcy and needed a deal with Disney. Katzenberg insisted that Disney be given the rights to Pixar 's proprietary technology for making 3 - D animation, but Jobs refused. In another case, Jobs demanded Pixar would have part ownership of the film and its characters, sharing control of both video rights and sequels, but Katzenberg refused. Disney and Pixar reached accord on contract terms in an agreement dated May 3, 1991, and signed on in early July. Eventually, the deal specified that Disney would own the picture and its characters outright, have creative control, and pay Pixar about 12.5 % of the ticket revenues. It had the option (but not the obligation) to do Pixar 's next two films and the right to make (with or without Pixar) sequels using the characters in the film. Disney could also kill the film at any time with only a small penalty. These early negotiations would become a point of contention between Jobs and Eisner for many years. An agreement to produce a feature film based on Tin Toy with a working title of Toy Story was finalized and production began soon thereafter. The original treatment for Toy Story, drafted by Lasseter, Andrew Stanton, and Pete Docter, had little in common with the eventually finished film. It paired Tinny, the one - man band from Tin Toy with a ventriloquist 's dummy and sent them on a sprawling odyssey. Under studio head Jeffrey Katzenberg, Woody was the main villain, abusing the other toys until they rallied against him; however, after Disney executives saw the storyboards they relinquished creative control to Pixar. The core idea of Toy Story was present from the treatment onward, however: that "toys deeply want children to play with them, and that this desire drives their hopes, fears, and actions. '' Katzenberg felt the original treatment was problematic and told Lasseter to reshape Toy Story as more of an odd - couple buddy picture, and suggested they watch some classic buddy movies, such as The Defiant Ones and 48 Hrs., in which two characters with different attitudes are thrown together and have to bond. Lasseter, Stanton, and Docter emerged in early September 1991 with the second treatment, and although the lead characters were still Tinny and the dummy, the outline of the final film was beginning to take shape. The script went through many changes before the final version. Lasseter decided Tinny was "too antiquated '', and the character was changed to a military action figure, and then given a space theme. Tinny 's name changed to Lunar Larry, then Tempus from Morph, and eventually Buzz Lightyear (after astronaut Buzz Aldrin). Lightyear 's design was modeled on the suits worn by Apollo astronauts as well as G.I. Joe action figures. In addition, the green and purple color scheme on Lightyear 's suit was inspired by Lasseter and his wife, Nancy, whose favorite colors were green and purple respectively. Woody, the second character, was inspired by a Casper the Friendly Ghost doll that Lasseter had when he was a child. Originally, Woody was a ventriloquist 's dummy with a pull - string (hence the name Woody). However, character designer Bud Luckey suggested that Woody could be changed to a cowboy ventriloquist dummy. John Lasseter liked the contrast between the Western and the science fiction genres and the character immediately changed. Eventually, all the ventriloquist dummy aspects of the character were deleted, because the dummy was designed to look "sneaky and mean. '' However they kept the name Woody to pay homage to the Western actor Woody Strode. The story department drew inspiration from films such as Midnight Run and The Odd Couple, and Lasseter screened Hayao Miyazaki 's Castle in the Sky (1986) for further influence. Toy Story 's script was strongly influenced by the ideas of screenwriter Robert McKee. The members of Pixar 's story team -- Lasseter, Stanton, Docter and Joe Ranft -- were aware that most of them were beginners at writing for feature films. None of them had any feature story or writing credits to their name besides Ranft, who had taught a story class at CalArts and did some storyboard work prior. Seeking insight, Lasseter and Docter attended a three - day seminar in Los Angeles given by McKee. His principles, grounded in Aristotle 's Poetics, dictated that a character emerges most realistically and compellingly from the choices that the protagonist makes in reaction to his problems. Disney also appointed Joel Cohen, Alec Sokolow and, later, Joss Whedon to help develop the script. Whedon found that the script was n't working but had a great structure, and added the character of Rex and sought a pivotal role for Barbie. The story team continued to touch up the script as production was underway. Among the late additions was the encounter between Buzz and the alien squeaky toys at Pizza Planet, which emerged from a brainstorming session with a dozen directors, story artists, and animators from Disney. Katzenberg gave approval for the script on January 19, 1993, at which point voice casting could begin. Lasseter always wanted Tom Hanks to play the character of Woody. Lasseter claimed Hanks "has the ability to take emotions and make them appealing. Even if the character, like the one in A League of Their Own, is down - and - out and despicable. '' Paul Newman, who subsequently accepted the role of Doc Hudson in another Pixar success, Cars, was considered for the role of Woody. Billy Crystal was approached to play Buzz, but turned down the role, which he later regretted, and subsequently accepted the role of Mike Wazowski in another Pixar success, Monsters, Inc... In addition to Crystal, Bill Murray, Chevy Chase and Jim Carrey were also considered for Buzz. Lasseter took the role to Tim Allen, who was appearing in Disney 's Home Improvement, and he accepted. To gauge how an actor 's voice would fit with a character, Lasseter borrowed a common Disney technique: animate a vocal monologue from a well - established actor to meld the actor 's voice with the appearance or actions of the animated character. This early test footage, using Hanks ' voice from Turner & Hooch, convinced Hanks to sign on to the film. Toy Story was both Hanks ' and Allen 's first animated film role. Every couple of weeks, Lasseter and his team would put together their latest set of storyboards or footage to show Disney. In early screen tests, Pixar impressed Disney with the technical innovation but convincing Disney of the plot was more difficult. At each presentation by Pixar, Katzenberg would tear much of it up, giving out detailed comments and notes. Katzenberg 's big push was to add more edginess to the two main characters. Disney wanted the film to appeal to both children and adults, and asked for adult references to be added to the film. After many rounds of notes from Katzenberg and other Disney executives, the general consensus was that Woody had been stripped of almost all charm. Tom Hanks, while recording the dialogue for the story reels, exclaimed at one point that the character was a jerk. Lasseter and his Pixar team had the first half of the movie ready to screen, so they brought it down to Burbank to show to Katzenberg and other Disney executives on November 19, 1993, an event they later dubbed "The Black Friday Incident. '' The results were disastrous, and Schneider, who was never particularly enamored of Katzenberg 's idea of having outsiders make animation for Disney, declared it a mess and ordered that production be stopped immediately. Katzenberg asked colleague Thomas Schumacher why the reels were bad. Schumacher replied bluntly: "Because it 's not their movie anymore, it 's completely not the movie that John set out to make. '' Lasseter was embarrassed with what was on the screen, later recalling, "It was a story filled with the most unhappy, mean characters that I 've ever seen. '' He asked Disney for the chance to retreat back to Pixar and rework the script in two weeks, and Katzenberg was supportive. Lasseter, Stanton, Docter and Ranft delivered the news of the production shutdown to the production crew, many of whom had left other jobs to work on the project. In the meantime, the crew would shift to television commercials while the head writers worked out a new script. Although Lasseter kept morale high by remaining outwardly buoyant, the production shutdown was "a very scary time, '' recalled story department manager BZ Petroff. Schneider had initially wanted to shut down production altogether and fire all recently hired animators. Katzenberg put the film under the wing of Walt Disney Feature Animation. The Pixar team was pleased that the move would give them an open door to counseling from Disney 's animation veterans. Schneider, however, continued to take a dim view of the project and would later go over Katzenberg 's head to urge Eisner to cancel it. Stanton retreated into a small, dark, windowless office, emerging periodically with new script pages. He and the other story artists would then draw the shots on storyboards. Whedon came back to Pixar for part of the shutdown to help with revising, and the script was revised in two weeks as promised. When Katzenberg and Schneider halted production on Toy Story, Steve Jobs kept the work going with his own personal funding. Jobs did not insert himself much into the creative process, respecting the artists at Pixar and instead managing the relationship with Disney. The Pixar team came back with a new script three months later, with the character of Woody morphed from being a tyrannical boss of Andy 's other toys to being their wise and caring leader. It also included a more adult - oriented staff meeting amongst the toys rather than a juvenile group discussion that had existed in earlier drafts. Buzz Lightyear 's character was also changed slightly "to make it more clear to the audience that he really does n't realize he 's a toy. '' Katzenberg and Schneider approved the new approach, and by February 1994 the film was back in production. The voice actors returned in March 1994 to record their new lines. When production was greenlit, the crew quickly grew from its original size of 24 to 110, including 27 animators, 22 technical directors, and 61 other artists and engineers. In comparison, The Lion King, released in 1994, required a budget of $45 million and a staff of 800. In the early budgeting process, Jobs was eager to produce the film as efficiently as possible, impressing Katzenberg with his focus on cost - cutting. Despite this, the $17 million production budget was proving inadequate, especially given the major revision that was necessary after Katzenberg had pushed them to make Woody too edgy. Jobs demanded more funds to complete the film right and insisted that Disney was liable for the cost overruns. Katzenberg was not willing, and Ed Catmull was able to reach a compromise. Recruiting animators for Toy Story was brisk; the magnet for talent was not the pay, generally mediocre, but rather the allure of taking part in the first computer - animated feature. Lasseter said that on the challenges of the computer animation in the film "We had to make things look more organic. Every leaf and blade of grass had to be created. We had to give the world a sense of history. So the doors are banged up, the floors have scuffs. '' The film began with animated storyboards to guide the animators in developing the characters. 27 animators worked on the film, using 400 computer models to animate the characters. Each character was either created out of clay or was first modeled off of a computer - drawn diagram before reaching the computer animated design. Once the animators had a model, articulation and motion controls were coded; this would allow each character to move in a variety of ways, such as talking, walking, or jumping. Out of all the characters, Woody was the most complex, as he required 723 motion controls, including 212 for his face and 58 for his mouth. The first piece of animation, a 30 - second test, was delivered to Disney in June 1992, when the company requested a sample of what the film would look like. Lasseter wanted to impress Disney with a number of things in the test that could not be done in traditional, hand - drawn animation, such as Woody 's yellow plaid shirt with red stripes, the reflections in Buzz 's helmet and the decals on his space suit, or Venetian blind shadows falling across Andy 's room. Every shot in the film passed through the hands of eight different teams. The art department gave each shot its color scheme and general lighting. Under Craig Good, the layout department then placed the models in the shot, framed it by setting the location of the virtual camera, and programmed any camera movement. To make the medium feel as familiar as possible, they sought to stay within the limits of what might be done in a live - action film with real cameras, dollies, tripods, and cranes. Headed by directing animators Rich Quade and Ash Brannon, each shot went to the animation department from the layout. Lasseter opted against Disney 's approach of assigning an animator to work on a character throughout a film, but made certain exceptions in scenes where he thought acting was particularly critical. The animators used the Menv program to set each character in the desired pose. Once a sequence of hand - built poses (or "keyframes '') was created, the software would build poses for the frames in - between. The animators studied videotapes of the actors for inspiration, and Lasseter rejected automatic lip - syncing. To sync the characters ' mouths and facial expressions to the actors ' recorded voices, animators spent a week per 8 seconds of animation. Afterward, the animators would compile the scenes, and develop a new storyboard with the computer - animated characters. They then added shading, lighting, visual effects, and finally used 300 computer processors to render the film to its final design. Under Tom Porter, the shading team used RenderMan 's shader language to create shader programs for each of a model 's surfaces. A few surfaces in Toy Story came from real objects: a shader for the curtain fabric in Andy 's room used a scan of actual cloth. Under Galyn Susman and Sharon Calahan, the lighting team orchestrated the final lighting of the shot after animation and shading. Each completed shot then went into rendering on a "render farm '' of 117 Sun Microsystems computers that ran 24 hours a day. Finished animation emerged in a steady drip of around three minutes a week. Depending on its complexity, each frame took from 45 minutes up to 30 hours to render. The film required 800,000 machine hours and 114,240 frames of animation in total. There are over 77 minutes of animation spread across 1,561 shots. A camera team, aided by David DiFrancesco, recorded the frames onto film stock. Toy Story was rendered at a mere 1,536 by 922 pixels, with each of them corresponding to roughly a quarter - inch of screen area on a typical cinema screen. During post-production, the film was sent to Skywalker Sound, where the sound effects were mixed with the music score. Disney was concerned with Lasseter 's position on the use of music. Unlike other Disney films of the time, Lasseter did not want the film to be a musical, saying it was a buddy film featuring "real toys. '' Joss Whedon agreed, saying, "It would have been a really bad musical, because it 's a buddy movie. It 's about people who wo n't admit what they want, much less sing about it... Buddy movies are about sublimating, punching an arm, ' I hate you. ' It 's not about open emotion. '' However, Disney favored the musical format, claiming "Musicals are our orientation. Characters breaking into song is a great shorthand. It takes some of the onus off what they 're asking for. '' Disney and Pixar reached a compromise: the characters in Toy Story would not break into song, but the film would use non-diegetic songs over the action, as in The Graduate, to convey and amplify the emotions that Buzz and Woody were feeling. Disney and Lasseter tapped Randy Newman to compose the film. The edited Toy Story was due to Newman and Gary Rydstrom in late September 1995 for their final work on the score and sound design, respectively. Lasseter said, "His songs are touching, witty, and satirical, and he would deliver the emotional underpinning for every scene. '' Newman wrote three original songs for the film; developing the film 's signature song "You 've Got a Friend in Me '' in one day. It was difficult for crew members to perceive the film 's quality during much of the production process when the finished footage was in scattered pieces and lacked elements like music and sound design. Some animators felt the film would be a significant disappointment commercially, but felt animators and animation fans would find it interesting. According to Lee Unkrich, one of the original editors of Toy Story, a scene was cut out of the original final edit. The scene features Sid, after Pizza Planet, torturing Buzz and Woody violently. Unkrich decided to cut right into the scene where Sid is interrogating the toys because the creators of the movie thought the audience would be loving Buzz and Woody at that point. Another scene, where Woody was trying to get Buzz 's attention when he was stuck in the box crate, was shortened because the creators felt it would lose the energy of the movie. Peter Schneider had grown optimistic about the film as it neared completion, and announced a United States release date of November, coinciding with Thanksgiving weekend and the start of the winter holiday season. Sources indicate that executive producer Steve Jobs lacked confidence in the film during its production, and he had been talking to various companies, ranging from Hallmark to Microsoft, about selling Pixar. However, as the film progressed, Jobs became ever more excited about it, feeling that he might be on the verge of transforming the movie industry. As scenes from the movie were finished, he watched them repeatedly and had friends come by his home to share his new passion. Jobs decided that the release of Toy Story that November would be the occasion to take Pixar public. A test audience near Anaheim in late July 1995 indicated the need for last - minute tweaks, which added further pressure to the already frenetic final weeks. Response cards from the audience were encouraging, but were not top of the scale, adding further question as to how audiences would respond. The film ended with a shot of Andy 's house and the sound of a new puppy. Michael Eisner, who attended the screening, told Lasseter afterward that the film needed to end with a shot of Woody and Buzz together, reacting to the news of the puppy. The soundtrack for Toy Story was produced by Walt Disney Records and was released on November 22, 1995, the week of the film 's release. Scored and written by Randy Newman, the soundtrack has received praise for its "sprightly, stirring score ''. Despite the album 's critical success, the soundtrack only peaked at number 94 on the Billboard 200 album chart. A cassette and CD single release of "You 've Got a Friend in Me '' was released on April 12, 1996, to promote the soundtrack 's release. The soundtrack was remastered in 2006. After it went out of print, the album was made available for purchase digitally in retailers such as iTunes. The soundtrack, along with Newman 's complete unreleased score for the film was reissued on July 17, 2015 as part of the Walt Disney Records: The Legacy Collection series. All tracks written by Randy Newman. There were two premieres of Toy Story in November 1995. Disney organized one at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, and built a fun house, Totally Toy Story, next door featuring the characters. Jobs did not attend and instead rented the Regency, a similar theater in San Francisco, and held his own premiere the next night. Instead of Tom Hanks and Tim Allen, the guests were Silicon Valley celebrities, such as Larry Ellison and Andy Grove. The dueling premieres highlighted a festering issue between the companies: whether Toy Story was a Disney or a Pixar film. "The audience appeared to be captivated by the film, '' wrote David Price in his 2008 book The Pixar Touch. "Adult - voiced sobs could be heard during the quiet moments after Buzz Lightyear fell and lay broken on the stairway landing. '' Toy Story opened on 2,281 screens in the United States on November 22, 1995 (before later expanding to 2,574 screens). It was paired alongside a reissue of a Roger Rabbit short called Rollercoaster Rabbit, while select prints contained The Adventures of André and Wally B... The film was also shown at the Berlin International Film Festival out of competition from February 15 to 26, 1996. Elsewhere, the film opened in March 1996. Marketing for the film included $20 million spent by Disney for advertising as well as advertisers such as Burger King, PepsiCo, Coca - Cola, and Payless ShoeSource paying $125 million in tied promotions for the film. Marketing consultant Al Ries reflected on the promotion: "This will be a killer deal. How can a kid, sitting through a one - and - a-half - hour movie with an army of recognizable toy characters, not want to own one? '' Despite this, Disney Consumer Products was slow to see the potential of Toy Story early on. When the Thanksgiving release date was announced in January 1995, many toy companies were accustomed to having eighteen months to two years of runway time and passed on the project. In February 1995, Disney took the idea to Toy Fair, a toy industry trade show in New York. There, a Toronto - based company with a factory based in China, Thinkway Toys, became interested. Although Thinkway was a small player in the industry, mainly producing toy banks in the form of film characters, it was able to scoop up the worldwide master license for Toy Story toys simply because no one else wanted it. Walt Disney Home Video put a trailer for the film on seven million copies of the VHS re-release of Cinderella; the Disney Channel ran a television special on the making of Toy Story; Walt Disney World in Florida held a daily Toy Story parade at Disney - MGM Studios. It was screenwriter Joss Whedon 's idea to incorporate Barbie as a character who would rescue Woody and Buzz in the film 's final act. The idea was dropped after Mattel objected and refused to license the toy. Producer Ralph Guggenheim claimed that Mattel did not allow the use of the toy as "They (Mattel) philosophically felt girls who play with Barbie dolls are projecting their personalities onto the doll. If you give the doll a voice and animate it, you 're creating a persona for it that might not be every little girl 's dream and desire. '' Hasbro likewise refused to license G.I. Joe (mainly because Sid was going to blow one up), but they did license Mr. Potato Head. The only toy in the movie that was not in production was Slinky Dog, which was discontinued since the 1970s. When designs for Slinky were sent to Betty James (Richard James 's wife) she said that Pixar had improved the toy and that it was "cuter '' than the original. On October 2, 2009, the film was re-released in Disney Digital 3 - D. The film was also released with Toy Story 2 as a double feature for a two - week run which was extended due to its success. In addition, the film 's second sequel, Toy Story 3, was also released in the 3 - D format. Lasseter commented on the new 3 - D re-release: The Toy Story films and characters will always hold a very special place in our hearts and we 're so excited to be bringing this landmark film back for audiences to enjoy in a whole new way thanks to the latest in 3 - D technology. With Toy Story 3 shaping up to be another great adventure for Buzz, Woody and the gang from Andy 's room, we thought it would be great to let audiences experience the first two films all over again and in a brand new way. Translating the film into 3 - D involved revisiting the original computer data and virtually placing a second camera into each scene, creating left eye and right eye views needed to achieve the perception of depth. Unique to computer animation, Lasseter referred to this process as "digital archaeology. '' The process took four months, as well as an additional six months for the two films to add the 3 - D. The lead stereographer Bob Whitehill oversaw this process and sought to achieve an effect that affected the emotional storytelling of the film: When I would look at the films as a whole, I would search for story reasons to use 3 - D in different ways. In Toy Story, for instance, when the toys were alone in their world, I wanted it to feel consistent to a safer world. And when they went out to the human world, that 's when I really blew out the 3 - D to make it feel dangerous and deep and overwhelming. Unlike other countries, the United Kingdom received the films in 3 - D as separate releases. Toy Story was released on October 2, 2009. Toy Story 2 was instead released January 22, 2010. The re-release performed well at the box office, opening with $12,500,000 in its opening weekend, placing at the third position after Zombieland and Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs. The double feature grossed $30,714,027 in its five - week release. Toy Story was released by Walt Disney Home Video on VHS and LaserDisc on October 29, 1996, with no bonus material. In the first week of this release, VHS rentals totaled $5.1 million, debuting Toy Story as the week 's No. 1 video. Over 21.5 million VHS copies were sold the first year. A deluxe edition widescreen LaserDisc 4 - disc box set was released on December 18, 1996. On January 11, 2000, the film was re-released on VHS, but this time as the first video to be part of the Walt Disney Gold Classic Collection with the bonus short film Tin Toy. This release sold two million copies. The film was released for the first time on DVD on October 17, 2000, in a two - pack with its first sequel Toy Story 2. The same day, a 3 - disc "Ultimate Toy Box '' set was released, featuring Toy Story, Toy Story 2, and a third disc of bonus materials with Toy Story in a 35mm Widescreen print and Toy Story 2 only being in FullScreen. The twin - pack release was later released individually on March 20, 2001 with the film available in both Widescreen and FullScreen. The DVD - pack, U.T.B. set and the original DVD use the 35mm print of the film to create the copies, rather than using the original files to encode the movie directly to video. The DVD two - pack, the Ultimate Toy Box set, the Gold Classic Collection VHS and DVD, and the original DVD were all put in the Disney Vault on May 1, 2003. On September 6, 2005, a 2 - disc "10th Anniversary Edition '' was released featuring much of the bonus material from the "Ultimate Toy Box '', including a retrospective special with John Lasseter, a home theater mix, as well as a new digital Widescreen picture with the 35mm Fullscreen version being retained. This DVD went back in the Disney Vault on January 31, 2009 along with Toy Story 2. The 10th Anniversary release was the last version of Toy Story to be released before taken out of the Disney Vault lineup along with Toy Story 2. Also on September 6, 2005, a UMD of Toy Story featuring some deleted scenes, a filmmakers ' reflect and a new "Legacy of Toy Story '' was released for the Sony PlayStation Portable. The film was available for the first time on Blu - ray in a Special Edition Combo Pack that included two discs, the Blu - ray, and the DVD versions of the film. This combo - edition was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on March 23, 2010, along with its sequel. There was a DVD - only re-release on May 11, 2010. Another "Ultimate Toy Box '', packaging the Combo Pack with those of both sequels, became available on November 2, 2010. On November 1, 2011, the first three Toy Story films were re-released all together, each as a DVD / Blu - ray / Blu - ray 3D / Digital Copy combo pack (four discs each for the first two films, and five for the third film). They were also released on Blu - ray 3D in a complete trilogy box set. Toy Story received critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 100 % based on 78 reviews with an average rating of 9 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Entertaining as it is innovative, Toy Story reinvigorated animation while heralding the arrival of Pixar as a family - friendly force to be reckoned with. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 95 out of 100, based on 26 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale. Leonard Klady of Variety commended the animation 's "... razzle - dazzle technique and unusual look '' and that "the camera loops and zooms in a dizzying fashion that fairly takes one 's breath away. '' Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times compared the film 's innovative animation to Disney 's Who Framed Roger Rabbit, saying that "both movies take apart the universe of cinematic visuals and put it back together again, allowing us to see in a new way. '' Due to the film 's creative animation, Richard Corliss of TIME claimed that it was "... the year 's most inventive comedy. '' The voice cast was also praised by various critics. Susan Wloszczyna of USA Today approved of the selection of Hanks and Allen for the lead roles. Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times stated that "Starting with Tom Hanks, who brings an invaluable heft and believability to Woody, Toy Story is one of the best voiced animated features in memory, with all the actors... making their presences strongly felt. '' Several critics also recognized the film 's ability to appeal to various age groups, specifically children and adults. Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote "It has the purity, the ecstatic freedom of imagination, that 's the hallmark of the greatest children 's films. It also has the kind of spring - loaded allusive prankishness that, at times, will tickle adults even more than it does kids. '' In 1995, Toy Story was ranked eighth in TIME ' s list of the "Best 10 films of 1995 ''. In 2011, TIME named it one of the "25 All - TIME Best Animated Films ''. It also ranks at number 99 in Empire magazine 's list of the "500 Greatest Films of All Time '' and as the "highest - ranked animated movie ''. In 2003, the Online Film Critics Society ranked the film as the greatest animated film of all time. In 2007, the Visual Effects Society named the film 22nd in its list of the "Top 50 Most Influential Visual Effects Films of All Time ''. The film is ranked 99th on the AFI 's list of the "100 greatest American Films of All - Time ''. It was one of the only two animated films on that list, the other being Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937). It was also the sixth best in the animation genre on AFI 's 10 Top 10. Director Terry Gilliam would praise the film as "a work of genius. It got people to understand what toys are about. They 're true to their own character. And that 's just brilliant. It 's got a shot that 's always stuck with me, when Buzz Lightyear discovers he 's a toy. He 's sitting on this landing at the top of the staircase and the camera pulls back and he 's this tiny little figure. He was this guy with a massive ego two seconds before... and it 's stunning. I 'd put that as one of my top ten films, period. '' Before the film 's release, executive producer and Apple Inc. co-founder Steve Jobs stated "If Toy Story is a modest hit -- say $75 million at the box office, we 'll (Pixar and Disney) both break even. If it gets $100 million, we 'll both make money. But if it 's a real blockbuster and earns $200 million or so at the box office, we 'll make good money, and Disney will make a lot of money. '' Upon its release on November 22, 1995, Toy Story managed to gross more than $350 million worldwide. Disney chairman Michael Eisner stated "I do n't think either side thought Toy Story would turn out as well as it has. The technology is brilliant, the casting is inspired, and I think the story will touch a nerve. Believe me, when we first agreed to work together, we never thought their first movie would be our 1995 holiday feature, or that they could go public on the strength of it. '' The film 's first five days of domestic release (on Thanksgiving weekend) earned it $39,071,176. The film placed first in the weekend 's box office with $29,140,617 and maintained the No. 1 position at the domestic box office for the next two weekends. Toy Story became the highest - grossing domestic film of 1995, beating Batman Forever, Apollo 13 (also starring Tom Hanks), Pocahontas, Casper, Waterworld, and GoldenEye. At the time of its release, it was the third highest - grossing animated film of all time, after The Lion King (1994) and Aladdin (1992). When not considering inflation, Toy Story is No. 96 on the list of the highest - grossing domestic films of all time. The film had gross receipts of $191,796,233 in the U.S. and Canada and $181,757,800 in international markets for a total of $373,554,033 worldwide. At the time of its release, the film ranked as 17th highest - grossing film (unadjusted) domestically and it was the 21st highest - grossing film worldwide. The film won and was nominated for various other awards including a Kids ' Choice Award, MTV Movie Award, and a British Academy Film Award, among others. John Lasseter received an Academy Special Achievement Award in 1996 "for the development and inspired application of techniques that have made possible the first feature - length computer - animated film. '' Additionally, the film was nominated for three Academy Awards, two to Randy Newman for Best Music -- Original Song, for "You 've Got a Friend in Me '', and Best Music -- Original Musical or Comedy Score. It was also nominated for Best Original Screenplay for the work by Joel Cohen, Pete Docter, John Lasseter, Joe Ranft, Alec Sokolow, Andrew Stanton and Joss Whedon, making Toy Story the first animated film to be nominated for an Academy Award writing category. Toy Story won eight Annie Awards, including "Best Animated Feature ''. Animator Pete Docter, director John Lasseter, musician Randy Newman, producers Bonnie Arnold and Ralph Guggenheim, production designer Ralph Eggleston, and writers Joel Cohen, Alec Sokolow, Andrew Stanton, and Joss Whedon all won awards for "Best Individual Achievement '' in their respective fields for their work on the film. The film also won "Best Individual Achievement '' in technical achievement. Toy Story was nominated for two Golden Globe Awards, one for Best Motion Picture -- Comedy or Musical, and one for Best Original Song -- Motion Picture for Newman 's "You 've Got a Friend in Me ''. At both the Los Angeles Film Critics Association Awards and the Kansas City Film Critics Circle Awards, the film won "Best Animated Film ''. Toy Story is also among the top ten in the BFI list of the 50 films you should see by the age of 14, and the highest - placed (at No. 99) animated film in Empire magazine 's list of "500 Greatest Movie of All Time ''. In 2005, Toy Story, along with Toy Story 2 was voted the 4th greatest cartoon in Channel 4 's 100 Greatest Cartoons poll, behind The Simpsons, Tom and Jerry and South Park. Toy Story had a large impact on the film industry with its innovative computer animation. After the film 's debut, various industries were interested in the technology used for the film. Graphics chip makers desired to compute imagery similar to the film 's animation for personal computers; game developers wanted to learn how to replicate the animation for video games; and robotics researchers were interested in building artificial intelligence into their machines that compared to the film 's lifelike characters. Various authors have also compared the film to an interpretation of Don Quixote as well as humanism. In addition, Toy Story left an impact with its catchphrase "To Infinity and Beyond '', sequels, and software, among others. In 2005 (10 years after its theatrical release), the film was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the United States Library of Congress, one of only six films to be selected in its first year of eligibility. Buzz Lightyear 's classic line "To Infinity and Beyond '' has seen usage not only on themed merchandise, but among philosophers and mathematical theorists as well. In 2008, during STS - 124 astronauts took an action figure of Buzz Lightyear into space on the Discovery Space Shuttle as part of an educational experience for students while stressing the catchphrase. The action figure was used for experiments in zero - g. It was reported in 2008 that a father and son had continually repeated the phrase to help them keep track of each other while treading water for 15 hours in the Atlantic Ocean. The phrase occurs in the lyrics of Beyoncé 's 2008 song "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It) '', during the bridge. Toy Story has spawned three sequels: Toy Story 2 (1999), Toy Story 3 (2010), and Toy Story 4, to be released in 2019. Initially, the first sequel to Toy Story was going to be a direct - to - video release, with development beginning in 1996. However, after the cast from Toy Story returned and the story was considered to be better than that of a direct - to - video release, it was announced in 1998 that the sequel would see a theatrical release. Toy Story 's first sequel Toy Story 2 was released in theatres November 24, 1999 and saw the return of the majority of the voice cast from Toy Story, and the film focuses on Buzz leading Andy 's toys on a mission to rescue Woody after he is stolen by a greedy toy collector voiced by Wayne Knight. The film was equally well received by critics, many of whom thought it was even better than the first installment, earning a rare 100 % approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes, based on 163 reviews. At Metacritic, the film earned a favorable rating of 88 / 100 based on 34 reviews. The film 's widest release was 3,257 theaters and it grossed $485,015,179 worldwide, becoming the second-most successful animated film after The Lion King at the time of its release. The second sequel Toy Story 3 was released in theatres June 18, 2010 and centers on Andy 's mom accidentally donating the toys to a day - care center when Andy, now a teenager, is preparing to go to college. Once there, they must hurry home before Andy leaves. Again, the majority of the cast from the prior two films returned, with Slinky Dog voiced by Blake Clark due to Jim Varney 's death in 2000. It was the first film in the franchise to be released in 3 - D for its first run, though the first two films, which were originally released in 2 - D, were re-released in 3 - D in 2009 as a double feature. Like its predecessors, Toy Story 3 received enormous critical acclaim, earning a 99 % approval rating from Rotten Tomatoes. It also grossed more than $1 billion worldwide, making it the highest - grossing animated film until the release of 2013 's Frozen. A third sequel, Toy Story 4, will be released on June 21, 2019. It will be directed by John Lasseter, and will focus on the toys going to find Bo Peep, who was given away before the third film. Most of the cast of the previous will again reprise their character roles. However Mr. Potato Head will likely be recast for the film because of Don Rickles ' death in 2017. In November 1996, the Disney on Ice: Toy Story ice show opened which featured the cast 's voices as well as Randy Newman 's music. In April 2008, the Disney Wonder cruise ship launched Toy Story: The Musical shows on its cruises. Toy Story also led to a spin - off direct - to - video animated film, Buzz Lightyear of Star Command: The Adventure Begins, as well as the animated television series Buzz Lightyear of Star Command. The film and series followed Buzz Lightyear and his friends at Star Command as they uphold justice across the galaxy. Although the film was criticized for not using the same animation as in Toy Story and Toy Story 2, it sold three million VHS and DVDs in its first week of release. The television series brought further commercial and critical acclaim, winning a Daytime Emmy in 2001 for Outstanding Sound Editing. The series ran for a total of 65 episodes. Following the release of Toy Story 3, a series of Toy Story short films have been shown in theaters in front of other Disney features: Hawaiian Vacation (shown before Cars 2), centering on Barbie and Ken on vacation in Bonnie 's room, Small Fry (shown before The Muppets), centering on Buzz being left in a fast - food restaurant, and Partysaurus Rex (shown before the 3D re-release of Finding Nemo), centering on Rex partying with bath toys. In January 2013, a fan - made live - action version of the film was posted on YouTube that received more than 16 million views before being taken down by Disney for copyright of the audio. In February 2016, the video returned to YouTube. In October 2013, ABC aired Toy Story of Terror!, promoting it as Pixar 's first television special. In the special, Mr. Potato Head disappears and the other toys have to find him. On December 2, 2014, ABC aired Toy Story That Time Forgot. In the story, the toys are trapped in room with a group of humanoid dinosaur warrior toys called Battlesaurs who do not know that they are toys and must escape. Disney 's Animated Storybook: Toy Story and Disney 's Activity Center: Toy Story were released for Windows and Mac OS. Disney 's Animated Storybook: Toy Story was the best selling software title of 1996, selling over 500,000 copies. Two console video games were released for the film: the Toy Story video game, for the Sega Genesis, Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Game Boy, and PC as well as Toy Story Racer, for the PlayStation (which contains elements from Toy Story 2). Pixar created original animations for all of the games, including fully animated sequences for the PC titles. Toy Story had a large promotion before its release, leading to numerous tie - ins with the film including images on food packaging. A variety of merchandise was released during the film 's theatrical run and its initial VHS release including toys, clothing, and shoes, among other things. When an action figure for Buzz Lightyear and Sheriff Woody was created it was initially ignored by retailers. However, after over 250,000 figures were sold for each character before the film 's release, demand continued to expand, eventually reaching over 25 million units sold by 2007. Toy Story and its sequels have inspired multiple attractions at the theme parks of Walt Disney World and Disneyland: Toy Story 's cast of characters forms the basis for the naming of the releases of the Debian computer operating system, from Debian 1.1 Buzz, the first release with a codename, in 1996 to Debian 11 Bullseye, the most - recently announced future release. In 2013 Pixar designed a "Gromit Lightyear '' sculpture based on the Aardman Animations character Gromit for Gromit Unleashed which sold for £ 65,000.

who has a star on walk of fame

List of stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame - wikipedia The following is a list of the stars ' actual locations on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The list does not include a star 's name until his or her actual award ceremony, as on multiple occasions and for various reasons stars have been withdrawn prior to the award ceremony. The list should be consistent with the list on the Hollywood Walk of Fame website maintained by the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce. The stars are ordered alphabetically by surname. As of 2017, more than 2,600 stars are on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.

who was the songwriting group that brought a number of hits to the motown label

Motown - Wikipedia Motown is an American record company. The record company was founded by Berry Gordy Jr. as Tamla Records on January 12, 1959, and was incorporated as Motown Record Corporation on April 14, 1960, in Detroit, Michigan. The name, a portmanteau of motor and town, has also become a nickname for Detroit. Motown played an important role in the racial integration of popular music as an African American - owned record label that achieved significant crossover success. In the 1960s, Motown and its subsidiary labels (including Tamla Motown, the brand used outside the US) were the most successful proponents of what came to be known as the Motown Sound, a style of soul music with a distinct pop influence. During the 1960s, Motown achieved spectacular success for a small record company: 79 records in the Top Ten of the Billboard Hot 100 record chart between 1960 and 1969. Following the events of the Detroit Riots of 1967, and the loss of key songwriting / production team Holland - Dozier - Holland the same year over pay disputes, Gordy began relocating Motown to Los Angeles. The move was completed in 1972 and Motown expanded into television and film production, remaining an independent company until June 28, 1994. The company was then sold to MCA Inc. Motown was later sold to PolyGram in 1994, before being sold again to MCA Records ' successor, Universal Music Group, when it acquired PolyGram in 1999. Motown spent much of the 2000s as a part of the Universal Music subsidiaries Universal Motown, Universal Motown Republic Group, and headquartered in New York City. From 2011 to 2014, Motown was a part of The Island Def Jam Music Group division of Universal Music. On April 1, 2014, Universal Music Group announced the dissolution of Island Def Jam; subsequently Motown relocated back to Los Angeles to operate under the Capitol Music Group. It now operates out of the landmark Capitol Tower. For many decades, Motown was the highest - earning African American business in the United States. Berry Gordy got his start as a songwriter for local Detroit acts such as Jackie Wilson and the Matadors. Wilson 's single "Lonely Teardrops '', written by Gordy, became a huge success, but Gordy did not feel he made as much money as he deserved from this and other singles he wrote for Wilson. He realized that the more lucrative end of the business was in producing records and owning the publishing. In 1959, Billy Davis and Berry Gordy 's sisters Gwen and Anna started Anna Records. Davis and Gwen Gordy wanted Berry to be the company president, but Berry wanted to strike out on his own. On January 12, 1959, he started Tamla Records, with an $800 loan from his family and royalties earned writing for Jackie Wilson. Gordy originally wanted to name the label Tammy Records, after the hit song popularized by Debbie Reynolds from the 1957 film Tammy and the Bachelor, in which Reynolds also starred. When he found the name was already in use, Berry decided on Tamla instead. Tamla 's first release, in the Detroit area, was Marv Johnson 's "Come to Me '' in 1959 (released nationally on United Artists). Its first hit was Barrett Strong 's "Money (That 's What I Want) '' (1959), which made it to number 2 on the Billboard R&B charts (released nationally on Anna Records). Gordy 's first signed act was the Matadors, who immediately changed their name to the Miracles. (They were not the Matadors who recorded for Sue.) Their first release, "Got a Job '', was an answer record to the Silhouettes ' "Get a Job '' (issued on George Goldner 's End Records). The Miracles ' first, minor hit was their fourth single, 1959 's "Bad Girl '', released in Detroit as the debut record on the Motown imprint, and nationally on the Chess label. (Most early Motown singles were released through other labels, such as End, Fury, Gone and Chess.) Miracles lead singer William "Smokey '' Robinson became the vice president of the company (and later named his daughter "Tamla '' and his son "Berry ''). Several of Gordy 's family members, including his father Berry Sr., brothers Robert and George, and sister Esther, were given key roles in the company. By the middle of the decade, Gwen and Anna Gordy had joined the label in administrative positions as well. Also in 1959, Gordy purchased the property that would become Motown 's Hitsville U.S.A. studio. The photography studio located in the back of the property was modified into a small recording studio, and the Gordys moved into the second - floor living quarters. Within seven years, Motown would occupy seven additional neighboring houses: Motown had hired over 450 employees and had a gross income of $20 million by the end of 1966. Early Tamla / Motown artists included Mable John, Eddie Holland and Mary Wells. "Shop Around '', the Miracles ' first number 1 R&B hit, peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1960. It was Tamla 's first million - selling record. On April 14, 1960, Motown and Tamla Records merged into a new company called Motown Record Corporation. A year later, the Marvelettes scored Tamla 's first US number - one pop hit, "Please Mr. Postman ''. By the mid-1960s, the company, with the help of songwriters and producers such as Robinson, A&R chief William "Mickey '' Stevenson, Brian Holland, Lamont Dozier, and Norman Whitfield, had become a major force in the music industry. From 1961 to 1971, Motown had 110 top 10 hits. Top artists on the Motown label during that period included the Supremes (initially including Diana Ross), the Four Tops, and the Jackson 5, while Stevie Wonder, Marvin Gaye, the Marvelettes, and the Miracles had hits on the Tamla label. The company operated several labels in addition to the Tamla and Motown imprints. A third label, which Gordy named after himself (though it was originally called "Miracle '') featured the Temptations, the Contours, and Martha and the Vandellas. A fourth, V.I.P., released recordings by the Velvelettes, the Spinners, the Monitors, and Chris Clark. A fifth label, Soul, featured Jr. Walker & the All Stars, Jimmy Ruffin, Shorty Long, the Originals, and Gladys Knight & the Pips (who had found success before joining Motown, as "The Pips '' on Vee - Jay). Many more Motown - owned labels released recordings in other genres, including Workshop Jazz (jazz) Earl Washington Reflections and Earl Washington 's All Stars, Mel - o - dy (country, although it was originally an R&B label), and Rare Earth (rock), which featured the band Rare Earth themselves. Under the slogan "The Sound of Young America '', Motown 's acts were enjoying widespread popularity among black and white audiences alike. Smokey Robinson said of Motown 's cultural impact: Into the 1960s, I was still not of a frame of mind that we were not only making music, we were making history. But I did recognize the impact because acts were going all over the world at that time. I recognized the bridges that we crossed, the racial problems and the barriers that we broke down with music. I recognized that because I lived it. I would come to the South in the early days of Motown and the audiences would be segregated. Then they started to get the Motown music and we would go back and the audiences were integrated and the kids were dancing together and holding hands. In 1967 Berry Gordy purchased what is now known as Motown Mansion in Detroit 's Boston - Edison Historic District as his home, leaving his previous home to his sister Anna and then husband Marvin Gaye (where photos for the cover of his album What 's Going On were taken). In 1968, Gordy purchased the Donovan building on the corner of Woodward Avenue and Interstate 75, and moved Motown 's Detroit offices there (the Donovan building was demolished in January 2006 to provide parking spaces for Super Bowl XL). In the same year Gordy purchased Golden World Records, and its recording studio became "Studio B '' to Hitsville 's "Studio A ''. In the United Kingdom, Motown 's records were released on various labels: at first London (only the Miracles ' "Shop Around '' / "Who 's Lovin ' You '' and "Ai n't It Baby ''), then Fontana ("Please Mr. Postman '' by the Marvelettes was one of four) and then Oriole American ("Fingertips '' by Little Stevie Wonder was one of many). In 1963, Motown signed with EMI 's Stateside label ("Where Did Our Love Go '' by the Supremes and "My Guy '' by Mary Wells were Motown 's first British top - 20 hits). Eventually EMI created the Tamla Motown label ("Stop! In the Name of Love '' by the Supremes was the first Tamla Motown release in March 1965). After the songwriting trio Holland -- Dozier -- Holland left the label in 1967 over royalty - payment disputes, Norman Whitfield became the company 's top producer, turning out hits for The Temptations, Marvin Gaye, Gladys Knight & the Pips and Rare Earth. In the meantime Berry Gordy established Motown Productions, a television subsidiary which produced TV specials for the Motown artists, including TCB, with Diana Ross & the Supremes and the Temptations, Diana! with Diana Ross, and Goin ' Back to Indiana with the Jackson 5. The company loosened its production rules, allowing some of its longtime artists the opportunity to write and produce more of their own material. This resulted in the recordings of successful and critically acclaimed albums such as Marvin Gaye 's What 's Going On (1971) and Let 's Get it On (1973), and Stevie Wonder 's Music of My Mind (1972), Talking Book (1972), and Innervisions (1973). Motown had established branch offices in both New York City and Los Angeles during the mid-1960s, and by 1969 had begun gradually moving more of its operations to Los Angeles. The company moved all of its operations to Los Angeles in June 1972, with a number of artists, among them Martha Reeves, the Four Tops, Gladys Knight & the Pips, and Motown 's Funk Brothers studio band, either staying behind in Detroit or leaving the company for other reasons. By re-locating, Motown aimed chiefly to branch out into the motion - picture industry, and Motown Productions got its start in film by turning out two hit - vehicles for Diana Ross: the Billie Holiday biographical film Lady Sings the Blues (1972), and Mahogany (1975). Other Motown films would include Scott Joplin (1977), Thank God It 's Friday (1978), The Wiz (1978) and The Last Dragon (1985). Ewart Abner, who had been associated with Motown since the 1960s, became its president in 1973. Despite losing Holland -- Dozier -- Holland, Norman Whitfield, and some of its other hitmakers by 1975, Motown still had a number of successful artists during the 1970s and 1980s, including Lionel Richie and the Commodores, Rick James, Teena Marie, the Dazz Band and DeBarge. By the mid-1980s Motown had started losing money, and Berry Gordy sold his ownership in Motown to MCA Records (which began a US distribution deal with the label in 1983) and Boston Ventures in June 1988 for $61 million. In 1989, Gordy sold the Motown Productions TV / film operations to Motown executive Suzanne de Passe, who renamed the company de Passe Entertainment and continues to run it as of 2012. During the 1990s Motown was home to successful recording artists such as Boyz II Men and Johnny Gill, although the company itself remained in a state of turmoil. MCA appointed a revolving door of executives to run the company, beginning with Berry Gordy 's immediate successor, Jheryl Busby. Busby quarreled with MCA, alleging that the company did not give Motown 's product adequate attention or promotion. In 1991, Motown sued MCA to have its distribution deal with the company terminated, and began releasing its product through PolyGram. PolyGram purchased Motown from Boston Ventures three years later. In 1994, Busby was replaced by Andre Harrell, the entrepreneur behind Uptown Records. Harrell served as Motown 's CEO for just under two years, leaving the company after receiving bad publicity for being inefficient. Danny Goldberg, who ran PolyGram 's Mercury Records group, assumed control of Motown, and George Jackson served as president. By 1998, Motown had added stars such as 702, Brian McKnight, and Erykah Badu to its roster. In December 1998, PolyGram was acquired by Seagram, and Motown was absorbed into the Universal Music Group. Seagram had purchased Motown 's former parent MCA in 1995, and Motown was in effect reunited with many of its MCA corporate siblings (Seagram had hoped to build a media empire around Universal, and started by purchasing PolyGram). Universal briefly considered shuttering the label, but instead decided to restructure it. Kedar Massenburg, a producer for Erykah Badu, became the head of the label, and oversaw successful recordings from Badu, McKnight, Michael McDonald, and new Motown artist India. Arie. Diana Ross, Smokey Robinson, Stevie Wonder, and the Temptations had remained with the label since its early days, although all except Wonder recorded for other labels for several years. Ross left Motown for RCA Records from 1981 to 1988, but returned in 1989 and stayed until 2002. Robinson left the label in the early 1990s, and the Temptations left a second time in 2004 (the first time being in 1977). As of 2018, Wonder is the only artist from Motown 's early period still on the label. In 2005, Massenburg was replaced by Sylvia Rhone, former CEO of Elektra Records. Motown was merged with Universal Records to create the Universal Motown Records and placed under the newly created umbrella division of Universal Motown Republic Group. Notable artists on Universal Motown included Drake Bell, Ryan Leslie, Melanie Fiona, Forever the Sickest Kids, and Four Year Strong. In late 2008, Motown began celebrating its fiftieth anniversary (January 12, 2009), including the release of a The Complete No. 1 's box set containing Motown number - one hits from Billboard ′ s pop, R&B, and disco charts, reissues of classic - era Motown albums on CD, and other planned events, which were released in collaboration with Universal Music Group 's catalog division Universal Music Enterprises. As of summer of 2011, Universal Motown has been separated from Universal Motown Republic Group, has reverted to the original Motown brand, has hired Ethiopia Habtemariam as its Senior Vice President, and is now operated under The Island Def Jam Music Group. Artists from Universal Motown have been transferred to the newly revitalized Motown label. On January 25, 2012, it was announced that Ne - Yo would join the Motown label both as an artist as well as the new Senior Vice President of A&R. On April 1, 2014, it was announced that Island Def Jam will no longer be running following the resignation of CEO Barry Weiss. In a press release sent out by Universal Music Group, the label will now be reorganizing Def Jam Recordings, Island Records and Motown Records all as separate entities. Motown would then begin serving as a subsidiary of Capitol Records. Motown specialized in a type of soul music it referred to with the trademark "The Motown Sound ''. Crafted with an ear towards pop appeal, the Motown Sound typically used tambourines to accent the back beat, prominent and often melodic electric bass - guitar lines, distinctive melodic and chord structures, and a call - and - response singing style that originated in gospel music. In 1971, Jon Landau wrote in Rolling Stone that the sound consisted of songs with simple structures but sophisticated melodies, along with a four - beat drum pattern, regular use of horns and strings and "a trebly style of mixing that relied heavily on electronic limiting and equalizing (boosting the high range frequencies) to give the overall product a distinctive sound, particularly effective for broadcast over AM radio ''. Pop production techniques such as the use of orchestral string sections, charted horn sections, and carefully arranged background vocals were also used. Complex arrangements and elaborate, melismatic vocal riffs were avoided. Motown producers believed steadfastly in the "KISS principle '' (keep it simple, stupid). Despite the growth of popular music being written and performed by black artists, the songs would not become popular or recognized unless the music was being performed by white performers. However, the Motown Sound became distinctly unique. The "real '' Motown Sound became more favorable than the altered renditions. The Motown production process has been described as factory - like. The Hitsville studios remained open and active 22 hours a day, and artists would often go on tour for weeks, come back to Detroit to record as many songs as possible, and then promptly go on tour again. Berry Gordy held quality control meetings every Friday morning, and used veto power to ensure that only the very best material and performances would be released. The test was that every new release needed to fit into a sequence of the top five selling pop singles of the week. Several tracks that later became critical and commercial favorites were initially rejected by Gordy; the two most notable being the Marvin Gaye songs "I Heard It Through the Grapevine '' and "What 's Going On ''. In several cases, producers would re-work tracks in hopes of eventually getting them approved at a later Friday morning meeting, as producer Norman Whitfield did with "I Heard It Through the Grapevine '' and The Temptations ' "Ai n't Too Proud to Beg ''. Many of Motown 's best - known songs, including all the early hits for the Supremes, were written by the songwriting trio of Holland -- Dozier -- Holland (Lamont Dozier and brothers Brian and Eddie Holland). Other important Motown producers and songwriters included Norman Whitfield, William "Mickey '' Stevenson, Smokey Robinson, Barrett Strong, Nickolas Ashford & Valerie Simpson, Frank Wilson, Pamela Sawyer & Gloria Jones, James Dean & William Weatherspoon, Johnny Bristol, Harvey Fuqua, Gil Askey, Stevie Wonder, and Gordy himself. The style created by the Motown musicians was a major influence on several non-Motown artists of the mid-1960s, such as Dusty Springfield and the Foundations. In the United Kingdom, the Motown Sound became the basis of the northern soul movement. Smokey Robinson said the Motown Sound had little to do with Detroit: People would listen to it, and they 'd say, ' Aha, they use more bass. Or they use more drums. ' Bullshit. When we were first successful with it, people were coming from Germany, France, Italy, Mobile, Alabama. From New York, Chicago, California. From everywhere. Just to record in Detroit. They figured it was in the air, that if they came to Detroit and recorded on the freeway, they 'd get the Motown sound. Listen, the Motown sound to me is not an audible sound. It 's spiritual, and it comes from the people that make it happen. What other people did n't realize is that we just had one studio there, but we recorded in Chicago, Nashville, New York, L.A. -- almost every big city. And we still got the sound. In addition to the songwriting process of the writers and producers, one of the major factors in the widespread appeal of Motown 's music was Gordy 's practice of using a highly - select and tight - knit group of studio musicians, collectively known as the Funk Brothers, to record the instrumental or "band '' tracks of a majority of Motown recordings. Among the studio musicians responsible for the "Motown Sound '' were keyboardists Earl Van Dyke, Johnny Griffith, and Joe Hunter; guitarists Joe Messina, Robert White, and Eddie Willis; percussionists Eddie "Bongo '' Brown and Jack Ashford; drummers Benny Benjamin, Uriel Jones, and Richard "Pistol '' Allen; and bassists James Jamerson and Bob Babbitt. The band 's career and work is chronicled in the 2002 documentary film Standing in the Shadows of Motown, which publicised the fact that these musicians "played on more number - one records than The Beatles, Elvis, The Rolling Stones, and The Beach Boys combined. '' Much of the Motown Sound came from the use of overdubbed and duplicated instrumentation. Motown songs regularly featured two drummers instead of one (either overdubbed or in unison), as well as three or four guitar lines. Bassist James Jamerson often played his instrument with only the index finger of his right hand, and created many of the basslines apparent on Motown songs such as "Up the Ladder to the Roof '' by The Supremes. Artist development was a major part of Motown 's operations instituted by Berry Gordy. The acts on the Motown label were fastidiously groomed, dressed and choreographed for live performances. Motown artists were advised that their breakthrough into the white popular music market made them ambassadors for other African - American artists seeking broad market acceptance, and that they should think, act, walk and talk like royalty, so as to alter the less - than - dignified image commonly held of black musicians by white Americans in that era. Given that many of the talented young artists had been raised in housing projects and lacked the necessary social and dress experience, this Motown department was not only necessary, it created an elegant style of presentation long associated with the label. The artist development department specialized primarily in working with younger, less - experienced acts; experienced performers such as Jr. Walker and Marvin Gaye were exempt from artist - development classes. Many of the young artists participated in an annual package tour called the "Motortown Revue '', which was popular, first, on the "chitlin ' circuit '', and, later, around the world. The tours gave the younger artists a chance to hone their performance and social skills and learn from the more experienced artists. In order to avoid accusations of payola should DJs play too many records from the original Tamla label, Gordy formed Motown Records as a second label in 1960. The two labels featured the same writers, producers and artists. Many more subsidiary labels were established later under the umbrella of the Motown parent company, including Gordy Records, Soul Records and VIP Records; in reality the Motown Record Corporation controlled all of these labels. Most of the distinctions between Motown labels were largely arbitrary, with the same writers, producers and musicians working on all the major subsidiaries, and artists were often shuffled between labels for internal marketing reasons. All of these records are usually considered to be "Motown '' records, regardless of whether they actually appeared on the Motown Records label itself.

who has the biggest submarine in the world

Typhoon - class submarine - wikipedia The Project 941 or Akula, Russian "Акула '' ("Shark '') class submarine (NATO reporting name: Typhoon) is a type of nuclear - powered ballistic missile submarine deployed by the Soviet Navy in the 1980s. With a submerged displacement of 48,000 tonnes, the Typhoons are the largest submarines ever built, able to accommodate comfortable living facilities for the crew when submerged for months on end. The source of the NATO reporting name remains unclear, although it is often claimed to be related to the use of the word "typhoon '' ("тайфун '') by General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev of the Communist Party in a 1974 speech while describing a new type of nuclear ballistic missile submarine, as a reaction to the United States Navy 's new Ohio - class submarine. The Russian Navy cancelled its Typhoon modernisation program in March 2012, stating that modernising one Typhoon would be as expensive as building two new Borei - class submarines. With the announcement that Russia has eliminated the last SS - N - 20 Sturgeon SLBMs in September 2012, the remaining Typhoons have reached the end of service. Besides their missile armament, the Typhoon class features six torpedo tubes; all of which are designed to handle RPK - 2 (SS - N - 15) missiles or Type 53 torpedoes. A Typhoon - class submarine can stay submerged for periods up to 120 days in normal conditions, and potentially more if deemed necessary (e.g., in the case of a nuclear war). Their primary weapons system is composed of 20 R - 39 (NATO: SS - N - 20) ballistic missiles (SLBM) with a maximum of 10 MIRV nuclear warheads each. Technically, Typhoons were able to deploy their long - range nuclear missiles while moored at their docks. Typhoon - class submarines feature multiple pressure hulls, similar to the World War II Japanese I - 400 - class submarine, that simplify internal design while making the vessel much wider than a normal submarine. In the main body of the sub, two long pressure hulls lie parallel with a third, smaller pressure hull above them (which protrudes just below the sail), and two other pressure hulls for torpedoes and steering gear. This also greatly increases their survivability -- even if one pressure hull is breached, the crew members in the other are safe and there is less potential for flooding. The Typhoon class was developed under Project 941 as the Russian Akula class (Акула), meaning shark. It is sometimes confused with other submarines, as Akula is the name NATO uses to designate the Russian Project 971 Shchuka - B (Щука - Б) - class attack submarines. The project was developed with the objective to match the SLBM armament of Ohio - class submarines, capable of carrying 192 nuclear warheads, 100 kt each, but with significanly longer range due to differences between NATO and Soviet control of the seas. To accommodate this increase in range, Soviet SLBMs were substantially larger and heavier than their American counterparts (the R - 39 is more than two times heavier than the Trident I; it remains the heaviest SLBM to have been in service worldwide). The submarine had to be scaled accordingly. In the early 1990s, there were also proposals to rebuild some of the Typhoon - class submarines to submarine cargo vessels for shipping oil, gas and cargo under polar ice to Russia 's far flung northern territories. The submarines could take up to 10,000 tonnes of cargo on - board and ship it under the polar ice to tankers waiting in the Barents Sea. These ships -- after the considerable engineering required to develop technologies to transfer oil from drilling platforms to the submarines, and later, to the waiting tankers -- would then deliver their cargo world - wide. Six Typhoon - class submarines were built. Originally, the submarines were designated by hull numbers only. Names were later assigned to the four vessels retained by the Russian Navy, which were sponsored by either a city or company. The construction order for an additional vessel (hull number TK - 210) was cancelled and never completed. Only the first of these submarines to be constructed, Dmitriy Donskoy, is still in active service with the Russian Navy, serving as a test platform for the Bulava (SS - NX - 32) missile. Arkhangelsk (TK - 17) and Severstal (TK - 20) remain in reserve, not currently active with the Russian fleet. All the R - 39 missiles have been retired. The Typhoons have since been replaced by the Borei class since 2010 - 2011. In late December 2008, a senior Navy official announced that the two Typhoon - class submarines, TK - 17 Arkhangelsk and TK - 20 Severstal, that are in reserve would not be rearmed with the new Bulava SLBM missile system. They could however be modified to carry cruise missiles or to lay mines, or could be used in special operations. In late June 2009, the Navy Commander - in - Chief, Admiral Vladimir Vysotskiy told reporters that the two submarines would be reserved for possible future repairs and modernisation. In May 2010, the Navy Commander - in - Chief reported that Russia 's Typhoon - class submarines would remain in service with the Navy until 2019. In September 2011, the Russian defense ministry decided to write off all Project 941 Akula nuclear - powered ballistic missile submarines until 2014. The reasons for decommissioning the Typhoon - class vessels are the restrictions imposed on Russia by the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty and successful trials of new Borei - class submarine. Despite being a replacement for many types of submarines, the Borei - class submarines are slightly shorter than the Typhoon class (170 m (560 ft) as opposed to 175 m (574 ft)), and have a smaller crew (107 people as opposed to 160). These changes were in part designed to reduce the cost to build and maintain the submarines. In addition, the United States and Canada provided 80 % of funds for scrapping the older Typhoon - class submarines, making it much more economical to build a new submarine. However, according to other sources at the Russian defence ministry, no such decision has been made; in that case, the submarines would remain with the Russian Navy., Submarines TK - 17 Arkhangelsk and TK - 20 Severstal will not be modernised as platforms for cruise missiles, but they will be kept in service with their previous armament, R - 39 missiles. In 2013, the state - run RIA Novosti news has announced that the Navy will scrap two Typhoons beginning in 2018. They will be TK - 17 Arkhangelsk and TK - 20 Severstal. As of 2017, the decision about scrapping of TK - 17 and TK - 20 is still not certain. TK - 208 Dmitriy Donskoy (Typhoon # 1) TK - 17 Arkhangelsk (Typhoon # 5) TK - 20 Severstal (Typhoon # 6) Satellite photos Interior photos Probably the best - known fictional Typhoon - class submarine was the stealth equipped Red October, the subject of the Tom Clancy novel The Hunt for Red October and its 1990 movie adaptation, starring Sean Connery as the fictional Captain Marko Ramius. The 2001 documentary Mission Invisible about the Russian submarine Severstal was produced by Corona Films for Discovery Channel with the participation of ZED, France 5, ZDF, RTBF, TV5 Monde and the Scottish Screen Fund. In 2008 National Geographic released a documentary about the scrapping of one of the Typhoons in the series Break It Down. This boat is TK - 13, which was scrapped over the time period 2007 -- 2009.

what are three reasons the roman empire fell

Fall of the Western Roman Empire - wikipedia The Fall of the Western Roman Empire (also called Fall of the Roman Empire or Fall of Rome) was the process of decline in the Western Roman Empire in which it failed to enforce its rule, and its vast territory was divided into several successor polities. The Roman Empire lost the strengths that had allowed it to exercise effective control over its Western provinces; modern historians mention factors including the effectiveness and numbers of the army, the health and numbers of the Roman population, the strength of the economy, the competence of the Emperors, the internal struggles for power, the religious changes of the period, and the efficiency of the civil administration. Increasing pressure from barbarians outside Roman culture also contributed greatly to the collapse. The reasons for the collapse are major subjects of the historiography of the ancient world and they inform much modern discourse on state failure. Relevant dates include 117 CE, when the Empire was at its greatest territorial extent, and the accession of Diocletian in 284. Irreversible major territorial loss, however, began in 376 with a large - scale irruption of Goths and others. In 395, after winning two destructive civil wars, Theodosius I died, leaving a collapsing field army and the Empire, still plagued by Goths, divided between his two incapable sons. By 476 when Odoacer deposed the Emperor Romulus, the Western Roman Emperor wielded negligible military, political, or financial power and had no effective control over the scattered Western domains that could still be described as Roman. Invading barbarians had established their own power in most of the area of the Western Empire. While its legitimacy lasted for centuries longer and its cultural influence remains today, the Western Empire never had the strength to rise again. The Fall is not the only unifying concept for these events; the period described as Late Antiquity emphasizes the cultural continuities throughout and beyond the political collapse. Since 1776, when Edward Gibbon published the first volume of his The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Decline and Fall has been the theme around which much of the history of the Roman Empire has been structured. "From the eighteenth century onward, '' historian Glen Bowersock wrote, "we have been obsessed with the fall: it has been valued as an archetype for every perceived decline, and, hence, as a symbol for our own fears. '' The Fall is not the only unifying concept for these events; the period described as Late Antiquity emphasizes the cultural continuities throughout and beyond the political collapse. The Fall of the Western Roman Empire was the process of decline in the Western Roman Empire in which it failed to enforce its rule. The loss of centralized political control over the West, and the lessened power of the East, are universally agreed, but the theme of decline has been taken to cover a much wider time span than the hundred years from 376. For Cassius Dio, the accession of the emperor Commodus in 180 CE marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron ''. Gibbon started his story in 98 and Theodor Mommsen regarded the whole of the imperial period as unworthy of inclusion in his Nobel Prize - winning History of Rome. Arnold J. Toynbee and James Burke argue that the entire Imperial era was one of steady decay of institutions founded in republican times. As one convenient marker for the end, 476 has been used since Gibbon, but other markers include the Crisis of the Third Century, the Crossing of the Rhine in 406 (or 405), the sack of Rome in 410, the death of Julius Nepos in 480, all the way to the Fall of New Rome in 1453. Gibbon gave a classic formulation of reasons why the Fall happened. He began an ongoing controversy about the role of Christianity, but he gave great weight to other causes of internal decline and to attacks from outside the Empire. The story of its ruin is simple and obvious; and, instead of inquiring why the Roman empire was destroyed, we should rather be surprised that it had subsisted so long. The victorious legions, who, in distant wars, acquired the vices of strangers and mercenaries, first oppressed the freedom of the republic, and afterwards violated the majesty of the purple. The emperors, anxious for their personal safety and the public peace, were reduced to the base expedient of corrupting the discipline which rendered them alike formidable to their sovereign and to the enemy; the vigour of the military government was relaxed, and finally dissolved, by the partial institutions of Constantine; and the Roman world was overwhelmed by a deluge of Barbarians. Alexander Demandt enumerated 210 different theories on why Rome fell, and new ideas have emerged since. Historians still try to analyze the reasons for loss of political control over a vast territory (and, as a subsidiary theme, the reasons for the survival of the Eastern Roman Empire). Comparison has also been made with China after the end of the Han dynasty, which re-established unity under the Sui dynasty while the Mediterranean world remained politically disunited. From at least the time of Henri Pirenne scholars have described a continuity of Roman culture and political legitimacy long after 476. Pirenne postponed the demise of classical civilization to the 8th century. He challenged the notion that Germanic barbarians had caused the Western Roman Empire to end, and he refused to equate the end of the Western Roman Empire with the end of the office of emperor in Italy. He pointed out the essential continuity of the economy of the Roman Mediterranean even after the barbarian invasions, and suggested that only the Muslim conquests represented a decisive break with antiquity. The more recent formulation of a historical period characterized as "Late Antiquity '' emphasizes the transformations of ancient to medieval worlds within a cultural continuity. In recent decades archaeologically - based argument even extends the continuity in material culture and in patterns of settlement as late as the eleventh century. Observing the political reality of lost control, but also the cultural and archaeological continuities, the process has been described as a complex cultural transformation, rather than a fall. The Roman Empire reached its greatest geographical extent under Trajan (emperor 98 -- 117), who ruled a prosperous state that stretched from Armenia to the Atlantic. The Empire had large numbers of trained, supplied, and disciplined soldiers, as well as a comprehensive civil administration based in thriving cities with effective control over public finances. Among its literate elite it had ideological legitimacy as the only worthwhile form of civilization and a cultural unity based on comprehensive familiarity with Greek and Roman literature and rhetoric. The Empire 's power allowed it to maintain extreme differences of wealth and status (including slavery on a large scale), and its wide - ranging trade networks permitted even modest households to use goods made by professionals far away. Its financial system allowed it to raise significant taxes which, despite endemic corruption, supported a large regular army with logistics and training. The cursus honorum, a standardized series of military and civil posts organised for ambitious aristocratic men, ensured that powerful noblemen became familiar with military and civil command and administration. At a lower level within the army, connecting the aristocrats at the top with the private soldiers, a large number of centurions were well - rewarded, literate, and responsible for training, discipline, administration, and leadership in battle. City governments with their own properties and revenues functioned effectively at a local level; membership of city councils involved lucrative opportunities for independent decision - making, and, despite its obligations, became seen as a privilege. Under a series of emperors who each adopted a mature and capable successor, the Empire did not require civil wars to regulate the imperial succession. Requests could be submitted directly to the better emperors, and the answers had the force of law, putting the imperial power directly in touch with even humble subjects. The cults of polytheist religion were hugely varied, but none claimed that theirs was the only truth, and their followers displayed mutual tolerance, producing a polyphonous religious harmony. Religious strife was rare after the suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 136 (after which the devastated Judaea ceased to be a major centre for Jewish unrest). Heavy mortality in 165 -- 180 from the Antonine Plague seriously impaired attempts to repel Germanic invaders, but the legions generally held or at least speedily re-instated the borders of the Empire. The Empire suffered multiple serious crises during the third century. The rising Sassanid Empire inflicted three crushing defeats on Roman field armies and remained a potent threat for centuries. Other disasters included repeated civil wars, barbarian invasions, and more mass - mortality in the Plague of Cyprian (from 250 onwards). Rome abandoned the province of Dacia on the north of the Danube (271), and for a short period the Empire split into a Gallic Empire in the West (260 -- 274), a Palmyrene Empire in the East (260 -- 273), and a central Roman rump state. The Rhine / Danube frontier also came under more effective threats from larger barbarian groupings, which had developed improved agriculture and increased their populations. The Empire survived the "Crisis of the Third Century '', directing its economy successfully towards defense, but survival came at the price of a more centralized and bureaucratic state. Under Gallienus (Emperor from 253 to 268) the senatorial aristocracy ceased joining the ranks of the senior military commanders, its typical members lacking interest in military service and showing incompetence at command. Aurelian reunited the empire in 274; and from 284 Diocletian and his successors reorganized it with more emphasis on the military. John the Lydian, writing over two centuries later, reported that Diocletian 's army at one point totaled 389,704 men, plus 45,562 in the fleets, and numbers may have increased later. With the limited communications of the time, both the European and the Eastern frontiers needed the attention of their own supreme commanders. Diocletian tried to solve this problem by re-establishing an adoptive succession with a senior (Augustus) and junior (Caesar) emperor in each half of the Empire, but this system of tetrarchy broke down within one generation; the hereditary principle re-established itself with generally unfortunate results, and thereafter civil war became again the main method of establishing new imperial regimes. Although Constantine the Great (in office 306 to 337) again re-united the Empire, towards the end of the fourth century the need for division was generally accepted. From then on, the Empire existed in constant tension between the need for two emperors and their mutual mistrust. Until late in the fourth century the united Empire retained sufficient power to launch attacks against its enemies in Germania and in the Sassanid Empire. Receptio of barbarians became widely practiced: imperial authorities admitted potentially hostile groups into the Empire, split them up, and allotted to them lands, status, and duties within the imperial system. In this way many groups provided unfree workers (coloni) for Roman landowners, and recruits (laeti) for the Roman army. Sometimes their leaders became officers. Normally the Romans managed the process carefully, with sufficient military force on hand to ensure compliance, and cultural assimilation followed over the next generation or two. The new supreme rulers disposed of the legal fiction of the early Empire (seeing the emperor as but the first among equals); emperors from Aurelian (reigned 270 -- 275) onwards openly styled themselves as dominus et deus, "lord and god '', titles appropriate for a master - slave relationship. An elaborate court ceremonial developed, and obsequious flattery became the order of the day. Under Diocletian, the flow of direct requests to the emperor rapidly reduced and soon ceased altogether. No other form of direct access replaced them, and the emperor received only information filtered through his courtiers. Official cruelty, supporting extortion and corruption, may also have become more commonplace. While the scale, complexity, and violence of government were unmatched, the emperors lost control over their whole realm insofar as that control came increasingly to be wielded by anyone who paid for it. Meanwhile, the richest senatorial families, immune from most taxation, engrossed more and more of the available wealth and income, while also becoming divorced from any tradition of military excellence. One scholar identifies a great increase in the purchasing power of gold, two and a half fold from 274 to the later fourth century, which may be an index of growing economic inequality between a gold - rich elite and a cash - poor peasantry. Within the late Roman military, many recruits and even officers had barbarian origins, and soldiers are recorded as using possibly - barbarian rituals such as elevating a claimant on shields. Some scholars have seen this as an indication of weakness; others disagree, seeing neither barbarian recruits nor new rituals as causing any problem with the effectiveness or loyalty of the army. In 313 Constantine I declared official toleration of Christianity, followed over the ensuing decades by establishment of Christian orthodoxy and by official and private action against pagans and non-orthodox Christians. His successors generally continued this process, and Christianity became the religion of any ambitious civil official. Under Constantine the cities lost their revenue from local taxes, and under Constantius II (r. 337 -- 361) their endowments of property. This worsened the existing difficulty in keeping the city councils up to strength, and the services provided by the cities were scamped or abandoned. Public building projects became fewer, more often repairs than new construction, and now provided at state expense rather than by local grandees wishing to consolidate long - term local influence. A further financial abuse was Constantius 's increased habit of granting to his immediate entourage the estates of persons condemned of treason and other capital charges; this reduced future though not immediate income, and those close to the emperor gained a strong incentive to stimulate his suspicion of plots. Constantine settled Franks on the lower left bank of the Rhine; their settlements required a line of fortifications to keep them in check, indicating that Rome had lost almost all local control. Under Constantius, bandits came to dominate areas such as Isauria well within the empire. The tribes of Germany also became more populous and more threatening. In Gaul, which did not really recover from the invasions of the third century, there was widespread insecurity and economic decline in the 300s, perhaps worst in Armorica. By 350, after decades of pirate attacks, virtually all villas in Armorica were deserted, and local use of money ceased about 360. Repeated attempts to economize on military expenditure included billeting troops in cities, where they could less easily be kept under military discipline and could more easily extort from civilians. Except in the rare case of a determined and incorruptible general, these troops proved ineffective in action and dangerous to civilians. Frontier troops were often given land rather than pay; as they farmed for themselves, their direct costs diminished, but so did their effectiveness, and there was much less economic stimulus to the frontier economy. However, except for the provinces along the lower Rhine, the agricultural economy was generally doing well. The average nutritional state of the population in the West suffered a serious decline in the late second century; the population of North - Western Europe did not recover, though the Mediterranean regions did. The numbers and effectiveness of the regular soldiers may have declined during the fourth century: payrolls were inflated so that pay could be diverted and exemptions from duty sold, their opportunities for personal extortion were multiplied by residence in cities, and their effectiveness was reduced by concentration on extortion instead of drill. However, extortion, gross corruption, and occasional ineffectiveness were not new to the Roman army; there is no consensus whether its effectiveness significantly declined before 376. Ammianus Marcellinus, himself a professional soldier, repeats longstanding observations about the superiority of contemporary Roman armies being due to training and discipline, not to physical size or strength. Despite a possible decrease in its ability to assemble and supply large armies, Rome maintained an aggressive and potent stance against perceived threats almost to the end of the fourth century. Julian (r. 360 -- 363) launched a drive against official corruption which allowed the tax demands in Gaul to be reduced to one - third of their previous amount, while all government requirements were still met. In civil legislation Julian was notable for his pro-pagan policies. All Christian sects were officially tolerated by Julian, persecution of heretics was forbidden, and non-Christian religions were encouraged. Some Christians continued to destroy temples, disrupt rituals, and break sacred images, seeking martyrdom and at times achieving it at the hands of non-Christian mobs or secular authorities; some pagans attacked the Christians who had previously been involved with the destruction of temples. Julian won victories against Germans who had invaded Gaul. He launched an expensive campaign against the Persians, which ended in defeat and his own death. He succeeded in marching to the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, but lacked adequate supplies for an assault. He burned his boats and supplies to show resolve in continuing operations, but the Sassanids began a war of attrition by burning crops. Finding himself cut off in enemy territory, he began a land retreat during which he was mortally wounded. His successor Jovian, acclaimed by a demoralized army, began his brief reign (363 -- 364) trapped in Mesopotamia without supplies. To purchase safe passage home, he had to concede areas of northern Mesopotamia and Kurdistan, including the strategically important fortress of Nisibis, which had been Roman since before the Peace of Nisibis in 299. The brothers Valens (r. 364 -- 378) and Valentinian I (r. 364 -- 375) energetically tackled the threats of barbarian attacks on all the Western frontiers and tried to alleviate the burdens of taxation, which had risen continuously over the previous forty years; Valens in the East reduced the tax demand by half in his fourth year. Both were Christians and confiscated the temple lands that Julian had restored, but were generally tolerant of other beliefs. Valentinian in the West refused to intervene in religious controversy; in the East, Valens had to deal with Christians who did not conform to his ideas of orthodoxy, and persecution formed part of his response. The wealth of the church increased dramatically, immense resources both public and private being used for ecclesiastical construction and support of the religious life. Bishops in wealthy cities were thus able to offer vast patronage; Ammianus described some as "enriched from the offerings of matrons, ride seated in carriages, wearing clothing chosen with care, and serve banquets so lavish that their entertainments outdo the tables of kings ''. Edward Gibbon remarked that "the soldiers ' pay was lavished on the useless multitudes of both sexes who could only plead the merits of abstinence and chastity '', though there are no figures for the monks and nuns nor for their maintenance costs. Pagan rituals and buildings had not been cheap either; the move to Christianity may not have had significant effects on the public finances. Some public disorder also followed competition for prestigious posts; Pope Damasus I was installed in 366 after an election whose casualties included a hundred and thirty - seven corpses in the basilica of Sicininus. Valentinian died of an apoplexy while personally shouting at envoys of Germanic leaders. His successors in the West were children, his sons Gratian (r. 375 -- 383) and Valentinian II (r. 375 -- 392). Gratian, "alien from the art of government both by temperament and by training '' removed the Altar of Victory from the Senate House, and he rejected the pagan title of Pontifex Maximus. In 376 the East faced an enormous barbarian influx across the Danube, mostly Goths who were refugees from the Huns. They were exploited by corrupt officials rather than effectively resettled, and they took up arms, joined by more Goths and by some Alans and Huns. Valens was in Asia with his main field army, preparing for an assault on the Persians, and redirecting the army and its logistic support would have required time. Gratian 's armies were distracted by Germanic invasions across the Rhine. In 378 Valens attacked the invaders with the Eastern field army, perhaps some 20,000 men -- possibly only 10 % of the soldiers nominally available in the Danube provinces -- and in the Battle of Adrianople, 9 August 378, he lost much of that army and his own life. All of the Balkan provinces were thus exposed to raiding, without effective response from the remaining garrisons who were "more easily slaughtered than sheep ''. Cities were able to hold their own walls against barbarians who had no siege equipment, and they generally remained intact although the countryside suffered. Gratian appointed a new Augustus, a proven general from Hispania called Theodosius. During the next four years, he partially re-established the Roman position in the East. These campaigns depended on effective imperial coordination and mutual trust -- between 379 and 380 Theodosius controlled not only the Eastern empire, but also, by agreement, the diocese of Illyricum. Theodosius was unable to recruit enough Roman troops, relying on barbarian warbands without Roman military discipline or loyalty. In contrast, during the Cimbrian War, the Roman Republic, controlling a smaller area than the western Empire, had been able to reconstitute large regular armies of citizens after greater defeats than Adrianople, and it ended that war with the near - extermination of the invading barbarian supergroups, each recorded as having more than 100,000 warriors (with allowances for the usual exaggeration of numbers by ancient authors). Theodosius 's partial failure may have stimulated Vegetius to offer advice on re-forming an effective army (the advice may date from the 390s or from the 430s): From the foundation of the city till the reign of the Emperor Gratian, the foot wore cuirasses and helmets. But negligence and sloth having by degrees introduced a total relaxation of discipline, the soldiers began to think their armor too heavy, as they seldom put it on. They first requested leave from the Emperor to lay aside the cuirass and afterwards the helmet. In consequence of this, our troops in their engagements with the Goths were often overwhelmed with their showers of arrows. Nor was the necessity of obliging the infantry to resume their cuirasses and helmets discovered, notwithstanding such repeated defeats, which brought on the destruction of so many great cities. Troops, defenseless and exposed to all the weapons of the enemy, are more disposed to fly than fight. What can be expected from a foot - archer without cuirass or helmet, who can not hold at once his bow and shield; or from the ensigns whose bodies are naked, and who can not at the same time carry a shield and the colors? The foot soldier finds the weight of a cuirass and even of a helmet intolerable. This is because he is so seldom exercised and rarely puts them on. The final Gothic settlement was acclaimed with relief, even the official panegyrist admitting that these Goths could not be expelled or exterminated, nor reduced to unfree status. Instead they were either recruited into the imperial forces, or settled in the devastated provinces along the south bank of the Danube, where the regular garrisons were never fully re-established. In some later accounts, and widely in recent work, this is regarded as a treaty settlement, the first time that barbarians were given a home within the Empire in which they retained their political and military cohesion. No formal treaty is recorded, nor details of whatever agreement was actually made, and when "the Goths '' re-emerge in our records they have different leaders and are soldiers of a sort. In 391 Alaric, a Gothic leader, rebelled against Roman control. Goths attacked the emperor himself, but within a year Alaric was accepted as a leader of Theodosius 's Gothic troops and this rebellion was over. Theodosius 's financial position must have been difficult, since he had to pay for expensive campaigning from a reduced tax base. The business of subduing barbarian warbands also demanded substantial gifts of precious metal. Nevertheless, he is represented as financially lavish, though personally frugal when on campaign. At least one extra levy provoked desperation and rioting in which the emperor 's statues were destroyed. He was pious, a Nicene Christian heavily influenced by Ambrose, and implacable against heretics. In 392 he forbade even private honor to the gods, and pagan rituals such as the Olympic Games. He either ordered or connived at the widespread destruction of sacred buildings. Theodosius had to face a powerful usurper in the West; Magnus Maximus declared himself Emperor in 383, stripped troops from the outlying regions of Britannia (probably replacing some with federate chieftains and their war - bands) and invaded Gaul. His troops killed Gratian and he was accepted as Augustus in the Gallic provinces, where he was responsible for the first official executions of Christian heretics. To compensate the Western court for the loss of Gaul, Hispania, and Britannia, Theodosius ceded the diocese of Dacia and the diocese of Macedonia to their control. In 387 Maximus invaded Italy, forcing Valentinian II to flee to the East, where he accepted Nicene Christianity. Maximus boasted to Ambrose of the numbers of barbarians in his forces, and hordes of Goths, Huns, and Alans followed Theodosius. Maximus negotiated with Theodosius for acceptance as Augustus of the West, but Theodosius refused, gathered his armies, and counterattacked, winning the civil war in 388. There were heavy troop losses on both sides of the conflict. Later Welsh legend has Maximus 's defeated troops resettled in Armorica, instead of returning to Britannia, and by 400, Armorica was controlled by Bagaudae rather than by imperial authority. Theodosius restored Valentinian II, still a very young man, as Augustus in the West. He also appointed Arbogast, a pagan general of Frankish origin, as Valentinian 's commander - in - chief and guardian. Valentinian quarreled in public with Arbogast, failed to assert any authority, and died, either by suicide or by murder, at the age of 21. Arbogast and Theodosius failed to come to terms and Arbogast nominated an imperial official, Eugenius (r. 392 -- 394), as emperor in the West. Eugenius made some modest attempts to win pagan support, and with Arbogast led a large army to fight another destructive civil war. They were defeated and killed at the Battle of the Frigidus, which was attended by further heavy losses especially among the Gothic federates of Theodosius. The north - eastern approaches to Italy were never effectively garrisoned again. Theodosius died a few months later in early 395, leaving his young sons Honorius (r. 395 -- 423) and Arcadius (r. 395 -- 408) as emperors. In the immediate aftermath of Theodosius 's death, the magister militum Stilicho, married to Theodosius 's niece, asserted himself in the West as the guardian of Honorius and commander of the remains of the defeated Western army. He also claimed control over Arcadius in Constantinople, but Rufinus, magister officiorum on the spot, had already established his own power there. Henceforward the Empire was not under the control of one man, until much of the West had been permanently lost. Neither Honorius nor Arcadius ever displayed any ability either as rulers or as generals, and both lived as the puppets of their courts. Stilicho tried to reunite the Eastern and Western courts under his personal control, but in doing so achieved only the continued hostility of all of Arcadius 's successive supreme ministers. The ineffectiveness of Roman military responses from Stilicho onwards has been described as "shocking '', with little evidence of indigenous field forces or of adequate training, discipline, pay, or supply for the barbarians who formed most of the available troops. Local defence was occasionally effective, but was often associated with withdrawal from central control and taxes; in many areas, barbarians under Roman authority attacked culturally - Roman "Bagaudae ''. Corruption, in this context the diversion of public finance from the needs of the army, may have contributed greatly to the Fall. The rich senatorial aristocrats in Rome itself became increasingly influential during the fifth century; they supported armed strength in theory, but did not wish to pay for it or to offer their own workers as army recruits. They did, however, pass large amounts of money to the Christian Church. At a local level, from the early fourth century, the town councils lost their property and their power, which often became concentrated in the hands of a few local despots beyond the reach of the law. The fifth - century Western emperors, with brief exceptions, were individuals incapable of ruling effectively or even of controlling their own courts. Those exceptions were responsible for brief, but remarkable resurgences of Roman power. Without an authoritative ruler, the Balkan provinces fell rapidly into disorder. Alaric was disappointed in his hopes for promotion to magister militum after the battle of the Frigidus. He again led Gothic tribesmen in arms and established himself as an independent power, burning the countryside as far as the walls of Constantinople. Alaric 's ambitions for long - term Roman office were never quite acceptable to the Roman imperial courts, and his men could never settle long enough to farm in any one area. They showed no inclination to leave the Empire and face the Huns from whom they had fled in 376; indeed the Huns were still stirring up further migrations which often ended by attacking Rome in turn. Alaric 's group was never destroyed nor expelled from the Empire, nor acculturated under effective Roman domination. Stilicho moved with his remaining mobile forces into Greece, a clear threat to Rufinus ' control of the Eastern empire. The bulk of Rufinus ' forces were occupied with Hunnic incursions in Asia Minor and Syria, leaving Thrace undefended. He opted to enlist Alaric and his men, and sent them to Thessaly to stave off Stilicho 's threat, which they did. No battle took place. Stilicho was forced to send some of his Eastern forces home. They went to Constantinople under the command of one Gainas, a Goth with a large Gothic following. On arrival, Gainas murdered Rufinus, and was appointed magister militum for Thrace by Eutropius, the new supreme minister and the only eunuch consul of Rome, who controlled Arcadius "as if he were a sheep ''. Stilicho obtained a few more troops from the German frontier and continued to campaign ineffectively against the Eastern empire; again he was successfully opposed by Alaric and his men. During the next year, 397, Eutropius personally led his troops to victory over some Huns who were marauding in Asia Minor. With his position thus strengthened he declared Stilicho a public enemy, and he established Alaric as magister militum per Illyricum. A poem by Synesius advises the emperor to display manliness and remove a "skin - clad savage '' (probably Alaric) from the councils of power and his barbarians from the Roman army. We do not know if Arcadius ever became aware of the existence of this advice, but it had no recorded effect. Synesius, from a province suffering the widespread ravages of a few poor but greedy barbarians, also complained of "the peacetime war, one almost worse than the barbarian war and arising from military indiscipline and the officer 's greed. '' The magister militum in the Diocese of Africa declared for the East and stopped the supply of grain to Rome. Italy had not fed itself for centuries and could not do so now. In 398, Stilicho sent his last reserves, a few thousand men, to re-take the Diocese of Africa, and he strengthened his position further when he married his daughter Maria to Honorius. Throughout this period Stilicho, and all other generals, were desperately short of recruits and supplies for them. In 400, Stilicho was charged to press into service any "laetus, Alamannus, Sarmatian, vagrant, son of a veteran '' or any other person liable to serve. He had reached the bottom of his recruitment pool. Though personally not corrupt, he was very active in confiscating assets; the financial and administrative machine was not producing enough support for the army. In 399, Tribigild 's rebellion in Asia Minor allowed Gainas to accumulate a significant army (mostly Goths), become supreme in the Eastern court, and execute Eutropius. He now felt that he could dispense with Alaric 's services and he nominally transferred Alaric 's province to the West. This administrative change removed Alaric 's Roman rank and his entitlement to legal provisioning for his men, leaving his army -- the only significant force in the ravaged Balkans -- as a problem for Stilicho. In 400, the citizens of Constantinople revolted against Gainas and massacred as many of his people, soldiers and their families, as they could catch. Some Goths at least built rafts and tried to cross the strip of sea that separates Asia from Europe; the Roman navy slaughtered them. By the beginning of 401, Gainas ' head rode a pike through Constantinople while another Gothic general became consul. Meanwhile, groups of Huns started a series of attacks across the Danube, and the Isaurians marauded far and wide in Anatolia. In 401 Stilicho travelled over the Alps to Raetia, to scrape up further troops. He left the Rhine defended only by the "dread '' of Roman retaliation, rather than by adequate forces able to take the field. Early in spring, Alaric, probably desperate, invaded Italy, and he drove Honorius westward from Mediolanum, besieging him in Hasta Pompeia in Liguria. Stilicho returned as soon as the passes had cleared, meeting Alaric in two battles (near Pollentia and Verona) without decisive results. The Goths, weakened, were allowed to retreat back to Illyricum where the Western court again gave Alaric office, though only as comes and only over Dalmatia and Pannonia Secunda rather than the whole of Illyricum. Stilicho probably supposed that this pact would allow him to put Italian government into order and recruit fresh troops. He may also have planned with Alaric 's help to relaunch his attempts to gain control over the Eastern court. However, in 405, Stilicho was distracted by a fresh invasion of Northern Italy. Another group of Goths fleeing the Huns, led by one Radagaisus, devastated the north of Italy for six months before Stilicho could muster enough forces to take the field against them. Stilicho recalled troops from Britannia and the depth of the crisis was shown when he urged all Roman soldiers to allow their personal slaves to fight beside them. His forces, including Hun and Alan auxiliaries, may in the end have totalled rather less than 15,000 men. Radagaisus was defeated and executed. 12,000 prisoners from the defeated horde were drafted into Stilicho 's service. Stilicho continued negotiations with Alaric; Flavius Aetius, son of one of Stilicho 's major supporters, was sent as a hostage to Alaric in 405. In 406 Stilicho, hearing of new invaders and rebels who had appeared in the northern provinces, insisted on making peace with Alaric, probably on the basis that Alaric would prepare to move either against the Eastern court or against the rebels in Gaul. The Senate deeply resented peace with Alaric; in 407, when Alaric marched into Noricum and demanded a large payment for his expensive efforts in Stilicho 's interests, the senate, "inspired by the courage, rather than the wisdom, of their predecessors, '' preferred war. One senator famously declaimed Non est ista pax, sed pactio servitutis ("This is not peace, but a pact of servitude ''). Stilicho paid Alaric four thousand pounds of gold nevertheless. Stilicho sent Sarus, a Gothic general, over the Alps to face the usurper Constantine III, but he lost and barely escaped, having to leave his baggage to the bandits who now infested the Alpine passes. The empress Maria, daughter of Stilicho, died in 407 or early 408 and her sister Aemilia Materna Thermantia married Honorius. In the East, Arcadius died on 1 May 408 and was replaced by his son Theodosius II; Stilicho seems to have planned to march to Constantinople, and to install there a regime loyal to himself. He may also have intended to give Alaric a senior official position and send him against the rebels in Gaul. Before he could do so, while he was away at Ticinum at the head of a small detachment, a bloody coup against his supporters took place at Honorius 's court. It was led by Stilicho 's own creature, one Olympius. Stilicho had news of the coup at Bononia (where he was probably waiting for Alaric). His small escort of barbarians was led by Sarus, who rebelled. His Gothic troops massacred the Hun contingent in their sleep, and then withdrew towards the cities in which their families were billeted. Stilicho ordered that these troops should not be admitted, but, now without an army, he was forced to flee for sanctuary, promised his life, and killed. Alaric was again declared an enemy of the Emperor. The conspiracy then massacred the families of the federate troops (as presumed supporters of Stilicho, although they had probably rebelled against him), and the troops defected en masse to Alaric. The conspirators seem to have let their main army disintegrate, and had no policy except hunting down supporters of Stilicho. Italy was left without effective indigenous defence forces thereafter. Heraclianus, a co-conspirator of Olympius, became governor of the Diocese of Africa, where he controlled the source of most of Italy 's grain, and he supplied food only in the interests of Honorius 's regime. As a declared ' enemy of the Emperor ', Alaric was denied the legitimacy that he needed to collect taxes and hold cities without large garrisons, which he could not afford to detach. He again offered to move his men, this time to Pannonia, in exchange for a modest sum of money and the modest title of Comes, but he was refused as a supporter of Stilicho. He moved into Italy, probably using the route and supplies arranged for him by Stilicho, bypassing the imperial court in Ravenna which was protected by widespread marshland and had a port, and he menaced the city of Rome itself. In 407, there was no equivalent of the determined response to the catastrophic Battle of Cannae in 216 BCE, when the entire Roman population, even slaves, had been mobilized to resist the enemy. Alaric 's military operations centred on the port of Rome, through which Rome 's grain supply had to pass. Alaric 's first siege of Rome in 408 caused dreadful famine within the walls. It was ended by a payment that, though large, was less than one of the richest senators could have produced. The super-rich aristocrats made little contribution; pagan temples were stripped of ornaments to make up the total. With promises of freedom, Alaric also recruited many of the slaves in Rome. Alaric withdrew to Tuscany and recruited more slaves. Ataulf, a Goth nominally in Roman service and brother - in - law to Alaric, marched through Italy to join Alaric despite taking casualties from a small force of Hunnic mercenaries led by Olympius. Sarus was an enemy of Ataulf, and on Ataulf 's arrival went back into imperial service. In 409 Olympius fell to further intrigue, having his ears cut off before he was beaten to death. Alaric tried again to negotiate with Honorius, but his demands (now even more moderate, only frontier land and food) were inflated by the messenger and Honorius responded with insults, which were reported verbatim to Alaric. He broke off negotiations and the standoff continued. Honorius 's court made overtures to the usurper Constantine III in Gaul and arranged to bring Hunnic forces into Italy, Alaric ravaged Italy outside the fortified cities (which he could not garrison), and the Romans refused open battle (for which they had inadequate forces). Late in the year Alaric sent bishops to express his readiness to leave Italy if Honorius would only grant his people a supply of grain. Honorius, sensing weakness, flatly refused. Alaric moved to Rome and captured Galla Placidia, sister of Honorius. The Senate in Rome, despite its loathing for Alaric, was now desperate enough to give him almost anything he wanted. They had no food to offer, but they tried to give him imperial legitimacy; with the Senate 's acquiescence, he elevated Priscus Attalus as his puppet emperor, and he marched on Ravenna. Honorius was planning to flee to Constantinople when a reinforcing army of 4,000 soldiers from the East disembarked in Ravenna. These garrisoned the walls and Honorius held on. He had Constantine 's principal court supporter executed and Constantine abandoned plans to march to Honorius 's defence. Attalus failed to establish his control over the Diocese of Africa, and no grain arrived in Rome where the famine became even more frightful. Jerome reports cannibalism within the walls. Attalus brought Alaric no real advantage, failing also to come to any useful agreement with Honorius (who was offered mutilation, humiliation, and exile). Indeed, Attalus 's claim was a marker of threat to Honorius, and Alaric dethroned him after a few months. In 410 Alaric took Rome by starvation, sacked it for three days (there was relatively little destruction, and in some Christian holy places Alaric 's men even refrained from wanton wrecking and rape), and invited its remaining barbarian slaves to join him, which many did. The city of Rome was the seat of the richest senatorial noble families and the centre of their cultural patronage; to pagans it was the sacred origin of the empire, and to Christians the seat of the heir of Saint Peter, Pope Innocent I, the most authoritative bishop of the West. Rome had not fallen to an enemy since the Battle of the Allia over eight centuries before. Refugees spread the news and their stories throughout the Empire, and the meaning of the fall was debated with religious fervour. Both Christians and pagans wrote embittered tracts, blaming paganism or Christianity respectively for the loss of Rome 's supernatural protection, and blaming Stilicho 's earthly failures in either case. Some Christian responses anticipated the imminence of Judgement Day. Augustine in his book "City of God '' ultimately rejected the pagan and Christian idea that religion should have worldly benefits; he developed the doctrine that the City of God in heaven, undamaged by mundane disasters, was the true objective of Christians. More practically, Honorius was briefly persuaded to set aside the laws forbidding pagans to be military officers, so that one Generidus could re-establish Roman control in Dalmatia. Generidus did this with unusual effectiveness; his techniques were remarkable for this period, in that they included training his troops, disciplining them, and giving them appropriate supplies even if he had to use his own money. The penal laws were reinstated no later than 25 August 410 and the overall trend of repression of paganism continued. Procopius mentions a story in which Honorius, on hearing the news that Rome had "perished '', was shocked, thinking the news was in reference to his favorite chicken he had named "Roma ''. On hearing that Rome itself had fallen he breathed a sigh of relief: At that time they say that the Emperor Honorius in Ravenna received the message from one of the eunuchs, evidently a keeper of the poultry, that Roma had perished. And he cried out and said, "And yet it has just eaten from my hands! '' For he had a very large cockerel, Roma by name; and the eunuch comprehending his words said that it was the city of Roma which had perished at the hands of Alaric, and the emperor with a sigh of relief answered quickly: "But I thought that my fowl Roma had perished. '' So great, they say, was the folly with which this emperor was possessed. Alaric then moved south, intending to sail to Africa, but his ships were wrecked in a storm and he shortly died of fever. His successor Ataulf, still regarded as an usurper and given only occasional and short - term grants of supplies, moved north into the turmoil of Gaul, where there was some prospect of food. His supergroup of barbarians are called the Visigoths in modern works: they may now have been developing their own sense of identity. The Crossing of the Rhine in 405 / 6 brought unmanageable numbers of German and Alan barbarians (perhaps some 30,000 warriors, 100,000 people) into Gaul. They may have been trying to get away from the Huns, who about this time advanced to occupy the Great Hungarian Plain. For the next few years these barbarian tribes wandered in search of food and employment, while Roman forces fought each other in the name of Honorius and a number of competing claimants to the imperial throne. The remaining troops in Britannia elevated a succession of imperial usurpers. The last, Constantine III, raised an army from the remaining troops in Britannia, invaded Gaul and defeated forces loyal to Honorius led by Sarus. Constantine 's power reached its peak in 409 when he controlled Gaul and beyond, he was joint consul with Honorius and his magister militum Gerontius defeated the last Roman force to try to hold the borders of Hispania. It was led by relatives of Honorius; Constantine executed them. Gerontius went to Hispania where he may have settled the Sueves and the Asding Vandals. Gerontius then fell out with his master and elevated one Maximus as his own puppet emperor. He defeated Constantine and was besieging him in Arelate when Honorius 's general Constantius arrived from Italy with an army (possibly, mainly of Hun mercenaries). Gerontius 's troops deserted him and he committed suicide. Constantius continued the siege, defeating a relieving army. Constantine surrendered in 411 with a promise that his life would be spared, and was executed. In 410, the Roman civitates of Britannia rebelled against Constantine and evicted his officials. They asked for help from Honorius, who replied that they should look to their own defence. While the British may have regarded themselves as Roman for several generations, and British armies may at times have fought in Gaul, no central Roman government is known to have appointed officials in Britannia thereafter. In 411, Jovinus rebelled and took over Constantine 's remaining troops on the Rhine. He relied on the support of Burgundians and Alans to whom he offered supplies and land. In 413 Jovinus also recruited Sarus; Ataulf destroyed their regime in the name of Honorius and both Jovinus and Sarus were executed. The Burgundians were settled on the left bank of the Rhine. Ataulf then operated in the south of Gaul, sometimes with short - term supplies from the Romans. All usurpers had been defeated, but large barbarian groups remained un-subdued in both Gaul and Hispania.. The imperial government was quick to restore the Rhine frontier. The invading tribes of 407 had passed into Spain at the end of 409 but the Visigoths had exited Italy at the beginning of 412 and settled themselves in Narbo. Heraclianus was still in command in the diocese of Africa, the last of the clique that overthrew Stilicho to retain power. In 413 he led an invasion of Italy, lost to a subordinate of Constantius, and fled back to Africa where he was murdered by Constantius 's agents. In January 414 Roman naval forces blockaded Ataulf in Narbo, where he married Galla Placidia. The choir at the wedding included Attalus, a puppet emperor without revenues or soldiers. Ataulf famously declared that he had abandoned his intention to set up a Gothic empire because of the irredeemable barbarity of his followers, and instead he sought to restore the Roman Empire. He handed Attalus over to Honorius 's regime for mutilation, humiliation, and exile, and abandoned Attalus 's supporters. (One of them, Paulinus Pellaeus, recorded that the Goths considered themselves merciful for allowing him and his household to leave destitute, but alive, without being raped.) Ataulf moved out of Gaul, to Barcelona. There his infant son by Galla Placidia was buried, and there Ataulf was assassinated by one of his household retainers, possibly a former follower of Sarus. His ultimate successor Wallia had no agreement with the Romans; his people had to plunder in Hispania for food. In 416 Wallia reached agreement with Constantius; he sent Galla Placidia back to Honorius and received provisions, six hundred thousand modii of wheat. From 416 to 418, Wallia 's Goths campaigned in Hispania on Constantius 's behalf, exterminating the Siling Vandals in Baetica and reducing the Alans to the point where the survivors sought the protection of the king of the Asding Vandals. (After retrenchment they formed another barbarian supergroup, but for the moment they were reduced in numbers and effectively cowed.) In 418, by agreement with Constantius, Wallia 's Goths accepted land to farm in Aquitania. Constantius also reinstituted an annual council of the southern Gallic provinces, to meet at Arelate. Although Constantius rebuilt the western field army to some extent -- the Notitia Dignitatum gives a list of the units of the western field army at this time -- he did so only by replacing half of its units (vanished in the wars since 395) by re-graded barbarians, and by garrison troops removed from the frontier. Constantius had married the princess Galla Placidia (despite her protests) in 417. The couple soon had two children, Honoria and Valentinian III, and Constantius was elevated to the position of Augustus in 420. This earned him the hostility of the Eastern court, which had not agreed to his elevation. Nevertheless, Constantius had achieved an unassailable position at the Western court, in the imperial family, and as the able commander - in - chief of a partially restored army. This settlement represented a real success for the Empire -- a poem by Rutilius Namatianus celebrates his voyage back to Gaul in 417 and his confidence in a restoration of prosperity. But it marked huge losses of territory and of revenue; Rutilius travelled by ship past the ruined bridges and countryside of Tuscany, and in the west the River Loire had become the effective northern boundary of Roman Gaul. In the east of Gaul the Franks controlled large areas; the effective line of Roman control until 455 ran from north of Cologne (lost to the Ripuarian Franks in 459) to Boulogne. The Italian areas which had been compelled to support the Goths had most of their taxes remitted for several years. Even in southern Gaul and Hispania large barbarian groups remained, with thousands of warriors, in their own non-Roman military and social systems. Some occasionally acknowledged a degree of Roman political control, but without the local application of Roman leadership and military power they and their individual subgroups pursued their own interests. Constantius died in 421, after only seven months as Augustus. He had been careful to make sure that there was no successor in waiting, and his own children were far too young to take his place. Honorius was unable to control his own court and the death of Constantius initiated more than ten years of instability. Initially Galla Placidia sought Honorius 's favour in the hope that her son might ultimately inherit. Other court interests managed to defeat her, and she fled with her children to the Eastern court in 422. Honorius himself died, shortly before his thirty - ninth birthday, in 423. After some months of intrigue, the patrician Castinus installed Joannes as Western Emperor, but the Eastern Roman government proclaimed the child Valentinian III instead, his mother Galla Placidia acting as regent during his minority. Joannes had few troops of his own. He sent Aetius to raise help from the Huns. An Eastern army landed in Italy, captured Joannes, cut his hand off, abused him in public, and killed him with most of his senior officials. Aetius returned, three days after Joannes ' death, at the head of a substantial Hunnic army which made him the most powerful general in Italy. After some fighting, Placidia and Aetius came to an agreement; the Huns were paid off and sent home, while Aetius received the position of magister militum. Galla Placidia, as Augusta, mother of the Emperor, and his guardian until 437, could maintain a dominant position in court, but women in Ancient Rome did not exercise military power and she could not herself become a general. She tried for some years to avoid reliance on a single dominant military figure, maintaining a balance of power between her three senior officers, Aetius (magister militum in Gaul), Count Boniface governor in the Diocese of Africa, and Flavius Felix magister militum praesentalis in Italy. Meanwhile, the Empire deteriorated seriously. Apart from the losses in the Diocese of Africa, Hispania was slipping out of central control and into the hands of local rulers and Suevic bandits. In Gaul the Rhine frontier had collapsed, the Visigoths in Aquitaine may have launched further attacks on Narbo and Arelate, and the Franks, increasingly powerful although disunited, were the major power in the north - east. Aremorica was controlled by Bagaudae, local leaders not under the authority of the Empire. Aetius at least campaigned vigorously and mostly victoriously, defeating aggressive Visigoths, Franks, fresh Germanic invaders, Bagaudae in Aremorica, and a rebellion in Noricum. Not for the first time in Rome 's history, a triumvirate of mutually distrustful rulers proved unstable. In 427 Felix tried to recall Boniface from Africa; he refused, and overcame Felix 's invading force. Boniface probably recruited some Vandal troops among others. In 428 the Vandals and Alans were united under the able, ferocious, and long - lived king Genseric; he moved his entire people to Tarifa near Gibraltar, divided them into 80 groups nominally of 1,000 people, (perhaps 20,000 warriors in total), and crossed from Hispania to Mauretania without opposition. (The Straits of Gibraltar were not an important thoroughfare at the time, and there were no significant fortifications nor military presence at this end of the Mediterranean.) They spent a year moving slowly to Numidia, defeating Boniface. He returned to Italy where Aetius had recently had Felix executed. Boniface was promoted to magister militum and earned the enmity of Aetius, who may have been absent in Gaul at the time. In 432 the two met at the Battle of Ravenna which left Aetius 's forces defeated and Boniface mortally wounded. Aetius temporarily retired to his estates, but after an attempt to murder him he raised another Hunnic army (probably by conceding parts of Pannonia to them) and in 433 he returned to Italy, overcoming all rivals. He never threatened to become an Augustus himself and thus maintained the support of the Eastern court, where Valentinian 's cousin Theodosius II reigned until 450. Aetius campaigned vigorously, somewhat stabilizing the situation in Gaul and in Hispania. He relied heavily on his forces of Huns. With a ferocity celebrated centuries later in the Nibelungenlied, the Huns slaughtered many Burgundians on the middle Rhine, re-establishing the survivors as Roman allies, the first Kingdom of the Burgundians. This may have returned some sort of Roman authority to Trier. Eastern troops reinforced Carthage, temporarily halting the Vandals, who in 435 agreed to limit themselves to Numidia and leave the most fertile parts of North Africa in peace. Aetius concentrated his limited military resources to defeat the Visigoths again, and his diplomacy restored a degree of order to Hispania. However, his general Litorius was badly defeated by the Visigoths at Toulouse, and a new Suevic king, Rechiar, began vigorous assaults on what remained of Roman Hispania. At one point Rechiar even allied with Bagaudae. These were Romans not under imperial control; some of their reasons for rebellion may be indicated by the remarks of a Roman captive under Attila who was happy in his lot, giving a lively account of the vices of a declining empire, of which he had so long been the victim; the cruel absurdity of the Roman princes, unable to protect their subjects against the public enemy, unwilling to trust them with arms for their own defence; the intolerable weight of taxes, rendered still more oppressive by the intricate or arbitrary modes of collection; the obscurity of numerous and contradictory laws; the tedious and expensive forms of judicial proceedings; the partial administration of justice; and the universal corruption, which increased the influence of the rich, and aggravated the misfortunes of the poor. A religious polemic of about this time complains bitterly of the oppression and extortion suffered by all but the richest Romans. Many wished to flee to the Bagaudae or even to foul - smelling barbarians. Although these men differ in customs and language from those with whom they have taken refuge, and are unaccustomed too, if I may say so, to the nauseous odor of the bodies and clothing of the barbarians, yet they prefer the strange life they find there to the injustice rife among the Romans. So you find men passing over everywhere, now to the Goths, now to the Bagaudae, or whatever other barbarians have established their power anywhere... We call those men rebels and utterly abandoned, whom we ourselves have forced into crime. For by what other causes were they made Bagaudae save by our unjust acts, the wicked decisions of the magistrates, the proscription and extortion of those who have turned the public exactions to the increase of their private fortunes and made the tax indictions their opportunity for plunder? From Britannia comes an indication of the prosperity which freedom from taxes could bring. No sooner were the ravages of the enemy checked, than the island was deluged with a most extraordinary plenty of all things, greater than was before known, and with it grew up every kind of luxury and licentiousness. Nevertheless, effective imperial protection from barbarian ravages was eagerly sought. About this time authorities in Britannia asked Aetius for help: "To Aetius, now consul for the third time: the groans of the Britons. '' And again a little further, thus: -- "The barbarians drive us to the sea; the sea throws us back on the barbarians: thus two modes of death await us, we are either slain or drowned. '' The Romans, however, could not assist them... The Visigoths passed another waymark on their journey to full independence; they made their own foreign policy, sending princesses to make (rather unsuccessful) marriage alliances with Rechiar of the Sueves and with Huneric, son of the Vandal king Genseric. In 439 the Vandals moved eastward (temporarily abandoning Numidia) and captured Carthage, where they established an independent state with a powerful navy. This brought immediate financial crisis to the Western Empire; the diocese of Africa was prosperous, normally required few troops to keep it secure, contributed large tax revenues, and exported wheat to feed Rome and many other areas. Roman troops assembled in Sicily, but the planned counter-attack never happened. Huns attacked the Eastern empire, and the troops, which had been sent against Genseric, were hastily recalled from Sicily; the garrisons, on the side of Persia, were exhausted; and a military force was collected in Europe, formidable by their arms and numbers, if the generals had understood the science of command, and the soldiers the duty of obedience. The armies of the Eastern empire were vanquished in three successive engagements... From the Hellespont to Thermopylae, and the suburbs of Constantinople, (Attila) ravaged, without resistance, and without mercy, the provinces of Thrace and Macedonia. Attila 's invasions of the East were stopped by the walls of Constantinople, and at this heavily fortified Eastern end of the Mediterranean there were no significant barbarian invasions across the sea into the rich southerly areas of Anatolia, the Levant, and Egypt. Despite internal and external threats, and more religious discord than the West, these provinces remained prosperous contributors to tax revenue; despite the ravages of Attila 's armies and the extortions of his peace treaties, tax revenue generally continued to be adequate for the essential state functions of the Eastern empire. Genseric settled his Vandals as landowners and in 442 was able to negotiate very favourable peace terms with the Western court. He kept his latest gains and his eldest son Huneric was honoured by betrothal to Princess Eudocia, who carried the legitimacy of the Theodosian dynasty. Huneric 's Gothic wife was suspected of trying to poison her father - in - law Genseric; he sent her home without her nose or ears, and his Gothic alliance came to an early end. The Romans regained Numidia, and Rome again received a grain supply from Africa. The losses of income from the Diocese of Africa were equivalent to the costs of nearly 40,000 infantry or over 20,000 cavalry. The imperial regime had to increase taxes. Despite admitting that the peasantry could pay no more, and that a sufficient army could not be raised, the imperial regime protected the interests of landowners displaced from Africa and allowed wealthy individuals to avoid taxes. In 444, the Huns were united under Attila. His subjects included Huns, outnumbered several times over by other groups, predominantly Germanic. His power rested partly on his continued ability to reward his favoured followers with precious metals, and he continued to attack the Eastern Empire until 450, by when he had extracted vast sums of money and many other concessions. Attila may not have needed any excuse to turn West, but he received one in the form of a plea for help from Honoria, the Emperor 's sister, who was being forced into a marriage which she resented. Attila claimed Honoria as his wife and half of the Western Empire 's territory as his dowry. Faced with refusal, he invaded Gaul in 451 with a huge army. In the bloody battle of the Catalaunian Plains the invasion was stopped by the combined forces of the barbarians within the Western empire, coordinated by Aetius and supported by what troops he could muster. The next year, Attila invaded Italy and proceeded to march upon Rome, but an outbreak of disease in his army, lack of supplies, reports that Eastern Roman troops were attacking his noncombatant population in Pannonia, and, possibly, Pope Leo 's plea for peace induced him to halt this campaign. Attila unexpectedly died a year later (453) and his empire crumbled as his followers fought for power. The life of Severinus of Noricum gives glimpses of the general insecurity, and ultimate retreat of the Romans on the Upper Danube, in the aftermath of Attila 's death. The Romans were without adequate forces; the barbarians inflicted haphazard extortion, murder, kidnap, and plunder on the Romans and on each other. So long as the Roman dominion lasted, soldiers were maintained in many towns at the public expense to guard the boundary wall. When this custom ceased, the squadrons of soldiers and the boundary wall were blotted out together. The troop at Batavis, however, held out. Some soldiers of this troop had gone to Italy to fetch the final pay to their comrades, and no one knew that the barbarians had slain them on the way. In 454 Aetius was personally stabbed to death by Valentinian, who was himself murdered by the dead general 's supporters a year later. (Valentinian) thought he had slain his master; he found that he had slain his protector: and he fell a helpless victim to the first conspiracy which was hatched against his throne. A rich senatorial aristocrat, Petronius Maximus, who had encouraged both murders, then seized the throne. He broke the engagement between Huneric, prince of the Vandals, and Princess Eudocia, and had time to send Avitus to ask for the help of the Visigoths in Gaul before the Vandals sailed to Italy. Petronius was unable to muster any effective response and was killed by a mob as he tried to flee the city. The Vandals entered Rome, and plundered it for two weeks. Despite the shortage of money for the defence of the state, considerable private wealth had accumulated since the previous sack in 410. The Vandals sailed away with large amounts of treasure and also with the Princess Eudocia, who became the wife of one Vandal king and the mother of another. The Vandals conquered Sicily, and their fleet became a constant danger to Roman sea trade and to the coasts and islands of the western Mediterranean. Avitus, at the Visigothic court in Burdigala, declared himself Emperor. He moved on Rome with Visigothic support which gained his acceptance by Majorian and Ricimer, commanders of the remaining army of Italy. This was the first time that a barbarian kingdom had played a key role in the imperial succession. Avitus 's son - in - law Sidonius wrote propaganda to present the Visigothic king Theoderic II as a reasonable man with whom a Roman regime could do business. Theoderic 's payoff included precious metal from stripping the remaining public ornaments of Italy, and an unsupervised campaign in Hispania. There he not only defeated the Sueves, executing his brother - in - law Rechiar, but he also plundered Roman cities. The Burgundians expanded their kingdom in the Rhone valley and the Vandals took the remains of the Diocese of Africa. In 456 the Visigothic army was too heavily engaged in Hispania to be an effective threat to Italy, and Ricimer had just destroyed a pirate fleet of sixty Vandal ships; Majorian and Ricimer marched against Avitus and defeated him near Placentia. He was forced to become Bishop of Placentia, and died (possibly murdered) a few weeks later. Majorian and Ricimer were now in control of Italy. Ricimer was the son of a Suevic king and his mother was the daughter of a Gothic one, so he could not aspire to an imperial throne. After some months, allowing for negotiation with the new emperor of Constantinople and the defeat of 900 Alamannic invaders of Italy by one of his subordinates, Majorian was acclaimed as Augustus. Majorian is described by Gibbon as "a great and heroic character ''. He rebuilt the army and navy of Italy with vigour and set about recovering the remaining Gallic provinces, which had not recognized his elevation. He defeated the Visigoths at the Battle of Arelate, reducing them to federate status and obliging them to give up their claims in Hispania; he moved on to subdue the Burgundians, the Gallo - Romans around Lugdunum (who were granted tax concessions and whose senior officials were appointed from their own ranks) and the Suevi and Bagaudae in Hispania. Marcellinus, magister militum in Dalmatia and the pagan general of a well - equipped army, acknowledged him as emperor and recovered Sicily from the Vandals. Aegidius also acknowledged Majorian and took effective charge of northern Gaul. (Aegidius may also have used the title "King of the Franks ''.) Abuses in tax collection were reformed and the city councils were strengthened, both actions necessary to rebuild the strength of the Empire but disadvantageous to the richest aristocrats. Majorian prepared a fleet at Carthago Nova for the essential reconquest of the Diocese of Africa. The fleet was burned by traitors, and Majorian made peace with the Vandals and returned to Italy. Here Ricimer met him, arrested him, and executed him five days later. Marcellinus in Dalmatia, and Aegidius around Soissons in northern Gaul, rejected both Ricimer and his puppets and maintained some version of Roman rule in their areas. Ricimer later ceded Narbo and its hinterland to the Visigoths for their help against Aegidius; this made it impossible for Roman armies to march from Italy to Hispania. Ricimer was then the effective ruler of Italy (but little else) for several years. From 461 to 465 the pious Italian aristocrat Libius Severus reigned. There is no record of anything significant that he even tried to achieve, he was never acknowledged by the East whose help Ricimer needed, and he died conveniently in 465. After two years without a Western Emperor, the Eastern court nominated Anthemius, a successful general who had a strong claim on the Eastern throne. He arrived in Italy with an army, supported by Marcellinus and his fleet; he married his daughter to Ricimer, and he was proclaimed Augustus in 467. In 468, at vast expense, the Eastern empire assembled an enormous force to help the West retake the Diocese of Africa. Marcellinus rapidly drove the Vandals from Sardinia and Sicily, and a land invasion evicted them from Tripolitania. The commander in chief with the main force defeated a Vandal fleet near Sicily and landed at Cape Bon. Here Genseric offered to surrender, if he could have a five - day truce to prepare the process. He used the respite to prepare a full - scale attack preceded by fireships, which destroyed most of the Roman fleet and killed many of its soldiers. The Vandals were confirmed in their possession of the Diocese of Africa and they retook Sardinia and Sicily. Marcellinus was murdered, possibly on orders from Ricimer. The Praetorian prefect of Gaul, Arvandus, tried to persuade the new king of the Visigoths to rebel, on the grounds that Roman power in Gaul was finished anyway, but he refused. Anthemius was still in command of an army in Italy. Additionally, in northern Gaul, a British army led by one Riothamus, operated in imperial interests. Anthemius sent his son over the Alps, with an army, to request that the Visigoths return southern Gaul to Roman control. This would have allowed the Empire land access to Hispania again. The Visigoths refused, defeated the forces of both Riothamus and Anthemius, and with the Burgundians took over almost all of the remaining imperial territory in southern Gaul. Ricimer then quarreled with Anthemius, and besieged him in Rome, which surrendered in July 472 after more months of starvation. Anthemius was captured and executed (on Ricimer 's orders) by the Burgundian prince Gundobad. In August Ricimer died of a pulmonary haemorrhage. Olybrius, his new emperor, named Gundobad as his patrician, then died himself shortly thereafter. After the death of Olybrius there was a further interregnum until March 473, when Gundobad proclaimed Glycerius emperor. He may have made some attempt to intervene in Gaul; if so, it was unsuccessful. In 474 Julius Nepos, nephew and successor of the general Marcellinus, arrived in Rome with soldiers and authority from the eastern emperor Leo I. Gundobad had already left to contest the Burgundian throne in Gaul and Glycerius gave up without a fight, retiring to become bishop of Salona in Dalmatia. In 475, Orestes, a former secretary of Attila, drove Julius Nepos out of Ravenna and proclaimed his own son Flavius Momyllus Romulus Augustus (Romulus Augustulus) to be Emperor, on October 31. His surname ' Augustus ' was given the diminutive form ' Augustulus ' by rivals because he was still a minor, and he was never recognized outside of Italy as a legitimate ruler. In 476, Orestes refused to grant Odoacer and the Heruli federated status, prompting an invasion. Orestes fled to the city of Pavia on August 23, 476, where the city 's bishop gave him sanctuary. Orestes was soon forced to flee Pavia when Odoacer 's army broke through the city walls and ravaged the city. Odoacer 's army chased Orestes to Piacenza, where they captured and executed him on August 28, 476. On September 4, 476, Odoacer forced then 16 - year - old Romulus Augustulus, whom his father Orestes had proclaimed to be Rome 's Emperor, to abdicate. After deposing Romulus, Odoacer did not execute him. The Anonymus Valesianus wrote that Odoacer, "taking pity on his youth '', spared Romulus ' life and granted him an annual pension of 6,000 solidi before sending him to live with relatives in Campania. Odoacer then installed himself as ruler over Italy, and sent the Imperial insignia to Constantinople. By convention, the Western Roman Empire is deemed to have ended on 4 September 476, when Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustulus and proclaimed himself ruler of Italy, but this convention is subject to many qualifications. In Roman constitutional theory, the Empire was still simply united under one emperor, implying no abandonment of territorial claims. In areas where the convulsions of the dying Empire had made organized self - defence legitimate, rump states continued under some form of Roman rule after 476. Julius Nepos still claimed to be Emperor of the West and controlled Dalmatia until his murder in 480. Syagrius son of Aegidius ruled the Domain of Soissons until his murder in 487. The indigenous inhabitants of Mauretania developed kingdoms of their own, independent of the Vandals, with strong Roman traits. They again sought Imperial recognition with the reconquests of Justinian I, and they put up effective resistance to the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb. While the civitates of Britannia sank into a level of material development inferior even to their pre-Roman Iron Age ancestors, they maintained identifiably Roman traits for some time, and they continued to look to their own defence as Honorius had authorized. Odoacer began to negotiate with the East Roman (Byzantine) Emperor Zeno, who was busy dealing with unrest in the East. Zeno eventually granted Odoacer the status of patrician and accepted him as his own viceroy of Italy. Zeno, however, insisted that Odoacer had to pay homage to Julius Nepos as the Emperor of the Western Empire. Odoacer never returned any territory or real power, but he did issue coins in the name of Julius Nepos throughout Italy. The murder of Julius Nepos in 480 (Glycerius may have been among the conspirators) prompted Odoacer to invade Dalmatia, annexing it to his Kingdom of Italy. In 488 the Eastern emperor authorized a troublesome Goth, Theoderic (later known as "the Great '') to take Italy. After several indecisive campaigns, in 493 Theoderic and Odoacer agreed to rule jointly. They celebrated their agreement with a banquet of reconciliation, at which Theoderic 's men murdered Odoacer 's, and Theoderic personally cut Odoacer in half. The Roman Empire was not only a political unity enforced by violence. It was also the combined and elaborated civilization of the Mediterranean basin and beyond. It included manufacture, trade, and architecture, widespread secular literacy, written law, and an international language of science and literature. The Western barbarians lost much of these higher cultural practices, but their redevelopment in the Middle Ages by polities aware of the Roman achievement formed the basis for the later development of Europe. Observing the cultural and archaeological continuities through and beyond the period of lost political control, the process has been described as a complex cultural transformation, rather than a fall.

tolkien's inspiration for lord of the rings

J.R.R. Tolkien 's influences - wikipedia While highly creative, the fiction of J.R.R. Tolkien was influenced by a number of sources. Tolkien was inspired by his academic fields of philology and early Germanic literature, especially poetry and mythology, as well as a wide range of other beliefs, culture, and experiences. The Lord of the Rings is a sequel to The Hobbit and so shares influences with it. At the same time, it is a novel which is much greater in scale and scope and so encompasses many other influences as well. Tolkien once described The Lord of the Rings to his friend, the English Jesuit Father Robert Murray, as "a fundamentally religious and Catholic work, unconsciously so at first, but consciously in the revision. '' Many theological themes underlie the narrative, including the battle of good versus evil, the triumph of humility over pride, and the activity of grace, as seen with Frodo 's pity toward Gollum. In addition the epic includes the themes of death and immortality, mercy and pity, resurrection, salvation, repentance, self - sacrifice, free will, justice, fellowship, authority and healing. Tolkien mentions the Lord 's Prayer, especially the line "And lead us not into temptation but deliver us from evil '' in connection with Frodo 's struggles against the power of the One Ring. Tolkien has also said "Of course God is in The Lord of the Rings. The period was pre-Christian, but it was a monotheistic world '' and when questioned who was the One God of Middle - earth, Tolkien replied "The one, of course! The book is about the world that God created -- the actual world of this planet. '' Tolkien was heavily influenced by Nordic / Norse mythology. During his education at King Edward 's School in Birmingham, the then young Tolkien read and translated from the Old Norse on his own time. One of his first Nordic purchases was the Völsunga saga. It is known that while a student, Tolkien read the only available English translation of the Völsunga saga, that by William Morris of the Victorian Arts and Crafts Movement and Icelandic scholar Eiríkur Magnússon. The Völsunga saga and the Nibelungenlied were coeval texts made with the use of the same ancient sources. Both of them provided some of the basis for Richard Wagner 's opera series, Der Ring des Nibelungen, featuring in particular a magical golden ring and a broken sword reforged. In the Völsungasaga, these items are respectively Andvarinaut and Gram, and they correspond broadly to the One Ring and the sword Narsil (reforged as Andúril). The Volsunga Saga also gives various names found in Tolkien. Tolkien wrote a book entitled The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún, in which he discusses the saga in relation to the myth of Sigurd and Gudrún. Tolkien 's Elves and Dwarves are by and large based on Norse and related Germanic mythologies Two sources that contain accounts of elves and dwarves that were of interest to Tolkien were the Prose Edda and the Elder or Poetic Edda. The descriptions of elves and dwarves in these works are ambiguous and contradictory, however. Within the contents of the Völuspá, specifically in stanza 9, the creation of Dwarves predates Man, which is precisely the formula Tolkien uses for Middle - earth. The names of Gandalf and the dwarves in The Hobbit were taken from the "Dvergatal '' in the Elder Edda and the "Gylfaginning '' in the Prose Edda. The figure of Gandalf is particularly influenced by the Norse deity Odin in his incarnation as "The Wanderer '', an old man with one eye, a long white beard, a wide brimmed hat, and a staff. Tolkien, in a letter of 1946, nearly a decade after the character was invented, wrote that he thought of Gandalf as an "Odinic wanderer ''. Much like Odin, Gandalf promotes justice, knowledge, truth, and insight. The Balrog and the collapse of the Bridge of Khazad - dûm in Moria, is a direct parallel of the fire giant Surtr and the destruction of Asgard 's bridge in Norse myth. Tolkien was a Professor of Old English / Anglo - Saxon and Middle English language and literature, and this literature, particularly Beowulf, influenced his own writings. As Tolley tells us in his Old English Influences on The Lord of the Rings, the ideas of heroism and masculinity that inform the character of Beowulf, can also be seen in Aragorn. Both Aragorn and Beowulf have questionable family lines, and both take on kingship only for the good of the people. Other themes, such as the conversation in The Hobbit between Bilbo Baggins and Smaug the dragon, as well as the antagonism created by the mere mention of gold and even the concept of riddles, are also reflected in Beowulf. Tolkien also based the people of Rohan, the Rohirrim, on the historical Anglo - Saxons, giving them Anglo - Saxon names, customs, and poetry. The Anglo - Saxon poem, "The Wanderer, '' is paraphrased by Aragorn as an example of Rohirric verse. Another major influence on Tolkien is riddle poetry from Anglo - Saxon England. Some of the oldest surviving Old English manuscripts contain riddle poems, such as the Leiden Riddle in the Leiden MS. The contest between Bilbo and Gollum is a good example of this. Finnish mythology and more specifically the Finnish national epic Kalevala were also acknowledged by Tolkien as an influence on Middle - earth. In a manner similar to The Lord of the Rings, the Kalevala centres around a magical item of great power, the Sampo, which bestows great fortune on its owner, but never makes clear its exact nature. Like the One Ring, the Sampo is fought over by forces of good and evil, and is ultimately lost to the world as it is destroyed towards the end of the story. In another parallel, the work 's wizard character, Väinämöinen, is similar to Gandalf in his immortal origins and wise nature, and both works end with the wizard character departing on a ship to lands beyond the mortal world. Tolkien also based elements of his Elvish language Quenya on Finnish. The extent of Celtic influence is debatable. Tolkien wrote that he gave the Elvish language Sindarin "a linguistic character very like (though not identical with) British - Welsh... because it seems to fit the rather ' Celtic ' type of legends and stories told of its speakers ''. A number of the names of characters and places in The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings have been found to have Welsh origin. In addition, the depiction of elves has been described as deriving from Celtic mythology. Though Tolkien denied the influence of Arthurian legends, several parallels have been drawn. Gandalf has been compared with Merlin, Frodo and Aragorn with Arthur and Galadriel with the Lady of the Lake. Tolkien was also influenced by more modern literature. The Ent attack on Isengard was inspired by "Birnam Wood coming to Dunsinane '' in Shakespeare 's Macbeth. Charles Dickens ' The Pickwick Papers has likewise been shown to have reflections in Tolkien. One of the greatest influences on Tolkien was the Arts and Crafts polymath William Morris. Tolkien wished to imitate Morris 's prose and poetry romances, along with the general style and approach; he took elements such as the Dead Marshes in The Lord of the Rings and Mirkwood in The Hobbit from Morris. He was also influenced by the modern fantasy author George MacDonald, who wrote The Princess and the Goblin. Books by the Inkling author Owen Barfield are also known to have contributed to his world - view, particularly The Silver Trumpet (1925), History in English Words (1926) and Poetic Diction (1928). Edward Wyke - Smith 's Marvellous Land of Snergs, with its "table - high '' title characters, strongly influenced the incidents, themes, and depiction of Bilbo 's race in The Hobbit. The character George Babbitt from Babbitt was another inspiration for hobbits. In his biography of Tolkien, Carpenter notes that in the limited amount of time Tolkien could apply to the reading of fiction, he "preferred the lighter contemporary novels ''. The stories of John Buchan are listed as an example. Critics such as Hooker have detailed the resonances between the two authors. Another contemporary adventure novel, H. Rider Haggard 's She, was acknowledged by Tolkien in an interview: "I suppose as a boy She interested me as much as anything -- like the Greek shard of Amyntas (Amenartas), which was the kind of machine by which everything got moving. '' A supposed facsimile of this potsherd appeared in Haggard 's first edition, and the ancient inscription it bore, once translated, led the English characters to She 's ancient kingdom. Critics have compared this device to the Testament of Isildur in The Lord of the Rings and Tolkien 's efforts to produce as an illustration a realistic page from the Book of Mazarbul. Critics starting with Edwin Muir have found resemblances between Haggard 's romances and Tolkien 's. Tolkien scholar Mark T. Hooker has catalogued a series of parallels between The Hobbit and Jules Verne 's Journey to the Center of the Earth. These include, among other things, a hidden runic message and a celestial alignment that direct the adventurers to the goals of their quests. Tolkien wrote of being impressed as a boy by Samuel Rutherford Crockett 's historical novel The Black Douglas and of basing the Necromancer -- Sauron -- on its villain, Gilles de Retz. Incidents in both The Hobbit and Lord of the Rings are similar in narrative and style to the novel, and its overall style and imagery have been suggested as having had an influence on Tolkien. Tolkien wrote that stories about "Red Indians '' were his favourites as a boy. Shippey mentions Tolkien 's interest in the primeval forests and people of North America, and speculates that the romantic descriptions of characters in James Fenimore Cooper might have influenced his descriptions of Aragorn and Éomer. Though he read many of Edgar Rice Burroughs ' books, he denied that the Barsoom novels influenced his giant spiders: "I did read many of Edgar Rice Burroughs ' earlier works, but I developed a dislike for his Tarzan even greater than my distaste for spiders. Spiders I had met long before Burroughs began to write, and I do not think he is in any way responsible for Shelob. At any rate I retain no memory of the Siths or the Apts. '' Some critics have suggested that The Lord of the Rings was directly and heavily derived from Richard Wagner 's opera cycle, Der Ring des Nibelungen, whose plot also centres on a powerful ring. Others have argued that any similarity is due to the common influence of the Volsunga saga and the Nibelungenlied on both authors. Tolkien sought to dismiss critics ' direct comparisons to Wagner, telling his publisher, "Both rings were round, and there the resemblance ceases. '' According to Humphrey Carpenter 's biography of Tolkien, the author claimed to hold Wagner 's interpretation of the relevant Germanic myths in contempt, even as a young man before reaching university. Some researchers take an intermediate position: that both the authors used the same sources, but that Tolkien was influenced by Wagner 's development of the mythology, especially the "concept of the Ring as giving the owner mastery of the world that was Wagner 's own contribution to the myth of the Ring ''. Wagner probably developed this element by combining the ring with a magical wand mentioned in the Nibelungenlied that could give to its wearer the control "over the race of men ''. In addition, the corrupting power of Tolkien 's One Ring has a central role in Wagner 's operas but was not present in the mythical sources. Some argue that Tolkien 's denial of a Wagnerian influence was an over-reaction to the statements of Åke Ohlmarks, Tolkien 's Swedish translator, who in the introduction to his much - criticized translation of The Lord of the Rings "mixed material from various legends, some which mention no ring and one which concerns a totally different ring ''. Furthermore, critics believe that Tolkien was reacting against the links between Wagner 's work and Nazism. Some locations and characters were inspired by Tolkien 's childhood in Birmingham, where he first lived near Sarehole Mill, and later near Edgbaston Reservoir. There are also hints of the Black Country, which is within easy reach of north west Edgbaston. This shows in such names as "Underhill '', and the description of Saruman 's industrialization of Isengard and The Shire is explicitly stated by Tolkien to have been based on the industrialization of England. It has also been suggested that The Shire and its surroundings were influenced by the Iron Age and Roman mineral workings and remains which Tolkien saw in 1929 when working with archaeologists Tessa and Mortimer Wheeler at Lydney Park in the Forest of Dean; or alternatively were based on the countryside around Stonyhurst College in Lancashire where he frequently stayed during the 1940s. The Lord of the Rings was crucially influenced by Tolkien 's experiences during World War I and his son 's during World War II. After the publication of The Lord of the Rings these influences led to speculation that the One Ring was an allegory for the nuclear bomb. Tolkien, however, repeatedly insisted that his works were not an allegory of any kind. He states in the foreword to The Lord of the Rings that he disliked allegories and that the story was not one. Instead he preferred what he termed "applicability '', the freedom of the reader to interpret the work in the light of his or her own life and times. Tolkien had already completed most of the book, including the ending in its entirety, before the first nuclear bombs were made known to the world at Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. Bedeviled, a book by Lewis / Tolkien scholar Colin Duriez, discusses in more depth how the World Wars and concepts of evil and suffering influenced the writings of Tolkien and his literary group, the Inklings. The Silmarillion is a complex work exhibiting the influence of many sources. A major influence was the Finnish epic Kalevala, especially the tale of Kullervo. Tolkien admitted that he had been "greatly affected '' by Finnish mythologies, and even credited Kullervo 's story with being the "germ of (his) attempt to write legends ''. Tolkien attempted to rework the story of Kullervo into a story of his own, and though he never finished, similarities to the story can still be seen in the tale of Túrin Turambar. Both are tragic heroes who accidentally commit incest with their sister who on finding out kills herself by leaping into water. Both heroes later kill themselves after asking their sword if it will slay them, which it confirms. Similarly, the Valar also contain elements of Norse mythology. Several of the Valar have characteristics resembling various Æsir, the gods of Asgard. Thor, for example, physically the strongest of the gods, can be seen both in Oromë, who fights the monsters of Melkor, and in Tulkas, the physically strongest of the Valar. Manwë, the head of the Valar, exhibits some similarities to Odin, the "Allfather ''. The division between the Calaquendi (Elves of Light) and Moriquendi (Elves of Darkness) also echoes Norse mythology, which has its own Light elves and Dark elves. The Light elves of Norse mythology are associated with the gods, much as the Calaquendi are associated with the Valar. also the werewolves seem to be inspired by werewolves from Völsunga saga as well as Fenris the Warg There are numerous sources from Slavic mythology found in J.R.R. Tolkien 's novels. An example is the Istar (wizard) named Radagast and his home at Rhosgobel; both are usually taken to have Slavic sources from the Slavic god, Rodegast, a god of the Sun, war, hospitality, fertility, and harvest. Rhovanion was, also, a name from Slavic origin. The Anduin River, from which "Anduin '' was the Sindarin name for The Great River of Wilderland, is said to have similar sources related to the Danube River, from which the river flows mainly among the Slavic people and played an important role in their folklore. Influence from Greek mythology is also apparent. The island of Númenor, for example, recalls Atlantis. Tolkien 's Elvish name "Atalantë '' for Númenor resembles Plato 's Atlantis furthering the illusion that his mythology simply extends the history and mythology of the real world. In his Letters, however, Tolkien described this merely as a "curious chance. '' Greek mythology also colours the Valar, who borrow many attributes from the Olympian gods. The Valar, like the Olympians, live in the world, but on a high mountain, separated from mortals; Ulmo, Lord of the Waters, owes much to Poseidon, and Manwë, the Lord of the Air and King of the Valar, to Zeus. But the correspondences are only approximate; Tolkien borrows ideas from Greek mythology, but does not model the Valar and Maiar on Greek deities. Tolkien also compared Beren and Lúthien with Orpheus and Eurydice with the gender roles reversed. Tolkien has compared Túrin in the Children of Húrin to Oedipus among other mythological figures: There is the Children of Húrin, the tragic tale of Túrin Turambar and his sister Níniel -- of which Túrin is the hero: a figure that might be said (by people who like that sort of thing, though it is not very useful) to be derived from elements in Sigurd the Volsung, Oedipus, and the Finnish Kullervo. Fëanor has been compared with Prometheus by researchers such as Verlyn Flieger. They share a symbolical and literal association with fire, are both rebels against gods 's decrees and, basically, inventors of artefacts that were sources of light, or vessels to divine flame. The Bible and traditional Christian narrative also influenced The Silmarillion. Tolkien was a devout Roman Catholic. The conflict between Melkor and Eru Ilúvatar parallels that between Satan and God. Further, The Silmarillion tells of the creation and fall of the Elves, as Genesis tells of the creation and fall of Man. As with all of Tolkien 's works, The Silmarillion allows room for later Christian history, and one version of Tolkien 's drafts even has Finrod, a character in The Silmarillion, speculating on the necessity of Eru 's (God 's) eventual Incarnation to save Mankind. A specifically Christian influence is the notion of the Fall of man, which influenced the Ainulindalë, the Kinslaying at Alqualondë, and the fall of Númenor. Though Tolkien wrote of "a certain distaste '' for Celtic legends, "largely for their fundamental unreason '', The Silmarillion may betray some Celtic influence. The exile of the Noldorin Elves, for example, has parallels with the story of the Tuatha Dé Danann. The Tuatha Dé Danann semi-divine beings, invaded Ireland from across the sea, burning their ships when they arrived and fighting a fierce battle with the current inhabitants. The Noldor arrived in Middle - earth from Valinor and burned their ships, then turned to fight Melkor. Another parallel can be seen between the loss of a hand by Maedhros, son of Fëanor, and the similar mutilation suffered by Nuada Airgetlám ("Silver Hand / Arm '') during the battle with the Firbolg. Nuada received a hand made of silver to replace the lost one, and his later appellation has the same meaning as the Elvish name Celebrimbor: "silver fist '' or "Hand of silver '' in Sindarin (Telperinquar in Quenya). Another similarity between the Silmarillion and the Lebor Gabála Érenn can be seen by comparing Nuada and Lugh (who possessed a famed magic spear, the Spear Luin) and the outcome of their respective confrontations against Balor of the Evil Eye with the events surrounding Celebrimbor and Gil - galad (whose weapon is the spear Aeglos) and their conflicts with Sauron of the Lidless Red Eye in the Second Age. Other authors, such as Donald O'Brien, Patrick Wynne and Carl Hostetter, Tom Shippey, David Day have pointed out the similarities between Beren and Lúthien, one of the main storylines of the Silmarillion, and Culhwch and Olwen, one the tales collected in the Welsh Mabinogion. In both, the male heroes make rash promises after having been stricken by the beauty of non-mortal maidens; both enlist the aid of great kings, Arthur and Finrod; both show rings that prove their identities; both are set impossible tasks that include, directly or indirectly, the hunting and killing of ferocious beasts (the wild boars, Twrch Trwyth and Ysgithrywyn, and the wolf Carcharoth) with the help of a supernatural hound (Cafall and Huan). Both maidens possess such beauty that flowers grow beneath their feet when they come to meet the heroes for the first time, as if they were living embodiments of spring. The Mabinogion itself was part of the Red Book of Hergest, which the Red Book of Westmarch probably imitates. The Arthurian legends are part of the cultural heritage appearing in Celtic and Welsh mythology. Though Tolkien denied this influence, several parallels between the legends and Tolkien 's stories have been found by numerous specialists. Verlyn Flieger, in particular, has investigated the correlations at length and has studied their numerous parallels with Tolkien 's creative methods. Flieger points out visible correspondences such as Avalon and Avallónë and Broceliande and Broceliand, the original name of Beleriand. Tolkien himself said that Frodo and Bilbo 's departure to Tol Eressëa (also called "Avallon '' in the Legendarium) was an "Arthurian ending ''. Such correlations are discussed in the posthumously published The Fall of Arthur, which includes an entire section, "The Connection to the Quenta '', on Tolkien 's treatment of Arthurian material and its influence on The Silmarillion. Another parallel is the tale of Sir Balin in the Arthurian Legend with that of Túrin Turambar. Though Balin knows he wields an accursed sword, he nevertheless continues his quest to regain King Arthur 's favour; yet he unintentionally causes misery wherever he goes. Fate eventually catches up with him when he unwittingly kills his own brother, who in turn mortally wounds him. Similarly, Turin accidentally kills his friend Beleg with his sword.

how many cities are there in orange county ca

Orange County, California - wikipedia Orange County is a county in the U.S. state of California. As of the 2010 census, the population was 3,010,232 making it the third-most populous county in California, the sixth-most populous in the United States, and more populous than twenty - one U.S. states. Its county seat is Santa Ana. It is the second most densely populated county in the state, second only to San Francisco County. The county 's four largest cities, Anaheim, Santa Ana, Irvine, and Huntington Beach each have populations exceeding 200,000. Several of Orange County 's cities are on the Pacific coast, including Huntington Beach, Newport Beach, Laguna Beach, Dana Point, and San Clemente. Orange County is included in the Los Angeles - Long Beach - Anaheim, CA Metropolitan Statistical Area. Thirty - four incorporated cities are located in the county; the newest is Aliso Viejo, which was incorporated in 2001. Anaheim was the first city, incorporated in 1870, when the region was still part of neighboring Los Angeles County. Whereas most population centers in the United States tend to be identified by a major city, there is no defined urban center in Orange County. It is mostly suburban except for some traditionally urban areas at the centers of the older cities of Anaheim, Fullerton, Huntington Beach, Orange, and Santa Ana. There are several edge city - style developments such as Irvine Business Center, Newport Center, and South Coast Metro. The county is known for tourism with attractions like Disneyland, Knott 's Berry Farm, and several popular beaches along its more than 40 miles (64 km) of coastline. It is also known for its political conservatism -- a 2005 academic study listed three Orange County cities as among America 's 25 most conservative, making it one of two counties in the nation containing more than one such city. (Maricopa County, Arizona also had three cities on the list.) It is part of the Tech Coast. Members of the Tongva, Juaneño, and Luiseño Native American groups long inhabited the area. After the 1769 expedition of Gaspar de Portolà, a Spanish expedition led by Junipero Serra named the area Valle de Santa Ana (Valley of Saint Anne). On November 1, 1776, Mission San Juan Capistrano became the area 's first permanent European settlement. Among those who came with Portolá were José Manuel Nieto and José Antonio Yorba. Both these men were given land grants -- Rancho Los Nietos and Rancho Santiago de Santa Ana, respectively. The Nieto heirs were granted land in 1834. The Nieto ranches were known as Rancho Los Alamitos, Rancho Las Bolsas, and Rancho Los Coyotes. Yorba heirs Bernardo Yorba and Teodosio Yorba were also granted Rancho Cañón de Santa Ana (Santa Ana Canyon Ranch) and Rancho Lomas de Santiago, respectively. Other ranchos in Orange County were granted by the Mexican government during the Mexican period in Alta California. A severe drought in the 1860s devastated the prevailing industry, cattle ranching, and much land came into the possession of Richard O'Neill, Sr., James Irvine and other land barons. In 1887, silver was discovered in the Santa Ana Mountains, attracting settlers via the Santa Fe and Southern Pacific Railroads. This growth led the California legislature to divide Los Angeles County and create Orange County as a separate political entity on March 11, 1889. The county is said to have been named for the citrus fruit in an attempt to promote immigration by suggesting a semi-tropical paradise -- a place where anything could grow. Other citrus crops, avocados, and oil extraction were also important to the early economy. Orange County benefited from the July 4, 1904 completion of the Pacific Electric Railway, a trolley connecting Los Angeles with Santa Ana and Newport Beach. The link made Orange County an accessible weekend retreat for celebrities of early Hollywood. It was deemed so significant that Pacific City changed its name to Huntington Beach in honor of Henry E. Huntington, president of the Pacific Electric and nephew of Collis Huntington. Transportation further improved with the completion of the State Route and U.S. Route 101 (now mostly Interstate 5) in the 1920s. Agriculture, such as that involving the boysenberries made famous by Buena Park native Walter Knott, began to decline after World War II. However, the county 's prosperity soared during this time. The completion of Interstate 5 in 1954 helped make Orange County a bedroom community for many who moved to Southern California to work in aerospace and manufacturing. Orange County received a further boost in 1955 with the opening of Disneyland. In 1969, Yorba Linda - born Orange County native Richard Nixon became the 37th President of the United States. In the 1980s, Orange County had become the second most populous county in California as the population topped two million for the first time. In 1994, an investment fund meltdown led to the criminal prosecution of treasurer Robert Citron. The county lost at least $1.5 billion through high - risk investments in bonds. The loss was blamed on derivatives by some media reports. On December 6, 1994, the County of Orange declared Chapter 9 bankruptcy, from which it emerged on June 12, 1996. The Orange County bankruptcy was at the time the largest municipal bankruptcy in U.S. history. In recent years, land use conflicts have arisen between established areas in the north and less developed areas in the south. These conflicts have regarded issues such as construction of new toll roads and the repurposing of a decommissioned air base. El Toro Marine Corps Air Station was designated by a voter measure in 1994 to be developed into an international airport to complement the existing John Wayne Airport. But subsequent voter initiatives and court actions have caused the airport plan to be permanently shelved. Instead, it will become the Orange County Great Park. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 948 square miles (2,460 km), of which 791 square miles (2,050 km) is land and 157 square miles (410 km) (16.6 %) is water. It is the smallest county in Southern California. The average annual temperature is about 68 ° F (20 ° C). Orange County is bordered on the southwest by the Pacific Ocean, on the north by Los Angeles County, on the northeast by San Bernardino County and Riverside County, and on the southeast by San Diego County. The northwestern part of the county lies on the coastal plain of the Los Angeles Basin, while the southeastern end rises into the foothills of the Santa Ana Mountains. Most of Orange County 's population reside in one of two shallow coastal valleys that lie in the basin, the Santa Ana Valley and the Saddleback Valley. The Santa Ana Mountains lie within the eastern boundaries of the county and of the Cleveland National Forest. The high point is Santiago Peak (5,689 feet (1,734 m)), about 20 mi (32 km) east of Santa Ana. Santiago Peak and nearby Modjeska Peak, just 200 feet (60 m) shorter, form a ridge known as Saddleback, visible from almost everywhere in the county. The Peralta Hills extend westward from the Santa Ana Mountains through the communities of Anaheim Hills, Orange, and ending in Olive. The Loma Ridge is another prominent feature, running parallel to the Santa Ana Mountains through the central part of the county, separated from the taller mountains to the east by Santiago Canyon. The Santa Ana River is the county 's principal watercourse, flowing through the middle of the county from northeast to southwest. Its major tributary to the south and east is Santiago Creek. Other watercourses within the county include Aliso Creek, San Juan Creek, and Horsethief Creek. In the North, the San Gabriel River also briefly crosses into Orange County and exits into the Pacific on the Los Angeles - Orange County line between the cities of Long Beach and Seal Beach. Laguna Beach is home to the county 's only natural lakes, Laguna Lakes, which are formed by water rising up against an underground fault. Residents sometimes divide the county into north Orange County and south Orange County. In effect, this is a division of the county into northwestern and southeastern halves following the county 's natural diagonal orientation along the coast. This is more of a cultural and demographic distinction perpetuated by the popular television shows The OC, The Real Housewives of Orange County and Laguna Beach. The distinction exists between the older areas closer to Los Angeles and the more affluent and recently developed areas to the south. A transition between older and newer development may be considered to exist roughly parallel to State Route 55, also known as the Costa Mesa Freeway. This transition is accentuated by large flanking tracts of sparsely developed area occupied until recent years by agriculture and military airfields. While there is a northeast to southwest topographic transition from elevated areas inland to the lower coastal band, there is no formal geographic division between North and South County. Perpendicular to that gradient, the Santa Ana River roughly divides the county into northwestern and southeastern sectors. Each sector comprises 40 to 60 percent of the county respectively by area. There are significant political, demographic, economic, and cultural distinctions between North and South Orange County, with North Orange County having greater populations of people of color, younger populations, greater percentages of renters, lower median incomes, higher rates of unemployment, and greater proportions of voters registered as Democrats versus as Republicans. However, certain areas in both North and South Orange County vary from these general trends. The 2010 United States Census reported that Orange County had a population of 3,010,232. The racial makeup of Orange County was 1,830,758 (60.8 %) White (44.0 % non-Hispanic white), 50,744 (1.7 %) African American, 18,132 (0.6 %) Native American, 537,804 (17.9 %) Asian, 9,354 (0.3 %) Pacific Islander, 435,641 (14.5 %) from other races, and 127,799 (4.2 %) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1,012,973 persons (33.7 %). The Hispanic and Latino population is predominantly of Mexican origin; this group accounts for 28.5 % of the county 's population, followed by Salvadorans (0.8 %), Guatemalans (0.5 %), Puerto Ricans (0.4 %), Cubans (0.3 %), Colombians (0.3 %), and Peruvians (0.3 %). Santa Ana with its population reportedly 75 percent Hispanic / Latino, is among the most Hispanic / Latino percentage cities in both California and the U.S., esp. of Mexican - American descent. See also Logan Park (Santa Ana), the city 's largest and oldest barrio. Among the Asian population, 6.1 % are Vietnamese, followed by Koreans (2.9 %), Chinese (2.7 %), Filipinos (2.4 %), Indians (1.4 %), Japanese (1.1 %), Cambodians (0.2 %) Pakistanis (0.2 %), Thais (0.1 %), Indonesians (0.1 %), and Laotians (0.1 %). According to KPCC in 2014, Orange County has the largest proportion of Asian Americans in Southern California, where one in five residents are Asian American. There is also a significant Muslim population in the county. As of the census of 2000, there were 2,846,289 people, 935,287 households, and 667,794 families residing in the county, making Orange County the second most populous county in California. The population density was 1,392 / km (3,606 / sq mi). There were 969,484 housing units at an average density of 474 / km (1,228 / sq mi). The racial makeup of the county was 64.8 % White, 13.6 % Asian, 1.7 % African American, 0.7 % Native American, 0.3 % Pacific Islander, 14.8 % from other races, and 4.1 % from two or more races. 30.8 % are Hispanic or Latino of any race. 8.9 % were of German, 6.9 % English and 6.0 % Irish ancestry according to Census 2000. 58.6 % spoke only English at home; 25.3 % spoke Spanish, 4.7 % Vietnamese, 1.9 % Korean, 1.5 % Chinese (Cantonese or Mandarin) and 1.2 % Tagalog. In 1990, still according to the census there were 2,410,556 people residing in the county. The racial makeup of the county was 78.6 % White, 10.3 % Asian or Pacific Islander, 1.8 % African American, 0.5 % Native American, and 8.8 % from other races. 23.4 % were Hispanic or Latino of any race. Out of 935,287 households, 37.0 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.9 % married couples were living together, 10.7 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.6 % were non-families. 21.1 % of all households were made up of individuals and 7.2 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.00 and the average family size was 3.48. Ethnic change has been transforming the population. By 2009, nearly 45 percent of the residents spoke a language other than English at home. Whites now comprise only 45 percent of the population, while the numbers of Hispanics grow steadily, along with Vietnamese, Korean and Chinese families. The percentage of foreign - born residents jumped to 30 percent in 2008 from 6 percent in 1970. The mayor of Irvine, Sukhee Kang, was born in Korea, making him the first Korean - American to run a major American city. "We have 35 languages spoken in our city, '' Kang observed. The population is diverse age-wise, with 27.0 % under the age of 18, 9.4 % from 18 to 24, 33.2 % from 25 to 44, 20.6 % from 45 to 64, and 9.9 % 65 years of age or older. The median age is 33 years. For every 100 females there were 99.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.7 males. The median income for a household in the county was $61,899, and the median income for a family was $75,700 (these figures had risen to $71,601 and $81,260 respectively as of a 2007 estimate). Males had a median income of $45,059 versus $34,026 for females. The per capita income for the county was $25,826. About 7.0 % of families and 10.3 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.2 % of those under age 18 and 6.2 % of those age 65 or over. Residents of Orange County are known as "Orange Countians ''. Orange County is the base for several religious organizations: Both Armenian churches were presented with a resolution declaring every April 24 Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day by the Orange County Board of Supervisors, passed unanimously on May 10, 2016. Orange County is a charter county of California; its seat is Santa Ana. The elected offices of the county government consist of the five - member Board of Supervisors, Assessor, Auditor - Controller, Clerk - Recorder, District Attorney - Public Administrator, Sheriff - Coroner, and Treasurer - Tax Collector. Except for the Board of Supervisors, each of these elected officers are elected by the voters of the entire county and oversee their own County departments. As of February 2017, the six countywide elected officers are: A seventh countywide elected officer, the County Superintendent of Schools does not oversee a county department, instead (jointly with an independently - elected County Board of Education) overseeing the wholly independent, anachronistically - named Orange County Department of Education. Each of the five members of the Board of Supervisors is elected from a regional district, and together, the board oversees the activities of the county 's agencies and departments and sets policy on development, public improvements, and county services. At the beginning of each calendar year, the Supervisors select a Chair and Vice Chair amongst themselves. The Chair presides over board meetings, and the Vice Chair presides when the Chair is not present. The Board appoints the Clerk of the Board of Supervisors, the County Counsel, the Performance Audit Director, and the Director of the Office of Independent Review. The Board also appoints the County Executive Officer to act as the chief administrative officer of the county and the manager of all agencies and departments not under the sole jurisdiction of an elected county official nor the sole jurisdiction of one of the four aforementioned officers appointed by the Board. As of February 2017, the members of the Orange County Board of Supervisors are: The County Department of Education is wholly separate from the County government and is jointly overseen by the elected County Superintendent of Schools and the five - member Orange County Board of Education, whose trustees are popularly elected from five separate trustee areas. As of January 2017, the six elected officials overseeing the Orange County Department of Education are: The VA loan limit for Orange County is $625,500 as of 2016. On July 12, 2010, it was revealed that former Sheriff Mike Carona received over $215,000 in pension checks in 2009, despite his felony conviction. A 2005 state law denied a public pension to public officials convicted of wrongdoing in office, however, that law only applied to benefits accrued after December 2005. Carona became eligible for his pension at age 50, and is also entitled, by law, to medical and dental benefits. It was noted that the county 's retirement system faces a massive shortfall totaling $3.7 billion unfunded liabilities, and Carona was one of approximately 400 retired Orange County public servants who received more than $100,000 in benefits in 2009. Also on the list of those receiving extra-large pension checks is former treasurer - tax collector Robert Citron, whose investments, which were made while consulting psychics and astrologers, led Orange County into bankruptcy in 1994. Citron, a Democrat, funneled billions of public dollars into questionable investments, and at first the returns were high and cities, schools and special districts borrowed millions to join in the investments. But the strategy backfired, and Citron 's investment pool lost $1.64 billion. Nearly $200 million had to be slashed from the county budget and more than 1,000 jobs were cut. The county was forced to borrow $1 billion. The California Foundation for Fiscal Responsibility filed a lawsuit against the pension system to get the list. The agency had claimed that pensioner privacy would be compromised by the release. A judge approved the release and the documents were released late June 2010. The release of the documents has reopened debate on the pension plan for retired public safety workers approved in 2001 when Carona was sheriff. Called "3 percent at 50, '' it lets deputies retire at age 50 with 3 percent of their highest year 's pay for every year of service. Before it was approved and applied retroactively, employees received 2 percent. "It was right after Sept. 11, '' said Orange County Supervisor John Moorlach. "All of a sudden, public safety people became elevated to god status. The Board of Supervisors were tripping over themselves to make the motion. '' He called it "one of the biggest shifts of money from the private sector to the public sector. '' Moorlach, who was not on the board when the plan was approved, led the fight to repeal the benefit. A lawsuit, which said the benefit should go before voters, was rejected in Los Angeles County Superior Court in 2009 and is now under appeal. Carona opposed the lawsuit when it was filed, likening its filing to a "nuclear bomb '' for deputies. Orange County has long been known as a Republican stronghold and has consistently sent Republican representatives to the state and federal legislatures. Republican majorities in Orange County helped deliver California 's electoral votes to Republican presidential candidates Richard Nixon (1960, 1968 and 1972), Gerald Ford (1976), Ronald Reagan (1980 and 1984) and George H.W. Bush (1988). As a measure of how Republican Orange County has historically been, it was one of only five counties in the state that voted for Barry Goldwater in 1964. The Republican margin began to narrow in the 1990s and 2000s as the state trended Democratic, and in 2016, Hillary Clinton won the county with a majority. This was the first time Orange County had voted for a Democratic presidential candidate since Franklin D. Roosevelt 's 1936 landslide re-election for a second term. Only six Democrats have carried the county in a statewide race in the last 50 years -- Jerry Brown in his gubernatorial re-election campaign in 1978, March Fong Eu for Secretary of State, Kenneth Cory for State Controller in 1978, Kathleen Connell for Controller in 1998, Hillary Clinton in the 2016 Presidential Election, Kamala Harris in 2016 for Senate (who was in a run - off race against another Democrat, Loretta Sanchez). The 73rd Assembly Seat is largely considered the safest Republican state assembly seat and currently held by Bill Brough. The highest ranking Republican elected official in California, Board of Equalization Vice Chair Diane Harkey, is also an Orange County resident. Although Democrats have made inroads in the northern end of the county since the mid-1980s, Orange County politics are still dominated by Republicans. Four of the county 's seven U.S. Representatives, three of its five State Senators, and five of its seven State Assembly members are Republicans. All five members of the County Board of Supervisors are Republicans as well, as are the seven countywide elected officials. † Special election In the United States House of Representatives, Orange County is split between seven congressional districts: In the California State Senate, Orange County is split between 5 districts: According to the Orange County Registrar of Voters, as of May 21, 2012, Orange County had 1,612,145 registered voters. Of these, 42.17 % (679,877) are registered Republicans, and 31.41 % (506,389) are registered Democrats. An additional 22.01 % (354,820) declined to state a political party. Orange County has produced such notable Republicans as President Richard Nixon (born in Yorba Linda and lived in Fullerton and San Clemente), U.S. Senator John F. Seymour (previously Mayor of Anaheim), and U.S. Senator Thomas Kuchel (of Anaheim). Former Congressman Christopher Cox (of Newport Beach), a White House counsel for President Ronald Reagan, is also a former chairman of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Orange County was also home to former Republican Congressman John G. Schmitz, a presidential candidate in 1972 from the ultra-conservative American Independent Party and the father of Mary Kay Letourneau. In 1996, Curt Pringle (later Mayor of Anaheim) became the first Republican - elected Speaker of the California State Assembly in decades. While the growth of the county 's Hispanic and Asian populations in recent decades has significantly influenced the culture of Orange County, its conservative reputation has remained largely intact. Partisan voter registration patterns of Hispanics, Asians and other ethnic minorities in the county have tended to reflect the surrounding demographics, with resultant Republican majorities in all but the central portion of the county. When Loretta Sanchez, a Blue Dog Democrat, defeated veteran Republican Bob Dornan in the congressional contest of 1996, she was continuing a trend of Democratic representation of that district that had been interrupted by Dornan 's 1984 upset of former Congressman Jerry Patterson. Until 1992, Sanchez herself was a moderate Republican, and she is viewed as being somewhat more moderate than other Democrats from Southern California. Republicans have responded to the influx of non-white immigrants by making more explicit efforts to court the Hispanic and Asian vote. In 2004, George W. Bush captured 60 % of the county 's vote, up from 56 % in 2000, despite a higher Democratic popular vote statewide compared with the 2000 election. Although Barbara Boxer won statewide, and fared better in Orange County than she did in 1998, Republican Bill Jones defeated her in the county, 51 % to 43 %. While the 39 % that John Kerry received is higher than the percentage Bill Clinton won in both 1992 and 1996, the percentage of the vote George W. Bush received in 2004 (59.7 % of the vote) is the highest any presidential candidate has received since 1988, showing a still - dominant GOP presence in the county. In 2006, Senator Dianne Feinstein won 45 % of the vote in the county, the highest margin of a Democrat in a Senate race in over four decades, but Orange was nevertheless the only Coastal California county to vote for her Republican opponent Dick Mountjoy. In terms of voter registration, the Democratic Party has a plurality or majority of registrations only in the cities of Buena Park, Laguna Beach, Santa Ana and Stanton. The county is featured prominently in the book Suburban Warriors: The Origins of the New American Right by Lisa McGirr. She argues that the county 's conservative political orientation in the 20th century owed much to its settlement by farmers from the Great Plains, who reacted strongly to communist sympathies, the civil rights movement, and the turmoil of the 1960s in nearby Los Angeles -- across the "Orange Curtain ''. In the 1970s and 1980s, Orange County was one of California 's leading Republican voting blocs and a sub-culture of residents to hold "Middle American '' values that emphasized a capitalist religious morality in contrast to West coast liberalism that well existed there. Orange County has many Republican voters from culturally conservative Asian - American, Middle Eastern and Latino immigrant groups. The large Vietnamese - American communities in Garden Grove and Westminster are predominantly Republican; Vietnamese Americans registered Republicans outnumber those registered as Democrats by 55 % to 22 %. Republican Assemblyman Van Tran was elected to become the first Vietnamese - American to serve in a state legislature and joined with Texan Hubert Vo as the highest - ranking elected Vietnamese - American in the United States prior to the 2008 election of Joseph Cao in Louisiana 's 2nd congressional district. In the 2007 special election for the vacant county supervisor seat following Democrat Lou Correa 's election to the state senate, two Vietnamese - American Republican candidates topped the list of 10 candidates, separated from each other by only seven votes, making the Orange County Board of Supervisors entirely Republican; Correa is the sole Democrat to have served on the Board since 1987 and only the fifth since 1963. The following table includes the number of incidents reported and the rate per 1,000 persons for each type of offense. Orange County is the headquarters of many Fortune 500 companies including Ingram Micro (# 69) and First American Corporation (# 312) in Santa Ana, Broadcom (# 343) in Irvine, Western Digital (# 439) in Lake Forest and Pacific Life (# 452) in Newport Beach. Irvine is the home of numerous start - up companies and also is the home of Fortune 1000 headquarters for Allergan, Edwards Lifesciences, Epicor, Standard Pacific and Sun Healthcare Group. Other Fortune 1000 companies in Orange County include Beckman Coulter in Brea, Quiksilver in Huntington Beach and Apria Healthcare Group in Lake Forest. Irvine is also the home of notable technology companies like PC - manufacturer Gateway Inc., router manufacturer Linksys, video / computer game creator Blizzard Entertainment, and in - flight product manufacturer Panasonic Avionics Corporation. Also, the prestigious Mercedes - Benz Classic Center USA is located in the City of Irvine. Online Trading Academy, a professional trader education company, is also based in Irvine. Many regional headquarters for international businesses reside in Orange County like Mazda, Toshiba, Toyota, Samsung, Kia Motors, in the City of Irvine, Mitsubishi in the City of Cypress, and Hyundai in the City of Fountain Valley. Fashion is another important industry to Orange County. Oakley, Inc. and Del Taco are headquartered in Lake Forest. Hurley International is headquartered in Costa Mesa. Both the network cyber security firm Milton Security Group and the shoe company Pleaser USA, Inc. are located in Fullerton. St. John is headquartered in Irvine. Tustin, California is home to Ricoh Electronics, New American Funding, Safmarine and Rockwell Collins. Wet Seal is headquartered in Lake Forest. PacSun is headquartered in Anaheim. Restaurants such as Taco Bell, El Pollo Loco, In - N - Out Burger, Claim Jumper, Marie Callender 's, Wienerschnitzel, have headquarters in the City of Irvine as well. Gaikai also holds its headquarters in the Orange County. Orange County contains several notable shopping malls. Among these are South Coast Plaza (the largest mall in California, and the third largest in the United States) in Costa Mesa and Fashion Island in Newport Beach. Other significant malls include the Brea Mall, Main Place Santa Ana, The Shops at Mission Viejo, The Outlets at Orange, the Irvine Spectrum Center, and Downtown Disney. The outlets at San Clemente are the newest addition to shopping in Orange County and are set to open before the end of 2015. Tourism remains a vital aspect of Orange County 's economy. Anaheim is the main tourist hub, with the Disneyland Resort 's Disneyland being the second most visited theme park in the world. Also Knotts Berry Farm which gets about 7 million visitors annually located in the city of Buena Park. The Anaheim Convention Center receives many major conventions throughout the year. Resorts within the Beach Cities receive visitors throughout the year due to their close proximity to the beach, biking paths, mountain hiking trails, golf courses, shopping and dining. Orange County is the home of many colleges and universities, including: Colleges Universities Some institutions not based in Orange County operate satellite campuses, including the University of Southern California, National University, Pepperdine University, and Springfield College. The Orange County Department of Education oversees 28 school districts. Television stations KOCE - TV, the main PBS station in the Southland and KDOC - TV, an independent, are located in Orange County. County - wide politics and government coverage is primarily provided by The Orange County Register and Voice of OC. OC Weekly is an alternative weekly publication and Excélsior is a Spanish - language newspaper. A few communities are served by the Los Angeles Times ' publication of the Daily Pilot, the Huntington Beach Independent and the Laguna Beach Coastline Pilot. Orange Coast was established in 1974, and is the oldest continuously published lifestyle magazine in the region. OC Music Magazine is also based out of Orange County, serving local musicians and artists. Orange County is served by radio stations from the Los Angeles area. There are a few radio stations that are actually located in Orange County. KYLA 92.7 has a Christian format. KSBR 88.5 FM airs a jazz music format branded as "Jazz - FM '' along with news programming. KUCI 88.9 FM is a free form college radio station that broadcasts from UC Irvine. KWIZ 96.7 FM, located in Santa Ana, airs a regional Mexican music format branded as "La Rockola 96.7 ''. KWVE - FM 107.9 is owned by the Calvary Chapel of Costa Mesa. KWVE - FM is also the primary Emergency Alert System station for the county. The Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim also own and operate a sports - only radio station from Orange, KLAA. KX 93.5 FM broadcasts out of Laguna Beach and features an eclectic mix of mostly Alternative Rock. Transit in Orange County is offered primarily by the Orange County Transportation Authority. The American Public Transportation Association (APTA) cited OCTA as the best large public transportation system in the United States for 2005. OCTA manages the county 's bus network and funds the construction and maintenance of local streets, highways, and freeways; regulates taxicab services; maintains express toll lanes through the median of California State Route 91; and works with Southern California 's Metrolink to provide commuter rail service along three lines -- the Orange County Line, the 91 Line, and the Inland Empire - Orange County Line. Ground transportation in Orange County relies heavily on three major interstate highways: the Santa Ana Freeway (I - 5), the San Diego Freeway (I - 405 and I - 5 south of Irvine), and the San Gabriel River Freeway (I - 605), which only briefly enters Orange County territory in the northwest. The other freeways in the county are state highways, and include the perpetually congested Riverside and Artesia Freeway (SR 91) and the Garden Grove Freeway (SR 22) running east - west, and the Orange Freeway (SR 57), the Costa Mesa Freeway (SR / SR 55), the Laguna Freeway (SR 133), the San Joaquin Transportation Corridor (SR 73), the Eastern Transportation Corridor (SR 261, SR 133, SR 241), and the Foothill Transportation Corridor (SR 241) running north - south. Minor stub freeways include the Richard M. Nixon Freeway (SR 90), also known as Imperial Highway, and the southern terminus of Pacific Coast Highway (SR 1). There are no U.S. Highways in Orange County, though two existed in the county until the mid-1960s: 91 and 101. 91 went through what is now the state route of the same number, and 101 was replaced by Interstate 5. SR - 1 was once a bypass of US - 101 (Route 101A). The bus network comprises 6,542 stops on 77 lines, running along most major streets, and accounts for 210,000 boardings a day. The fleet of 817 buses is gradually being replaced by CNG (Compressed natural gas) - powered vehicles, which already represent over 40 % of the total fleet. Service is operated by OCTA employees and First Transit under contract. OCTA operates one bus rapid transit service, Bravo, on Harbor Boulevard. In addition, OCTA offers paratransit service for the disabled, also operated by MV. Starting in 1992, Metrolink has operated three commuter rail lines through Orange County, and has also maintained Rail - to - Rail service with parallel Amtrak service. On a typical weekday, over 40 trains run along the Orange County Line, the 91 Line and the Inland Empire - Orange County Line. Along with Metrolink riders on parallel Amtrak lines, these lines generate approximately 15,000 boardings per weekday. Metrolink also began offering weekend service on the Orange County Line and the Inland Empire - Orange County line in the summer of 2006. As ridership has steadily increased in the region, new stations have opened at Anaheim Canyon, Buena Park, Tustin, and Laguna Niguel / Mission Viejo. Plans for a future station in Placentia are underway and is expected to be completed by 2014. Since 1938, the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad and later Amtrak, has operated the Pacific Surfliner regional passenger train route (previously named the San Diegan until 2000) through Orange County. The route includes stops at eight stations in Orange County including San Clemente Pier (selected trips), San Juan Capistrano, Laguna Niguel / Mission Viejo (selected trips), Irvine, Santa Ana, Orange (selected trips), Anaheim Regional Transportation Intermodal Center (ARTIC), and Fullerton Transportation Center. A streetcar line in Anaheim is undergoing environmental impact assessment. This line will connect the Disneyland Resort, Convention Center, and Angel Stadium to the ARTIC transportation hub, in the city of Anaheim. The Santa Ana / Garden Grove Fixed Guideway Project plans a streetcar line connecting Downtown Santa Ana to the Depot at Santa Ana has completed the environmental document and is entering the design phase. OCTA has also proposed connecting the two systems via Harbor Boulevard and the West Santa Ana Branch corridor. A car and passenger ferry service, the Balboa Island Ferry, comprising three ferries running every five minutes, operates within Newport Harbor between Balboa Peninsula and Balboa Island in Newport Beach. The Catalina Flyer connects the Balboa Peninsula to Avalon with daily round - trip passage through about nine months of the year. The Catalina Express connects Dana Point to Avalon (with departures from two greater Long Beach ports also connecting to Two Harbors). Orange County 's only major airport is John Wayne Airport. Although its abbreviation (SNA) refers to Santa Ana, the airport is in fact located in unincorporated territory surrounded by the cities of Newport Beach, Costa Mesa, and Irvine. Unincorporated Orange County (including the John Wayne Airport) has mailing addresses, which go through the Santa Ana Post Office. For this reason, SNA was chosen as the IATA Code for the airport. The actual Destination Moniker which appears on most Arrival / Departure Monitors in airports throughout the United States is "Orange County '', which is the common nickname used for the OMB Metropolitan Designation: Santa Ana - Anaheim - Irvine, California. Its modern Thomas F. Riley Terminal handles over 9 million passengers annually through 14 different airlines. The area 's warm Mediterranean climate and 42 miles (68 km) of year - round beaches attract millions of tourists annually. Huntington Beach is a hot spot for sunbathing and surfing; nicknamed "Surf City, U.S.A. '', it is home to many surfing competitions. "The Wedge '', at the tip of The Balboa Peninsula in Newport Beach, is one of the most famous body surfing spots in the world. Southern California surf culture is prominent in Orange County 's beach cities. Other tourist destinations include the theme parks Disneyland and Disney California Adventure Park in Anaheim and Knott 's Berry Farm in Buena Park. Since the 2011 closure of Wild Rivers in Irvine, the county is home to just one water park: Soak City in Buena Park. The Anaheim Convention Center is the largest such facility on the West Coast. The old town area in the City of Orange (the traffic circle at the middle of Chapman Ave. at Glassell) still maintains its 1950s image, and appeared in the That Thing You Do! movie. Little Saigon is another tourist destination, being home to the largest concentration of Vietnamese people outside of Vietnam. There are also sizable Taiwanese, Chinese, and Korean communities, particularly in western Orange County. This is evident in several Asian - influenced shopping centers in Asian American hubs like the city of Irvine. Historical points of interest include Mission San Juan Capistrano, the renowned destination of migrating swallows. The Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum is in Yorba Linda and the Richard Nixon Birthplace home, located on the grounds of the Library, is a National Historic Landmark. John Wayne 's yacht, the Wild Goose or USS YMS - 328, is in Newport Beach. Other notable structures include the home of Madame Helena Modjeska, located in Modjeska Canyon on Santiago Creek; Ronald Reagan Federal Building and Courthouse in Santa Ana, the largest building in the county; the historic Balboa Pavilion in Newport Beach; and the Huntington Beach Pier. The county has nationally known centers of worship, such as Crystal Cathedral in Garden Grove, the largest house of worship in California; Saddleback Church in Lake Forest, one of the largest churches in the United States; and the Calvary Chapel. Since the premiere in fall 2003 of the hit Fox series The O.C., and the 2007 Bravo series "The Real Housewives of Orange County '' tourism has increased with travelers from across the globe hoping to see the sights seen in the shows. Orange County has some of the most exclusive and expensive neighborhoods in the U.S., many along the Orange Coast, and some in north Orange County. Orange County has been the setting for numerous written works and motion pictures, as well as a popular location for shooting motion pictures. The city of San Juan Capistrano is the place where writer Johnston McCulley located the first novella about Zorro, entitled The Curse of Capistrano. It was published in 1919 and later renamed The Mark of Zorro. Huntington Beach annually plays host to the U.S. Open of Surfing, AVP Pro Beach Volleyball and Vans World Championship of Skateboarding. It was also the shooting location for Pro Beach Hockey. USA Water Polo, Inc. has moved its headquarters to Huntington Beach. Orange County 's active outdoor culture is home to many surfers, skateboarders, mountain bikers, cyclists, climbers, hikers, kayaking, sailing and sand volleyball. The Major League Baseball team in Orange County is the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim. The team won the World Series under manager Mike Scioscia in 2002. In 2005, new owner Arte Moreno wanted to change the name to "Los Angeles Angels '' in order to better tap into the Los Angeles media market, the second largest in the country. However, the standing agreement with the city of Anaheim demanded that they have "Anaheim '' in the name, so they became the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim. This name change was hotly disputed by the city of Anaheim, but the change stood and still stands today, which prompted a lawsuit by the city of Anaheim against Angels owner Arte Moreno, won by Moreno. It has been widely unpopular in Orange County. The county 's National Hockey League team, the Anaheim Ducks, won the 2007 Stanley Cup beating the Ottawa Senators. They also came close to winning the 2003 Stanley Cup finals after losing in Game 7 against the New Jersey Devils. The Toshiba Classic, the only PGA Champions Tour event in the area, is held each March at The Newport Beach Country Club. Past champions include Fred Couples (2010), Hale Irwin (1998 and 2002), Nick Price (2011), Bernhard Langer (2008) and Jay Haas (2007). The tournament benefits the Hoag Hospital Foundation and has raised over $16 million in its first 16 years. The Los Angeles Blues are a USL Pro team and are the only professional soccer club in Orange County. The team 's first season was in 2011 and it was successful as Charlie Naimo 's team made it to the quarter - finals of the playoffs. With home games played at Titan Stadium on the campus of California State University, Fullerton the Blues look to grow in the Orange County community and reach continued success. Former and current Blues players include Walter Gaitan, Bright Dike, Maykel Galindo, Carlos Borja, and goalkeeper Amir Abedzadeh. The National Football League football left the county when the Los Angeles Rams relocated to St. Louis in 1995. Anaheim city leaders are in talks with the NFL to bring a Los Angeles - area franchise to Orange County, though they are competing with other cities in and around Los Angeles. The Los Angeles Clippers played some home games at The Arrowhead Pond, now known as the Honda Center, from 1994 to 1999, before moving to Staples Center, which they share with the Los Angeles Lakers. These communities are outside of city limits in unincorporated county territory. Orange County has a history of large planned communities. Nearly 30 percent of the county was created as master planned communities, the most notable being the City of Irvine, Coto de Caza, Anaheim Hills, Tustin Ranch, Tustin Legacy, Ladera Ranch, Talega, Rancho Santa Margarita, and Mission Viejo. Irvine is often referred to as a model master - planned city because its villages of Woodbridge, Northwood, University Park, and Turtle Rock that were laid out by the Irvine Company of the mid-1960s before it was bought by a group of investors that included Donald Bren. The population ranking of the following table is based on the 2010 census of Orange County. † county seat Due to Orange County 's proximity to Los Angeles, many film and media celebrities have moved or bought second homes in the county. Actor John Wayne, who lived in Newport Beach, is the namesake for Orange County 's John Wayne Airport. Others include Holocaust and World War II survivor, Christian author and lecturer Cornelia ten Boom. Orange County has also produced many homegrown celebrities, including golfer Tiger Woods, Rapper Ca $ his. a number of professional ballplayers, including retired slugger Mark McGwire and pitcher Walter Johnson, WWE Wrestler, Chavo Guerrero Jr. actor, Kevin Costner, John Stamos, actor and radio personality R.J. Adams a.k.a. Bob Shannon, comedian / actors Steve Martin and Will Ferrell, actresses Michelle Pfeiffer and Diane Keaton, and singers Jackson Browne, Chester Bennington, Bonnie Raitt, Gwen Stefani, Jeff Buckley, Marc Cherry, Drake Bell, and Major League Ballhawk John Witt. The county 's most famous resident was perhaps Richard Nixon, the 37th President of the United States, who was born in Yorba Linda and lived in San Clemente for several years following his resignation. His presidential library is in Yorba Linda. Orange County was also home to The Righteous Brothers: Bill Medley of Santa Ana, and Bobby Hatfield of Anaheim. The Santa Ana High School auditorium now bears Medley 's name. Another less well - known sports figure from a previous era was Clifford C. Cravath, for many years judge of the Laguna Beach Municipal Court. Known as "Gavvy '' Cravath as a professional baseball player from 1910 to 1920, he was the major league home run king prior to Babe Ruth 's emergence as a slugger.

how to talk about the birds and the bees

The birds and the bees - wikipedia "The Birds and the Bees '' is an English - language idiomatic expression and euphemism that refers to courtship and sexual intercourse. The "Birds and the Bees talk '' (sometimes known simply as "The Talk '') is generally the event in most children 's lives in which the parents explain what sexual relationships are. According to tradition, the birds and the bees is a metaphorical story sometimes told to children in an attempt to explain the mechanics and good consequences of sexual intercourse through reference to easily observed natural events. For instance, bees carry and deposit pollen into flowers, a visible and easy - to - explain parallel to male fertilisation. Another example, birds lay eggs, a similarly visible and easy - to - explain parallel to female ovulation. Word sleuths William and Mary Morris hint that it may have been inspired by words like these from the poet Samuel Coleridge (1825): ' All nature seems at work... The bees are stirring -- birds are on the wing... and I the while, the sole unbusy thing, not honey make, nor pair, nor build, nor sing. ' '' Even earlier instances of this idiomatic expression appear in the Cavalier poet, Thomas Carew 's work, "The Spring '' (c. 1640), in which Carew uses earth and its change of seasons as a metaphorical depiction of women and their sensuality (The Norton Anthology of English Literature 1696). To abet his ends, Carew alludes to the "birds and the bees '' in lines 7 - 8 with the use of "swallow '', "cuckoo '', and "humble - bee '' as seen here (lines included are 5 - 8): "But the warm sun thaws the benumbed earth / And makes it tender; gives a sacred birth / To the dead swallow; wakes in hollow tree / The drowsy cuckoo and the humble - bee / Now do a choir of chirping minstrels bring '' (emphasis added; lines 5 - 9 from "The Spring ''). Dr. Emma Frances Angell Drake (b. 1849) wrote a section of a publication called The Story of Life which was published in 1909. This piece was later picked up and included in Safe Counsel, a product of the Eugenics movement in the late 19th and early 20th century. The author tells her daughters "when you discovered the tiny blue eggs in the robin 's nest and I told you that wrapped in each shell was a baby robin that was growing there, kept warm by the mamma bird... '' the narrative continues on in vague terms without actually describing sexual intercourse. Later she describes the father 's role in reproduction like this; "Sometimes it is the wind which blows the pollen dust from one plant to the other, and sometimes it is the bees gathering honey from the flowers. As they suck the honey from the blossoms some of the plant dust sticks to their legs and bodies, and as they go to another plant in search of sweets this is rubbed off and so the parts of the father and mother plant get together and the seed is made fertile. '' Safe counsel was reprinted at least 40 times from 1893 through 1930 and may have been widely enough repeated to have contributed to the euphemism, "the birds and the bees. '' Several sources give credit to Cole Porter for coining the phrase. One of the musician 's more famous songs was "Let 's Do It, Let 's Fall in Love. '' In Porter 's publication from 1928, the opening line for the chorus carried derogatory racial references like "Chinks '' and "Japs '', later changed following CBS recommendation and NBC adaptation: And that 's why birds do it, bees do it Even educated fleas do it Let 's do it, let 's fall in love

the us constitution is the worlds second oldest written constitution still in effect

List of national constitutions - wikipedia The following is a list of existing national constitutions by country, semi-recognized countries, and by codification. An uncodified constitution is one where not all elements are written into law: typically some elements, such as constitutional conventions, are not written into law, although such elements are almost always written down (perhaps across multiple documents and / or publications), although written in documents that are not enforceable in law.

where does the x files movie fit into timeline

The X-Files (film) - wikipedia The X-Files (also known as The X-Files: Fight the Future) is a 1998 American science fiction thriller film directed by Rob Bowman. Chris Carter wrote the screenplay. The story is by Carter and Frank Spotnitz. It is the first feature film based on Carter 's television series The X-Files, which revolves around fictional unsolved cases called the X-Files and the characters solving them. Five main characters from the television series appear in the film: David Duchovny, Gillian Anderson, Mitch Pileggi, John Neville, and William B. Davis reprise their respective roles as FBI agents Fox Mulder and Dana Scully, FBI Assistant Director Walter Skinner, Well - Manicured Man, and the Cigarette - Smoking Man. The film was promoted with the tagline Fight the Future. The film takes place between seasons five (episode "The End '') and six (episode "The Beginning '') of the television series, and is based upon the series ' extraterrestrial mythology. The story follows agents Mulder and Scully, removed from their usual jobs on the X-Files, and investigating the bombing of a building and the destruction of criminal evidence. They uncover what appears to be a government conspiracy attempting to hide the truth about an alien colonization of Earth. Carter decided to make a feature film to explore the show 's mythology on a wider scale, as well as appealing to non-fans. He wrote the story with Frank Spotnitz at the end of 1996 and, with a budget from 20th Century Fox, filming began in 1997, following the end of the show 's fourth season. Carter assembled cast and crew from the show, as well as some other, well - known actors such as Blythe Danner and Martin Landau, to begin production on what they termed "Project Blackwood ''. The film was produced by Carter and Daniel Sackheim. Mark Snow continued his role as X-Files composer to create the film 's score. The film premiered on June 19, 1998, in the United States, and received mixed to positive reviews from critics. Although some enjoyed the style and effects of the film, others found the plot confusing and viewed it as little more than an extended episode of the series. A sequel, entitled I Want to Believe, was released ten years later. The film opens in 35,000 B.C., in what will become North Texas. Two cavemen hunters encounter a large extraterrestrial life form in a cave, which kills one and infects the other with a black oil - like substance. In 1998, in the same area, a boy falls into a hole and is also infected by a black substance which seeps from the ground. Firefighters who enter the hole to rescue him do not come out. A team of men wearing hazmat suits arrive and extract the boy 's body. Meanwhile, FBI Special Agents Fox Mulder and Dana Scully, while investigating a bomb threat against a federal building in Dallas, discover the bomb in a building across the street. As the building is evacuated, Special Agent in Charge Darius Michaud remains, ostensibly to disarm the bomb. However, he simply waits for the bomb to detonate. Mulder and Scully are later chastised because, in addition to Michaud, four other people were in the building during the bombing. That evening Mulder is accosted by a paranoid doctor, Alvin Kurtzweil, who explains that the "victims '' were already dead, and that the bombing was staged to cover up how they died. At the hospital morgue, Scully is able to examine one of the victims, finding evidence of an alien virus. Meanwhile, the Cigarette Smoking Man goes to Texas, where Dr. Ben Bronschweig shows him one of the lost firefighters, who has an alien organism residing inside his body. He orders Bronschweig to administer a vaccine to it, but to burn the body if it fails. Later, the alien organism unexpectedly gestates and kills Bronschweig. Mulder and Scully travel to the crime scene in Texas, encountering the boys whose friend fell into the hole. Following their direction, they discover a large cornfield surrounding two glowing domes. Inside the domes, grates in the floor open and swarms of bees fly out. The agents flee, chased by black helicopters, but manage to escape. After returning to Washington, D.C., Scully attends a performance hearing, after which she is transferred. Mulder is devastated to lose his partner. The two are about to share a kiss when Scully is stung by a bee which had lodged itself under her shirt collar, and she quickly loses consciousness. Mulder calls paramedics, but the driver of the ambulance shoots Mulder and whisks Scully away. Mulder, not severely injured, slips out of hospital with the help of The Lone Gunmen and FBI Assistant Director Walter Skinner. He then meets a former adversary, the Well - Manicured Man, who gives him Scully 's location, along with a vaccine against the virus that has infected her. As Mulder leaves, the Well - Manicured Man kills himself in a car bomb, before his betrayal of The Syndicate is discovered. Mulder finds Scully underground in Antarctica, in a large facility containing many humans in ice - like enclosures. He breaks Scully 's confinement and uses the vaccine to revive her, but this disrupts the facility and cocooned aliens begin trying to escape. Just after the agents escape to the surface, a huge alien vessel emerges from beneath the ice and travels into the sky. Mulder watches it disappear into the distance as Scully regains consciousness. Some time later, Scully attends a hearing, where her testimony is disregarded and the evidence covered up. She hands over the only remaining proof of their ordeal, the bee that stung her, noting that the FBI is not currently capable of investigating this evidence. Outside, Mulder reads an article that has covered up the domes and crop field in Texas; Scully informs Mulder that she is willing to continue working with him. At another crop outpost in Tunisia, the Cigarette Smoking Man warns Strughold that Mulder remains a threat, as he explains what Mulder has found out about the virus. He then hands him a telegram revealing that the X-files unit has been re-opened. After five successful seasons, Chris Carter wanted to tell the story of the series on a wider scale, which ultimately meant creating a feature film. He later explained that the main problem was to create a story for which the viewer would not need to be familiar with the show 's setting and the various story arcs. Carter and Frank Spotnitz wrote major parts of the script in Hawaii over Christmas 1996. They used the same method that they had used when writing episodes and sketching out scenes for the series on 3x5 index cards. By the time the Christmas break had ended, the whole narrative for the film had been written. Upon his return from Hawaii, Carter looked for spare time to write the script. He returned to Hawaii and in ten days wrote about half of the 124 - page screenplay for the film. Carter gave 90 pages of the screenplay to Fox who received it well. While not officially greenlighted, he got a budget from Fox and began to make plans as to when and where it would be filmed. Carter then enlisted Daniel Sackheim as a producer on the film. Sackheim had previously produced the pilot episode of The X-Files and directed several episodes in the first two seasons. The X-Files marked his first contribution as producer to a feature film. Carter 's choice for director was Rob Bowman, who had been the series ' executive producer and a director before the production base was moved from Vancouver to Los Angeles. During production, the filmmakers went to great lengths to preserve secrecy, including printing the script on red paper to prevent photocopying, and leaking disinformation to the media and giving the film the codename "Project Blackwood ''. The code was cracked by fans who speculated on the meaning behind it. According to Spotnitz, "Blackwood '' held no particular significance. At the beginning of the pre-production phase, Carter and Bowman were busy with the television series, leaving Sackheim to work alone. Sackheim hired executive producer Lata Ryan, who had previously collaborated with Steven Spielberg for his 1993 film, Jurassic Park. Once hired, Ryan was allowed to read the script in front of the Ten Thirteen Productions staff members -- but not to take it away. At this time, most of the staff members had not read the script for themselves. After Ryan accepted the offer of becoming executive producer, Chris Nowak was hired as production designer, Ward Russell as director of photography and Bill Liams as construction coordinator. According to Ryan, they had secured all key personnel six weeks before principal filming began. Both Carter and Spotnitz wanted to make the film "bigger '' than the series, so they decided to start and end the film at an "extreme place '' and explain aspects of the story arc that the show had not. While gathering research materials, they learned that the Earth was once covered with ice and decided to open the film in Texas in 35,000 BC with human "Primitives '' as the first characters to appear. The film included known actors from the show such as David Duchovny as Fox Mulder, Gillian Anderson as Dana Scully, Mitch Pileggi as Walter Skinner and William B. Davis as the Cigarette Smoking Man, as well as new actors and characters to the franchise. These included Martin Landau and Blythe Danner. The signing of these actors broke with what had become tradition for The X-Files. Carter had purposely cast virtually unknown actors for the television series, to make it more believable; "As soon as you put in an actor whose face is very recognizable, you 've got a situation that works against the reality of the show. '' He saw creating the film as a chance to break this rule. He offered Glenne Headly the small role of a bartender. A fan of the show, she accepted enthusiastically. Chris Nowak was hired as production designer for the film by Daniel Sackheim. Nowak was a former architect who had worked as a professional theater set designer for eight years, before moving towards the film business as an art director. Nowak had previously worked with Sackheim on a television production, which led to Sackheim contacting him to do an interview for the selection of a production designer. According to Sackheim, Nowak was hired because he was the only one able to create a "focused vision '' for the film. Nowak wanted to start the design process after talking through the story with the filmmakers so that he could formulate "a sense of the atmosphere '' which they wanted to create for the film. He wanted to create a "dark, scary and oppressive environment '' for the characters, especially Mulder. While familiar with the television series, Nowak decided not to review any episodes as preparation for his role in the production. Explaining this decision, he said, "I wanted the movie to be as fresh and new as possible in its design. Of course, there were some elements from the show that had to be retained. '' The design department found all their locations and designed sets in eight weeks, guided by input from the filmmakers. Nowak started by creating artwork for all the major sets and locations, working with the two concept artists Tim Flattery and Jim Martin. Nowak created drafts and sent them to Flattery and Martin who continued to develop them until they were complete. The complete artwork was then presented to Chris Carter, Rob Bowman, Lata Ryan and Sackheim for approval. While considering the time schedule, they made no notable changes to the artwork. Once the set concepts were approved by Carter, Bowman, Sackheim and Ryan, they were sent to the blueprint stage so that construction of the sets could begin under the supervision of construction coordinator Bill Liams. All the major sets were constructed "simultaneously '' because of the schedule. However, this proved to be a challenge for the production team, because it meant they had to pay the rent on all the stages at the same time. The set construction started seven weeks before filming. Carter and Bowman wanted to film in as many different locations as possible to give the film a "grander '' feel than had usually been achievable for the television episodes. The tighter schedule, with only eight weeks of pre-production and 45 days of principal photography, still caused the production to have less location shooting than planned. Los Angeles ended up standing in for Dallas and London (though a shot was done in London with a double), and the ice scenes, initially envisaged for an ice field in Alaska, were moved to Whistler, British Columbia, nearby the show 's regular locations in Vancouver. Principal photography for the film started on June 16, 1997. The X-Files was filmed in the hiatus between the show 's fourth and fifth seasons and re-shoots were conducted during the filming of the show 's fifth season. Due to the demands of the film shoot on the actors ' schedules, some episodes of the fifth season did not revolve around both Mulder and Scully but just one of the two lead stars. Two soundtracks, The X-Files: Original Motion Picture Score and The X-Files: The Album were both released to home markets in 1998. The X-Files: The Album included a take on the original theme song by the American duo The Dust Brothers, and included a hidden track on which Chris Carter details a summary of The X-Files mythology. Mark Snow, who had worked on the television series as a composer, was hired to score the film. Chris Carter wanted a "very minimal approach '' to the music. He did not want much "melody '' and wanted to replace it with plain "ambient atmosphere '' and "sound design ''. Snow mixed electronic music with an 85 - member orchestra to give the film a "great sense of scope and grandeur. '' When creating the music for the film, Snow had a couple of months to write and produce the music, composing the television series simultaneously. The film marked the first time in the history of the franchise that music was composed and recorded with the help of an orchestra, although, according to Snow, there was no significant change in the recording and writing process during the production of the film. The most substantial difference was that Snow used MIDI files to save his musical scores and pieces, which would afterward be sent to a copyist who would take it through one of their programs and eventually give it to the orchestrators. The film premiered theatrically in the United States (as well as Canada) on June 19, 1998, distributed by 20th Century Fox. It closed after 14 weeks, with its widest release having been 2,650 theaters. The same year as the international theatrical release, the film was released on VHS in an Extended Cut edition. The film made its first appearance on DVD on January 24, 2000 in Region 2 and in early 2001 in Region 1. In 2008, producer Frank Spotnitz announced plans to release a new special edition DVD and Blu - ray edition of the movie. "We are working on packing the (re-issued) DVD and Blu - ray releases with as many extras as they will fit, including video and audio commentaries, behind - the - scenes footage, bloopers, trailers, a new documentary, and several other cool surprises. '' The Blu - ray version was released on December 2, 2008. In addition, a novelization of the film was written by Elizabeth Hand and released on June 19, 1998. The film grossed $83,898,313 in the U.S. and $105,278,110 abroad, giving a total worldwide gross of $189,176,423. In its opening weekend, showing at 2,629 theaters, it earned $30,138,758 which was 35.9 % of its total gross. According to Box Office Mojo, it ranked at No. 23 for all films released in the U.S. in 1998 and No. 10 for PG - 13 rated films released that year. The film received generally positive reviews. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 64 % of 69 listed film critics gave the film a positive review, with an average rating of 6.1 out of 10. Roger Ebert gave a positive review of the film with three out of four stars, saying, "As pure movie, The X-Files more or less works. As a story, it needs a sequel, a prequel, and Cliff Notes. '' Joyce Millman of Salon was more equivocal, writing, "... You really ca n't treat The X-Files as a movie because it is n't one. It 's a two - hour episode of the show, '' and said it was far from the "most satisfying '' of X-Files releases. San Francisco Chronicle reviewer Bob Graham was positive towards the film, calling "David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson (...) enormously sympathetic heroes. '' Michael O'Sullivan, a reviewer from The Washington Post called the film, "stylish, scary, sardonically funny and at times just plain gross. '' Los Angeles Times reviewer Kenneth Turan felt that it was difficult to make sense of the film, saying that it relied too heavily on the series ' mythology. Lisa Alspector wrote that "Only two scenes in this spin - off are worth the time of followers of the TV series. '' Variety reviewer Todd McCarthy remarked, "As it is, the pic serves up set - pieces and a measure of scope that are beyond TV size but remain rather underwhelming by feature standards. '' Janet Maslin of The New York Times responded negatively towards the film, complaining that it was uneventful and scorning the "hush - hush atmosphere '' surrounding the production. The X-Files has spawned one sequel, a 2008 film entitled The X-Files: I Want to Believe released six years after the series ended. The film performed modestly at the box office and received a less positive response than the first film. In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, Chris Carter announced that if I Want to Believe proved successful, he would propose that a third movie go back to the television series ' mythology and focus on the alien invasion foretold within the series, due to occur in December 2012. No third movie appeared; instead, the TV series was revived in 2016.

pir panjal range in the himalayas is a part of shivalik

Indian Himalayan region - Wikipedia The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) is the section of the Himalayas within India, spanning the northern states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, as well as the hill regions of two eastern states, Assam and West Bengal. The region is responsible for providing water to a large part of the Indian subcontinent and contains varied flora and fauna. The IHR physiographically, starting from the foothills of south (Siwaliks), this mountain range extends up to Tibetan plateau on the north (Trans - Himalaya). Three major geographical entities, the Himadri (greater Himalaya), Himanchal (lesser Himalaya) and the Siwaliks (outer Himalaya) extending almost uninterrupted throughout its length, are separated by major geological fault lines. Mighty but older streams like the Indus, Sutlej, Kali, Kosi and Brahmaputra have cut through steep gorges to escape into the Great Plains and have established their antecedence. The northernmost range of mountains are the Karakoram Mountains that continue into Pakistan and China. To the south of the Karakoram Range lies the Zaskar Ranges. Parallel to the Zaskar Ranges lie the Pir Panjal Ranges. These three mountain ranges lie parallel to each other in the north - western part of India, most of its area lying in the state of Jammu and Kashmir as its capital Srinagar, too. Some of the highest mountains on earth are found in the region. Many rivers considered holy like the Ganga and Yamuna flow from the Himalayas. Trans himalaya is created due to the collision with the eurasian plate. This Zone is the Northern most area in the country in the states of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. It is an extension of Tibetan plateau around the Himalayas. The Main Himalayan Ranges are as follows: To the south of the main Himalayas lies the Pir Panjal Range at an average height of 5,000 metres (16,000 ft). From Gulmarg in the Northwest it follows the southern rim of the Kashmir valley to the Banihal Pa Here the Pir Panjal meets the ridgeline, which separates the Kashmir valley from the Warvan Valley. The major passes here in Pir Panjal are the Pir Panjal Pass due west of Srinagar, the Banihal Pass which lies at the top of Pthe Jhelum River at the southern end of the Kashmir valley, and the Sythen Pass linking Kashmir with Kishtwar and Salooni. To the south of the Pir Panjal lies the Dhaula Dhar range. Both ranges are visible from Salooni of Chamba. It is easily visible because of its distinct feature of the snow - capped ridge, which forms the division between the Ravi and the Beas valleys. In the west it divides the Chenab valley and the Tawi Valley. Towards the east it extends across Himachal Pradesh forming the high ridges of the Large gorge and extending towards the south of the Pin Parvati Valley before it forms the ridgeline east of the Sutlej River. The rivers flow from it. It lies to the north of the main Himalaya. It acts as a backbone of Ladakh south of the Indus River, extending from the ridges beyond Lamayuru in the west across the Zanskar region; there it is divided from the main Himalaya by the Stod and Tsarap valleys, the Zanskar valley. On the east of the Zanskar region the range continues through Lahaul & Spiti and Pangi of Chamba. While on the North it continues across the Kinnaur before extending towards west across Uttaranchal. Some of the main passes are the Fatu La, on the Leh - Srinagar road, while the main trekking passes into the Zanskar valley are Singge La, the Cha Cha La and the Rubrang La. To the north of the Leh lies the ladakh range and it is an important part of the Trans - Himalayan range that merges with the Kailash range in Tibet. Here the important passes are the famous Khardung La, and Digar La, which lie to the northeast of Leh. It is a giant range, which geographically divides India and Central Asia. The range consists of high mountain peaks like Saltoro Kangri, Rimo and Teram Kargri. The Korakoram Pass acts as the main connector between the markets of Yarkand, Leh and Kashgar. It lies to the south of the Dhaula Dhar, with an average height of 1,500 to 2,000 m.It includes the Jammu hills and Vaishno Devi, and extends to Kangra and if you move further east to the range south of Mandi. In Uttarakhand it stretches from Dehradun to Almora before it heads across the southern borders of India. It is the foothills of Himalayas.

was there a wall between east and west germany

Inner German border - wikipedia East: West: The inner German border (German: innerdeutsche Grenze or deutsch - deutsche Grenze; initially also Zonengrenze) was the border between the German Democratic Republic (GDR, East Germany) and the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG, West Germany) from 1949 to 1990. Not including the similar and physically separate Berlin Wall, the border was 1,393 kilometres (866 mi) long and ran from the Baltic Sea to Czechoslovakia. It was formally established on 1 July 1945 as the boundary between the Western and Soviet occupation zones of former Nazi Germany. On the eastern side, it was made one of the world 's most heavily fortified frontiers, defined by a continuous line of high metal fences and walls, barbed wire, alarms, anti-vehicle ditches, watchtowers, automatic booby traps and minefields. It was patrolled by 50,000 armed East German guards who faced tens of thousands of West German, British and US guards and soldiers. In the hinterlands behind the border were more than a million North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and Warsaw Pact troops. The border was a physical manifestation of Winston Churchill 's metaphorical Iron Curtain that separated the Soviet and Western blocs during the Cold War. It marked the boundary between two ideological systems -- capitalism and communism. Built by East Germany in phases from 1952 to the late 1980s, the fortifications were constructed to stop the large - scale emigration of East German citizens to the West, about 1,000 of whom are said to have died trying to cross it during its 45 - year existence. It caused widespread economic and social disruption on both sides; East Germans living in the region suffered especially draconian restrictions. The better - known Berlin Wall was a physically separate, less elaborate, and much shorter border barrier surrounding West Berlin, more than 155 kilometres (96 mi) to the east of the inner German border (Berlin having been similarly divided by the four powers after World War II, despite the entire city being in the Soviet zone, thus creating an exclave of West Germany surrounded by East Germany). On 9 November 1989, the East German government announced the opening of the Berlin Wall and the inner German border. Over the following days, millions of East Germans poured into the West to visit. Hundreds of thousands moved permanently to the West in the following months as more crossings were opened, and ties between long - divided communities were re-established as border controls became little more than a cursory formality. The inner German border was not completely abandoned until 1 July 1990, exactly 45 years to the day since its establishment, and only three months before German reunification formally ended Germany 's division. Little remains of the inner German border 's fortifications. Its route has been declared part of a "European Green Belt '' linking national parks and nature reserves along the course of the old Iron Curtain from the Arctic Circle to the Black Sea. Museums and memorials along the old border commemorate the division and reunification of Germany and, in some places, preserve elements of the fortifications. The inner German border originated from plans by the Second World War Allies to divide a defeated Germany into occupation zones. The boundaries between these zones were drawn along the territorial boundaries of 19th - century German states and provinces that had largely disappeared with the unification of Germany in 1871. Three zones were agreed on, each covering roughly a third of Germany 's territories: a British zone in the north - west, an American zone in the south and a Soviet zone in the East. France was later given a zone in the far west of Germany, carved out of the British and American zones. The division of Germany was put into effect on 1 July 1945. Because of their unexpectedly rapid advances through central Germany in the final weeks of the war, British and American troops occupied large areas of territory that had been assigned to the Soviet zone of occupation. The redeployment of Western troops prompted many Germans to flee to the West to escape the Soviet takeover of the remainder of the Soviet zone. The wartime Allies initially worked together under the auspices of the Allied Control Council (ACC) for Germany. Cooperation between the Western Allies and the Soviets ultimately broke down because of disagreements over Germany 's political and economic future. In May 1949, the three western occupation zones were merged to form the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) with a freely elected government. The Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic (GDR), under communist rule. From the outset, West Germany and the Allies rejected East Germany 's legitimacy. The creation of East Germany was deemed a communist / Soviet fait accompli, without a freely or fairly elected government. West Germany regarded German citizenship and rights as applying equally to East and West German citizens. An East German who escaped or was released to the West was automatically granted West German rights including residence, the right to work, and EEC freedom of movement; West German laws were deemed to be applicable in the East. East Germans thus had a powerful incentive to move to the West, where they would enjoy greater freedom and economic prospects. The East German government sought to define the country as a legitimate state in its own right and portrayed West Germany as enemy territory (feindliches Ausland) -- a capitalist, semi-fascist state that exploited its citizens, sought to regain the lost territories of the Third Reich, and stood opposed to the peaceful socialism of the GDR. In the early days of the occupation, the Allies controlled traffic between the zones to manage the flow of refugees and prevent the escape of former Nazi officials and intelligence officers. These controls were gradually lifted in the Western zones, but were tightened between Western and Soviet zones in 1946 to stem a flow of economic and political refugees from the Soviet zone. Between October 1945 and June 1946, 1.6 million Germans left the Soviet zone for the west. The east -- west interzonal border became steadily more tense as the relationship between the Western Allies and the Soviets deteriorated. From September 1947, an increasingly strict regime was imposed on the eastern Soviet zone boundary. The number of Soviet soldiers on the boundary was increased and supplemented with border guards from the newly established East German Volkspolizei ("People 's Police ''). Many unofficial crossing points were blocked with ditches and barricades. The West Germans also stepped up security with the establishment in 1952 of the Federal Border Protection force of 20,000 men -- the Bundesgrenzschutz, or BGS; however, Allied troops (the British in the north, the Americans in the south) retained responsibility for the military security of the border. The boundary line was nonetheless still fairly easy to cross. Local inhabitants were able to maintain fields on the other side, or even to live on one side and work on the other. Refugees were able to sneak across or bribe the guards, and the smuggling of goods in both directions was rife. The flow of emigrants remained large despite the increase in East German security measures: 675,000 people fled to West Germany between 1949 and 1952. The relative openness of the border ended abruptly on 26 May 1952, when East Germany implemented a "special regime on the demarcation line '', justified as a measure to keep out "spies, diversionists, terrorists and smugglers ''. The East German move was taken to limit the continuing exodus of its citizens, which threatened the viability of East Germany 's economy. A ploughed strip 10 m (32.8 ft) wide was created along the entire length of the inner German border. An adjoining "protective strip '' (Schutzstreifen) 500 m (1,640 ft) wide was placed under tight control. A "restricted zone '' (Sperrzone) a further 5 km (3.1 mi) wide was created in which only those holding a special permit could live or work. Trees and brush were cut down along the border to clear lines of sight for the guards and to eliminate cover for would - be crossers. Houses adjoining the border were torn down, bridges were closed and barbed - wire fencing was put up in many places. Farmers were permitted to work their fields along the border only in daylight hours and under the watch of armed guards, who were authorised to use weapons if their orders were not obeyed. Border communities on both sides suffered acute disruption. Farms, coal mines and even houses were split in two by the sudden closure of the border. More than 8,300 East German civilians living along the border were forcibly resettled in a programme codenamed "Operation Vermin '' (Aktion Ungeziefer). Another 3,000 residents, realising that they were about to be expelled from their homes, fled to the West. The seal around the country was expanded in July 1962, when East Germany declared its entire Baltic coast a border zone subject to closures and restrictions. The border between East and West Berlin was also significantly tightened, although not fully closed; East Germans were still able to cross into West Berlin, which then became the main route by which East Germans migrated to the West. Between 1949 and the building of the Berlin Wall in 1961, an estimated 3.5 million East Germans -- a sixth of the entire population -- emigrated to the West, most via Berlin. The railways between East Berlin and other important parts of East Germany went through West Berlin, so an easy way of going to West Berlin was leaving such a train. This railway configuration could not easily be changed, but a new 125 km (78 mi) long railway was built around West Berlin. Following the completion of Berlin outer ring in 1961, sealing off the East German border with West Berlin became more feasible, and ultimately became a reality in August of that year. East Germany decided to upgrade the fortifications in the late 1960s to establish a "modern frontier '' that would be far more difficult to cross. Barbed - wire fences were replaced with harder - to - climb expanded metal barriers; directional anti-personnel mines and anti-vehicle ditches blocked the movement of people and vehicles; tripwires and electric signals helped guards to detect escapees; all - weather patrol roads enabled rapid access to any point along the border; and wooden guard towers were replaced with prefabricated concrete towers and observation bunkers. Construction of the new border system started in September 1967. Nearly 1,300 kilometres (808 mi) of new fencing was built, usually further back from the geographical line than the old barbed - wire fences. The upgrade programme continued well into the 1980s. The new system immediately reduced the number of successful escapes from around 1,000 people a year in the mid-1960s to only about 120 per year a decade later. The introduction of West German Chancellor Willy Brandt 's Ostpolitik ("Eastern Policy '') at the end of the 1960s reduced tensions between the two German states. It led to a series of treaties and agreements in the early 1970s, most significantly a treaty in which East and West Germany recognised each other 's sovereignty and supported each other 's applications for UN membership, although East Germans leaving for the West retained the right to claim a West German passport. Reunification remained a theoretical objective for West Germany, but in practice that objective was put aside by the West and abandoned entirely by the East. New crossing points were established and East German crossing regulations were slightly relaxed, although the fortifications were as rigorously maintained as ever. In 1988, the East German leadership considered proposals to replace the expensive and intrusive fortifications with a high - technology system codenamed Grenze 2000. Drawing on technology used by the Soviet Army during the Soviet -- Afghan War, it would have replaced the fences with sensors and detectors. However, the plan was never implemented. The closure of the border had a substantial economic and social impact on both halves of Germany. Cross-border transport links were largely severed; 10 main railway lines, 24 secondary lines, 23 autobahns or national roads, 140 regional roads and thousands of smaller roads, paths and waterways were blocked or otherwise interrupted. The tightest level of closure came in 1966, by which time only six railway lines, three autobahns, one regional road and two waterways were left open. When relations between the two states eased in the 1970s, the GDR agreed to open more crossing points in exchange for economic assistance. Telephone and mail communications operated throughout the Cold War, although packages and letters were routinely opened and telephone calls were monitored by the East German secret police. The economic impact of the border was harsh. Many towns and villages were severed from their markets and economic hinterlands, which caused areas close to the border to go into an economic and demographic decline. The two German states responded to the problem in different ways. West Germany gave substantial subsidies to communities under the "Aid to border regions '' programme, an initiative begun in 1971 to save them from total decline. Infrastructure and businesses along the border benefited from substantial state investment. East Germany 's communities had a much harder time, because the country was poorer and their government imposed severe restrictions on them. The border region was progressively depopulated through the clearance of numerous villages and the forced relocation of their inhabitants. Border towns suffered draconian building restrictions: inhabitants were forbidden from building new houses and even repairing existing buildings, causing infrastructure to fall into severe decay. The state did little but to provide a 15 % income supplement to those living in the Sperrzone and Schutzstreifen; but this did not halt the shrinkage of the border population, as younger people moved elsewhere to find employment and better living conditions. The GDR bore a huge economic cost for its creation of the border zone and the building and maintenance of its fortifications. The zone consumed around 6,900 square kilometres (2,700 sq mi) -- more than six per cent of the East 's territory, within which economic activity was severely curtailed or ceased entirely. The actual cost of the border system was a closely guarded secret, and even today it is uncertain exactly how much it cost to build and maintain. The BT - 9 watchtowers each cost around 65,000 East German marks to build and the expanded metal fences cost around 151,800 marks per kilometre. The implementation of the "modern frontier '' in the 1970s led to a major increase in personnel costs. The total annual expenditure on GDR border troops rose from 600 million marks per annum in 1970 to nearly 1 billion by 1983. In early 1989, East German economists calculated that each arrest cost the equivalent of 2.1 million marks, three times the average "value '' to the state of each working person. The Berlin Wall was a specific piece of the Inner Border that became the physical embodiment of the Iron Curtain that stood between East Germany and West Germany in the decades following the conclusion of World War II. The Berlin Wall stretched approximately 28 miles (45 km) through the city of Berlin and another 75 miles (120 km) around the edges of West Berlin and stood close to 15 feet (5 meters) in height. The sheer physical stature of the Berlin Wall in addition to becoming an iconic, international symbol of the Cold War and its virtues, drove it to become a popular site of tourism throughout its existence, and even after its dismantling. Tourism of the Berlin Wall reached its height in 1961, although an exact number can not be given for the number of visitors to the Berlin Wall, as there were no official records of tourism to the site made at the time. Estimates, however, are provided through the counting of tourists by Western and Eastern border guards. The numbers obtained from the border guards suggest that Berlin Wall tourism was a popular outing for German people and foreigners alike, it is reported that the Berlin Wall received approximately 1.65 million tourists in 1969 alone, with around 23,000 of those being foreign visitors. Day trips were the most popular of the ways to visit the Berlin Wall, which could be conducted even through organized tours that were governmentally funded, so long as they were presented as educational in nature. The two German governments promoted very different views of the border. The GDR saw it as the international frontier of a sovereign state -- a defensive rampart against Western aggression. In Grenzer ("Border Guard ''), a 1981 East German Army propaganda film, NATO and West German troops and tanks were depicted as ruthless militarists advancing towards East Germany. Border troops interviewed in the film described what they saw as the rightfulness of their cause and the threat of Western agents, spies and provocateurs. Their colleagues killed on the border were hailed as heroes and schoolchildren in East Berlin were depicted saluting their memorial. However, West German propaganda leaflets referred to the border as merely "the demarcation line of the Soviet occupation zone '', and emphasised the cruelty and injustice of the division of Germany. Signs along the Western side of the frontier declared "Hier ist Deutschland nicht zu Ende -- Auch drüben ist Vaterland! '' ("Germany does not end here: the Fatherland is over there too! '') Whereas East Germany kept its civilians well away from the border, West Germany actively encouraged tourism, and locations where the border was especially intrusive became tourist attractions. One example was the divided village of Mödlareuth in Bavaria. The Associated Press reported in 1976 that "Western tourists by the busload come out to have their pictures taken against the backdrop of the latest Communist walled city (and) the concrete blockhouse and the bunker - slits protruding from the green hillock where a collective 's cows were grazing. '' At Zimmerau, in Bavaria, a 38 - metre (125 ft) observation tower (the Bayernturm) was constructed in 1966 to give visitors a view across the hills into East Germany. The inhabitants of the East German village of Kella found themselves becoming a tourist attraction for Westerners in the 1970s and 1980s. A viewing point, the "Window on Kella '', was established on a nearby hilltop from which tourists could peer across the border with binoculars and telescopes. To the amusement of many, a nudist beach was opened on the Western side in 1975 immediately adjoining the border 's terminus near the Baltic Sea port of Travemünde. Visitors often sought to have a nude photograph taken below a looming East German watchtower; the West Germans noted "a lot more movement on that watchtower since the nudist beach opened ''. The East German side of the inner German border was dominated by a complex system of fortifications and security zones, over 1,300 kilometres (810 mi) long and several kilometres deep. The fortifications were established in 1952 and reached a peak of complexity and lethality at the start of the 1980s. The border guards referred to the side of the border zone facing the GDR as the freundwärts (literally "friendward '') side and that facing the FRG as the feindwärts ("enemyward '') side. A person attempting to make an illegal crossing of the inner German border around 1980, travelling from east to west, would first come to the "restricted zone '' (Sperrzone). This was a 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) wide area running parallel to the border to which access was heavily restricted. Its inhabitants could only enter and leave using special permits, were not permitted to enter other villages within the zone, and were subjected to night time curfews. It was not fenced off, but access roads were blocked by checkpoints. On the far side of the Sperrzone was the signal fence (Signalzaun), a continuous expanded metal fence 1,185 kilometres (736 mi) long and 2 metres (6.6 ft) high. The fence was lined with low - voltage electrified strands of barbed wire. When the wire was touched or cut, an alarm was activated to alert nearby guards. On the other side of the signal fence lay the heavily guarded "protective strip '' (Schutzstreifen), 500 to 1,000 metres (1,600 to 3,300 ft) wide, which adjoined the border itself. It was monitored by guards stationed in concrete, steel and wooden watchtowers constructed at regular intervals along the entire length of the border. Nearly 700 such watchtowers had been built by 1989; each of the larger ones was equipped with a powerful 1,000 - watt rotating searchlight (Suchscheinwerfer) and firing ports to enable the guards to open fire without having to go outside. Their entrances were always positioned facing towards the East German side, so that observers in the West could not see guards going in or out. Around 1,000 two - man observation bunkers also stood along the length of the border. Guard dogs were used to provide an additional deterrent to escapees. Dog runs (Kettenlaufanlagen), consisting of a suspended wire up to 100 metres (330 ft) long to which a large dog was chained, were installed on high - risk sectors of the border. The dogs were occasionally turned loose in temporary pens adjoining gates or damaged sections of the fence. The guards used an all - weather patrol road (Kolonnenweg, literally "column way '') to patrol the border and travel rapidly to the scene of an attempted crossing. It consisted of two parallel lines of perforated concrete blocks that ran beside the border for around 900 kilometres (560 mi). Next to the Kolonnenweg was one of the control strips (Kontrollstreifen), a line of bare earth running parallel to the fences along almost the entire length of the border. There were two control strips, both located on the inward - facing sides of the fences. The secondary "K2 '' strip, 2 metres (6.6 ft) wide, ran alongside the signal fence, while the primary "K6 '' strip, 6 metres (20 ft) wide, ran along the inside of the fence or wall. In places where the border was vulnerable to escape attempts, the control strip was illuminated at night by high - intensity floodlights (Beleuchtungsanlage), which were also used at points where rivers and streams crossed the border. Anyone attempting to cross the control strips would leave footprints, which were quickly detected by patrols. This enabled the guards to identify otherwise undetected escape attempts, recording how many individuals had crossed, where escape attempts were being made and at which times of day escapees were active. From this information, the guards were able to determine where and when patrols needed to be increased, where improved surveillance from watchtowers and bunkers was required, and which areas needed additional fortifications. Anti-vehicle barriers were installed on the other side of the primary control strip. In some locations, Czech hedgehog barricades, known in German as Panzersperre or Stahligel ("steel hedgehogs ''), were used to prevent vehicles being used to cross the border. Elsewhere, V - shaped anti-vehicle ditches known as Kraftfahrzeug - Sperrgraben (KFZ - Sperrgraben) were installed along 829 kilometres (515 mi) of the border and were absent only where natural obstacles such as streams, rivers, gullies or thick forests made such barriers unnecessary. The outer fences were constructed in a number of phases, starting with the initial fortification of the border from May 1952. The first - generation fence was a crudely constructed single barbed - wire fence (Stacheldrahtzaun) which stood between 1.2 and 2.5 metres (3.9 and 8.2 ft) high and was built very close to the actual border line. This was replaced in the late 1950s with parallel rows of more strongly constructed barbed - wire fences, sometimes with concertina wire placed between the fences as an additional obstacle. A "third - generation '' fence, much more solidly constructed, was installed in an ongoing programme of improvements from the late 1960s to the 1980s. The fence line was moved back to create an outer strip between the fence and the actual border. The barbed - wire fences were replaced with a barrier that was usually 3.2 -- 4.0 metres (10 -- 13 ft) high. It was constructed with expanded metal mesh (Metallgitterzaun) panels. The openings in the mesh were generally too small to provide finger - holds and were very sharp. The panels could not easily be pulled down, as they overlapped, and they could not be cut through with a bolt - or wire - cutter. Nor could they be tunnelled under easily, as the bottom segment of the fences was partially buried in the ground. In a number of places, more lightly constructed fences (Lichtsperren) consisting of mesh and barbed wire lined the border. The fences were not continuous and could be crossed at a number of places. Gates were installed to enable guards to patrol up to the line and to give engineers access for maintenance on the outward - facing side of the barrier. In some places, villages adjoining the border were fenced with wooden board fences (Holzlattenzaun) or concrete barrier walls (Betonsperrmauern) standing around 3 -- 4 metres (9.8 -- 13.1 ft) high. Windows in buildings adjoining the border were bricked or boarded up, and buildings deemed too close to the border were pulled down. The barrier walls stood along only a small percentage of the border -- 29.1 kilometres (18.1 mi) of the total length by 1989. Anti-personnel mines were installed along approximately half of the border 's length starting in 1966; by the 1980s, some 1.3 million mines of various Soviet - made types had been laid. In addition, from 1970 the outer fence was booby - trapped with around 60,000 SM - 70 (Splittermine - 70) directional anti-personnel mines. They were activated by tripwires connected to the firing mechanism. This detonated a horn - shaped charge filled with shrapnel that was sprayed in one direction along the line of the fence. The device was potentially lethal to a range of around 120 metres (390 ft). The mines were eventually removed by the end of 1984 in the face of international condemnation of the East German government. Until the late 1960s, the fortifications were constructed almost up to the actual border line. When the third - generation fortifications were constructed, the fences were moved back from between 20 metres (66 ft) to as much as 2 kilometres (1.2 mi). This gave the guards a clear field of fire to target escapees without shots landing in the West and provided a buffer zone where engineers could work on maintaining the outward face of the fence in East German territory. Access to the outer strip was very tightly controlled, to ensure that the guards themselves would not be tempted to escape. Although often described by Western sources as a "no - man 's land '', it was de jure wholly East German territory, and escapees could be arrested or shot. Westerners were prohibited from entering the area and thus could not go to the aid of escapees. The actual line between West and East Germany was located on the far side of the outer strip. It was marked by granite stones (Grenzsteine) with the letters "DDR '' carved on the west - facing edge. Around 2,600 distinctive East German concrete "barber pole '' (Grenzsäule or Grenzpfähle) markers were installed just behind the border line at intervals of about 500 metres (1,600 ft). A metal coat of arms of East Germany (Staatsemblem) was fixed to the side of the marker facing West Germany. On the West German side, there were no fortifications of any kind, nor even any patrol roads in most areas. Warning signs (Grenzschilder) with messages such as Achtung! Zonengrenze! ("Danger! Zonal border! '') or Halt! Hier Zonengrenze ("Stop! Zonal border here '') notified visitors. Foreign military personnel were restricted from approaching the border to avoid clashes or other unwanted incidents. Signs in English and German provided notifications of the distance to the border to prevent accidental crossings. No such restriction applied to Western civilians, who were free to go up to the border line, and there were no physical obstacles to stop their crossing it. The inner German border system also extended along the Baltic coast, dubbed the "blue border '' or sea border of the GDR. The coastline was partly fortified along the east side mouth of the river Trave opposite the West German port of Travemünde. Watchtowers, walls and fences stood along the marshy shoreline to deter escape attempts and the water was patrolled by high - speed East German boats. The continuous line of the inner German border ended at the peninsula of Priwall, still belonging to Travemünde, but already on the east side of the Trave. From there to Boltenhagen, along some 15 km of the eastern shore of the Bay of Mecklenburg, the GDR shoreline was part of the restricted - access "protective strip '' or Schutzgebiet. Security controls were imposed on the rest of the coast from Boltenhagen to Altwarp on the Polish border, including the whole of the islands of Poel, Rügen, Hiddensee, Usedom and the peninsulas of Darß and Wustrow. The GDR implemented a variety of security measures along its Baltic coastline to hinder escape attempts. Camping and access to boats was severely limited and 27 watchtowers were built along the Baltic coastline. If a suspected escape attempt was spotted, high - speed patrol boats would be dispatched to intercept the fugitives. Armed patrols equipped with powerful mobile searchlights monitored the beaches. Escapees aimed for the western (West German) shore of the Bay of Mecklenburg, a Danish lightship off the port of Gedser, the southern Danish islands of Lolland and Falster, or simply the international shipping lanes in the hope of being picked up by a passing freighter. The Baltic Sea was, however, an extremely dangerous escape route. In all, 189 people are estimated to have died attempting to flee via the Baltic. Some East Germans tried to escape by jumping overboard from East German ships docked in Baltic harbours. So many East Germans attempted to flee this way in Danish ports that harbourmasters installed extra life - saving equipment on quaysides where East German vessels docked. The GDR 's government responded by stationing armed Transportpolizei (Trapos) on passenger ships to deal forcefully with escape attempts. On one occasion in August 1961, the Trapos caused an international incident in the Danish port of Gedser, when they beat up a would - be escapee on the quayside and opened fire, hitting a Danish boat in the harbour. The next day, thousands of Danes turned out to protest against "Vopo (Volkspolizei) methods ''. The "boat - jumpers '' were eventually stopped by further restricting the already limited travel rights of the GDR 's population. The border also ran along part of the length of three major rivers of central Germany: the Elbe between Lauenburg and Schnackenburg (around 95 km or 59 mi), the Werra and the Saale. The river borders were especially problematic; although the Western Allies and West Germany held that the demarcation line ran along the eastern bank, the East Germans and Soviets insisted that it was located in the middle of the river (the Thalweg principle). In practice, the waterways were shared equally but the navigation channels often strayed across the line. This led to tense confrontations as East or West German vessels sought to assert their right to free passage on the waterways. The rivers were as heavily guarded as other parts of the border. On the Elbe, East Germany maintained a fleet of about 30 fast patrol boats and West Germany had some 16 customs vessels. The river border was closely watched for escapees, many of whom drowned attempting to cross. Numerous bridges blown up in the closing days of the Second World War remained in ruins, while other surviving bridges were blocked or demolished on the East German side. There were no ferry crossings and river barges were rigorously inspected by the GDR border guards. To prevent escape attempts, the East German river banks were barricaded with a continuous line of metal fences and concrete walls. At one location, Rüterberg on the Elbe, the border fortifications completely surrounded the village and sealed off the inhabitants from the rest of East Germany as well as the West. The guards of the inner German border comprised tens of thousands of military, paramilitary and civilian personnel from both East and West Germany, as well as from the United Kingdom, the United States and initially the Soviet Union. Following the end of the Second World War, the East German side of the border was guarded initially by the Border Troops (Pogranichnyie Voiska) of the Soviet NKVD (later the KGB). They were supplemented from 1946 by a locally recruited paramilitary force, the German Border Police (Deutsche Grenzpolizei or DGP), before the Soviets handed over full control of the border to the East Germans in 1955 / 56. In 1961, the DGP was converted into a military force within the National People 's Army (Nationale Volksarmee, NVA). The newly renamed Border Troops of the GDR (Grenztruppen der DDR, commonly nicknamed the Grenzer) came under the NVA 's Border Command or Grenzkommando. They were responsible for securing and defending the borders with West Germany, Czechoslovakia, Poland, the Baltic Sea and West Berlin. At their peak, the Grenztruppen had up to 50,000 personnel. Around half of the Grenztruppen were conscripts, a lower proportion than in other branches of the East German armed forces. Many potential recruits were screened out as potentially unreliable; for instance, actively religious individuals or those with close relatives in West Germany. They were all subjected to close scrutiny to assure their political reliability and were given intensive ideological indoctrination. A special unit of the Stasi secret police worked covertly within the Grenztruppen, posing as regular border guards, between 1968 and 1985, to weed out potential defectors. One in ten officers and one in thirty enlisted men were said to have been recruited by the Stasi as informers. The Stasi regularly interviewed and maintained files on every guard. Stasi operatives were directly responsible for some aspects of security; passport control stations at crossings were manned by Stasi officers wearing Grenztruppen uniforms. The Grenztruppen were closely watched to ensure that they could not take advantage of their inside knowledge to escape across the border. Patrols, watchtowers and observation posts were always manned by two or three guards at a time. They were not allowed to go out of each other 's sight in any circumstances. If a guard attempted to escape, his colleagues were under instructions to shoot him without hesitation or prior warning; 2,500 did escape to the West, 5,500 more were caught and imprisoned for up to five years, and a number were shot and killed or injured in the attempt. The work of the guards involved carrying out repair work on the defences, monitoring the zone from watchtowers and bunkers and patrolling the line several times a day. Border Reconnaissance (Grenzaufklärungszug or GAK) soldiers, an elite reconnaissance force, carried out patrols and intelligence - gathering on the western side of the fence. Western visitors to the border were routinely photographed by the GAKs, who also oversaw work detachments maintaining the fence. The workers would be covered by machine guns to discourage them from attempting to escape. A number of West German state organisations were responsible for policing the western side of the border. These included the Bundesgrenzschutz (BGS, Federal Border Protection), the Bayerische Grenzpolizei (Bavarian Border Police) and the Bundeszollverwaltung (Federal Customs Administration). West German Army units were not allowed to approach the border without being accompanied by BGS personnel. The BGS, established in 1951, was responsible for policing a zone 30 kilometres (19 mi) deep along the border. Its 20,000 personnel were equipped with armoured cars, anti-tank guns, helicopters, trucks and jeeps. The BGS had limited police powers within its zone of operations to tackle threats to the peace of the border. The Bundeszollverwaltung (BZV) was responsible for policing much of the inner German border and manning the West German crossings. Its personnel lived with their families in communities along the border and carried out regular policing tasks in a zone about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) deep along the border. They had the power to arrest and search suspects in their area of operations with the exception of the section of border in Bavaria. The BZV 's remit overlapped significantly with that of the BGS, which led to a degree of feuding between the two agencies. The Bayerische Grenzpolizei (BGP) was a border police force raised by the Bavarian government to carry out policing duties along the inner German border 's 390 kilometres (240 mi) in Bavaria. By the late 1960s, the BGP had 600 men patrolling its sector of the border, alongside the BZV, BGS and US Army. Its duties were very similar to those of the BZV, leading to turf wars between the two agencies. The British Army conducted only relatively infrequent patrols along its sector of the inner German border, principally for training purposes and symbolic value. By the 1970s, it was carrying out only one patrol a month, only rarely using helicopters or ground surveillance radar and erecting no permanent observation posts. The British border zone was divided into two sectors covering a total distance of about 650 kilometres (400 mi) along the border. Unlike the Americans, the British did not assign specific units to border duty, but rotated the task between the divisions of the British Army of the Rhine. The border was also patrolled in the British sector by the British Frontier Service, the smallest of the Western border surveillance organisations. Its personnel served as a liaison between British military and political interests and the German agencies on the border. The BFS was disbanded in 1991 following Germany 's reunification. The United States Army maintained a substantial and continuous military presence at the inner German border throughout the entire period from 1945 to after the end of the Cold War. Regular American soldiers manned the border from the end of the war until they were replaced in 1946 by the United States Constabulary, which was disbanded in 1952 after policing duties were transferred to the German authorities. It was replaced by three dedicated armoured cavalry regiments assigned to provide a permanent defence. The 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment based at Bamberg, 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment based at Nuremberg and the 14th Armored Cavalry Regiment based at Fulda -- later replaced by the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment -- monitored the border using observation posts, ground and air patrols, countering intrusions and gathering intelligence on Warsaw Pact activities. There was little informal contact between the two sides; East German guards were under orders not to speak to Westerners. After the initiation of détente between East and West Germany in the 1970s, the two sides established procedures for maintaining formal contacts through 14 direct telephone connections or Grenzinformationspunkte (GIP, "border information points ''). They were used to resolve local problems affecting the border, such as floods, forest fires or stray animals. For many years, the two sides waged a propaganda battle across the border using propaganda signs and canisters of leaflets fired or dropped into each other 's territory. West German leaflets sought to undermine the willingness of East German guards to shoot at refugees attempting to cross the border, while East German leaflets promoted the GDR 's view of West Germany as a militaristic regime intent on restoring Germany 's 1937 borders. During the 1950s, West Germany sent millions of propaganda leaflets into East Germany each year. In 1968 alone, over 4,000 projectiles containing some 450,000 leaflets were fired from East Germany into the West. Another 600 waterproof East German leaflet containers were recovered from cross-border rivers. The "leaflet war '' was eventually ended by mutual agreement in the early 1970s as part of the normalisation of relations between the two German states. The inner German border was never entirely sealed in the fashion of the border between the two Koreas and could be crossed in either direction throughout the Cold War. The post-war agreements on the governance of Berlin specified that the Western Allies were to have access to the city via defined air, road, rail and river corridors. This was mostly respected by the Soviets and East Germans, albeit with periodic interruptions and harassment of travellers. Even during the Berlin Blockade of 1948, supplies could be brought in by air -- the famous Berlin Airlift. Before and after the blockade, Western civilian and military trains, road traffic and barges routinely passed through East Germany en route to Berlin. The border could be crossed legally only through a limited number of air, road, rail and river routes. Foreigners were able to cross East German territory to or from West Berlin, Denmark, Sweden, Poland and Czechoslovakia. However, they had only limited and very tightly controlled access to the rest of East Germany and faced numerous restrictions on travel, accommodation and expenditure. Lengthy inspections caused long delays to traffic at the crossing points. Westerners found crossing the inner German border to be a somewhat disturbing experience; Jan Morris wrote: Travelling from west to east through (the inner German border) was like entering a drab and disturbing dream, peopled by all the ogres of totalitarianism, a half - lit world of shabby resentments, where anything could be done to you, I used to feel, without anybody ever hearing of it, and your every step was dogged by watchful eyes and mechanisms. Before 1952, the inner German border could be crossed at almost any point along its length. The fortification of the border resulted in the severing of 32 railway lines, three autobahns, 31 main roads, eight primary roads, about 60 secondary roads and thousands of lanes and cart tracks. The number of crossing points was reduced to three air corridors, three road corridors, two railway lines and two river connections giving transit access to Berlin, plus a handful of additional crossing points for freight traffic. The situation improved somewhat after the initiation of détente in the 1970s. Additional crossings for so - called kleine Grenzverkehr -- "small border traffic '', essentially meaning West German day trippers -- were opened at various locations along the border. By 1982, there were 19 border crossings: six roads, three autobahns, eight railway lines plus the Elbe river and the Mittellandkanal. The largest was at Helmstedt - Marienborn on the Hanover -- Berlin autobahn (A 2), through which 34.6 million travellers passed between 1985 -- 89. Codenamed Checkpoint Alpha, this was the first of three Allied checkpoints on the road to Berlin. The others were Checkpoint Bravo, where the autobahn crossed from East Germany into West Berlin, and most famous of all, Checkpoint Charlie, the only place where non-Germans could cross from West to East Berlin. It was not possible to simply drive through the gap in the fence that existed at crossing points, as the East Germans installed high - impact vehicle barriers and mobile rolling barriers that could (and did) kill drivers that attempted to ram them. Vehicles were subjected to rigorous checks to uncover fugitives. Inspection pits and mirrors allowed the undersides of vehicles to be scrutinised. Probes were used to investigate the chassis and even the fuel tank, where a fugitive might be concealed, and vehicles could be partially dismantled in on - site garages. At Marienborn there was even a mortuary garage where coffins could be checked to confirm that the occupants really were dead. Passengers were checked and often interrogated about their travel plans and reasons for travelling. The system used simple technology and was slow, relying largely on vast card indexes recording travellers ' details, but it was effective nonetheless; during the 28 years of operation of the Marienborn complex, no successful escapes were recorded. West Germans were able to cross the border relatively freely to visit relatives, but had to go through numerous bureaucratic formalities. East Germans were subjected to far stricter restrictions. It was not until November 1964 that they were allowed to visit the West at all, and even then only pensioners were allowed. This gave rise to a joke that only in East Germany did people look forward to old age. Younger East Germans were not allowed to travel to the West until 1972, though few did so until the mid-1980s. They had to apply for an exit visa and passport, pay a substantial fee, obtain permission from their employer and undergo an interrogation from the police. The odds were against successful applications, and only approximately 40,000 a year were approved. Refusal was often arbitrary, dependent on the goodwill of local officials. Members of the Party elite and cultural ambassadors were frequently given permission to travel, as were essential transport workers. However, they were not permitted to take their families with them. Until the late 1980s, ordinary East Germans were only permitted to travel to the West on "urgent family business '', such as the marriage, serious illness or death of a close relative. In February 1986, the regime relaxed the definition of "urgent family business '', which prompted a massive increase in the number of East German citizens able to travel to the West. The relaxation of the restrictions was reported to have been motivated by a desire on the part of the East German leadership to reduce their citizens ' desire to travel and shrink the number applying to emigrate. In practice, however, it had exactly the opposite effect. There was no formal legal basis under which a citizen could emigrate from East Germany. In 1975, however, East Germany signed up to the Helsinki Accords, a pan-European treaty to improve relations between the countries of Europe. An increasing number of East German citizens sought to use the Accords ' provision on freedom of movement to secure exit visas. By the late 1980s, over 100,000 applications for visas were being submitted annually with around 15,000 -- 25,000 being granted. The GDR 's government nonetheless remained opposed to emigration and sought to dissuade would - be émigrés. The process of applying for an exit permit was deliberately made slow, demeaning, frustrating and often fruitless. Applicants were marginalised, demoted or sacked from their jobs, excluded from universities and subjected to ostracism. They faced the threat of having their children taken into state custody on the grounds that they were unfit to bring up children. The law was used to punish those who continued to apply for emigration; over 10,000 applicants were arrested by the Stasi between the 1970s and 1989. A report for the Central Committee 's security section noted: "The emigration problem is confronting us with a fundamental problem of the GDR 's development. Experience shows that the current repertoire of solutions (improved travel possibilities, expatriation of applicants, etc.) have not brought the desired results, but rather the opposite. '' The agitation for emigration, the report concluded, "threatens to undermine beliefs in the correctness of the Party 's policies. '' East German citizens could also emigrate through the semi-secret route of being ransomed by the West German government in a process termed Freikauf (literally the buying of freedom). Between 1964 and 1989, 33,755 political prisoners were ransomed. A further 2,087 prisoners were released to the West under an amnesty in 1972. Another 215,000 people, including 2,000 children cut off from their parents, were allowed to leave East Germany to rejoin their families. In exchange, West Germany paid over 3.4 billion DM -- nearly $2.3 billion at 1990 prices -- in goods and hard currency. Those ransomed were valued on a sliding scale, ranging from around 1,875 DM for a manual worker to around 11,250 DM for a doctor. The justification, according to East Germany, was that this was compensation for the money invested by the state in the prisoner 's training. For a while, payments were made in kind using goods that were in short supply in East Germany, such as oranges, bananas, coffee and medical drugs. The average prisoner was worth around 4,000 DM worth of goods. The scheme was highly controversial in the West. Freikauf was denounced by many as human trafficking, but was defended by others as an "act of pure humanitarianism ''; the West German government budgeted money for Freikauf under the euphemistic heading of "support of special aid measures of an all - German character. '' Between 1950 and 1988, around 4 million East Germans migrated to the West; 3.454 million left between 1950 and the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961. After the border was fortified and the Berlin Wall constructed, the number of illegal crossings fell dramatically and continued to fall as the defences were improved over the subsequent decades. However, escapees were never more than a small minority of the total number of emigrants from East Germany. During the 1980s, only about 1 % of those who left East Germany did so by escaping across the border. Far more people left the country after being granted official permits, by fleeing through third countries or by being ransomed by the West German government. The vast majority of refugees were motivated by economic concerns and sought to improve their living conditions and opportunities by migrating to the West. Events such as the crushing of the 1953 uprising, the imposition of collectivisation and East Germany 's final economic crisis in the late 1980s prompted surges in the number of escape attempts. Attempts to flee across the border were carefully studied and recorded by the GDR authorities to identify possible weak points. These were addressed by strengthening the fortifications in vulnerable areas. At the end of the 1970s, a study was carried out by the East German army to review attempted "border breaches '' (Grenzdurchbrüche). It found that 4,956 people had attempted to escape across the border between 1 December 1974 and 30 November 1979. Of those, 3,984 people (80.4 %) were arrested by the Volkspolizei in the Sperrzone, the outer restricted zone. 205 people (4.1 %) were caught at the signal fence. Within the inner security zone, the Schutzstreifen, a further 743 people (15 %) were arrested by the guards. 48 people (1 %) were stopped -- i.e. killed or injured -- by landmines and 43 people (0.9 %) by SM - 70 directional mines on the fence. A further 67 people (1.35 %) were intercepted at the fence (shot and / or arrested). A total of 229 people -- just 4.6 % of attempted escapees, representing less than one in twenty -- made it across the fence. Of these, the largest number (129, or 55 % of successful escapees) succeeded in making it across the fence in unmined sectors. 89 people (39 % of escapees) managed to cross both the minefields and the fence, but just 12 people (6 % of the total) succeeded in getting past the SM - 70s booby - trap mines on the fences. Escape attempts were severely punished by the GDR. From 1953, the regime described the act of escaping as Republikflucht (literally "flight from the Republic ''), by analogy with the existing military term Fahnenflucht ("desertion ''). A successful escapee was not a Flüchtling ("refugee '') but a Republikflüchtiger ("Republic deserter ''). Those who attempted to escape were called Sperrbrecher (literally "blockade runners '' but more loosely translated as "border violators ''). Those who helped escapees were not Fluchthelfer ("escape helpers ''), the Western term, but Menschenhändler ("human traffickers ''). Such ideologically coloured language enabled the regime to portray border crossers as little better than traitors and criminals. Republikflucht became a crime in 1957, punishable by heavy fines and up to three years ' imprisonment. Any act associated with an escape attempt -- including helping an escapee -- was subject to this legislation. Those caught in the act were often tried for espionage as well and given proportionately harsher sentences. More than 75,000 people -- an average of more than seven people a day -- were imprisoned for attempting to escape across the border, serving an average of one to two years ' imprisonment. Border guards who attempted to escape were treated much more harshly and were on average imprisoned for five years. Escapees used a variety of methods. The great majority crossed on foot, though some took more unusual routes. One of the most spectacular was the escape in September 1979 of eight people from two families in a home - made hot - air balloon. Their flight involved an ascent to more than 2,500 metres (8,200 ft) before landing near the West German town of Naila. The incident inspired the film Night Crossing. Other escapees relied more on physical strength and endurance. An escapee on August 26, 1987 used meat hooks to scale the fences, while in 1971 a doctor swam 45 kilometres (28 mi) across the Baltic Sea from Rostock almost to the Danish island of Lolland, before he was picked up by a West German yacht. Another escapee used an air mattress to escape across the Baltic on September 2, 1987. Mass escapes were rare. One of the few that succeeded took place on 2 October 1961, when 53 people from the border village of Böseckendorf -- a quarter of the village 's population -- escaped en masse, followed by another 13 inhabitants in February 1963. An unusual mass escape occurred in September 1964 when 14 East Germans, including 11 children, were smuggled across the border in a refrigerated truck. They were able to escape detection by being concealed under the carcasses of slaughtered pigs being transported to the West. The traffic was not one - way; thousands of people migrated each year from West Germany to the east, motivated by reasons such as marital problems, family estrangement and homesickness. A number of Allied military personnel, including British, French, German and American troops, also defected. By the end of the Cold War, as many as 300 United States citizens were thought to have defected across the Iron Curtain for a variety of reasons -- whether to escape criminal charges, for political reasons or because (as the St. Petersburg Times put it) "girl - hungry GIs (were tempted) with seductive sirens, who usually desert the love - lorn soldier once he is across the border ''. The fate of such defectors varied considerably. Some were sent straight to labour camps on charges of espionage. Others committed suicide, while a few were able to find wives and work on the eastern side of the border. From 1945 onwards, unauthorised crossers of the inner German border risked being shot by Soviet or East German guards. The use of deadly force was termed the Schießbefehl ("order to fire '' or "command to shoot ''). It was formally in force as early as 1948, when regulations concerning the use of firearms on the border were promulgated. A regulation issued to East German police on 27 May 1952 stipulated that "failure to obey the orders of the Border Patrol will be met by the use of arms ''. From the 1960s through to the end of the 1980s, the border guards were given daily verbal orders (Vergatterung) to "track down, arrest or annihilate violators ''. The GDR formally codified its regulations on the use of deadly force in March 1982, when the State Border Law mandated that firearms were to be used as the "maximum measure in the use of force '' against individuals who "publicly attempt to break through the state border ''. The GDR 's leadership explicitly endorsed the use of deadly force. General Heinz Hoffmann, the GDR defence minister, declared in August 1966 that "anyone who does not respect our border will feel the bullet ''. In 1974, Erich Honecker, as Chairman of the GDR 's National Defence Council, ordered: "Firearms are to be ruthlessly used in the event of attempts to break through the border, and the comrades who have successfully used their firearms are to be commended. '' The Schießbefehl was, not surprisingly, very controversial in the West and was singled out for criticism by the West Germans. The GDR authorities occasionally suspended the Schießbefehl on occasions when it would have been politically inconvenient to have to explain dead refugees, such as during a visit to the GDR by the French foreign minister in 1985. It was also a problem for many of the East German guards and was the motivating factor behind a number of escapes, when guards facing a crisis of conscience defected because of their unwillingness to shoot fellow citizens. It is still not certain how many people died on the inner German border or who they all were, as the GDR treated such information as a closely guarded secret. But estimates have risen steadily since unification, as evidence has been gathered from East German records. As of 2009, unofficial estimates are up to 1,100 people, though officially released figures give a count from 270 up to 421 deaths. There were many ways to die on the inner German border. Numerous escapees were shot by the border guards, while others were killed by mines and booby - traps. A substantial number drowned while trying to cross the Baltic and the Elbe river. Not all of those killed on the border were attempting to escape. On 13 October 1961, Westfälische Rundschau journalist Kurt Lichtenstein was shot on the border near the village of Zicherie after he attempted to speak with East German farm workers. His death aroused condemnation across the political spectrum in West Germany. The incident prompted students from Braunschweig to erect a sign on the border protesting the killing. An Italian truck driver and member of the Italian Communist Party, Benito Corghi, was shot at a crossing point in August 1976; the GDR government was severely embarrassed and, unusually, offered an apology. In one notorious shooting on 1 May 1976, a former East German political prisoner, Michael Gartenschläger, who had fled to the West some years before, was ambushed and killed by a Stasi commando squad on the border near Büchen. The Stasi reported that he had been "liquidated by security forces of the GDR ''. Twenty - five East German border guards died after being shot from the Western side of the border or were killed by resisting escapees or (often accidentally) by their own colleagues. The East German government described them as "victims of armed assaults and imperialist provocations against the state border of the GDR '' and alleged that "bandits '' in the West took potshots at guards doing their duty -- a version of events that was uncorroborated by Western accounts of border incidents. The two sides commemorated their dead in very different ways. Various mostly unofficial memorials were set up on the western side by people seeking to commemorate victims of the border. West Germans such as Michael Gartenschläger and Kurt Lichtenstein were commemorated with signs and memorials, some of which were supported by the government. The death of East German Heinz - Josef Große in 1982 was commemorated annually by demonstrations on the Western side of the border. After the policy of détente was initiated in the 1970s, this became politically inconvenient and state support for border memorials largely ceased. The taboo in East Germany surrounding escapees meant that the great majority of deaths went unpublicised and uncommemorated. However, the deaths of border guards were used for GDR propaganda, which portrayed them as "martyrs ''. Four stone memorials were erected in East Berlin to mark their deaths. The regime named schools, barracks and other public facilities after the dead guards and used their memorials as places of pilgrimage to signify that (as a slogan put it) "their deaths are our commitment '' to maintaining the border. After 1989 the memorials were vandalised, neglected and ultimately removed. The fall of the inner German border came rapidly and unexpectedly in November 1989, along with the fall of the Berlin Wall. Its integrity had been fatally compromised in May 1989 when the Hungarian government began dismantling its border fence with Austria. The government was still notionally Communist but planned free elections and economic reform as part of a strategy of "rejoining Europe '' and reforming its struggling economy. Opening the Hungarian border with Austria was essential to this effort. Hungary was at that time a popular tourist destination for East Germans; West Germany had secretly offered a much - needed hard currency loan of DM 500 million ($250 million) in return for allowing citizens of the GDR to freely emigrate. Pictures of the barbed - wire fences being taken down were transmitted into East Germany by West German television stations. This prompted a mass exodus by hundreds of thousands of East Germans, which began in earnest in September 1989. In addition to those crossing the Hungarian border, tens of thousands of East Germans scaled the walls of the West German embassies in Prague, Warsaw and Budapest, where they were regarded as "German citizens '' by the federal government, claiming "asylum ''. Czechoslovakia 's hardline communist government agreed to close its border with East Germany to choke off the exodus. The closure produced uproar across East Germany and the GDR government 's bid to humiliate refugees by expelling them from the country in sealed trains backfired disastrously. Torn - up identity papers and East German passports littered the tracks as the refugees threw them out of the windows. When the trains passed through Dresden, 1,500 East Germans stormed the main railway station in an attempt to board. Dozens were injured and the station concourse was virtually destroyed. The small pro-democracy Monday demonstrations soon swelled into crowds of hundreds of thousands of people in cities across East Germany. The East German leadership considered using force but ultimately backed down, lacking support from the Soviet Union for a violent Tiananmen Square - style military intervention. Reformist members of the East German Politbüro sought to rescue the situation by forcing the resignation of the hardline Party chairman Erich Honecker, replacing him in October 1989 with the marginally less hardline Egon Krenz. The new government sought to appease the protesters by reopening the border with Czechoslovakia. This, however, merely resulted in the resumption of the mass exodus through Hungary via Czechoslovakia. On 8 November 1989, with huge demonstrations continuing across the country, the entire Politbüro resigned and a new, more moderate Politbüro was appointed under Krenz 's continued leadership. The East German government sought to defuse the situation by relaxing the country 's border controls with effect from 10 November 1989; the announcement was made on the evening of 9 November 1989 by Politbüro member Günter Schabowski at a somewhat chaotic press conference in East Berlin, who proclaimed the new control regime as liberating the people from a situation of psychological pressure by legalising and simplifying migration. Misunderstanding the note passed to him about the decision to open the border, he announced the border would be opened "immediately, without delay '', rather than from the following day as the government had intended. Crucially, it was neither meant to be an uncontrolled opening nor to apply to East Germans wishing to visit the West as tourists. At an interview in English after the press conference, Schabowski told the NBC reporter Tom Brokaw that "it is no question of tourism. It is a permission of leaving the GDR (permanently). '' As the press conference had been broadcast live, within hours, thousands of people gathered at the Berlin Wall demanding that the guards open the gates. The border guards were unable to contact their superiors for instructions and, fearing a stampede, opened the gates. The iconic scenes that followed -- people pouring into West Berlin, standing on the Wall and attacking it with pickaxes -- were broadcast worldwide. While the eyes of the world were on the Mauerfall (the fall of the Wall) in Berlin, a simultaneous process of Grenzöffnung (border opening) was taking place along the entire length of the inner German border. Existing crossings were opened immediately. Within the first four days, 4.3 million East Germans -- a quarter of the country 's entire population -- poured into West Germany. At the Helmstedt crossing point on the Berlin -- Hanover autobahn, cars were backed up for 65 km (40 mi); some drivers waited 11 hours to cross to the West. The border was opened in stages over the next few months. Many new crossing points were created, reconnecting communities that had been separated for nearly 40 years. BBC correspondent Ben Bradshaw described the jubilant scenes at the railway station of Hof in Bavaria in the early hours of 12 November: It was not just the arrivals at Hof who wore their emotions on their sleeves. The local people turned out in their hundreds to welcome them; stout men and women in their Sunday best, twice or three times the average age of those getting off the trains, wept as they clapped. "These are our people, free at last, '' they said... Those arriving at Hof report people lining the route of the trains in East Germany waving and clapping and holding placards saying: ' We 're coming soon. '' Even the East German border guards were not immune to the euphoria. One of them, Peter Zahn, described how he and his colleagues reacted to the opening of the border: After the Wall fell, we were in a state of delirium. We submitted a request for our reserve activities to be ended, which was approved a few days later. We visited Helmstedt and Braunschweig in West Germany, which would have been impossible before. In the NVA even listening to Western radio stations was punishable and there we were on an outing in the West. To the surprise of many West Germans, many of the East German visitors spent their DM 100 "welcome money '' buying great quantities of bananas, a highly prized rarity in the East. For months after the opening of the border, bananas were sold out at supermarkets along the western side of the border as East Germans bought up whole crates, believing supplies would soon be exhausted. The rush for fruit made the banana the unofficial symbol of the changes in East Germany, which some dubbed the "banana revolution ''. Some West German leftists protested at what they saw as rampant consumerism by tossing bananas at East Germans coming to visit the West. The easterners ' obsession with bananas was famously spoofed by the West German satirical magazine Titanic on the front cover of its November 1989 edition, which depicted "Easterner Gaby (17), happy to be in West Germany: My first banana ''. Gaby was shown holding a large peeled cucumber. The opening of the border had a profound political and psychological effect on the East German public. For many people, the very existence of the GDR, which the SED had justified as the first "Socialist state on German soil '', came to be seen as pointless. The state was bankrupt, the economy was collapsing, the political class was discredited, the governing institutions were in chaos and the people were demoralised by the evaporation of the collective assumptions that had underpinned their society for 40 years. Membership of the Party collapsed and Krenz himself resigned on 6 December 1989 after only 50 days in office, handing over to the moderate Hans Modrow. The removal of restrictions on travel prompted hundreds of thousands of East Germans to migrate to the West -- more than 116,000 did so between 9 November and 31 December 1989, compared with 40,000 for the whole of the previous year. The new East German leadership initiated "round table '' talks with opposition groups, similar to the processes that had led to multi-party elections in Hungary and Poland. When the first free elections were held in East Germany in March 1990, the former SED, which had renamed itself as the Party of Democratic Socialism, was swept from power and replaced by a pro-reunification Alliance for Germany coalition led by the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), Chancellor Kohl 's party. Both countries progressed rapidly towards reunification, while international diplomacy paved the way abroad. In July 1990, monetary union was achieved. A Treaty on the establishment of a unified Germany was agreed on in August 1990 and political reunification took place on 3 October 1990. The border fortifications were progressively torn down and eventually abandoned in the months following its opening. Dozens of new crossings were opened by February 1990, and the guards no longer carried weapons nor made much effort to check travellers ' passports. The guards ' numbers were rapidly reduced; half were dismissed within five months of the opening. On 1 July 1990 the border was abandoned and the Grenztruppen were officially abolished; all but 2,000 of them were dismissed or transferred to other jobs. The Bundeswehr gave the remaining border guards and other ex-NVA soldiers the task of clearing the fortifications, which was completed only in 1994. The scale of the task was immense, involving both the clearing of the fortifications and the rebuilding of hundreds of roads and railway lines. A serious complication was the presence of mines along the border. Although the 1.4 million mines laid by the GDR were supposed to have been removed during the 1980s, it turned out that 34,000 were unaccounted for. A further 1,100 mines were found and removed following reunification at a cost of more than DM 250 million, in a programme that was not concluded until the end of 1995. The border clearers ' task was aided unofficially by German civilians from both sides of the former border, who scavenged the installations for fencing, wire and blocks of concrete to use in home improvements. Much of the fence was sold to a West German scrap - metal company. Environmental groups undertook a programme of re-greening the border, planting new trees and sowing grass seed to fill in the clear - cut area along the line. Very little remains of the installations along the former inner German border. At least 30 public, private and municipal museums along the old line present displays of equipment and other artifacts relating to the border. Among the preserved sites are several dozen watchtowers, short stretches of the fence and associated installations (some of which have been reconstructed), sections of the wall still in situ at Hötensleben and Mödlareuth, and a number of buildings related to the border, such as the GDR crossing point at Marienborn. Substantial sections of the Kolonnenweg remain in place to serve as farm and forestry access roads, though the accompanying anti-vehicle ditches, fences and other obstacles have been almost entirely removed. Artworks, commemorative stones, memorials and signs have been erected at many points along the former border to mark its opening, to remember its victims and to record the division and reunification of Germany. The closure of the border region for nearly 40 years created a haven for wildlife in some places. Although parts of the East German side of the border were farmed, intensive farming of the kind practised elsewhere in Germany was absent and large areas were untouched by agriculture. Conservationists became aware as early as the 1970s that the border had become a refuge for rare species of animals and plants. Their findings led the Bavarian government to begin a programme of buying land along the border to ensure its protection from development. In December 1989, only a month after the opening of the border, conservationists from East and West Germany met to work out a plan to establish a "German Green Belt '' (Grünes Band Deutschland) stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Czech border. The Bundestag voted unanimously in December 2004 to extend federal protection to the Green Belt and incorporate it into a "European Green Belt '' being developed along the entire 6,800 - kilometre (4,200 mi) length of the former Iron Curtain. The German Green Belt now links 160 natural parks, 150 flora - and - fauna areas, three UNESCO biosphere reservations and the Harz Mountains National Park. It is home to a wide variety of species that are rare elsewhere in Germany, including the wild cat, black stork, otter and rare mosses and orchids. Most of Germany 's red kites -- more than half of the 25,000 that live in Europe -- live along the former border. The Bund Naturschutz, one of Germany 's largest conservation groups, is campaigning to extend the area within the Green Belt designated as nature conservation zones.

where does bacon come from in the world

Bacon - wikipedia Bacon is a meat product prepared from cured pork. It is first cured using large quantities of salt, either a brine or a dry packing. Fresh bacon may then be dried for weeks or months in cold air, or it may be boiled or smoked. Fresh and dried bacon are typically cooked before eating, often by pan frying. Boiled bacon is ready to eat, as is some smoked bacon, but they may be cooked further before eating. Bacon is prepared from several different cuts of meat. It can be made from the pork belly or from back cuts, which has less fat than the belly. Bacon may be eaten smoked, boiled, fried, baked, or grilled. It is eaten on its own, as a side dish (particularly in breakfasts), or used as a minor ingredient to flavour dishes (e.g., the club sandwich). Bacon is also used for barding and larding roasts, especially game, including venison and pheasant. The word is derived from the Old High German bacho, meaning "buttock '', "ham '' or "side of bacon '', and is cognate with the Old French bacon. Meat from other animals, such as beef, lamb, chicken, goat, or turkey, may also be cut, cured, or otherwise prepared to resemble bacon, and may even be referred to as "bacon ''. Such use is common in areas with significant Jewish and Muslim populations, both of which prohibit the consumption of pigs. For safety, bacon may be treated to prevent trichinosis, caused by Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm which can be destroyed by heating, freezing, drying, or smoking. Bacon is cured through either a process of injecting with or soaking in brine or using plain salt (dry curing). In America, bacon is usually cured and smoked, and different flavours can be achieved by using various types of wood, or rarely corn cobs; peat is sometimes used in the United Kingdom. This process can take up to eighteen hours, depending on the intensity of the flavour desired. The Virginia Housewife (1824), thought to be one of the earliest American cookbooks, gives no indication that bacon is ever not smoked, though it gives no advice on flavouring, noting only that care should be taken lest the fire get too hot. In early American history, the preparation and smoking of bacon (like the making of sausage) seems to have been a gender - neutral process, one of the few food - preparation processes not divided by gender. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, smoked and unsmoked varieties are equally common, unsmoked being referred to as "green bacon ''. Bacon is distinguished from salt pork and ham by differences in the brine or dry packing. Bacon brine has added curing ingredients, most notably sodium nitrite, and occasionally potassium nitrate (saltpeter), but sodium ascorbate or erythorbate may also be added to accelerate curing and stabilise colour. Flavourings such as brown sugar or maple syrup are used for some bacon products. Sodium polyphosphates, such as sodium triphosphate, may also be added to make the product easier to slice and to reduce spattering when the bacon is pan-fried. Today, a brine specifically for ham includes a large amount of sugar. Historically, the terms "ham '' and "bacon '' referred to different cuts of meat that were brined or packed identically, often together in the same barrel. Varieties differ depending on the primal cut from which they are prepared: Different cuts of pork are used for making bacon depending on local preferences. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, back bacon is most common. In the United States, the plain term implies belly bacon, with back cuts known as "Canadian bacon ''. The USDA defines bacon as "the cured belly of a swine carcass '', and other cuts and characteristics must be separately qualified (e.g., "smoked pork loin bacon ''). Bacon is often served with eggs and sausages as part of a full breakfast. Historically, the skin left on the cut is known as ' bacon rind ', but rindless bacon is also common throughout the English - speaking world. The meat may be bought smoked or unsmoked. The most common form sold is ' middle bacon ', which includes the more of the streaky, fatty section of side bacon along with a portion of the loin of back bacon. In response to increasing consumer diet - consciousness, some supermarkets also offer the loin section only. This is sold as ' short cut bacon ' and is usually priced slightly higher than middle bacon. Both varieties are usually available with the rind removed. An individual piece of bacon is a ' slice ' or ' strip '. In Canada: Some of the meanings of bacon overlap with the German - language term Speck. Germans use the term bacon explicitly for Frühstücksspeck (' breakfast Speck ') which are cured or smoked pork slices. Traditional German cold cuts favor ham over bacon, however "Wammerl '' (grilled pork belly) remains popular in Bavaria. Small bacon cubes (called "Grieben '' or "Grammerln '' in Austria and southern Germany) have been a rather important ingredient of various southern German dishes. They are used for adding flavor to soups and salads and for speck dumplings and various noodle and potato dishes. Instead of preparing them at home from larger slices, they have been sold ready made as convenience foods recently as "Baconwürfel '' ("bacon cubes '') in German retail stores. In Japan, bacon (ベーコン) is pronounced "bēkon ''. It is cured and smoked belly meat as in the US, and is sold in either regular or half - length sizes. Bacon in Japan is different from that in the US in that the meat is not sold raw, but is processed, precooked and has a ham - like consistency when cooked. Uncured belly rashers, known as bara (バラ), are very popular in Japan and are used in a variety of dishes (e.g. yakitori and yakiniku). A thin slice of bacon is known as a ' rasher '. Bacon is usually described as either streaky or back: Bacon may be cured in several ways; in particular it may be described as smoked or unsmoked. Many ways of curing add water to the meat; bacon sold as "dry cured '' does not have added water. For example, in a shop a particular type may be described as "dry - cured unsmoked back bacon ''. Fried or grilled bacon rashers are included in the traditional full breakfast, which varies slightly from country to country ("full Scottish '', etc.). A side of unsliced bacon is known as a ' slab '. An individual slice of bacon is known as a ' slice ' or ' strip '. American bacons include varieties smoked with hickory, mesquite or applewood and flavourings such as chili pepper, maple, brown sugar, honey, or molasses. The United States and Canada have seen an increase in the popularity of bacon and bacon - related recipes, dubbed "bacon mania ''. The sale of bacon in the US has increased significantly since 2011. Sales climbed 9.5 % in 2013, making it an all - time high of nearly $4 billion in US. In a survey conducted by Smithfield, 65 % of Americans would support bacon as their "national food ''. Dishes such as bacon explosion, chicken fried bacon, and chocolate - covered bacon have been popularised over the internet, as has using candied bacon. Recipes spread quickly through both countries ' national media, culinary blogs, and YouTube. Restaurants have organised and are organising bacon and beer tasting nights, The New York Times reported on bacon infused with Irish whiskey used for Saint Patrick 's Day cocktails, and celebrity chef Bobby Flay has endorsed a "Bacon of the Month '' club online, in print, and on national television. Commentators explain this surging interest in bacon by reference to what they deem American cultural characteristics. Sarah Hepola, in a 2008 article in Salon.com, suggests a number of reasons, one of them being that eating bacon in the modern, health - conscious world is an act of rebellion: "Loving bacon is like shoving a middle finger in the face of all that is healthy and holy while an unfiltered cigarette smoulders between your lips. '' She also suggests bacon is sexy (with a reference to Sarah Katherine Lewis ' book Sex and Bacon), kitsch, and funny. Hepola concludes by saying that "Bacon is American ''. Alison Cook, writing in the Houston Chronicle, argues the case of bacon 's American citizenship by referring to historical and geographical uses of bacon. Early American literature echoes the sentiment -- in Ebenezer Cooke 's 1708 poem The Sot - Weed Factor, a satire of life in early colonial America, the narrator already complains that practically all the food in America was bacon - infused. On 1 February 2017, The Ohio Pork Council released a report that demand for pork belly (bacon) product is outpacing supply. As of December 2016 national frozen pork belly inventory totaled 17.8 million lb (8.1 million kg), the lowest level in 50 years. Bacon dishes include bacon and eggs, bacon, lettuce, and tomato (BLT) sandwiches, Cobb salad, and various bacon - wrapped foods, such as scallops, shrimp, and asparagus. Recently invented bacon dishes include chicken fried bacon, chocolate covered bacon, and the bacon explosion. Tatws Pum Munud is a traditional Welsh stew, made with sliced potatoes, vegetables and smoked bacon. Bacon jam and bacon marmalade are also commercially available. In the US and Europe, bacon is commonly used as a condiment or topping on other foods, often in the form of bacon bits. Streaky bacon is more commonly used as a topping in the US on such items as pizza, salads, sandwiches, hamburgers, baked potatoes, hot dogs, and soups. In the US, sliced smoked back bacon is used less frequently than the streaky variety, but can sometimes be found on pizza, salads, and omelettes. Bacon is also used in adaptations of dishes; for example, bacon wrapped meatloaf, and can be mixed in with green beans or served sautéed over spinach. Bacon fat liquefies and becomes bacon dripping when it is heated. Once cool, it firms into lard if from uncured meat, or rendered bacon fat if from cured meat. Bacon fat is flavourful and is used for various cooking purposes. Traditionally, bacon grease is saved in British and southern US cuisine, and used as a base for cooking and as an all - purpose flavouring, for everything from gravy to cornbread to salad dressing. If streaky pork belly bacon sliced in cubes is being used for lard preparation, as traditionally in Germany, the parts with higher melting temperatures are roasted and stay in the lard. The result is Griebenschmalz, a famous spread. Bacon, or bacon fat, is often used for barding roast fowl and game birds, especially those that have little fat themselves. Barding consists of laying rashers of bacon or other fats over a roast; a variation is the traditional method of preparing filet mignon of beef, which is wrapped in rashers of bacon before cooking. The bacon itself may afterwards be discarded or served to eat, like cracklings. One teaspoon (4 g or 0.14 oz) of bacon grease has 38 calories (40 kJ / g). It is composed almost completely of fat, with very little additional nutritional value. Bacon fat is roughly 40 % saturated. Despite the disputed health risks of excessive bacon grease consumption, it remains popular in the cuisine of the American South. One 20 - gram (0.7 oz) rasher of cooked streaky bacon contains 5.4 grams (0.19 oz) of fat, and 4.4 grams (0.16 oz) of protein. Four pieces of bacon can also contain up to 800 mg of sodium, which is roughly equivalent to 1.92 grams of salt. The fat and protein content varies depending on the cut and cooking method. 68 % of the food energy of bacon comes from fat, almost half of which is saturated. 28 grams (1 oz) of bacon contains 30 milligrams of cholesterol (0.1 %). Bacon has a large amount of sodium, and the consumption of a large amount of sodium has traditionally been considered to put a person at risk for heart disease and high blood pressure. Bacon is considered by many doctors to be unhealthy if eaten in excess. A study conducted by researchers at the University of Zurich found a connection between eating processed meat and the risk of dying from heart disease or cancer. Processed meats contain preservatives known as nitrates that, when absorbed by the human body, convert into nitrosamine, a chemical compound that could cause cancer. A second study by researchers at Columbia University found that the consumption of cured meats increase a person 's chances of developing chronic pulmonary disease. Researchers from the Harvard School of Public Health found in 2010 that eating processed meats (such as bacon) that are preserved by smoking, curing or salting, or with the addition of chemical preservatives, was associated with an increased risk of both heart disease and diabetes. The same association was not found for unprocessed meat. A newly released publication about cancer research in the United Kingdom by the WHO says processed meats (like bacon or sausages) do cause cancer. Several alternatives to and substitutes for bacon have been developed for those who can not or prefer not to eat standard pork bacon. Turkey bacon is a popular alternative to bacon. People may choose turkey bacon over real bacon due to health benefits, religious laws, or other reasons. It is lower in fat and food energy than bacon, but may be used in a similar manner (such as in a BLT sandwich). The meat for turkey bacon comes from the whole turkey and can be cured or uncured, smoked, chopped, and reformed into strips that resemble bacon. Turkey bacon is cooked by pan-frying. Cured turkey bacon made from dark meat can be 90 % fat free. The low fat content of turkey bacon means it does not shrink while being cooked and has a tendency to stick to the pan. Macon is another alternative to bacon, produced by curing cuts of mutton in a manner similar to the production of pork bacon. Historically produced in Scotland, it was introduced across Britain during World War II as a consequence of rationing. It is today available as an alternative to bacon, produced for the Muslim market and sold at halal butchers; it is largely similar in appearance to pork bacon except for the colour (which tends to be black and yellow). Vegetarian bacon, also referred to as fakon, veggie bacon, or vacon, is a product marketed as a bacon alternative that is available in supermarkets. It has no cholesterol, is low in fat, and contains large amounts of protein and fibre. Two slices contain about 310 kilojoules (74 kcal). Vegetarian bacon is usually made from marinated strips of tofu or tempeh. Bacon Today states that bacon has a very valuable amount of protein that is "valuable to maintaining our energy levels and a fully functioning, healthy body ''. Everything Tastes Better with Bacon, a book by Sara Perry, is a cookbook that compliments bacon 's many uses in cooking. On the other hand, as with most meat products, producers of bacon have received heavy criticism for how their pigs are treated. Many petitions and protests have been made trying to raise awareness and change how producers treat their pigs. Many of these protests have turned out successful: for example, following NBC News 's report of an undercover investigation of an abusive pig farm, Tyson Foods terminated their contract with the pig farm. Similar to NBC 's investigation, The Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) investigated Seaboard Foods, one of the pig breeding facilities that supply Walmart. According to HSUS, the pigs were treated poorly and abused. Walmart spokesperson Diana Gee said, "As soon as we were made aware of the allegations, we immediately reached out to Seaboard to begin investigating the issue... Pending our review, we will take any action necessary. '' Petitions also exist that oppose poor treatment of pigs, many of which state that the current treatment of pigs in factories is cruel and unethical. The popularity of bacon in the United States has given rise to a number of commercial products that promise to add bacon flavouring without the labour involved in cooking it or the perceived negative qualities of bacon. Bacon bits are a frequently used topping on salad or potatoes, and a common element of salad bars. They are usually salted. Bacon bits are made from small, crumbled pieces of bacon; in commercial plants they are cooked in continuous microwave ovens. Similar products are made from ham or turkey, and analogues are made from textured vegetable protein, artificially flavoured to resemble bacon. There is also a wide range of other bacon - flavoured products, including a bacon - flavoured salt (Bacon Salt), Baconnaise (a bacon - flavoured mayonnaise), Bacon Grill (a tinned meat, similar to Spam) and bacon ice cream. Bacon has been gaining popularity over the past decade. It has become a fad on the internet. Epic Meal Time, a cooking show based on YouTube, features bacon in many of their episodes. In one episode entitled Bacon Tree, Epic Meal Time creates a tree made out of bacon using over 2,000 strips of bacon. In another episode entitled Boss Bacon Burger, over 400 strips of bacon are used to make a gigantic hamburger with bacon and other toppings. On 29 May 2012, the YouTubers Rhett and Link published a comedy video promoting the topical application of bacon as a cure - all. The video, "Rub Some Bacon on It '', had received over eleven million views in September 2016.

what permitted federalism as originally defined by the constitution to change

Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution - wikipedia The Tenth Amendment (Amendment X) to the United States Constitution, which is part of the Bill of Rights, was ratified on December 15, 1791. It expresses the principle of federalism and states ' rights, which strictly supports the entire plan of the original Constitution for the United States of America, by stating that the federal government possesses only those powers delegated to it by the United States Constitution. All remaining powers are reserved for the states or the people. The amendment was proposed by Congress in 1789 during its first term following the Constitutional Convention and ratification of the Constitution. It was considered by many members as a prerequisite of such ratification particularly to satisfy demands by the Anti-Federalism movement that opposed the creation of a stronger U.S. federal government. In drafting this amendment, its framers had two purposes in mind: first, as a necessary rule of construction; and second, as a reaffirmation of the nature of federalism. The full text of the amendment reads as follows: The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. The Tenth Amendment is similar to an earlier provision of the Articles of Confederation: "Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated to the United States, in Congress assembled. '' After the Constitution was ratified, South Carolina Representative Thomas Tudor Tucker and Massachusetts Representative Elbridge Gerry separately proposed similar amendments limiting the federal government to powers "expressly '' delegated, which would have denied implied powers. James Madison opposed the amendments, stating that "it was impossible to confine a Government to the exercise of express powers; there must necessarily be admitted powers by implication, unless the Constitution descended to recount every minutia. '' When a vote on this version of the amendment with "expressly delegated '' was defeated, Connecticut Representative Roger Sherman drafted the Tenth Amendment in its ratified form, omitting "expressly. '' Sherman 's language allowed for an expansive reading of the powers implied by the Necessary and Proper Clause. When he introduced the Tenth Amendment in Congress, James Madison explained that many states were eager to ratify this amendment, despite critics who deemed the amendment superfluous or unnecessary: I find, from looking into the amendments proposed by the State conventions, that several are particularly anxious that it should be declared in the Constitution, that the powers not therein delegated should be reserved to the several States. Perhaps words which may define this more precisely than the whole of the instrument now does, may be considered as superfluous. I admit they may be deemed unnecessary: but there can be no harm in making such a declaration, if gentlemen will allow that the fact is as stated. I am sure I understand it so, and do therefore propose it. The states decided to ratify the Tenth Amendment, and thus declined to signal that there are unenumerated powers in addition to unenumerated rights. The amendment rendered unambiguous what had previously been at most a mere suggestion or implication. The phrase "..., or to the people. '' was appended in handwriting by the clerk of the Senate as the Bill of Rights circulated between the two Houses of Congress. The Tenth Amendment, which makes explicit the idea that the federal government is limited to only the powers granted in the Constitution, has been declared to be a truism by the Supreme Court. In United States v. Sprague (1931) the Supreme Court asserted that the amendment "added nothing to the (Constitution) as originally ratified. '' States and local governments have occasionally attempted to assert exemption from various federal regulations, especially in the areas of labor and environmental controls, using the Tenth Amendment as a basis for their claim. An often - repeated quote, from United States v. Darby Lumber Co., reads as follows: The amendment states but a truism that all is retained which has not been surrendered. There is nothing in the history of its adoption to suggest that it was more than declaratory of the relationship between the national and state governments as it had been established by the Constitution before the amendment or that its purpose was other than to allay fears that the new national government might seek to exercise powers not granted, and that the states might not be able to exercise fully their reserved powers. The Supreme Court rarely declares laws unconstitutional for violating the Tenth Amendment. In the modern era, the Court has only done so where the federal government compels the states to enforce federal statutes. In 1992, in New York v. United States, for only the second time in 55 years, the Supreme Court invalidated a portion of a federal law for violating the Tenth Amendment. The case challenged a portion of the Low - Level Radioactive Waste Policy Amendments Act of 1985. The act provided three incentives for states to comply with statutory obligations to provide for the disposal of low - level radioactive waste. The first two incentives were monetary. The third, which was challenged in the case, obliged states to take title to any waste within their borders that was not disposed of prior to January 1, 1996, and made each state liable for all damages directly related to the waste. The Court, in a 6 -- 3 decision, ruled that the imposition of that obligation on the states violated the Tenth Amendment. Justice Sandra Day O'Connor wrote that the federal government can encourage the states to adopt certain regulations through the spending power (e.g. by attaching conditions to the receipt of federal funds, see South Dakota v. Dole, or through the commerce power (by directly pre-empting state law). However, Congress can not directly compel states to enforce federal regulations. In 1998, the Court again ruled that the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act violated the Tenth Amendment in Printz v. United States. The act required state and local law enforcement officials to conduct background checks on people attempting to purchase handguns. Justice Antonin Scalia, writing for the majority, applied New York v. United States to show that the law violated the Tenth Amendment. Since the act "forced participation of the State 's executive in the actual administration of a federal program '', it was unconstitutional. In 2012, in National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius, Chief Justice John Roberts, writing for the Court, held that the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (commonly referred to as the ACA or Obamacare) improperly coerced the States to expand Medicaid. He classified the ACA 's language as coercive because it effectively forced States to join the federal program by conditioning the continued provision of Medicaid funds on States agreeing to materially alter Medicaid eligibility to include all individuals who fell below 133 % of the poverty line. In 2018, in Murphy v. National Collegiate Athletic Association, the Supreme Court ruled that the Professional and Amateur Sports Protection Act of 1992, which prohibited states from legalizing sports betting, violated the anti-commandeering doctrine and invalided the entire law. In modern times, the Commerce Clause has become one of the most frequently - used sources of Congress 's power, and thus its interpretation is very important in determining the allowable scope of federal government. In the 20th century, complex economic challenges arising from the Great Depression triggered a reevaluation in both Congress and the Supreme Court of the use of Commerce Clause powers to maintain a strong national economy. In Wickard v. Filburn (1942), in the context of World War II, the Court ruled that federal regulations of wheat production could constitutionally be applied to wheat grown for "home consumption '' on a farm -- that is, wheat grown to be fed to farm animals or otherwise consumed on the farm. The rationale was that a farmer 's growing "his own wheat '' can have a substantial cumulative effect on interstate commerce, because if all farmers were to exceed their production quotas, a significant amount of wheat would either not be sold on the market or would be bought from other producers. Hence, in the aggregate, if farmers were allowed to consume their own wheat, it would affect the interstate market in wheat. In Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority (1985), the Court changed the analytic framework to be applied in Tenth Amendment cases. Prior to the Garcia decision, the determination of whether there was state immunity from federal regulation turned on whether the state activity was "traditional '' for or "integral '' to the state government. The Court noted that this analysis was "unsound in principle and unworkable in practice '', and rejected it without providing a replacement. The Court 's holding declined to set any formula to provide guidance in future cases. Instead, it simply held "... we need go no further than to state that we perceive nothing in the overtime and minimum - wage requirements of the FLSA... that is destructive of state sovereignty or violative of any constitutional provision. '' It left to future courts how best to determine when a particular federal regulation may be "destructive of state sovereignty or violative of any constitutional provision. '' In United States v. Lopez, a federal law mandating a "gun - free zone '' on and around public school campuses was struck down because, the Supreme Court ruled, there was no clause in the Constitution authorizing it. This was the first modern Supreme Court opinion to limit the government 's power under the Commerce Clause. The opinion did not mention the Tenth Amendment, and the Court 's 1985 Garcia opinion remains the controlling authority on that subject. Most recently, the Commerce Clause was cited in the 2005 decision Gonzales v. Raich. In this case, a California woman sued the Drug Enforcement Administration after her medical cannabis crop was seized and destroyed by federal agents. Medical cannabis was explicitly made legal under California state law by Proposition 215; however, cannabis is prohibited at the federal level by the Controlled Substances Act. Even though the woman grew cannabis strictly for her own consumption and never sold any, the Supreme Court stated that growing one 's own cannabis affects the interstate market of cannabis. The theory was that the cannabis could enter the stream of interstate commerce, even if it clearly was n't grown for that purpose and that was unlikely ever to happen (the same reasoning as in the Wickard v. Filburn decision). It therefore ruled that this practice may be regulated by the federal government under the authority of the Commerce Clause. Cooper v. Aaron, a 1958 Supreme Court case that dealt with states ' rights and the Tenth Amendment, came about when conflicts arose in direct response to the ruling of another landmark case, Brown v. Board of Education. In 1954, the Supreme Court unanimously decided on Brown v. Board of Education declaring racial segregation of children in public schools unconstitutional. Following the decision, the court ordered "district courts and school boards to proceed with desegregation ' with all deliberate speed ' ''. In other words, the Court 's decision not only ruled segregation as an unconstitutional and illegal practice, but also prompted all public schools to open its doors to black students and provide access to facilities to white and black students equally. This ruling quickly spurred upsetting conflicts between those trying to enforce the ruling and those refusing to abide by it. Among those opposing the decision and all efforts of desegregation ordered by the Court was the Governor of Arkansas, Orval Faubus. In Little Rock, Arkansas, a group of nine black students known as the "Little Rock Nine '' was to attend the previously all - white Central High School under the school board 's attempt to follow the order of Brown. However, the tension between the state legislature and the Governor versus the Supreme Court and the federal government became severe when Governor Faubus ordered the National Guard to prevent the nine black students from entering the high school and President Eisenhower responded by sending federal troops to escort them in. Because the Little Rock school board implementing the desegregation program fell under both the state and federal jurisdiction, it sought to alleviate itself from this distraught situation through legal means. Five months after the integration crisis happened, the school board filed suit in the United States District Court of the Eastern District of Arkansas requesting a two and a half year delay in implementing desegregation. Although the district court granted the relief, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit reversed the district court 's decision on August 18, 1958 and stayed its mandate pending appeal to the supreme Court. By this time, the incident had evolved into a national issue: it had become a debate on not only racism and segregation but also states ' rights and the Tenth Amendment. The Court, citing first, the Supremacy Clause of Article VI declaring the Constitution as the supreme law of the land and second, the Marbury v. Madison decision asserting the Court as the supreme interpreter of the Constitution as evidence of their superior authority, reaffirmed the decision of Brown and held that the states must abide by the Court 's decisions despite their disagreement with them. Expectedly, many states ' right advocates and state officials criticized the ruling as an attack on the Tenth Amendment that reserves the states ' right to resist the implementation of federal law or the Federal Constitution. Moreover, they claimed the Court 's decision on Cooper as being inconsistent with the constitutional vision of the Framers. Though the historical and political background to the rise of Cooper v. Aaron was the issue of segregation, the outcome of it was largely a Tenth Amendment issue. Whether the supremacy clause that the Supreme Court used to enforce its authority on the states is a violation of the Tenth Amendment or not is still being debated. The federal system limits the ability of the federal government to use state governments as an instrument of the national government, as held in Printz v. United States. However, where Congress or the Executive has the power to implement programs, or otherwise regulate, there are, arguably, certain incentives in the national government encouraging States to become the instruments of such national policy, rather than to implement the program directly. One incentive is that state implementation of national programs places implementation in the hands of local officials who are closer to local circumstances. Another incentive is that implementation of federal programs at the state level would in principle limit the growth of the national bureaucracy. For this reason, Congress often seeks to exercise its powers by offering or encouraging States to implement national programs consistent with national minimum standards; a system known as cooperative federalism. One example of the exercise of this device was to condition allocation of federal funding where certain state laws do not conform to federal guidelines. For example, federal educational funds may not be accepted without implementation of special education programs in compliance with IDEA. Similarly, the nationwide state 55 mph (90 km / h) speed limit,. 08 legal blood alcohol limit, and the nationwide state 21 - year drinking age were imposed through this method; the states would lose highway funding if they refused to pass such laws (though the national speed limit has since been repealed).

what do the guys on big bang theory do for work

List of the Big Bang Theory characters - wikipedia The American television sitcom The Big Bang Theory, created and executive produced by Chuck Lorre and Bill Prady, premiered on CBS on September 24, 2007. The series initially centers on five characters: roommates Leonard Hofstadter and Sheldon Cooper, two Caltech physicists; Penny, a waitress and aspiring actress who lives across the hall; and Leonard and Sheldon 's friends and co-workers aerospace engineer Howard Wolowitz, and astrophysicist Raj Koothrappali. Over time, several supporting characters have been introduced and promoted to starring roles, including Leslie Winkle, Amy Farrah Fowler, Bernadette Rostenkowski - Wolowitz, Stuart Bloom, and Emily Sweeney. The series also features numerous supporting characters, each of whom plays a prominent role in a small group of episodes. Included among them are parents of the main characters, their dates and their coworkers. Celebrities such as Stephen Hawking occasionally appear in cameo roles as themselves. Leonard Leakey Hofstadter (Johnny Galecki) is an experimental physicist with an IQ of 173. Originally from New Jersey, he received his PhD at age 24, spending at least some of his time at Princeton University. He shared an apartment in Pasadena with colleague and friend Dr. Sheldon Cooper until season 9. Unlike his equally geeky friends, Leonard is interested and quite adept in building interpersonal and social relationships with other people. Compared to his friends, he is relatively successful with women. The writers have toyed with a romance between him and next - door neighbor Penny since the series premiere, with their unresolved sexual tension being a major force for drama. Leonard dated Penny for most of season three, although they had dated briefly at the end of season one. Aside from Penny, Leonard has had romantic relationships with co-worker Leslie Winkle, physician Stephanie Barnett, an unnamed French literature PhD, and North Korean spy Joyce Kim. Following his break - up with Penny, Leonard began a relationship with Raj 's sister Priya in season four, and it is implied they had a brief sexual encounter before the start of the series. The two attempted a long - distance relationship after Priya moved back to India, but Leonard eventually broke up with her in season five after she admitted to cheating on him with her former boyfriend. In season five 's "The Recombination Hypothesis '', Leonard and Penny start dating anew, and although their relationship is initially rocky and Penny has doubts, in season six, she works through her doubts and has a stronger relationship with Leonard. In season six 's "The 43 Peculiarity '', she tells him she loves him for the first time, and this now makes them more comfortable in their relationship. Over the next two years, they talk about marriage and each have unsuccessful proposals until the penultimate episode of season seven, when they become engaged, and finally get married in the ninth - season premiere, followed with a wedding redo for their friends and families since the couple had eloped. In season, after Sheldon moves in with Amy, Leonard and Penny have apartment 4A to themselves. Leonard 's family includes other accomplished scientists: his mother, Dr. Beverly Hofstadter, is a neuroscientist and world - renowned psychiatrist, his sister is a medical researcher, and his father, Dr. Alfred Hofstadter, is an anthropologist. Also, his brother Michael is a Harvard law professor. He is known to be lactose intolerant, and is also known for playing the cello. Sheldon Lee Cooper (Jim Parsons) is a theoretical physicist, possessing a BS, MS, PhD, a Sc. D., and an IQ of 187. Originally from East Texas, he was a child prodigy, starting college at the age of 11, and receiving his PhD at age 16. He is usually cold, condescending, selfish, and immature, but at the same time it is commonly not intentionally hurtful and is in a well - meaning way; He just does n't know any better. He does have a softer side, as he does care about his friends, and loves his mom, grandma, and girlfriend Amy, though he often insults them either about their intellect levels or different opinions. He shares an apartment in Pasadena with friend and fellow physicist Dr. Leonard Hofstadter. Sheldon has a deep love and interest for science fiction and comic books, to the point of an obsession, and shows particular affinity for Spock, a fictional character from the Star Trek franchise. He usually wears clothing emblazoned with logos for these interests as well as science - related designs. Sheldon refrains from any form of physical contact if possible and exhibits a strict adherence to routines to the point of exhibiting signs of obsessive -- compulsive personality disorder. His disorder is confirmed by Amy in the ninth season. Any disruption to routines distresses him enormously. A running gag has him always knocking on doors in a pattern of three knocks and one call repeated three times, which he has the urge to complete no matter what. Sheldon has major difficulties in social settings; he shows great difficulty in identifying sarcasm and irony, and a recurring topic is his efforts to acquire those skills. His commitment to his friends is often called into question, as he is known for constantly and consistently being condescending and rude, many times even without being intentionally hurtful. He also has difficulties lying or keeping a secret, giving himself away with wild facial tics and implausible statements. He is, however, fond of occasionally telling a joke or playing a prank, which he typically punctuates with his trademark exclamation "Bazinga! ''. He has forced Leonard to sign an absurdly exhaustive "Roommate Agreement '', and later enters a similar "Relationship Agreement '' with Amy Farrah Fowler. Sheldon has a superiority complex and makes no effort to hide his contempt for other people 's lower intellects, often making highly inappropriate comments. A common joke is his inability to drive, relying on those around him to help him get anywhere. Unlike Leonard and Raj, who come from intellectual families, Sheldon stands out from his own relatives. His father, George, whose death antedates the series, is described as a stereotypical Texan who liked football, skeet shooting, and heavy drinking; his mother, Mary, is a devout Evangelical Christian, who does not seem to understand her son 's fields of study, although she does display common sense and intelligence; his fraternal twin sister, Missy, and as - yet unseen brother, George Jr., were both described by Mary as being "dumb as soup ''. His sister later has a baby boy, making Sheldon an uncle. He meets Amy Farrah Fowler in the third - season finale and starts a highly unusual and slowly evolving relationship with her. Prior to this, he had exhibited some affinities with Leonard 's equally unemotional mother. In the eighth - season finale, Amy takes a break from Sheldon, although the two resume their relationship halfway through the ninth season; as a sign of his love towards her, Sheldon decides to have sexual intercourse with her for her birthday in "The Opening Night Excitation ''. In the tenth season, Sheldon and Amy move in together for a five - week experiment to test out their compatibility. Afterwards, they decide to move in together permanently. At the very end of that same season, after admirer Ramona Nowitzki hits on Sheldon, he proposes to Amy. Penny Hofstadter (maiden name has not been revealed) (Kaley Cuoco), is Leonard and Sheldon 's neighbor across the hallway. Originally from a small town outside Omaha, Nebraska, she was a waitress and occasional bartender at the local Cheesecake Factory until season seven, and is an aspiring actress. According to her friend and neighbor Sheldon, she is a "good - natured simpleton ''. She is kind - hearted, outgoing, and does display the most common sense out of all the original five main characters. She also appears to be the most street - smart. Her lack of educational qualifications (she dropped out of community college) are a constant source of disparaging comments from Sheldon. She has dated several men during the course of the series, including Kurt, Stuart, and Zack, but her recurring romantic interest is Leonard. Leonard pursued Penny during season one; they dated briefly at the start of season two, which led to some awkwardness; they began dating again and were a couple for most of season three, but she broke up with him after he told her he loved her and she was not ready to reciprocate. Penny and Leonard begin to date again "slowly '' during the fifth season. After several unsuccessful proposals from both sides, Penny realizes that her happiness is derived from her relationship with Leonard and they become engaged and later get married, though they upset their families by eloping, so they later have a wedding redo for their families and their friends. She has a tense relationship with Sheldon, whose nerdy and obstinate personality often exasperates her, but they are ultimately good friends, helping each other out in various situations. By season four, Penny also begins to socialize more with Bernadette and Amy, who frequently hang out in Penny 's apartment, go out together, and comfort each other. Bernadette and Amy are both shown to be simultaneously envious of and threatened by Penny 's more outgoing personality. At the start of season eight, Penny pursues a career in pharmaceuticals and interviews for a job at Bernadette 's workplace. She gets the job, and gradually becomes more independent, including earning her own high salary; however, she reveals in season nine that she is not happy with her job. In season 10, Leonard and Penny are finally living alone in apartment 4A after Sheldon moves in with Amy. Initially, not much is known about Penny 's family, but it is mentioned in the series that her father, Wyatt (portrayed by Keith Carradine,) raised her like a boy, her mother smoked marijuana while she was pregnant with her, her sister shot her husband while they were intoxicated, and her brother is a meth dealer. Her mother, Susan (Katey Segal), and brother, Randall (Jack McBrayer), are finally seen in person in season ten. Howard Joel Wolowitz, M. Eng. (Simon Helberg) is an aerospace engineer at Caltech 's Department of Applied Physics, who often hangs out at Leonard and Sheldon 's apartment. Unlike Sheldon, Leonard, and Raj, Howard has no doctorate, and often gets disparaged as a result, especially by Sheldon. He defends this by pointing out that he has a master 's degree in Engineering from MIT and that the equipment he designs is launched into space, unlike the theoretical work of his friends. In the fifth - season finale, Howard goes to the International Space Station on Expedition 31. Howard lives in Altadena with his domineering, belittling, and unseen mother, who treats him like a child. While he sometimes expresses irritation at this treatment, for the most part, he appears to prefer it. Howard dotes on his mother and participates in many of her daily routines. A recurring gimmick in the series is Howard and his mother communicating with each other from different rooms by yelling, a habit which Bernadette also adopts in later episodes. His father left them when he was 11, and Howard gets visibly distressed when the subject comes up. Howard fancies himself a ladies ' man and attempts pick - up lines whenever a woman is present, which often come off as inappropriate and disgusting, although he has dropped this habit since he started going out with Bernadette. He is Jewish, but he is not very serious about his faith, and does not keep kosher. However, he does observe the Sabbath and the Jewish holidays. In the pilot episode, he speaks English, French, Mandarin, Russian, Arabic, and Persian, along with fictional (constructed or colangs) languages like Klingon and Sindarin. He is asthmatic, allergic to peanuts, almonds, and walnuts, prone to canker sores and pink eye, succumbs to seasickness, has an incredibly high genetic risk of heart illness, and has transient idiopathic arrhythmia. Howard dated Bernadette briefly in season three. After some difficulties, they resumed their relationship in season four, which culminated in their engagement. In the fifth - season finale, Howard and Bernadette are married on the roof of the apartment building shortly before he has to leave for Kazakhstan, where he is to be sent to the International Space Station. In season six, he finally leaves his mother 's house and moves into Bernadette 's apartment. In the episode "The Comic Book Store Regeneration '', Howard 's mother passes away in her sleep while in Florida, prompting him to move back into his home with Bernadette. Stuart, the owner of the guys ' favorite comic book store, joins them, much to their annoyance. Upon finding out that Bernadette is pregnant in season nine, Howard freaks out about how to handle the baby situation, particularly earning enough money. With the help of his friends, he designs a new form of guidance system that attracts the attention of the Air Force. In "The Birthday Synchronicity '' his wife Bernadette gives birth to a girl named Halley (Pamela Adlon) who screams like his late mother, Debbie Wolowitz. Rajesh Ramayan Koothrappali, PhD (Kunal Nayyar) is Howard Wolowitz 's best friend and another genius of the group; his name is usually shortened to "Raj ''. He is originally from New Delhi, India, and he works in the physics department at Caltech, where his area of expertise is astroparticle physics. He lives in an apartment in Pasadena. As with his friends, he is mutually involved with and obsessed with science fiction and comic books in general. He is also a fan of Harry Potter. Raj dislikes India, Indian food and Indian music, but appreciates the Indian lullabies his mother sang to him and the catchiness of Hindi phrases. Raj is a Hindu and believes in karma (reincarnation), but eats beef. He is very shy around women outside of his family, and during the first six seasons of the show, found himself unable to speak to women while in the presence of them unless he drank alcoholic beverages, or he believed he had done so. When Penny, Amy, and Bernadette were around, Raj usually whispered what he wanted to say to Howard or Leonard, who then repeated or responded to what Raj said out loud. Despite this, Raj has sometimes ended up in bed with women, leaving the other guys perplexed. Unlike his friends, Raj has many feminine interests, such as reading Archie comics and Twilight and watching chick flicks such as Bridget Jones 's Diary. A recurring joke in the series has people, including his parents and Leonard 's mother, speculating that Raj might be gay due to his feminine interests and his close friendship with Howard, with whom he has arguments similar to those of a married couple. However, Raj has always stated that he is straight, but metrosexual. He has had an infatuation with Penny, and secretly wrote love poems about Bernadette. Raj comes from a very wealthy family in India, and often communicates with his parents, Dr. and Mrs. Koothrappali, via webcam. He has a younger sister, Priya. In season six, Raj started seeing a shy and sweet woman named Lucy, who had many things in common with Raj. However, she feels too pressured when he asks her to meet his friends and breaks up with him. Afterwards, Raj finally speaks to Penny without having consumed alcohol. As of season seven, he no longer requires alcohol, drugs, or medication to speak in front of women. In season seven, Raj starts dating Emily Sweeney, a dermatologist, and their relationship becomes exclusive at the end of the seventh season. In the ninth season, he meets a bartender / scriptwriter and dates her along with Emily. However, in season ten, he mentions he is currently single. After cutting himself off from his parents ' money, Raj moves into an apartment over Bert 's garage. Leslie Winkle, PhD (Sara Gilbert) is an experimental physicist who works in the same lab as Leonard. In appearance, she is essentially Leonard 's female counterpart, equipped with the black - framed glasses and sweat jackets. She also happens to have a lazy eye. Leslie has had casual sexual relationships with both Leonard and Howard, considering it a completely physical reaction to her body 's cycles. She is one of Sheldon 's arch - enemies, due to their conflicting scientific theories. Though they both consider each other to be intellectually inferior, Leslie is much wittier than Sheldon, regularly calling him "dumbass '' and besting him in their exchanges. However, Sheldon did gain a small victory over her when he caused her and Leonard 's break up after deliberately instigating an argument between the two. Sara Gilbert made her first appearance in the third episode of season one and her final appearance as a regular in the third - season finale; Entertainment Weekly reported in January 2009 that she had been downgraded from starring status to recurring because the producers of the series were unable to come up with new storylines for the character. She returned for a guest role in the 200th episode, "The Celebration Experimentation '', in season nine, with her character talking briefly about how she and Sheldon have changed over the years and affectionately calls him "dumbass '' again at Sheldon 's insistence (due to his dislike for changes). Bernadette Maryann Rostenkowski - Wolowitz, PhD (Melissa Rauch) is originally a waitress and co-worker of Penny 's at The Cheesecake Factory, using her wages to pay for her graduate studies in microbiology. She is a smart, short - tempered, ruthless, and often competitive young woman who sometimes displays a sweet, nice, and friendly personality. Despite her high - pitched voice, she has a darker side. A recurring joke in the series is in reference to Bernadette and her lab team handling dangerous or infectious specimens, leading to accidental byproducts or exposure to diseases, in some cases resulting in Bernadette ending up in quarantine. Bernadette is of Polish origin and Catholic upbringing, and was originally seen wearing a cross necklace. She frequently manipulates people, often pretending to be a friendly and good - natured individual, quickly making friends with Penny and Amy, as well as the rest of the gang. Despite her short stature, she is regarded as being somewhat intimidating, largely because of her sharp tongue, aggressive demeanor, and occasional signs of mania. In season eight 's "The Locomotion Interruption '', Penny interviews for a pharmaceutical sales representative position with Bernadette 's boss, and secures because she concurs with his opinion that Bernadette is kind of a bully and that they are slightly terrified of her. Bernadette has demonstrated that she has some influence over both her father and her husband, including directly supervising Howard 's expenditures by giving him allowance money. On one occasion, she was also able to influence Sheldon into a decision of which he originally disapproved. Penny first introduced Bernadette to Howard on Leonard 's half - willing request. During their first date, Bernadette and Howard do not find any common field of interest until they discover that they both have domineering mothers. After their third date, Bernadette declares that three dates is the threshold for deciding whether they want a long - term relationship. Blindsided, Howard hesitates initially, causing a temporary rift between them, but then impulsively proposes marriage to show her that he does care about her. Frustrated, she declines, but when he sings a heartfelt song for her at the Cheesecake Factory, she declares that it is the most romantic thing anyone has ever done for her and their relationship continues. A lengthy offscreen breakup occurs when she catches Howard engaging in cybersex, but Howard apologizes and she consents to restarting their relationship. In the fourth season, she obtains her doctorate and is subsequently hired by a pharmaceutical company that offers her a high salary. While preparing for their wedding, Bernadette is shocked and repulsed when she learns about Howard 's past sexual escapades, although once again, an apology and reconciliation occurs in the same episode. They marry the day before Howard leaves for his upcoming mission aboard the International Space Station. During seasons six and seven, the newlyweds deal with Howard 's difficulty in readjusting to life on Earth, the struggle to keep a healthy relationship with Howard 's mother, and arguments over money. In the ninth - season episode, "The Valentino Submergence '', Bernadette reveals that she is pregnant, informing Howard in the next episode. She comically reveals that the baby was conceived in Sheldon 's bed, much to Sheldon 's chagrin. Raj learns about the baby 's gender and inadvertently reveals that the child is a girl. In "The Birthday Synchronicity '' Bernadette gives birth to a girl named Halley who screams like her late mother - in - law, Debbie Wolowitz. Amy Farrah Fowler, PhD (Mayim Bialik) is a neuroscientist and Sheldon 's love interest in the series. She has a PhD in neurobiology (Bialik herself has a PhD in neuroscience), with a research focus on addiction in primates and invertebrates, occasionally mentioning such experiments as getting a capuchin monkey addicted to cigarettes or starfish addicted to cocaine. Raj and Howard found Amy through an online dating site after secretly setting up an account using Sheldon 's name and information. The site matches her to Sheldon, and the two share many similar traits. Once she and Sheldon meet, she becomes, as Sheldon puts it, a girl who is his friend, but not his "girlfriend ''. The two initially communicate by computer, but at the encouragement of the group, she starts socializing with the gang in person. Interestingly, earlier in the series, in the physics bowl episode, Leonard 's team mentions getting the girl from the Blossom TV series on their team as she earned a Ph. D in real life. This was Mayim Bialik who later played Amy Farrah Fowler. Early on, Amy is essentially a female counterpart to Sheldon. She is coldly rational, displays little emotion, and is awkward in social situations ranging from endearing to embarrassing. In season five, after Amy goes out on a date with comic - book store owner Stuart, Sheldon decides to solidify their relationship as boyfriend / girlfriend with a 31 - page "Relationship Agreement ''. Later in the season, Amy begins a campaign to increase Sheldon 's feelings for her by becoming more involved in his interests, including video games and Star Trek, and treating him as his mother did. Sheldon says during Howard and Bernadette 's wedding ceremony that he hopes the two of them are as happy together as he is alone, hurting Amy 's feelings, but he spontaneously takes her hand for comfort later as Howard is launched into space. By the beginning of season six, they are regularly holding hands at Amy 's insistence, but Sheldon repeatedly resists all of her attempts to engage in further physical intimacy. By mid-season, Sheldon gets some intimate views of Amy when he cares for her while she has the flu, pushing him further toward a traditional relationship with her. She also provides Sheldon with consoling hugs, and was slapped on the rear by an intoxicated Sheldon telling everyone that she is a great gal. Amy tries to move into Sheldon 's apartment when Leonard temporarily vacates it, but has to give that up. Sheldon, after being prodded by Barry Kripke about his girlfriend, lies that he is having sex with Amy, though he admits to Penny that it might really happen between Amy and him, and later admits it to Amy, while also engaging in Dungeons and Dragons intercourse game play. Nevertheless, her frustration is frequently played for laughs from that point onward. In the season - seven episode "The Locomotive Manipulation '', Sheldon sarcastically says he will give Amy the romance she wants, then passionately kisses her on the lips for the first time and enjoys it. In "The Prom Equivalency '', Sheldon and Amy admit to being in love with each other. While early on Amy was ambivalent and often condescending towards Penny and Bernadette, she later spends more time with them, even at the expense of her time with Sheldon. As her appearances have progressed, she has shed her strident, aloof personality for a stereotypically feminine and social one, although she retains some social awkwardness. Her feelings for Sheldon have also grown considerably over time, and she considers him to be ideal in almost every way, though she sometimes becomes as annoyed and frustrated by Sheldon 's quirks as his other friends do. Amy also intensely wants her relationship with Sheldon to progress to include sexual intimacy, a drastic departure from her early days as a member of the circle of friends. She has come to consider Penny a very close friend, sometimes referring to her as her "bestie '', occasionally admitting her entire social life revolves around Penny. Penny is fond of Amy, but to her dismay, Amy often fails to grasp the concept of "girl talk '', by talking about feminine hygiene and anatomy when in her presence and at times being brutally honest. Amy also often demonstrates an infatuation towards Penny, occasionally bordering on physical attraction, and she has demonstrated a somewhat condescending attitude towards Bernadette, though still considering her a close friend. Amy can play the harp. In "The Scavenger Vortex '', she mentioned that she attended Harvard University. In the final episode of season eight, "The Commitment Determination '', Amy decides to take a break from her relationship with Sheldon due to the lack of physical affection. Sheldon had intended to propose to Amy, but she took a break from the relationship before he could ask her. Amy ultimately breaks up with Sheldon after a serious falling out, but they slowly rekindle their relationship and eventually have sex as a birthday present from Sheldon. When Sheldon 's grandmother visits in season nine, she confronted Amy for hurting Sheldon and unintentionally revealed the secret engagement ring in his possession. Although Amy was initially shocked, she became really happy to know that Sheldon loves her enough to have considered taking that step forward in their relationship. Amy later prepares a surprise birthday party for Sheldon, which he has not previously celebrated with the group. After a plumbing accident makes her apartment uninhabitable in season 10, Sheldon and Amy embark on a five - week experiment living together to test out their compatibility. Amy later admits she lied about how long the repairs were taking so that she could continue living with Sheldon. They eventually move into Penny 's old apartment together, while Penny moves in with Leonard. Afterwards, they decide to move in together permanently. Amy is later offered a three - month course at a science camp in New Jersey and leaves with Sheldon 's encouragement, but becomes angry when she learns of Sheldon spending time with Ramona Nowitzki, who she suspects has romantic feelings for Sheldon (which she does). In the season finale, after Ramona kisses Sheldon, she is visited by Sheldon, who proposes to her. The episode ends before she can answer. In the Season 11 premiere episode "The Proposal Proposal '', which picks up where the previous season 's finale left off, after being shortly interrupted by a phone call from Leonard and Penny, Amy finally said yes. Stuart David Bloom (Kevin Sussman) runs the Comic Center of Pasadena, the comic - book store that the guys visit. Stuart is characterized by his low self - esteem and loneliness, which often result in pathetic attempts to engage with women and win favor with the main cast. This is despite owning his own (albeit troubled) business, and being a talented portraiture artist who attended the Rhode Island School of Design. During Stuart 's first appearances in season 2, he showed enough social skills to ask Penny on a date on two different occasions. Neither of the dates ended successfully, however. In season five, he also briefly went on a date with Amy, although Sheldon interrupted the date to solidify his relationship with her. Stuart was the partner of Wil Wheaton in a trading - card game tournament in which they defeated the team of Raj and Sheldon. As Stuart runs a comic - book store, he has an almost encyclopedic knowledge of comic books and superheroes. In the season - four episode "The Toast Derivation '', he mentions that he is in financial trouble and that the store is now also his home, and over the years, he has questioned the profitability or success running the store. During "The Decoupling Fluctuation '', Stuart becomes close friends with Raj and starts hanging out with the gang as a replacement for Howard while Howard is in space. When Howard returns, Sheldon wants to dismiss Stuart from the group, but Raj objects. Leonard tie - breaks on the basis that they are receiving a 20 % discount in Stuart 's store, and Sheldon relents after Stuart offers to go as high as 30 %, thereby becoming a bigger and more prominent part of the core group. After his comic - book store burns down, Howard offers him a place to stay and a job as his mother 's nurse. Stuart likes the job and develops a surprising closeness with Howard 's mother, even staying there long after she had recovered, much to Howard 's annoyance. After the death of Howard 's mother, Howard and Bernadette move back into the house, with Stuart still staying. In the eighth - season finale, the two attempt to ask Stuart to move out, but are unable to bring themselves to do it (as it just so happens to be his birthday that day). He eventually made the decision himself to move out of the house in the middle of season 9; however in the middle of season 10, he reveals that he has been evicted from his apartment and tries to use his helping with Howard and Bernadette 's baby to move back in with them, much to Raj 's chagrin. Kevin Sussman was a recurring guest actor from seasons two to five, and was promoted to starring role for the sixth season onwards. Emily Sweeney, MD (Laura Spencer) is a dermatologist at Huntington Hospital, whom Raj finds on an online dating site. Emily went to Harvard, and is shown to have a slightly alarming personality; she delights in the macabre. In season seven, after finding Emily 's online dating profile, Raj has Amy contact her. Amy and Emily exchange emails and find they have a lot in common. Emily does not like Raj 's inability to correspond with her directly, but when he does show up to meet her, he acts weirdly and she leaves. Raj later bumps into Emily and apologizes for their previous encounter. She gives him another chance and agrees to go out to dinner with him. In "The Relationship Diremption '', Raj and Emily have dinner with Howard and Bernadette. Upon meeting Emily, Howard recognizes her from a blind date they had sometime before he met Bernadette. The blind date ended badly, causing him embarrassment at the dinner, but not any issues. In "The Gorilla Dissolution '', Raj and Sheldon bump into Emily at the movies with another guy. Later, she visits him to talk and reveals that the guy was her tattoo artist who had been asking her out for weeks and she did so just to end the obligation. Emily then spends the night and in the next episode, Raj reveals to the gang that Emily and he are exclusive. In season eight, Raj introduces Emily to Leonard and Penny; however, Penny senses that Emily does not like her. Emily reveals that she is uncomfortable with the fact that Raj and Penny previously hooked up. Emily and Penny later sit down to settle their differences, with mixed results. Emily continues to socialize with the gang in season 8, and in the finale, she suggests to Raj that they have sex in a graveyard. Raj wonders whether he should break up with her due to her alarming personality. The next season, Raj somewhat rashly breaks up with Emily after meeting another girl, Claire, and fantasizing about starting a family with her, though Claire makes amends with her boyfriend and berates Raj for his actions. He tries to reconcile with Emily, but she shuts the door in his face. Later in the season, Emily and Raj reconcile after a tearful phone call. However, in season 10, Raj mentions that he is currently single. He and Howard invite Emily, Claire, Lucy and Emily the deaf woman to Raj 's apartment for an intervention to find out why women keep dumping Raj. Emily mentions that although she enjoyed her sexual relationship with Raj, she was put off by his fear of his parents. Laura Spencer was a recurring guest actress on the series in seasons seven and eight. During production of season 9, she was promoted to a "fractional '' starring role; the upgraded status ensured her availability on an as - needed basis, without requiring her in every episode. The following list is sorted in alphabetic order of first names. Alex Jensen (Margo Harshman) is an attractive Caltech graduate student who appears in season six. She is hired by Sheldon to review his kindergarten and elementary - school notebooks for any possible Nobel Prize - winning research and attend to the tasks that Sheldon perceives a waste of his own valuable time. Amy is at first jealous until she sees Alex instead flirting with an unresponsive Leonard. After repeated flirts by Alex, Leonard finally realizes that Alex is making advances toward him. While proclaiming his loyalty to Penny, Leonard is flattered. Sheldon interferes (with the perceived intention of mitigating a situation that needed none) by lecturing Alex, but only succeeds in insulting her. After Alex files a sexual harassment complaint, Sheldon is forced to apologize and is ordered take a university - mandated online sexual - harassment course. Because Sheldon considers his own time as too valuable to waste on it, Sheldon asks Alex to take the course instead. For Valentine 's Day, Sheldon sends Alex out to buy a present for Amy, which he likes so much, he keeps it himself. Alfred Hofstadter (Judd Hirsch) is Leonard 's father, an anthropologist who once worked with famed archaeologist Louis Leakey. He was miserable in his marriage to Leonard 's mother Beverly, who was always annoying and was unmotherly towards their children. Alfred claimed she was cold and emasculating, and had not shown him any physical affection for years. On another bit, when Leonard was six, he walked in on his parents naked, and she was swatting his rear end with Leonard 's brand - new ping - pong paddle, and as a result in season three, the two were revealed to be getting divorced after he had had an affair with a waitress. In his first appearance in "The Convergence - Convergence '' during his visit for Leonard and Penny 's rewedding, he meets Mary Cooper and the two get along great as they have each other 's nice, gentle, and caring personalities, bonding over their mutual dislike of Beverly, and their admiration of each other 's beliefs. The two of them end up fighting with Beverly at the restaurant during the pre-ceremony dinner and the two leave together and after finding out they are staying at the same hotel, they decide to share a cab and it is implied that the two hook up. In "The Conjugal Conjecture '', Alfred is revealed to have not slept with Mary, but they still plan on seeing each other in the future. In the ceremony, he says that though Beverly and he do not bring the best out in each other, something wonderful did come out of their relationship: Leonard. Beverly agrees. On the way to the airport, they appear to be civil for about a minute until they start bickering over Leonard 's driving. Arthur Jeffries, or Professor Proton (Bob Newhart) is the star of a science show that Sheldon and Leonard watched as children. After the show was cancelled, Jeffries was not taken seriously as a scientist and resorted to doing children 's parties as his persona. In "The Proton Resurgence '', Sheldon hires him to do a private party for Leonard and himself (and Penny). Later, Jeffries ends up having a heart attack as a result of climbing the apartment stairs with his equipment. He asks Sheldon to take his place at a party for a Korean family, which Sheldon agrees to do as "Professor Proton, Jr ''. While Sheldon idolizes him, Jeffries is constantly irritated by Sheldon 's personality, and takes a shine to Penny. In "The Proton Displacement '', Leonard, Sheldon, and Amy bump into Jeffries at a drugstore, and Sheldon becomes upset when Jeffries asks Leonard for help on a paper instead of him, and when he finds out that Jeffries thinks he is annoying, Sheldon works with Bill Nye the Science Guy, whom Jeffries accuses of stealing material from his TV show. After Nye abandons Sheldon and files for a restraining order against him, Jeffries arrives at Sheldon and Leonard 's apartment and asks Sheldon for his advice on his paper (although Sheldon already hacked his email account and read it for himself). In "The Proton Transmogrification '' on Star Wars Day, Leonard tells Sheldon that Jeffries has died. Sheldon immediately pretends like he does not care and refuses to go to the funeral. Jeffries appears to Sheldon in a dream, where Sheldon compares him to Obi - Wan Kenobi, dressing him in Jedi robes and making him appear as a Force ghost. When Sheldon asks for his wisdom, Jeffries tells Sheldon to appreciate everything in life, including his friends, and never take it for granted. Jeffries returns in "The Opening Night Excitation '' when his ghost convinces Sheldon to spend time with Amy on her birthday instead of going to see Star Wars: The Force Awakens as he had planned to do for months. After hearing Professor Proton 's words, Sheldon decides to prove his devotion to Amy by finally having sex with her, as she has been hoping he will do for the past few years. Some time later, after Sheldon takes Amy to see The Force Awakens, Jeffries returns to Sheldon to ask him about his first sexual experience with her, but Sheldon thinks Jeffries is talking about the film and tells him he enjoyed it. For his role as Jeffries, in 2013, Newhart won his first Primetime Emmy Award. Barry Kripke, PhD (John Ross Bowie) is a coworker of the guys, who frequently clashes with Sheldon. He works in plasma physics. Kripke has a case of rhotacism in which he pronounces the letters "R '' and "L '' as "W '' in much the same way as Elmer Fudd from Looney Tunes and Gilda Radner in her "Baba Wawa '' sketches. In season five, Kripke purchases an iPhone with voice - recognition technology, but due to his rhotacism, the device is incapable of understanding his verbal "wequests '', prompting him to deride it as ineffective. Until season seven, whether he was aware of his impediment was never clarified. In his first appearance, he pits his robot, the Kripke Krippler, against the men 's robot, M.O.N.T.E., in an unofficial robot fight. The guys lose to Kripke, and M.O.N.T.E. is destroyed. In "The Friendship Algorithm '', Sheldon attempts to befriend Kripke to gain access to an open science grid computer to carry out research, but it turns out to be futile, as Kripke has no control over the computer 's usage time, and Sheldon consequently expels Kripke from the group. Kripke continues his antagonism towards Sheldon in "The Vengeance Formulation '' by pulling a prank on Sheldon when he is a guest on NPR 's Science Friday by putting a helium tank in his office. In "The Toast Derivation '', Sheldon tries to befriend Kripke and a few others when he is feeling excluded by his friends, but Kripke and the others all connect in a manner that Sheldon finds ' wrong ' and leaves. In season five, Kripke and Sheldon battle over a retired professor 's office, but after a long sports contest, Kripke loses to Sheldon. He is later invited to Howard 's bachelor party, where he uses his turn toasting to complain that no strippers are at the party. In season six, Kripke and Sheldon are forced to work together on a proposal involving fusion reactors, which involves an exchange of work. Sheldon is shocked to discover that Kripke 's work is more advanced than his own, and he tearfully admits as much to Amy. Kripke assumes that Sheldon is in a sexual relationship with Amy, and that has led to his work quality declining, and Sheldon does not deny it (although this appears to be just a convenient excuse since his work is inferior to Kripke 's). Kripke also battles for tenure alongside Sheldon, Leonard, and Raj. In season seven, Kripke ridicules Sheldon when his discovery of a new element was false, nicknaming Sheldon "The Retractor ''. In season nine, Kripke calls Sheldon and Amy 's live show Fun with Flags along with Raj and directs the conversation to irrelevant questions to the show. He also uses the show to call out for potential romantic relationships and asked Amy questions about her love life when Sheldon and she broke up. He attends Sheldon 's birthday party and constantly hits on Leonard 's mother, Beverly. Professor Bertram Kibbler (Brian Posehn) is an employee of the Caltech geology department who met Amy while she was working there in her own lab in "The Occupation Recalibration ''. Bert keeps bringing Amy interesting and beautiful rocks every day. It takes Howard and Raj to point out that he likes her. Bert then asks her to a rock and mineral show which she declines because she has a boyfriend. When Bert starts talking about how no one wants to do anything with him, Amy in a fit of sympathy agrees to go. Unfortunately, Bert is taking it as a date. Raj and Howard offer to talk to him to let him down easy and they end up going with him to the show. Bert first appeared in "The Contractual Obligation Implementation '' where he is socially awkward and Raj meets just prior to a library date with Lucy. He tried to crash their date and Raj sent him away. His name was n't mentioned in the plot, but the closing credits gave the name Bert. In "The Dependence Transcendence '', Bert hosts a Caltech party that only Amy and Penny attend. He feels that Amy is the coolest girl at work and that Sheldon is cool only because he is dating Amy. As the girls are leaving, he tells them that he is in love with both of them. He reappeared in "The Fetal Kick Catalyst '' as a guest at Sheldon and Amy 's brunch in their apartment. He mentions that a girlfriend he was living with once moved out and took all his best rocks. In "The Geology Elevation '', Bert wins the McArthur Fellowship Grant from Caltech, which makes Sheldon jealous. When he is finally confronted by Sheldon over the latter 's jealousy, Bert points out that the theoretical physicist has his friends and Amy to be happy about. He later goes with Sheldon to The Ellen DeGeneres Show to make peace with him. His full name is shown in his award. By the end of season 10, Raj moves into the apartment over Bert 's garage. Bert reappeared in "The Separation Agitation '', and it 's revealed that he has a recent girlfriend named Rebecca, who only appears to be with him for his grant money. After breaking up with her, Bert instantly regrets it and buys expensive stuff to successfully win her back. And at the episode, he is revealed to have won her back. Beverly Hofstadter (Christine Baranski) is Leonard 's narcissistic, unloving, and overly analytical mother until season 8, in which Sheldon 's mother, Mary persuades her to be a loving mother. Beverly is a neuroscientist, as well as a psychiatrist. She is Sheldon 's female equivalent regarding neurotically strict speech patterns, lack of social conventions, and attention to detail. The only reason she had children was to use them as personal experiments for her research, so was very distant and unmotherly towards Leonard. Beverly mentions that Leonard 's brother and sister are more successful in their respective fields than he is, though she respects this enough to keep contact with them (unlike Leonard); she is not proud, since they are not her accomplishments. One of her famous books is Needy Baby, Greedy Baby, in which she describes an infant 's (Leonard 's) unrealistic nurturing expectations. Sheldon often refers to her books when frustrated with Leonard 's attempt to obtain some of his personal needs in their relationship. Leonard sees his mother as cold and not nurturing, even telling Penny that one time he made a hugging machine just to get hugs (and that his father asked to borrow it). The lack of Beverly 's maternal feelings and actions toward Leonard has led to him being called the "King of Foreplay '' because of his obsessive need to please. In her first visit, Beverly makes Penny cry by delving into her history with her father (driving her, and later Leonard, to the bottle), and considers Raj and Howard 's relationship to be an "ersatz homosexual marriage ''. After bonding with Sheldon, Beverly sings Journey 's "Any Way You Want It '' with him on karaoke. In season three, Beverly comes to visit at Christmas, where she later gets drunk with Penny at the Cheesecake Factory, gropes a busboy, and then goes to Del Taco and returns to Leonard and Sheldon 's apartment where she kisses Sheldon while intoxicated. In season five, Sheldon calls Beverly on Skype to help Leonard following Penny and Raj 's hook - up, and she tells Leonard to "buck up, sissypants... If you need any more help from me, my books are available on Amazon ''. In season seven, Leonard uses Beverly 's latest book to get sympathy from Penny. However, Bernadette finds out from Howard what Leonard is doing and tells Penny, who calls Beverly, leaving a briefly pantsless Leonard to chat with his mother on Skype. Leonard later informs his mother of his engagement to Penny, but she reveals that Sheldon already told her. She decides to accept his relationship with Penny because Sheldon likes her. In season eight, Beverly comes to visit to see Leonard receive an award, where she meets Sheldon 's mother, Mary. The mothers get into an argument after Beverly describes Mary 's religious beliefs as a superstition, and Mary, in turn, berates Beverly for her cold and distant attitude towards Leonard. Beverly later reflects with Sheldon that perhaps other ways exist to raise children than she did. The mothers make up and Beverly tries to show affection by hugging Leonard, though it is awkward for both of them. In season nine, she attends Sheldon 's birthday party and enjoys getting hit on by Barry Kripke. Later, she admits that she feels insulted about not being invited to her son 's wedding and accepts a wedding redo. She is not happy about Leonard 's father coming since their marriage ended because he had an affair. The two of them end up arguing all night and Beverly once again fights with Mary. At the ceremony, she agrees with her ex-husband that Leonard was the best thing to come out of their relationship. For her role as Beverly, in both 2009 and 2010, Baranski was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series. Claire (Alessandra Torresani) is a writer for a children 's science fiction series whom Raj and Howard meet in the comic book store. Claire wants to collaborate with Raj on the science portions of a movie script. She is only interested in his technical assistance, but Raj develops visions of marriage and children. After Raj breaks up with Emily, he calls Claire on Valentine 's Day, only to learn that she has just got back together with her boyfriend. She also calls Raj an "ass '' for breaking up with Emily just before Valentine 's Day. Later, however, she asks Raj out for a drink after she has again broken up with her boyfriend. She and Raj continue to date, but they keep their relationship casual with no commitment. When she meets Raj 's friends, Raj accidentally reveals that he has been dating multiple women, and Claire walks out on him. She subsequently accepts an invitation to his apartment, where she meets his previous girlfriends and declares that she is now in a better relationship. Dan (Stephen Root) is an employee or the director / president at Zangen who first appears in "The Locomotion Interruption '' where he interviews Penny for a pharmaceutical sales representative 's position at Zangen as a favor to Bernadette. Penny realizes that the interview is not going well so she ends it and starts to leave. As a favor, she asks Dan not to tell Bernadette how badly she did because she is kind of scared of her. Dan says that he thought he was the only one who was scared of her. They start to bond noting that Bernadette is something of a bully. She has that squeaky little voice and Dan says that everyone else thinks she is SO nice. He had to cut one of Bernadette 's research programs and was too scared of her to do it. They both agree not to tell her about the results of the interview. Later Bernadette is talking to Howard at home and tells him that it is hard to believe, but Penny got the job. She feels that it is because Dan really loves her. Dan reappears in "The Champagne Reflection ''. where Penny makes Bernadette face up to her bullying ways in and Dan is still afraid of the latter when she yelled at him and his grandson after they lost the three - legged race at the company picnic. His grandson called her the mean kid with the big boobies. Bernadette is horrified when she realizes how everyone perceives her. Her father had taught her to not take any crap, and she can be even cruel with some of her comments without even knowing it. She thought she was the sweetest person she knew and should be in a tree baking cookies like a Keibler elf. She goes to apologize to Dan and finds out that due to everyone 's fear of her, they were paying for her daily coffee even after the company stopped doing that (which they accomplished with a swear jar they keep for Bernadette 's sake) and gave her a private toilet on her floor that was meant for everyone. She now feels like she has to leave the company and starts crying. Dan wants her to stop and promises to keep paying for her coffee and then ups it to getting her an espresso machine. Bernadette has found a new way to get what she wants. Dave Gibbs (Stephen Merchant) is a tall British man who dates Amy after she breaks up with Sheldon. Dave is recently divorced because his wife left him for a French chef. When her friends try to find Amy a date on a dating mobile app, they see a text message from Dave, and Amy reveals they have already gone out together for coffee. Sheldon is about to propose to Amy for closure when he sees Amy and Dave share a kiss after their date. When Amy and Dave later go out again for dinner (while Penny, Bernadette, and a reluctant Leonard spy on them), he shows an unusual fascination with Sheldon, which discomforts Amy. He considers Sheldon and Leonard to be physics superstars and idolizes them. He later gets an opportunity to meet Leonard and shake his hand after Leonard has to relieve himself while spying on their date, and with great excitement, Dave announces that he will never again wash his hand. After Sheldon rejects Amy 's proposal that they be a couple again, Amy once again tries dinner with Dave, who goes out of his way to refrain from mentioning Sheldon, knowing how uncomfortable that subject made her previously. Sheldon then suddenly arrives and professes his love to Amy, and the two mend their relationship, leaving Dave to awkwardly excuse himself and invite Sheldon to meet again on his way out. Eric Gablehauser (Mark Harelik) is the head of the Physics Department, the group 's boss at the university. When he first starts working at the university, he fires Sheldon after Sheldon insults his intelligence. Eventually, Sheldon is rehired because Gablehauser became romantically interested in Sheldon 's mother. Gablehauser later hosts the Physics Bowl, and gives Raj attention when he is featured in a People article for discovering a planet. V.M. Koothrappali (Brian George) is Raj 's father in India. His wife and he communicate with their son via Skype and constantly try to arrange dates for him. They want their son to marry a woman of Indian descent, and give them grandchildren. Although in many episodes Raj mentions that he grew up in poverty, his friends remind him of the contrary by pointing out that Dr. Koothrappali is a gynecologist, drives a Bentley, and employs servants. In one such episode, Raj replies that the Bentley is leased and there are only four servants in his family home, two of whom are children. Dr. Koothrappali enjoys Doogie Howser reruns, which are apparently new to India. Other than Raj, he also maintains contact with their daughter Priya via Skype whenever she is out of India. In season four, Dr. Koothrappali becomes angry with Leonard when he learns that his daughter, Priya, is dating Leonard without his knowledge. According to Sheldon, the Koothrappalis are "Richie Rich rich ''. The Koothrappalis go through a rough patch in their marriage, culminating in them separating in season eight around the time of their 40th wedding anniversary, with Dr. Koothrappali moving out and Mrs. Koothrappali setting fire to his car. Dr. Koothrappali makes his first physical appearance on the show in season eight, visiting the main characters at a Christmas party after the divorce. Dr. Koothrappali later cuts off Raj financially when he buys a helicopter drone, but Raj manages to turn the situation around by pitting his father against his mother. He also asks his father to give advice to a nervous, pregnant Bernadette. Mrs. Koothrappali (Alice Amter) is Raj 's mother in India. Mrs. Koothrappali is especially worried that, despite Raj being old enough to marry, the closest they have to a daughter - in - law is "that little Jewish boy Howard ''. She enjoys Doogie Howser reruns, which are apparently new to India. Other than Raj, she also maintains contact with Priya via video chat whenever she is out of India. She also had some anger towards Leonard when it became apparent that he was dating Priya without her knowledge. Following their divorce in season eight, Raj mentions that his mother bought the book Eat, Pray, Love and used it to set fire to her ex-husband's car. Mrs. Koothrappali makes her first physical appearance on the show in "The Graduation Transmission '', where Raj uses the Koothrappali 's divorce to get money from her when his father cuts him off financially, and pits her against her ex-husband. Janine Davis (Regina King) is a human resources representative working at the university. She first appears in season six after Sheldon offends his assistant Alex while trying to solve a problem regarding her crush on Leonard, leaving Mrs. Davis to handle Alex 's sexual - harassment complaint against Sheldon. Sheldon tells Mrs. Davis his belief that she, like all women, is a "slave '' to her sexual "urges '', unaware that his remarks are racist and sexist. In his attempt at defense, Sheldon rats out what he considers similar behavior by Raj, Howard, and Leonard, prompting Mrs. Davis to summon them to her office, as well. Mrs. Davis later serves on the tenure committee that is considering Raj, Sheldon, Leonard, and Kripke for a vacant tenured position, causing each of them to try to win her favor. Sheldon, in his effort to earn the position, offends her once again by giving her the box set for the miniseries Roots. Despite this, Sheldon is still short - listed for tenure, even if he offends Mrs. Davis yet again by giving her what he thinks is a traditional handshake originating in African American communities. In season seven, Mrs. Davis says that she is recently divorced because her husband cheated on her, and Raj attempts to strike up a conversation with her at a university mixer. After offending her, Raj apologizes, and the two talk about their troubles. Following the mixer, while Raj is insistent that Mrs. Davis and he had a "moment '', Howard disagrees. Kurt (Brian Patrick Wade) is a tall, intimidating bodybuilder and Penny 's ex-boyfriend at the beginning of the series. In the pilot, Penny reveals that he cheated on her, and Leonard and Sheldon later go to his apartment and attempt to retrieve Penny 's television set from him, but they were unsuccessful and Kurt apparently found them so irritating that they returned home without pants. Kurt is invited to Penny 's Halloween party, for which he dresses up as a caveman, where he has yet another run in with Leonard, who is dressed as a hobbit. After Kurt sees Penny kissing Leonard, Leonard victoriously shouts to him, "That 's right, you saw what you saw. That 's how we roll in The Shire! '' In season two, Penny experiences financial difficulties. After Leonard learns about Penny 's problems, he tries to help her cut expenses, and in the process learns that Kurt owes her $1800. Without telling Penny, Leonard and the guys go to Kurt 's place to collect the money, but they are unsuccessful, and Kurt writes "I owe Penny $1800 ~ Kurt '' on Leonard 's forehead in indelible ink. Later, Penny reveals that Kurt visited her the next morning and paid her, in turn. However, much to Leonard 's disappointment, Kurt never told Penny about Leonard 's visit, and instead took the opportunity to ask Penny out for dinner. Lucy (Kate Micucci) shows up at a party at the comic - book store on Valentine 's Day at an event for people who had no dates. She has social anxiety issues, which allows Raj and her to connect. On their first date, she becomes so nervous that she goes to the bathroom and climbs out of the window to get away. Raj falls apart and refuses to leave his apartment; however, after apologizing to him, Lucy and Raj start afresh. Raj and Lucy have a date at a library and communicate by text messages, and at the end, she offers to kiss him, but chickens out at the last second. In "The Bon Voyage Reaction '', Raj tries to introduce Lucy to the rest of the gang. Lucy becomes nervous at the thought of meeting so many new people that Raj suggests she meet just one of his friends first, to which she agrees. Lucy meets Amy, but Raj pressures Lucy and upsets her. Lucy breaks up with Raj by an email, and afterwards a heartbroken Raj finally speaks to Penny without having consumed alcohol. In season seven, Penny meets Lucy at the Cheesecake Factory and confronts her about her breakup with Raj, and later Lucy arranges to meet with Raj to apologize to him for breaking up with him via email. This leads Raj to believe the two of them will get back together, but Lucy tells him she is with someone else. Lucy is later mentioned in "The Indecision Amalgamation ''. Raj gets a message from her about getting back together, but after finding out that he is also dating Emily, Lucy rebuffs Raj. Mary Cooper (Laurie Metcalf) is Sheldon 's loving, caring and religious mother and a devout Christian from Texas. She has two other children besides Sheldon; Sheldon 's twin sister, Missy, and his brother George, who is shown via a family tree to be three or four years older than Sheldon and Missy. Her husband, a rambunctious alcoholic, was also named George, but he died when Sheldon was still a boy. To Mary 's relief, her other children do not share Sheldon 's hyperintelligence, once commenting to Leonard, "I thank the good Lord my other kids are as dumb as soup ''. Mary herself is not intellectual, but is quite wise, though she is prone to making insensitive comments such as calling Japanese words "kung fu letters '' at a sushi restaurant, or calling Native Americans "'' our '' Indians ". Despite her extreme religious views, she is tolerant of other faiths, as evidenced by her serving Raj a dish of chicken after making sure it was not something Indians considered "magical ''. She also struggles to follow her beliefs sometimes. She is a loving mother and has been able to control Sheldon, with Leonard describing her as Sheldon 's "Kryptonite '' to Penny. When Penny and Sheldon engaged in a fierce dispute, Penny called for Mary 's help, who subsequently called and scolded Sheldon about his actions. Leonard wishes his mother were as loving as Sheldon 's mother, although Sheldon himself appears at best ambivalent about her parenting. Sheldon once mentions that Mary once hit him with a Bible because he refused to eat his Brussels sprouts. She apparently thought something was wrong with her son while he was growing up, as Sheldon will often remark after someone calls him crazy, "I 'm not crazy; my mother had me tested! '' Though Mary confirms this, she wishes that she had taken him to Houston for further testing. In her first visit, Leonard calls Mary to intervene when Sheldon is fired for being disrespectful to his new boss, Dr. Gablehauser. She manages to convince Sheldon to apologize and he gets his job back, and she becomes romantically interested in Dr. Gablehauser. When Sheldon asks, "Is Dr. Gablehauser going to be my new daddy? '', Mary replies, "We 'll see ''. In season three, after returning from the North Pole, Sheldon returns to his home in Texas after the other guys tampered with his research. Mary calls the guys and they come to fetch Sheldon. Sheldon initially refuses to leave, although after an argument with his mother about evolution, Sheldon decides to leave. Mary is again called to intervene in "The Zazzy Substitution '' when Sheldon buys a clowder of cats after his "break - up '' with Amy. Mary uses reverse psychology to get Sheldon to reconcile with Amy. She again comes to visit in "The Rhinitis Revelation '' before going on a Christian cruise, and Sheldon becomes jealous when she would rather go sightseeing with the rest of the gang instead of cooking for him and attending physics lectures. In season seven, Sheldon returns to Texas to assist Mary in the birth of his twin sister 's baby. Howard later takes Sheldon to see Mary after visiting NASA headquarters, but flees after Sheldon sees her having sex. Sheldon returns and gets into an argument, and is sent to his room. After Howard tells him about how he drove away an admirer of his mother, Sheldon apologizes to Mary, saying that he will accept her choices on the outside while condemning her internally for being a hypocrite by going against her religious beliefs. Mary forgives him. In season 8, Mary meets Dr. Beverly Hofstadter, Leonard 's mother. The two very different women start out as civil, but later quickly come to clash as Beverly insults and belittles Mary strict religious beliefs, and Mary in turn derides Beverly 's cold attitude. Mary is especially insulted when Beverly is left dumbstruck how a genius intellect like Sheldon could be born to a woman like her. After taking a break from each other, the two come to terms with the argument: Mary decides to forgive Beverly for her offhandish ways, and Beverly realizes there is more than one way to raise a child. The two mothers make up and Beverly tries unconditional love by trying an awkward hug with Leonard. In season nine, Sheldon calls her to tell her that Amy broke up with him and that he would like to send the family heirloom engagement ring back, but she advises him to hold on to it, just in case. She reappears in the season finale "The Convergence - Convergence '' where she comes to attend Leonard and Penny 's re-wedding where she is not at all happy to see Beverly. She meets Leonard 's father Alfred Hofstadter and the two get along great as they have each other 's nice, gentle, and caring personalities, bonding over their mutual dislike of Beverly, and their admiration of each other 's beliefs. The two of them end up fighting with Beverly at the restaurant during the pre-ceremony dinner and the two leave together and after finding out they are staying at the same hotel, they decide to share a cab and it is implied that the two hook up. In season 10, during a visit to see her, Sheldon and Amy break it to her they are living together and Sheldon is stunned that she is not offended that they are "living in sin '' due to her belief he was never going to find anyone. Mary has argued with Leonard 's mother, Beverly, over the fact she never nurtured Leonard properly the way she has with Sheldon, while Beverly has criticized her for her narrow - minded beliefs. A younger version of Mary (played by Metcalf 's real - life daughter Zoe Perry) is a main character in the prequel series Young Sheldon. Mike Rostenkowski (Casey Sander) is Bernadette 's father and a tough retired police officer. Mike has a rough and rude personality and often bullies others, although he deeply loves his daughter, calling Bernadette his "little girl ''. Before he is first seen, Bernadette establishes his personality by telling Howard a long list of subjects he can not discuss with Mike, including Jimmy Carter, foreigners, homosexuals, and even Howard 's Jewish identity. In his first appearance, he tells Howard, while he does not think highly of him, his respect for Howard grew when he learned he had been selected to become an astronaut. However, after Howard expresses his fears about not returning from space, Mike believes Bernadette will have no trouble finding another suitable bachelor if Howard dies in space, much to the future astronaut 's dismay. In the season - five finale, Mike attends Howard and Bernadette 's wedding and walks his daughter down the aisle. In season six, Howard and Mike are pushed into a fishing weekend by their spouses, but neither man really wants to go. Mike suggests that they go to a casino to shoot craps. Having earned more of Mike 's respect, Howard is now able to address him as "Mike '' rather than "Sir ''. In season seven, because his wife is out of town, Bernadette gets Mike to come to Howard 's mother 's house for Thanksgiving dinner, though he would rather watch football at home. Since Sheldon understands football from growing up with his father, Mike and Sheldon bond and drink heavily together. After insulting Howard, Mike later tells Howard that he is not "all that bad '', but implies that this statement is untrue when he comments on his drunken state. In "The Table Polarization '', Mike, Bernadette, Raj, and Mike Massimino (via Skype) perform an intervention on Howard 's decision to go back to space. Mike mentions that Howard asked him to shoot him in the foot to avoid the first space mission, which Howard insists was a joke. In season nine, he comes to Howard and Bernadette 's house since they are talking about renovating and he comes over to help. While Howard and he are busy together, Mike asks Howard why he does not want kids, but Howard sets things straight when he tells Mike that it is actually Bernadette who does not want kids and she causes the dust avalanche on both of them. Bernadette had lied to her father about not wanting kids because she did not want to disappoint him. Mike says he does not want to see her miss out since raising children was the most rewarding experience of his life, but Bernadette points out that her mother did everything while all Mike did was come home from work, sit on the couch, and drink beer, which is unrelated to raising kids. Defeated, Mike leaves, saying this is really a conversation for husband and wife and tells Bernadette if her mother asks, he was at the Wolowitz house until 10. He briefly comes back into the kitchen and sees Howard and Bernadette doing "dirty talk '' and then disappears again through the doorway. Missy Cooper (Courtney Henggeler) is Sheldon 's attractive twin sister who first appears in the episode "The Porkchop Indeterminacy ''. She is intellectually and socially quite unlike her brother. Confident, tall, and attractive, she promptly catches the attention of Leonard, Howard, and Raj. Sheldon realizes that, within Missy 's eggs, lies the potential for another "superior mutation '' like him. He temporarily sets himself up as a guardian to Missy in order to choose the best mate for her. Missy refers to Sheldon as "Shelly '' and, despite their differences, she loves him and is proud of his accomplishments. In "The Cooper Extraction '', she gives birth to a baby boy with Sheldon helping while her husband is recovering from a motorcycle accident. The 9 - year - old version of the character is played by Raegan Revord in the prequel series Young Sheldon. President Siebert (Joshua Malina) is the president of the California Institute of Technology, is married and has a teenaged daughter. Siebert is often mentioned by Sheldon. A recurring gag is that Sheldon often calls or visits Siebert in the middle of the night to get information, and usually gets a bitter response. Siebert sends Sheldon on the expedition to the North Pole at the end of season two. In his first appearance, Siebert organizes a get - together with wealthy donors and faculty members to garner funds for the university 's programs. He urges the guys to make an appearance to schmooze the donors so they will give to their projects. Seeing Sheldon 's behavior toward the donors, he asks that he not appear again. In season five, Siebert forces Sheldon to use up his vacation days, and when Sheldon and Kripke battle for an office at the university, they interrupt Siebert at a urinal to get him to make a decision on who gets the office. Priya Koothrappali (Aarti Mann) is Raj 's younger sister. Having graduated at the top of her class at Cambridge University (where like Leonard, her roommate was from Texas), she is one of the lead attorneys at India 's biggest car company. In her first appearance, Priya has a two - day layover and comes to visit her brother. Leonard and she are revealed to have had a relationship five years earlier (without her parents ' or Raj 's knowledge) when she was in town, and that Leonard had been much more invested in the relationship than she was. Leonard even offered to relocate to New Delhi to be with her. He tries to keep their relationship a secret from the guys, but Sheldon discovers Priya in their apartment after spending the night together. Leonard eventually reveals to the rest of the guys that he spent the night with Priya, as he is unable to bear the burden of keeping the secret. Priya returns to Los Angeles for business in "The Cohabitation Formulation '', and Leonard and she decide to try to have a real relationship, over the protests of Raj. It upsets Raj to know that his sister is having sex with one of his best friends (sometimes in Raj 's bed). Priya soon becomes jealous of Penny and asks Leonard to stop spending time with her, which causes Penny, Amy, and Bernadette to dislike her. Priya contests Sheldon 's roommate agreement with Leonard, employing her legal background to deny Sheldon power over him, but Sheldon drafts a new agreement and blackmails Leonard into signing it by threatening to tell Priya 's parents she is dating Leonard, which she can not bear because they want her to date an Indian (although her father would accept her dating Howard due to his belief that Jews are financially savvy and do not drink much). At the end of season four, it she is moving back to India and has not told Leonard, which Leonard interprets as the end of their relationship, leading him to expose their secret relationship to her parents. In season five, although they are separated, with Priya moving back a month earlier than expected, they nonetheless remain in touch via Skype, having a cyber-dinner / breakfast date. At Howard 's suggestion, Leonard and Priya also attempt to simulate intercourse, but when it comes time for her to remove her clothing, Leonard 's screen freezes up because of his exceeding the bandwidth. Leonard later manages to get cue cards to help himself with a seduction speech to Priya, but while delivering it to her, he inadvertently reveals to her parents that they are cyber-dating (they were in the same room as she when he called), with them acidly asking for him to continue with the speech. In "The Good Guy Fluctiation '', Leonard tells Priya about his attraction to a comic - book enthusiast named Alice; Priya admits to cheating on him with her former boyfriend, which visibly upsets Leonard. When Priya states that they both messed up a little, Leonard retorts that while he messed up a little, she messed up a lot. She claims that it is not a competition, to which he replies that it is and that she won and he switches off his laptop. In the next episode, Leonard refers to himself as single, indicating that Priya and he have broken up as a result of their last conversation. In season 10, it is mentioned that out of the six Koothrappali children, only Raj is still single, indicating that Priya has married since her last appearance. Ramona Nowitzki, Ph. D., (Riki Lindhome) is a former graduate student at Caltech who is a huge fan of Sheldon 's work and apparently has a near - obsessive crush on him. She meets Sheldon personally in the cafeteria and arranges to have dinner with him in his apartment. Where other people might be worried about such behavior being reminiscent of stalking, Sheldon reacts positively to Ramona by appreciating the fact that he 's getting a free dinner. During their date, the rest of the gang is sitting on the couch as spectators of this strange turn of events. She keeps "helping '' Sheldon by arranging suitable working conditions for him, such as getting breakfast for him at the cafeteria and giving him foot rubs. Unfortunately for Sheldon, she overdoes her insistence that Sheldon dedicate his time solely for work, depriving him of his favorite hobbies such as playing games, watching TV, and going for paintball with the guys. Even more unfortunately for Sheldon, he ca n't seem to get rid of her, especially when she settles herself in his apartment. Ramona proves to be irritating for the entire group, especially when she assumes that Penny likes Sheldon. She still asks Penny to be sisters with her. She makes it difficult for anyone to communicate with him and scares them away. Eventually, Sheldon solves the problem he 's been working on. Enthusiastic about his solution, he asks Ramona how he can reward her for all her help. But when she asks for him to share credit with her and name the theorem "Cooper - Nowitzki '', he finally kicks her out of the apartment. Ramona reappears in the Season 10 finale where she now has a Ph. D. and a research post at Caltech. Amy is away at Princeton, and the gang becomes worried for Sheldon because Ramona 's crush on him begins again. She brings him meals, and eventually kisses him in his office. Finally aware of her advances, Sheldon 's horrified response is to propose to Amy. In the first episode of Season 11, Amy shocks Ramona by hugging her, as it was Ramona 's advances that caused Sheldon to propose. Stephanie Barnett, MD (Sara Rue) is a doctor and highly distinguished surgical resident at Fremont Memorial. She did her medical internship at Lawrence Memorial in Galveston, Texas, which is where Sheldon was born. Stephanie is picked up in a bar by Howard, but when his plan to let her drive the Mars rover fails, she leaves Howard 's office with Leonard and the two immediately show an attraction to each other. Howard becomes angry when he finds out, but he soon changes his mind when Stephanie sets Howard up with one of her friends. Sheldon begins meddling in Stephanie and Leonard 's new relationship in an effort to strengthen it, since in his eyes, Stephanie is the only "tolerable '' mate Leonard has had. After several weeks of dating, Stephanie officially begins living with Leonard in Sheldon and his apartment (although Leonard does not realize this until Sheldon and Penny point it out to him). Stephanie uses sex to manipulate Leonard when he tries to slow down the relationship. After much hesitation, Leonard texts her at the university and tells her to move out because he is uncomfortable with the pace of the relationship, although he apparently leaves to have sex with her. They are not seen breaking up on camera and she is neither seen nor mentioned again. Series cocreator Bill Prady said of the relationship: "Stephanie was a chance for Leonard to learn that just because someone loves you, does n't mean you 'll love them back ''. Wil Wheaton plays a fictionalized version of himself. Wil played Wesley Crusher in Star Trek: The Next Generation, whom Sheldon idolized as a child, and became a "mortal enemy '' of his after an incident that occurred in 1995, when Sheldon was devastated because Wheaton failed to show up at a fan convention that Sheldon had taken a 10 - hour bus ride to attend. In season three, Sheldon enters a trading - card game tournament (Mystic Warlords of Ka'a) to confront Wheaton. When Sheldon is about to defeat his hated rival, Wheaton tells him that he missed the 1995 "Dixie Trek '' convention because his grandmother had died. In sympathy, Sheldon deliberately messes up his next move to benefit Wheaton. Wheaton reveals that he lied about his grandmother and then wins the game by taking advantage of the opening Sheldon leaves him. Wheaton later plays in a bowling match against Sheldon, where he uses gamesmanship again, breaking up Leonard and Penny to win. In season four, Wheaton appears at a special screening of Raiders of the Lost Ark and uses his celebrity status to go to the front of a long line. This antagonizes Sheldon, who derides him as the "Jar Jar Binks of the Star Trek universe ''. Wheaton and his entourage effectively prevented Sheldon and his friends from attending the screening when the last seat in the theater went to the person directly in front of them in line. Ultimately, Sheldon steals the reels containing the prints of the film and Wheaton leads a mob of angry audience members after Sheldon. In season five, Wheaton invites the guys to a party at his house and appears to be genuinely sorry for his past actions, giving Sheldon a signed Wesley Crusher action figure as a way of thanking Sheldon for being a fan. His gesture is met with a renunciation of his "mortal enemy '' status and a hug from Sheldon. Wheaton is invited to Howard 's bachelor party, where he films the toasts and uploads them to the Internet, getting Howard and Raj in trouble with Bernadette. In season six, Wheaton appears in a Star Trek - themed episode of Sheldon 's web - series Fun with Flags and insults Amy after she criticizes his performance. After Sheldon ditches Amy to spend time with Wheaton, Amy becomes angry with Sheldon, who later unknowingly becomes intoxicated and almost starts a fist fight with Wheaton, demanding an apology. In season seven, Amy calls Wheaton to cheer up Sheldon after Leonard disproves Sheldon 's scientific discovery. Wheaton later gives Penny advice when she wrestles with whether to take a role in the sequel to a low - budget horror film in which she once starred. After taking the role, Penny finds that Wheaton is also appearing in the film. Wheaton and Penny are both fired from the film after an argument with the director. In season eight, Wheaton invites Penny to appear on his podcast, where she talks about her acting career. Leonard and Penny get into an argument on air, much to the amusement of Wheaton. In season nine, Wheaton introduces Adam Nimoy, son of Mr. Spock portrayer Leonard Nimoy, to Sheldon, for Sheldon to be interviewed for a documentary that Adam Nimoy is producing about Spock and his impact on popular culture. In a later episode, Wheaton fills in for Sheldon when he joins Leonard, Howard, and Raj for the midnight premiere of Star Wars: The Force Awakens. When he arrives at the theater, the audience immediately jeers him for dressing as Spock, but Wheaton explains that he did so intentionally because he believes the audience should not take whether the film succeeds or fails so seriously. He appears again to celebrate Sheldon 's birthday in the show 's 200th episode, "The Celebration Experimentation ''. Wheaton, LeVar Burton, Leonard Nimoy, Brent Spiner, and George Takei have all appeared on the show, making the Star Trek franchise the most represented franchise on the show in terms of guest appearances. Mrs. Debbie Malvina Wolowitz (voiced by Carol Ann Susi) is Howard 's over-protective, controlling, belittling, but loving and caring stereotypical Jewish mother. The character is not shown on - screen with the exception of one episode in season six in which her body, but not face is briefly shown. Mrs. Wolowitz 's raspy voice is heard usually in scenes at her house, which she shares with Howard. She talks to Howard always by yelling at him from another room, which results in awkward conversations with Howard yelling back at her. In a flashback, when the guys hear her yelling in a masculine voice, they ask Howard if that was his father, to which Howard replies, "If she grows any more hair on her face, yes ''. Mrs. Wolowitz is also described as being enormously obese and wearing a wig and painted - on eyebrows. She seems to be oblivious to Howard 's work as an engineer and treats him as though he is still a child. She frequently refers to Leonard, Sheldon, and Raj as Howard 's "little friends '' (as in, "I made some cookies and Hawaiian Punch for you and your little friends! '') and often refers to Caltech as a "school ''. Howard often makes references to his mother as being a "crazy old lady '', but deep down, he is deeply attached to his mother and quite happy to be treated like a child. However, in one episode, Howard attempts to move out after a fight with his mother, but has serious delusions that she is trying to force him to stay, when in actuality, she is urging him to move out, which leads to him staying. She is also noted to be on hormone replacement therapy, and she wants to "play doctor '' with Raj when he asks to sleep over. When Howard reveals that he has proposed to Bernadette and she has accepted, she collapses, causing Howard to panic and dislocate his shoulder while trying to barge into the bathroom to help her. The timing leads him to believe that she may not like Bernadette (who is Catholic) and has suffered a heart attack from the shock of the news. In actuality, her fainting was due to food poisoning from the food she ate while meeting Bernadette and was completely unrelated to Howard 's news. She has graciously accepted Bernadette as her daughter - in - law and is impressed by Bernadette 's doctorate. In season seven, Mrs. Wolowitz breaks her leg and keeps driving away the nurses hired to care for her. Even Penny rejects the job of caregiver after a very short time. After Stuart 's comic - book store burns down, Howard invites Stuart to work for Mrs. Wolowitz; however, they develop a strange relationship, much to Howard 's annoyance. Following the death of Carol Ann Susi, producers decided that Mrs. Wolowitz would die in the season - eight episode "The Comic Book Store Regeneration ''. Howard receives a phone call while in the store from his aunt Gladys in Florida, whom Mrs. Wolowitz had gone to visit. She says that Mrs. Wolowitz lay down for a nap and never woke up afterwards. Howard and Bernadette then move back into Howard 's old home, and Stuart decides to stay with them. He eventually moves out halfway through season nine. Wyatt (Keith Carradine) is Penny 's father. He comes to visit, and Penny feels compelled to involve Leonard in a ruse to make him think they are still together. (Wyatt reveals that he favors the successful Leonard over Penny 's other "loser '' boyfriends.) When the plot is revealed, he gets mad at Penny and feigns anger at Leonard, but after Penny leaves the room, he encourages Leonard to keep trying to get Penny back (because he wants his grandchildren to "grow up in a house without wheels ''). Strangely, though, in the first episode where Leonard 's mother visits, Penny tearfully reveals her rough childhood, saying that Wyatt wanted a boy and even called her "slugger '' until she reached puberty. Wyatt appears again in season nine, when Penny finally plucks up the courage to tell her father she eloped with Leonard. Wyatt is happy, but he also confesses that he killed Penny 's pet pig a year ago. In the season 10 premiere, "The Conjugal Conjecture '', he comes to Pasadena with his wife and son to attend Leonard and Penny 's re-wedding and during the ceremony he walks Penny down the aisle, welcomes Leonard to their family and advises him not to lend Penny 's brother any money. Zack Johnson (Brian Thomas Smith) is a dim - witted but friendly beefcake - type whom Penny dates on and off after her second break - up with Leonard. Zack works as the menu designer for restaurants that are owned by or which have hired his father 's company to design their menus. In season three, Leonard invites Penny and Zack up to the roof to watch his experiment of bouncing laser beams off the moon; Zack misunderstands what is happening, and thinks they are going to blow up the moon. Later, Penny and Zach go out to a party, but she is so put off at how stupid he is that she runs back to Leonard for sex, saying he ruined her ability to tolerate stupid men. In season four, Zack runs into Penny, Bernadette, and Amy at a restaurant, and Amy becomes physically attracted to him. Sheldon arranges a meeting between Zack and Amy to satisfy her "urges '', but his lack of intellect immediately discourages Amy. Unlike Penny 's other boyfriends, Zack considers Leonard, Howard, Sheldon, and Raj (whom he calls "the science dudes '') to be "cool '' and makes a genuine effort to get to know them, even treating them as his friends. After accompanying them on a trip to the comic - book store (where Raj and he bond over a mutual fondness for Archie comics), he enters a New Year 's Eve costume party with them, portraying Superman in their version of the Justice League. In "The Toast Derivation '', Sheldon invites him over for a party, where he bonds with Kripke and Stuart, as well. In season seven, he was unknowingly married to Penny for three years after the two were intoxicated and attended a wedding chapel in Las Vegas (they were not aware that weddings in Las Vegas are real). Penny invites him to Mrs. Wolowitz 's house for Thanksgiving, where they get the marriage annulled. In season nine, episode 22, Zack 's observations indicate he is, in some respects, more observant and smarter than "the science dudes ''. In season ten, episode 22, Zack and his fiancé plan a double date with Penny and Leonard but his fiancé does n't turn up. Zack offers Penny a job at his menu printing company which she accepts, but when she calls Zack he tells her that his fiancé is uncomfortable with them working together. Abby (Danica McKellar) is a lady whom Raj briefly dates. Chen (James Hong) is a maitre d ' at a Chinese restaurant that the guys eat at. Professor Crawley (Lewis Black) is a former entomologist at the university with whom Sheldon, Howard, and Raj confer about a cricket. Kenny Fitzgerald (Michael Rapaport) is an intelligent thief who sells stolen liquid helium to Leonard and Sheldon. He later strikes up a friendship with the duo and they watch Ernest Goes to Jail together. Mrs. Fowler (Annie O'Donnell) is Amy 's mother, who appears in "The Desperation Emanation ''. Dr. Gallo (Jane Kaczmarek) is a therapist to whom Penny attempts to sell products. She winds up conducting therapy on both Penny and Leonard. Mrs. Latham (Jessica Walter) is a donor for the university who goes out on two dates with Leonard. Toby Loobenfield (DJ Qualls) is a scientist at CalTech whom Sheldon hires to play his fictional drug - addicted cousin Leo. Dr. Oliver Lorvis (Billy Bob Thornton) is a medical doctor to whom Penny sells products. He misreads her flirtations and locks the guys in his basement while he goes to woo her (as well as Amy and Bernadette). Meemaw / Constance (June Squibb) is Sheldon 's grandmother from Texas. She takes an immediate dislike to Amy upon meeting her. It appears she came to visit her grandson, but the real reason she came was to size Amy up and she dislikes Amy because of her breaking Sheldon 's heart when she broke up with him. Meemaw keeps this to herself until dinner where she reveals this in front of her grandson, his girlfriend and the married Hofstadter couple. Later, Sheldon reasons with her about how she made her husband (Sheldon 's maternal grandfather) a better person when he was stubborn and egotistical and Meemaw soon gives her blessings to Sheldon and Amy 's relationship. Octavia (Octavia Spencer) is a DMV worker. Agent Angela Page (Eliza Dushku) is an FBI agent who was asked to interview Howard 's acquaintances to determine his eligibility to use the Defense Department Laser Equipped Surveillance Satellite team. Elizabeth Plimpton (Judy Greer) is an acquaintance of Sheldon 's, who upon visiting, engages in flirtatiously sexual activities with Leonard, Howard, and Raj. Randall (Jack McBrayer) is Penny 's brother who first appears in the Season 10 premiere "The Conjugal Conjecture '' when he comes to attend his sister 's re-wedding to Leonard. He has been in and out of prison and a bit of trouble over the years. Ruchi (Swati Kapila) is an Indian lady who is Bernadette 's new colleague. Raj and Stuart try to befriend her, only to fail. Sandy (Yeardley Smith) is an employee at the job bank when Sheldon seeks a part - time job to clear his head. Susan (Katey Sagal) is Penny 's mother who first appears in the Season 10 premiere "The Conjugal Conjecture '' when she comes to attend her daughter 's re-wedding to Leonard. Sagal and Cuoco previously appeared in the main cast of 8 Simple Rules for Dating My Teenage Daughter, in which Sagal 's character was married to (and later widowed from) that of John Ritter, and Cuoco was their titular "teenage daughter ''. Trevor (Blake Anderson) is an individual with whom Sheldon has conflict when he cuts in front of them at the movie theatre. A number of Hollywood celebrities and famous scientists and engineers have made appearances as themselves.

ages of the cast of days of our lives

Days of Our Lives cast members - wikipedia Days of Our Lives is a long - running American television soap opera drama, airing on NBC. Created by Ted and Betty Corday, the series premiered on November 8, 1965. The longest - running cast member is Suzanne Rogers, who has portrayed Maggie Horton since August 20, 1973, making her one of the longest - tenured actors in American soap operas. Original cast member, Frances Reid, was previously the soap 's longest - running cast member, portraying Horton family matriarch, Alice Horton, from 1965 to 2007. Actresses Susan Seaforth Hayes and Deidre Hall, who portray Julie Olson Williams and Dr. Marlena Evans, are currently the second and third longest tenured actors on Days of Our Lives, joining in 1968 and 1976, respectively. The following list is of cast members who are currently on the show: the main and recurring cast members, or those who are debuting, departing or returning to the series.

when do you find out leo is a whitelighter

Leo Wyatt - wikipedia Leo Wyatt is a fictional character from The WB television series Charmed, portrayed by Brian Krause. A possible breakout character included in the writing initially as a love interest beginning in the first season that initially set Phoebe and Piper bickering and competing for his attention. He appeared as a guest star in seven episodes of the first season and six episodes of the second season. Midway through the second season, he joined the main cast and appeared in all but 11 episodes for the rest of the series ' run. All together, he appeared in 145 episodes -- the most of any male character in the series, and the most of any character who was not a Halliwell by birth. For most of the series ' first five seasons and part of the seventh, Leo was the Charmed Ones ' Whitelighter -- a guardian angel and mentor in all things magical to the three sisters as they grow in their power. As a Whitelighter and later an Elder, Leo had the ability to orb (magically teleport) from place to place. He could also sense his charges (those he guided), that is, he could telepathically hear and locate them. Other powers included hovering, healing physical wounds, and changing his appearance (glamoring). He was nearly immortal, but like all Whitelighters, he was vulnerable to a Darklighter 's poison arrow. He eventually wins Piper 's heart, and they marry in 2001. They have two sons, Wyatt and Chris, and a daughter, Melinda. In the series ' fifth, sixth, and seventh seasons he became in succession an Elder, and then an Avatar. However, late in the seventh season he became a normal human, albeit one with great knowledge of magic. Leo was born May 6, 1924 in San Francisco, California, the son of Christopher Wyatt. He grew up in Burlingame, a southern suburb of San Francisco. Leo was a medic for the United States Army in World War II with a dream to become a doctor. While taking part in the Battle of Guadalcanal on November 14, 1942, two of his friends with whom he grew up, Nathan and Rick Lang, were killed and Leo blamed himself for their deaths as he felt he abandoned them when he left to help other wounded soldiers in the field. Upon his own death a short time later, Leo was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor and became a Whitelighter for his good deeds. Leo was married to a woman named Lillian in his mortal life and when he died, he appeared to her in a dream and encouraged her to move on with her life. Like all whitelighters, Leo is a pacifist, disallowed by the Elders to kill. Leo has watched over many of his charges; those who were future Whitelighters and good witches. In the late 1960s, Leo befriended Penny and Allen Halliwell, the grandparents of the Charmed Ones. Shortly after the Charmed Ones discovered their powers, Leo, posing as a handyman, was hired to fix up their house. Since he was not supposed to reveal himself as their Whitelighter, he used this as an opportunity to keep watch on them Piper and Phoebe became attracted to him. As Leo worked on their house, Piper and Phoebe competed for his attention, though his feelings were reciprocated with Piper. When the warlock Rex Buckland tricked the Charmed Ones into giving up their powers, Leo "healed '' the Book of Shadows and restored them. Shortly afterward, Leo had to leave town and take another charge, but he watched over and guided the Charmed Ones on many occasions. When Leo returned, Phoebe discovered him levitating to change a light bulb and he confessed the truth to her. He also told her that as much as he loved Piper, he did not think their relationship could continue; witches and Whitelighters are not meant to be together. He was later shot by a Darklighter 's poison arrow while attempting to protect one of his charges. He went to the manor for aid, where Prue and Piper learned he was a Whitelighter. Piper used a spell to switch powers with Leo, so she could heal him. Piper then confessed she still loved him, but unfortunately Leo is still unconscious due to the poisoned arrow. Leo 's "trigger '' to make the healing power work was love, and because of Pipers confession, he was healed. Leo offered to give up being a Whitelighter to be with Piper, but she did not want him to turn away from his calling. Piper went to the future with Phoebe and Prue, and learned that she and Leo were divorced, and they had a daughter named Melinda Halliwell. Although Piper still loved Leo, she also wanted a normal romance. Feeling Leo could not provide that, she started a romance with her new neighbor, Dan Gordon. When Piper became sick with a terminal illness, the Elders forbade Leo to heal her since it was not caused magically. Leo broke that rule when he saved Piper from the disease. Because of that, Leo was suspended from being a Whitelighter, though he remained a purely good person, with no evil in him. Leo eventually earned his ' wings ' back as well as Piper 's heart. He asked Piper to marry him when they got back from the Heavens. However, the Elders were violently opposed to this. They tried to marry in late 2000, but the Elders forcibly orbed him away just as the ceremony was beginning. The Elders ultimately allowed Leo to return, but placed him on probation to make sure their love was n't interfering with their duties. The Elders eventually lifted their probation on Leo and allowed him to be engaged to Piper. The ceremony was performed by Grams, and the Elders allowed Patty Halliwell to return from the dead for one day to witness her daughter 's wedding. Prue and Phoebe served as bridesmaids. The ceremony was also attended by Victor Bennett, Darryl Morris, and Cole. Throughout the fourth season, Leo and Piper discuss having a baby, and the problems that come with having a magical child. More than a year later, Piper became pregnant. Piper gives birth to their son, Wyatt Matthew Halliwell, named for Leo 's surname, for being a very protective father and to honor his past life -- thus breaking the tradition of every Halliwell 's first name starting with a "P ''. The couple does not decide to bind Wyatt 's powers, as was hypothetically discussed in previous episodes. Leo 's marriage to Piper was somewhat turbulent, especially when he became promoted to an Elder after saving them. As an Elder, Leo was not allowed to live with his family, though he promised always to watch over them. However, Leo is highly mistrustful of the Charmed Ones ' new Whitelighter, Chris Perry, and stays involved in the family 's life as he tries to figure Chris out. Later, it is revealed that Chris is actually Leo and Piper 's second son. Chris admits to Leo that in the future, he was always there for Wyatt, for the Charmed Ones, but never for him, as he was often eclipsed by Wyatt 's "Chosen One '' and ultimate power status, leaving him with a near hatred of the future Leo. While on the run and hiding the truth from the other Elders after murdering Gideon, Leo becomes reunited with his family. When the Elders decide to test Leo 's faith once and for all to determine if his destiny is to be an Elder or to be with his family, he is turned mortal with no memory of Piper, her sisters, or his children and is turned back into an Elder after his path had been "chosen ''. Phoebe and Paige help convince Leo that his true destiny is with his family and when Leo realizes that is true, he is made mortal for good and free to live his life with Piper and their children. We learn in the Charmed comic series that Leo and Piper have named their third child, and only daughter, Melinda. When Leo was promoted to be an Elder he had to leave his family behind. However, he managed to watch over them, especially his son, as he was given rights to visit him. However his appointment cost him his marriage to Piper. Chris Perry, the whitelighter from the future, had taken his place as the Charmed Ones ' new whitelighter. Since Piper and Leo 's parting, Piper had become increasingly happy. Alarmed by her change in attitude, Paige and Phoebe told Chris to ask Leo about Piper, but Chris admitted that Leo had been kidnapped. When Paige and Phoebe told Piper that Leo was missing, she was oddly unaffected by the news, not really remembering their parting. But when the sisters finally found Leo, Piper 's memories came flooding back. She demanded to know why she did not remember Leo leaving her, and Leo told her that he used his powers to make her forget and not feel as much pain. Not wanting to face the pain and anger she felt toward Leo, Piper became a Valkyrie. Phoebe and Paige confronted Piper, using a spell to make Piper feel her suppressed emotions. Once confronted with her pain, Piper realized that she did not belong with the Valkyries and returned home. Leo apologized to Piper for taking away her feelings. Piper said that she understood that he was only trying to help, but she told him that since he was still an Elder she would appreciate his keeping his distance so that she might move on with her life. Even though Piper tried to distance herself from Leo, she realized how much Leo missed Wyatt and how much Wyatt missed his daddy, so she told him that he could visit as much as he wanted when she was not around. But much to Leo 's disappointment, Piper asked him for a divorce when she started to date again. Despite this, they apparently never did divorce. When a demon used the power of a genie to wish the Charmed Ones dead, Leo 's connection to Piper saved the sisters. Even though he and Piper were in a magically - induced sleep, Leo heard Piper 's cries for help when her spirit began to move to the afterlife and he healed her. This incident drew Piper closer to Leo, as she was reminded of her connection to him. After Leo and Piper were trapped in the Ghostly Plane, Leo revealed he still loved her and they made love and Piper got pregnant with their second child, who happened to be Chris. When Leo finally found out that Piper was pregnant again and Chris was their son, he decided that his place was to stay with his family. Trying to absorb the situation, Leo took his time in approaching Piper about the impending birth of their son and the future of their relationship. While Piper admitted that she thought about them becoming a family again, she tried not to because things had not changed -- Leo was still an Elder. When Leo learned that his mentor Gideon was after Wyatt and that Gideon had killed Chris, Leo avenged his son by killing Gideon, using his powers as an Elder. He returned to be at the side of his family, possibly for good. Leo has been hunting for Barbas since he teamed up with Gideon to find Wyatt in the Underworld, and he and the Charmed Ones suspects that Gideon may not be the only Elder who feels that Wyatt may turn evil. Leo was tricked by Barbas into killing the Elder, Zola, who once tried to reach out to Leo to help him. Leo was not trusted by the Whitelighter Elders, however, he had to return to his status, to prepare for the "Gathering Storm ''. Unfortunately, he and Piper had planned for him to move back in with them, but he felt that he was too dangerous. Leo was being seemingly haunted by a ghostly headed figure, that turned out to be the lead Avatar, trying to recruit Leo and add his power to the collective. In the Episode (7x07) Someone to Witch Over Me, Leo finally becomes an avatar after Piper and Phoebe are killed and the lead Avatar tells him as an avatar he can save them, which he does with his newfound powers. Leo then joined the Avatars, and was granted even greater powers. After he informed the Halliwell sisters of his new status, Leo was a target for Agent Kyle Brody. However, Leo soon became aware that the world the Avatars wanted to make was not the nice world he had hoped for. To convince the sisters, Leo sacrificed himself by getting angry, thus forcing the Avatars to vanquish him (as the Avatars did to all who have negative feelings), but as he was dying, he relayed a message to Phoebe, who remembered, and then took it upon herself to make sure her sisters felt pain in order to see that what the Avatars were doing was wrong. The sisters worked with Zankou in order to get the Avatars to change the world back so that it was no longer a Utopian community. Time was then turned back to the point before the Avatars changed the world, and Leo was restored, although he no longer had his Avatar powers. Now the Elders were left with the question of how to punish Leo for becoming an Avatar. They finally decided to relocate him on Earth and take away his memory. They said Leo would somehow find his way back and choose between rejoining his family or becoming an Elder full - time. However, the Elders cheated on this test and tricked Leo into rejoining them. But when Phoebe and Paige confronted the Elders on this, Leo came with them. At that time, a dying Piper (she had been poisoned by a Thorn Demon) called out to Leo, urged on by Cole Turner. Leo heard her and chose to "fall from grace ''. Leo thus gave up his powers and his Elder status and became a mortal human, but he got his memory back. Leo then returned home to Piper and their two sons. Piper was healed from her wound by Wyatt with the help of Drake. The next morning, Leo confesses to Piper that he is actually happy about losing his powers. Leo and Piper had a hard time adjusting to Leo being a powerless human. After some trouble with Zankou, Piper and Phoebe decided to ask Leo to become the new Headmaster of the Magic School instead of Paige, who wants to try something new. They think Leo is perfect for the position because he 's a "walking Book of Shadows '': he has lost his powers, but not his knowledge of magic. Paige orbs away as Leo accepts. Leo "died '' with the Halliwell sisters, adopting the name of Louis Bennett, but soon got back to his old life and name. Leo and Piper went to a magical marriage counselor, but things did not turn out as well as they had hoped. Their counselor needed them to see how each of their lives was in order to get them closer to each other. In order to do this, the marriage counselor had them switch bodies in order to walk a mile in each other 's shoes. In the last season of the series, Leo was the target of the Angel of Death. The sisters searched for a key to undo his death sentence. Piper summoned both an Elder and an Avatar to give Leo a new lease on life, but both were forbidden to do so. In turn the sisters summoned the Angel of Destiny, who warned them of an impending great evil force, that Leo 's death would be the only motivation to give the sisters the will to fight the great evil, in the same manner that their sister Prue 's death motivated them to defeat The Source. So Piper begged the Angel of Destiny for a compromise, insisting that if they were to fight for Leo 's life instead, that would be even more strongly motivating to defeat said coming great evil. So it 's decided that Leo will be frozen in stasis only to be returned if they succeed in defeating this great evil. Only then can they save his life and have him returned to Piper. After the destruction of the manor and the deaths of Phoebe, Paige, and Christy Jenkins, Leo was returned as promised by the Angel of Destiny. Had he not intervened, Piper might have killed Billie Jenkins in an act of revenge for the death of her sisters. With the manor destroyed, Leo and Piper leave the area. Piper and Leo travel back to the past in the hopes of fixing the present, and save the future so that Phoebe and Paige get to live. After they change things in the past they are able to fix things so that Phoebe and Paige are able to survive in the future. So Leo is returned to Piper, and Coop and Phoebe get married. In the very final episode they are shown to have started a family. In the new future, Piper and Leo have another child, a daughter named Prudence Melinda, and Leo returns to Magic School as a teacher. At the end of the finale they finish the Book of Shadows by writing about their lives so all their future generations will be prepared to continue the fight against demons, warlocks, and other forms of evil. The final shot of them is Leo and Piper, old and still very much in love, walking upstairs past pictures of their whole family hanging on the walls, as they make their way to their bedroom to go lie down - they rest in each other 's arms, smiling, content with their lives.

who was the first president to have their picture taken

List of United States Presidential Firsts - wikipedia This list lists achievements and distinctions of various Presidents of the United States. It includes distinctions achieved in their earlier life and post-presidencies. Due to some confusion surrounding sovereignty of nations during presidential visits, only nations that were independent, sovereign, or recognized by the United States during the presidency are listed here as a precedent.

how many football national championships does south carolina have

South Carolina Gamecocks football - wikipedia The South Carolina Gamecocks football program represents the University of South Carolina in the sport of American football. The Gamecocks compete in the Football Bowl Subdivision of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and the Eastern Division of the Southeastern Conference. Will Muschamp currently serves as the team 's head coach. They play their home games at Williams - Brice Stadium. Currently, it is the 20th largest stadium in college football. USC 's SEC tenure has been highlighted by an SEC East title in 2010, Final Top - 25 rankings in 2000, 2001, 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013 (AP No. 19, No. 13, No. 22, No. 9, No. 8 and No. 4), and four wins over Top - 5 SEC opponents, (No. 4 Ole Miss in 2009, No. 1 Alabama in 2010, No. 5 Georgia in 2012 and at No. 5 Missouri in 2013). From 1953 through 1970, the Gamecocks played in the Atlantic Coast Conference, winning the 1969 ACC championship and finishing No. 15 in the 1958 final AP poll. From 1971 through 1991, they competed as a major independent, producing 1980 Heisman Trophy winner George Rogers, six bowl appearances, and Final Top - 25 rankings in 1984 and 1987 (AP No. 11 and No. 15). The Gamecocks have produced a National Coach of the Year in Joe Morrison, three SEC coaches of the year in Lou Holtz (2000) and Steve Spurrier (2005, 2010), and one ACC coach of the year in Paul Dietzel (1969). They also have four members of the College Football Hall of Fame in former players George Rogers and Sterling Sharpe, and former coaches Lou Holtz and Steve Spurrier. Carolina fielded its first football team on Christmas Eve, in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1892 versus Furman. At that time the football team was not sanctioned by the University. They provided their own uniforms and paid their own train fare in order to participate in the game. They were nicknamed the "College Boys '' by The News and Courier and their supporters wore garnet and black. USC won its first game in its third season, on November 2, 1895 against Columbia AA. The squad designated their first head coach, W.H. "Dixie '' Whaley, the following year. The 1896 season also saw the inaugural game against arch - rival Clemson on November 12, which Carolina won 12 -- 6. From 1902 to 1903, coach Bob Williams led the Gamecocks to a 14 -- 3 record. In 1902, South Carolina beat Clemson, coached by John Heisman, for the first time since 1896, the first year of the rivalry. "The Carolina fans that week were carrying around a poster with the image of a tiger with a gamecock standing on top of it, holding the tiger 's tail as if he was steering the tiger by the tail '', Jay McCormick said. "Naturally, the Clemson guys did n't take too kindly to that, and on Wednesday and again on Thursday, there were sporadic fistfights involving brass knuckles and other objects and so forth, some of which resulted, according to the newspapers, in blood being spilled and persons having to seek medical assistance. After the game on Thursday, the Clemson guys frankly told the Carolina students that if you bring this poster, which is insulting to us, to the big parade on Friday, you 're going to be in trouble. And naturally, of course, the Carolina students brought the poster to the parade. If you give someone an ultimatum and they 're your rival, they 're going to do exactly what you told them not to do. '' As expected, another brawl broke out before both sides agreed to mutually burn the poster in an effort to defuse tensions. The immediate aftermath resulted in the stoppage of the rivalry until 1909. 1903 also heralded the program 's first 8 - win season with an overall record of 8 -- 2. Future senator and former star player for South Carolina and UVA, Christie Benet led the Gamecocks from 1904 to 1905 and 1908 to 1909. 1904 's captain Gene Oliver played against Georgia with a broken jaw. The Board of Trustees banned participation in football for the 1906 season after the faculty complained that the coarseness of chants and cheers, yelled by the students at football games, were not gentlemanly in nature. Within months The Board of Trustees reversed their decision after hearing pleas, and receiving petitions, from students and alumni alike. Play was allowed to resume in 1907. A hastily assembled football team, coached by Board of Trustees member Douglas McKay, competed in an abbreviated season that same year, and the squad won all three games. In 1910, South Carolina hired John Neff from UVA. Norman Edgerton coached the team from 1912 to 1915. A.B. Stoney played on the team. Yet another UVA grad, W. Rice Warren coached the 1916 team. Frank Dobson led the war - torn 1918 team to a 2 -- 1 -- 1 record. Coach Sol Metzger led the 1921 team to a 5 -- 1 -- 2 record, losing only to Billy Laval 's Furman. Branch Bocock coached the 1925 and 1926 teams. Billy Laval, a Columbia, South Carolina native, came to USC from Furman. Laval accepted a three - year contract worth $8,000 per year to coach the Gamecocks, which made him the highest - paid coach in the state. From 1928 to 1934, he led the Gamecocks to seven consecutive winning seasons and a 39 -- 26 -- 6 overall record, which included a perfect 3 -- 0 Southern Conference campaign in 1933. Laval is one of only two South Carolina football coaches to have produced seven consecutive winning seasons (Steve Spurrier is the other, from 2008 - 2014). In 2009, The State called him "the greatest collegiate coach '' in the history of South Carolina. Laval left USC after six seasons to coach multiple sports at Emory and Henry College, partly due to differences over his contract with the USC athletics department. 1934 was the first season that Williams - Brice Stadium was used. Prior to this, South Carolina played its home games on the school 's campus. Don McCallister led the Gamecocks for three seasons before being replaced. His final record is 13 -- 20 -- 1. Under coach Rex Enright, who came to USC from his post as an assistant coach at Georgia, the Gamecocks produced another undefeated Southern Conference season, (4 -- 0 -- 1), in 1941. After the 1942 season, Enright joined the United States Navy serving as a lieutenant and working mostly in their athletic program in the United States. After three head coaches (James P. Moran, Williams Newton, John D. McMillan) who had gone 10 -- 10 -- 5 combined in four years with one bowl appearance, Enright returned to the Gamecocks in 1946 as head football coach, and remained until 1955 when he resigned for health reasons. He hired Warren Giese as his successor, and continued as athletic director until 1960. The Rex Enright Athletic Center on the South Carolina campus was named for him and the Rex Enright Award (also known as the Captain 's Cup) given to the football captains of the previous season. Enright gave - up his coaching duties in 1955 due to reasons related to poor health. Enright retired with the distinction of being the head coach with the most wins and losses in school history (64 -- 69 -- 7), and he still retains the record for most school losses and is 2nd in wins. Warren Giese, who was previously an assistant coach at Maryland, was hired as head coach in 1956, and he led the Gamecocks to a 28 -- 21 -- 1 overall record in his 5 - year tenure. Giese employed a conservative, run - first game strategy, but he enthusiastically adopted the two - point conversion when it was made legal in 1958. That year, he also correctly predicted the rise of special teams after the NCAA relaxed its player substitution rules. The Giese era included two 7 -- 3 campaigns (1956 and 1958), an 18 -- 15 -- 1 ACC record, and a 27 -- 21 victory over Darrell Royal 's 1957 Texas squad in Austin. Griese was replaced after a 3 -- 6 season in 1960. Marvin Bass was hired away from Georgia Tech, where he served as defensive coordinator, as the Gamecocks head football coach. He posted a 17 -- 29 -- 4 record in his four - year tenure and was replaced after five seasons due to the team 's struggles and low fan support. Paul Dietzel arrived in Columbia prior to the 1966 season, having previously coached at LSU, where he won a national championship, and Army. In 1969, he led the Gamecocks to an ACC championship and an appearance in the Peach Bowl. As a result, Dietzel was named ACC Coach of the Year that season. Soon after, South Carolina left the ACC and became an Independent program prior to the 1971 season. Dietzel finished his USC tenure with a 42 -- 53 -- 1 overall record (18 -- 10 -- 1 ACC). In addition to the 1969 ACC title, Dietzel 's legacies at Carolina include his improvement of athletic facilities and his penning of a new fight song, which is still used to this day ("The Fighting Gamecocks Lead the Way ''). Amid growing fan unrest after an upset loss to Duke, Dietzel announced that he would resign at the end of the season, which ended in a 4 -- 7 record. Jim Carlen, previously head football coach at Texas Tech and West Virginia, took over as coach in 1975. Under his leadership the program achieved a measure of national prominence. Carlen led the Gamecocks to three bowl games, coached 1980 Heisman Trophy winner George Rogers, and produced a 45 -- 36 -- 1 record during his tenure. The Carlen Era included consecutive 8 -- 4 finishes (1979 -- 1980) and only one losing season in seven years. In addition, the 1980 Gamecocks defeated a heavily favored Michigan squad coached by the legendary Bo Schembechler. The 17 -- 14 victory in Ann Arbor, which made Rogers a household name, was one of the biggest wins in both the Carlen Era and the program 's history. Carlen retired from coaching after seven seasons at USC. Joe Morrison was hired in 1983 following a one - year stint by Richard Bell. After a 5 -- 6 mark in his first year, the "Man in Black '' led South Carolina to a 10 -- 2 record, No. 11 final AP Poll ranking, and a Gator Bowl appearance in 1984. It was also before the 1984 season began that the team removed the Astroturf that had been in place at Williams - Brice Stadium since the early 1970s and reinstalled the natural grass that remains today. The 1984 season included victories over Georgia, Pittsburgh, Notre Dame, Florida State, and Clemson. The 1984 defense was called the "Fire Ant '' defense. In 1987, the Gamecocks posted an 8 -- 4 record, No. 15 Final AP Poll ranking, and another Gator Bowl trip. The 1987 Gamecocks were led by the "Black Death '' defense, which held seven opponents to 10 or fewer points and yielded just 141 points in 12 games played. Morrison coached his last game in the 1988 Liberty Bowl, as he died of a heart attack on February 5, 1989 at the age of 51. He finished his USC tenure with a 39 -- 28 -- 2 overall record, three bowl appearances, and three seasons with 8 or more wins. Due to his on - field success and "Man in Black '' image, Morrison remains a popular figure in Gamecock lore. Morrison also began the tradition at Carolina, with his first game in 1983, of the pre-game entrance of the football team to the beginning of Also sprach Zarathustra, the theme from the film "2001: A Space Odyssey ''. This is still part of the Carolina football game day experience over 30 years later. Following Morrison 's death, Sparky Woods was hired away from Appalachian State as head coach in 1989 and coached the Gamecocks until the end of the 1993 season. He posted winning seasons in 1989 and 1990, but could not produce another winning campaign during his tenure. Woods led the USC football program through the transition to the SEC and has the distinction of being South Carolina 's first head coach in SEC play, as the Gamecocks entered the conference in 1992. Woods ' overall record at South Carolina was 25 -- 27 -- 3. Brad Scott left his post as offensive coordinator at Florida State and took over as the Gamecocks head coach in December 1993. Despite modest preseason expectations, he led USC to a 7 -- 5 record and a Carquest Bowl victory over West Virginia in his first season. The bowl win was the first post-season victory in the program 's long history. However, Scott was unable to capitalize on his early success. USC only had one non-losing record in SEC play during his tenure, only one other winning overall record, and won only six games in his final two seasons. Scott was fired by athletics director Mike McGee after a 1 -- 10 season in 1998 in which the Gamecocks lost their final ten games of the season. Scott 's final record at South Carolina was 23 -- 32 -- 1 in five seasons. Former Notre Dame head coach Lou Holtz came out of retirement and was hired as USC 's head coach in 1999. He inherited a relatively young SEC program (joined in 1992) that posted only three winning seasons from 1990 to 1998. USC won just a single game the year before Holtz 's arrival and, subsequently, went 0 -- 11 in his inaugural campaign. It did n't take long for Holtz to improve the Gamecocks ' fortunes, however, as he engineered 8 -- 4 and 9 -- 3 records in the 2000 and 2001 seasons. In addition, USC won consecutive Outback Bowls over Ohio State and produced the most successful two - year run in program history (at the time), going 17 -- 7 overall and 10 -- 6 in SEC play. The 2000 and 2001 campaigns also saw USC 's return to the polls, as the Gamecocks turned in No. 19 and No. 13 rankings in the Final AP ballots for those years. After consecutive 5 -- 7 finishes in 2002 and 2003 (in which the team was ranked in the Top 25 during both seasons), Holtz ended his USC tenure on a winning note with a 6 -- 5 record in 2004 before retiring again. Holtz finished with a 33 -- 37 overall record at South Carolina. In 2005, USC was placed on 3 years probation by the NCAA for actions during the coaching tenure of Lou Holtz, all of which were self - reported by the school. Five of these actions were considered major violations, and included such activities as impermissible tutoring and non-voluntary summer workouts as well as a "lack of institutional control ''. Coach Holtz pointed out following the close of the investigation, "There was no money involved. No athletes were paid. There were no recruiting inducements. No cars. No jobs offered. No ticket scandal, etc. '' Former Washington Redskins head coach Steve Spurrier, who achieved fame after a very successful stint as head coach at his alma mater Florida, was hired in 2005 to replace the retiring Holtz. Spurrier led the Gamecocks to a 7 -- 5 record and Independence Bowl appearance in his first season. As a result, Spurrier was named the 2005 SEC Coach of the Year. The 2006 season saw continued success under Spurrier, as the Gamecocks posted an 8 -- 5 record and a victory over Houston in the Liberty Bowl. South Carolina posted consecutive 7 -- 6 records in 2008 and 2009, returning to postseason play with appearances in the Outback Bowl and PapaJohns.com Bowl. In 2010, Spurrier scored another first with the first SEC Eastern Division Championship in school history. On November 13, 2010, the Gamecocks defeated Florida 36 -- 14 to clinch the division. Prior to this contest, USC had an all - time record of 0 -- 12 at The Swamp. Freshman RB Marcus Lattimore rushed for 212 yards and 3 touchdowns in the game. Spurrier got his first win in Gainesville as a Gamecock, received a "Gatorade Bath '' from his players, and became the first coach to win the SEC East with two different teams. Earlier in the season, the Gamecocks posted the program 's first win over a No. 1 team in program history, with a 35 -- 21 victory over top - ranked, defending national champion Alabama. In 2011, Spurrier led USC to its most successful season in program history. The Gamecocks posted an 11 -- 2 overall record, went 6 -- 2 in SEC play, and defeated No. 20 Nebraska in the Capital One Bowl to earn Final Top 10 rankings in the AP and Coaches ' Polls (No. 9 and No. 8, respectively). Along the way, USC defeated Georgia, Tennessee, Florida, and Clemson in the same season for the first time in program history. The University of South Carolina was investigated in 2011 -- 12 by the NCAA after it came to light that student - athletes (including some football players) had received an estimated $59,000 in impermissible benefits, mainly the result of discounted living expenses at a local hotel. The school imposed its own punishment, paying $18,500 in fines and cutting three football scholarships in each of the 2013 and 2014 seasons. The school also reduced its official visits for the 2012 -- 13 year, from 56 to 30. The NCAA ruled this self - imposed punishment as adequate, stating that "the violations were limited in scope '' and "there was no unethical conduct in this case '', and went on to praise the school 's handling of the affair, with the chairman of the NCAA infractions committee stating, "This has been one of the best cases I have seen from a process standpoint... In this case, it was obvious to the committee that the university wanted to get to the truth. '' The commissioner went on to state that USC "wanted to ask all the hard questions of all the right people and, in some cases, they even went beyond what the NCAA staff was doing. '' In 2012 Steve Spurrier, once again, led his South Carolina football team to double - digit wins during the course of the regular season campaign. The 2012 regular season culminated with the annual season - ending game against arch - rival Clemson at Clemson 's Memorial Stadium. Spurrier and his Gamecocks emerged with a fourth consecutive victory over the Tigers -- a victory marked by Spurrier winning his 65th game at Carolina and, in doing so, becoming the winningest coach in Gamecock football history surpassing Rex Enright 's 64 - win total. Spurrier led the Gamecocks to a thrilling 33 -- 28 victory in the Outback Bowl against the winningest program in college football, Michigan. The victory elevated the Gamecocks to an 11 -- 2 record for the second consecutive season. Additionally, by finishing 8th in the Associated Press poll and 7th in the Coaches poll, South Carolina finished in Top 10 of both polls for the second consecutive year. In 2013, Spurrier and the Gamecocks finished with another extremely successful 11 -- 2 season. The season started off with a convincing 27 -- 10 win over North Carolina, although they fell to Georgia for the first time in four years, 41 -- 30. Carolina went on a four - game winning streak before falling to Tennessee in Knoxville after starting quarterback Connor Shaw left the game with a knee injury. In the following game against division - leading # 5 Missouri, Shaw was sidelined due to injury, and backup Dylan Thompson got the start. After a weak performance from the Gamecocks in the first three quarters, Shaw was put in the game in the fourth quarter with South Carolina down 0 -- 17. Shaw went on to lead a historic comeback in which the Gamecocks beat Missouri in double overtime, 27 -- 24. That game was the first of a six - game winning streak in which Spurrier and Carolina won the rest of their games, posting another 11 -- 2 season. In the highest - ranked meeting of rivals, the # 9 Gamecocks defeated # 4 Clemson for the fifth year in a row, a school record, by a score of 31 -- 17. Spurrier led the Gamecocks to a 34 -- 22 victory over the # 19 Wisconsin in the 2014 Capital One Bowl. South Carolina finished with the highest ranking in school history in the AP poll, ranked at # 4 in the country. South Carolina opened the 2014 season at home against Texas A&M, and the Aggies ' 52 -- 28 upset over the # 9 Gamecocks snapped college football 's longest active home winning streak. Carolina earned a measure of redemption two weeks later, knocking off the # 6 Georgia Bulldogs at home. Two weeks later, the 13th - ranked Gamecocks would again suffer a home upset, falling to Missouri, 21 -- 20. This loss dropped USC out of the top 25 for the first time since the 2010 season. The Gamecocks closed out the regular season with their first loss in six years to their in - state rival, # 21 Clemson, 35 -- 17. Spurrier and his team finished the 2014 campaign with the program 's fourth - straight bowl win, a victory over the Miami Hurricanes in the 2014 Independence Bowl and a 7 -- 6 overall record. On October 12, 2015, after a 2 -- 4 start to the season, Spurrier announced to his team that he would be resigning, effective immediately. Offensive line coach / co-offensive coordinator Shawn Elliott was named the team 's interim head coach. Elliott led the Gamecocks to victory the following week against Vanderbilt but lost the final five games of the season; including a 23 -- 22 loss to FCS opponent The Citadel, their first since 1990, and ended the season with a 3 -- 9 overall record. Many of South Carolina 's most successful seasons came during the Steve Spurrier era, including a SEC East Division championship in 2010 and three consecutive eleven win seasons (2011 -- 13). Spurrier also boasted a 6 -- 4 record against the school 's in - state rival, Clemson, including five consecutive wins during the 2009 -- 2013 seasons. Auburn defensive coordinator and former Florida head coach Will Muschamp was named as South Carolina 's new head coach on December 6, 2015. On September 1, 2016, the Will Muschamp era began with a win, as the Gamecocks defeated Vanderbilt by a score of 13 -- 10. After a 2 - 4 start, Carolina won four of their final six regular season contests, including a 24 - 21 victory over 18th - ranked Tennessee. The Gamecocks ' 2016 campaign ended with a 46 - 39 overtime loss to the # 25 South Florida Bulls in the Birmingham Bowl, and USC finished 6 - 7, their first back - to - back losing seasons since 2002 - 2003. South Carolina has affiliated with three conferences and twice been an independent. The Clemson -- South Carolina rivalry is the largest annual sporting event by ticket sales in the state of South Carolina. Clemson holds a 69 -- 42 -- 4 lead in the series which dates back to 1896. Historically the final score in the game on average has been decided by less than a touchdown. From 1896 to 1959, the Carolina - Clemson game was played on the fairgrounds in Columbia, South Carolina and was referred to as "Big Thursday. '' In 1960 an alternating - site format was implemented utilizing both teams ' home stadiums. The annual game has since been designated "The Palmetto Bowl ''. The last nine contests between the programs have been nationally televised (5 on ESPN, 4 on ESPN2). The South Carolina - Georgia Rivalry, a "border rivalry '', back to 1894, with Georgia holding a 50 -- 18 -- 2 overall lead in the series. However, the series has been far more competitive since USC joined the SEC in 1990, with Georgia holding a 14 -- 9 advantage. The 1980 game was between future Heisman Trophy winners George Rogers and Herschel Walker. Led by Walker 's 219 rushing yards, Georgia won 13 -- 10 and would go on to capture the National Championship. Rogers turned in 168 rushing yards during the course of the battle, setting the stage for a successful finish to his senior season and eventual Heisman Trophy award. The last 17 match - ups between the schools have been nationally televised, dating back to 1997 (6 on ESPN2, 5 on ESPN and 5 on CBS). The "Battle of the Carolinas '' rivalry began in 1903. North Carolina holds a 34 -- 19 -- 4 overall lead in the series. While no longer a conference rivalry, since South Carolina left the ACC in 1971, the teams still meet occasionally. In the 2010s decade the series has always been played on a Thursday. It was announced in September 2015 that USC and UNC will play every four years in 2019 and 2023. The rivalry was born when former Florida player (1963 -- 1966) and head football coach (1990 -- 2001) Steve Spurrier was hired as USC 's head football coach in 2005. In Spurrier 's first season at the helm in South Carolina, USC spoiled UF 's SEC championship hopes by upsetting the Gators in Columbia, South Carolina, and thus igniting the rivalry almost instantly. In 2010, South Carolina clinched their first SEC Eastern Division title with a commanding 36 -- 14 win in The Swamp in Gainesville, Florida. Florida currently holds a 24 -- 8 -- 3 lead in the series, while Spurrier holds a 5 -- 5 record versus his alma mater while wearing the garnet and black colors of the Gamecocks. Current Gamecocks head coach Will Muschamp also served as the Florida Gators head coach from 2011 -- 2014. The rivalry known as the Battle of Columbia started when Missouri was added to the SEC in 2012. Both of Missouri and South Carolina campuses are located in cities named Columbia. Before 2012, the schools met twice in 1979 and in 2005 in post season play. Whoever wins the matchup brings home the Mayors ' Cup, which was inaugurated in 2012. Though the overall series is tied at 4 -- 4, The Gamecocks lead the Tigers 4 -- 2 in the Battle of Columbia matchups. The new rivalry of Texas A&M vs. South Carolina, which began with the first meeting in 2014, was one of the byproducts of conference expansion by the South Eastern Conference. The permanent cross-divisional rivalry means that under the current scheduling framework, Texas A&M will play South Carolina every year, even though the Aggies only play two SEC East teams per year. South Carolina and Texas A&M have only met four times, but the first meeting of the teams and fan bases provided quite a launching point for a great rivalry moving forward. The teams compete for the James Bonham Trophy, named after James Butler Bonham, who was a soldier that died at the Battle of the Alamo who also attended South Carolina College, which later became University of South Carolina. Texas A&M currently leads the series 4 -- 0. South Carolina has 22 bowl appearances, with a 8 -- 13 record overall. South Carolina has played four teams multiple times in bowl games. In 1933, under the direction of the legendary Billy Laval, the Gamecocks went undefeated in conference play. However, Duke would finish with a better conference record by one win and be awarded the championship. In 1969, the Gamecocks won the ACC Championship by going undefeated in conference play. In its six ACC matchups, USC outscored its opponents by a 130 -- 61 margin. The squad posted a 7 -- 4 overall record with a Peach Bowl appearance against West Virginia to close the season (14 -- 3 loss). Two years later, South Carolina left the ACC and competed as an Independent for two decades before joining the SEC in 1992. Led by Coach Morrison, the 1984 Gamecocks became the first team in school history to win 10 games (10 -- 2 record) and were ranked as high as No. 2 in the polls... The Gamecocks finished No. 11 in the Final AP Poll. Along the way, they defeated Georgia, Pittsburgh, Notre Dame, Florida State, and Clemson to earn an appearance in the Gator Bowl against Oklahoma State (21 -- 14 loss). At the time, the No. 11 final ranking was the highest ever achieved by South Carolina. In 2010, the Gamecocks won their first SEC Eastern Division Championship, going 5 -- 3 in conference play. For the first time in school history, they defeated the No. 1 ranked team in the country (Alabama) and won at Florida in the division - clinching game. The season also included victories over division foes Georgia, Tennessee, and Vanderbilt as well as instate Atlantic Coast Conference rival Clemson. In their first appearance in the SEC Championship Game, the Gamecocks lost to No. 1 Auburn, 56 -- 17. Led by Coach Spurrier, the 2011 Gamecocks achieved its most wins in a single season and finished in the Top 10 for the first time in program history. USC posted an 11 -- 2 overall record, went 6 -- 2 in SEC play, and won the Capital One Bowl to finish No. 9 / 8 in the Final AP and Coaches ' Polls (respectively). Along the way, USC defeated Georgia, Tennessee, Florida, and Clemson to extend its winning streak over its biggest rivals to 3 games. This was also the first season that USC posted a 5 -- 0 record against their SEC Eastern Division opponents. Again led by Coach Spurrier, the 2012 -- 13 Gamecocks squad went 11 -- 2, with their only losses coming at LSU and at Florida in consecutive weeks. USC finished 2012 by defeating rival Clemson 27 -- 17, in Death Valley, to end the regular season. They were invited to play in the Outback Bowl, with the Gamecocks defeating the Michigan Wolverines, 33 -- 28, in a close game decided by a 28 - yard touchdown pass from Dylan Thompson to Bruce Ellington with under a minute to go. The Gamecocks finished the season ranked No. 8 / 7 in the Final AP and Coaches ' Polls (respectively) Coach Spurrier worked his magic once again during the 2013 -- 14 season by leading the Gamecocks to their third consecutive eleven - win season, their two losses coming at the hands of Georgia in Athens and Tennessee in Knoxville. By the end of the 2013 campaign, Carolina held the longest home winning streak in the nation at 18. The 2013 regular season culminated with a fifth consecutive victory over instate rival Clemson, in Williams - Brice Stadium, and an invitation to play in the Capital One Bowl in Orlando versus the Wisconsin Badgers. Connor Shaw led the Gamecocks to a 34 -- 24 victory and was named the MVP of the bowl. Carolina became only the twelfth program in NCAA D1 history to record three consecutive 11 - win seasons, (Miami (FL), Nebraska, Florida State, Alabama, Southern California, LSU, Oklahoma, Boise State, Oregon, Stanford, Northern Illinois), and finished the season ranked No. 4 in both the AP and Coaches ' Polls, the highest final ranking in program history. The SEC has been split into two divisions since the 1992 season with USC competing in the SEC East since that time. USC 's 1980 season was headlined by senior running back George Rogers ("Big George ''), who led the nation in rushing with 1,894 yards. For his efforts, the Downtown Athletic Club named Rogers the winner of the 1980 Heisman Trophy award. Rogers beat out a strong group of players, including Georgia running back Herschel Walker. Rogers also earned spots on eight All - American teams, all First - team honors. Behind the Rogers - led rushing attack, the Gamecocks went 8 -- 4 overall and earned an appearance in the Gator Bowl. Rogers is also the recipient of the 1980 Chic Harley Award, the 2004 Walter Camp Alumni of the Year award, a Pro-Bowl selection, an SEC Football Legend, a Super Bowl champion and an NFL Rookie of the Year. From 2003 to 2006, Syvelle Newton played multiple positions for the Gamecocks and left his mark on the national record books in the process. He became one of only four players in college football history to record 600 + yards passing, rushing, and receiving (each) in a collegiate career. In Newton 's four seasons, he posted 2,474 passing yards (20 TD, 13 INT), 786 rushing yards (10 TD), and 673 receiving yards (3 TD). He also returned 6 kickoffs for 115 yards (19.2 average) and made 18 tackles and an assisted sack in limited defensive action. In the 2009 season, USC wore a special uniform against Florida in support of the Wounded Warrior Project. This was repeated in the 2011 season against Auburn, and during the 2012 season against LSU. Before the start of the 2013 season, USC debuted new uniforms made by Under Armour. The stripes on the front of the shoulders were moved to the top of the shoulder. The uniforms contain 11 total stripes -- the same number of buildings as the national historic landmark that is The Horseshoe on the campus of the university. The following is a list of Gamecock players currently in the NFL: South Carolina plays Texas A&M as a permanent non-division opponent annually and rotates around the West division among the other six schools. Announced schedules as of March 31, 2017

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Shonda Rhimes - wikipedia Shonda Lynn Rhimes (born January 13, 1970) is an American television producer, screenwriter, and author. She is best known as the creator, head writer, executive producer, and showrunner of the television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy, its spin - off Private Practice, and the political thriller series Scandal, all of which have aired on ABC. Rhimes has also served as the executive producer of the ABC television series Off the Map, How to Get Away with Murder, and The Catch. In 2007, Rhimes was named one of TIME magazine 's 100 People Who Help Shape the World, and in 2015, she published a memoir, Year of Yes: How to Dance It Out, Stand in the Sun, and Be Your Own Person. Rhimes was born in Chicago, Illinois, the daughter of Vera P. (Cain), a university administrator, and Ilee Rhimes, Jr., a college professor. Her mother attended college while raising six children and earned a PhD in educational administration in 1991; her father, who holds an MBA, was the chief information officer at the University of Southern California until 2013. Rhimes lived in Park Forest South (now University Park, Illinois), with two older brothers and three older sisters. She has said she exhibited an early affinity for storytelling and that her time spent as a hospital volunteer while in high school sparked an interest in hospital environments. Rhimes attended Marian Catholic High School in Chicago Heights, Illinois, before enrolling at Dartmouth College, where she majored in English and film studies and earned her bachelor 's degree in 1991. At Dartmouth, she joined the Black Underground Theater Association and divided her time between directing and performing in student productions, and fiction. She wrote for the college newspaper. After college, she relocated to San Francisco with an older sibling and worked in advertising at McCann Erickson. She subsequently relocated to Los Angeles to attend the University of Southern California, to study screenwriting. While at USC she was hired by Debra Martin Chase as an intern. Rhimes credits her early success, in part, to mentors like a prominent African - American producer, who hired her as an intern at Denzel Washington 's production company, Mundy Lane Entertainment. Chase would later serve as a mentor to Rhimes and they would work together on The Princess Diaries 2. Rhimes was ranked at the top of her class and earned the Gary Rosenberg Writing Fellowship. She obtained a Master of Fine Arts degree from the USC School of Cinematic Arts. After graduation, Rhimes found herself an unemployed scriptwriter in Hollywood. To make ends meet, Rhimes worked at a variety of day jobs, including an office administrator, and then a counselor at a job center that taught mentally ill and homeless people job skills. During this period, Rhimes worked as research director on the 1995 Peabody Award - winning documentary, Hank Aaron: Chasing the Dream (1995). In 1998 Rhimes made a short film, Blossoms and Veils, starring Jada Pinkett - Smith and Jeffrey Wright, which is her only credit as a director. A feature script Rhimes wrote was purchased by New Line Cinema. This was soon followed by an assignment to co-write the acclaimed 1999 HBO movie Introducing Dorothy Dandridge. It earned numerous awards for its star, Halle Berry. In 2001, Rhimes wrote Crossroads, the debut film of pop singer Britney Spears. Despite being panned by critics, the film grossed over $60 million worldwide. She then moved on to Disney 's sequel to its popular 2001 movie The Princess Diaries. Though 2004 's The Princess Diaries 2: Royal Engagement (2004) did not score at the box office like its predecessor, Rhimes later said that she treasured the experience if for nothing else -- the opportunity to work with its star, Julie Andrews. In 2003, Rhimes wrote her first pilot, about young female globe - trotting war correspondents, for ABC, but the network turned it down. Rhimes is the creator and currently executive producer and head writer of Grey 's Anatomy. The series debuted as a midseason replacement on March 27, 2005. The series focuses on the surgical staff at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital (later to be named Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital), in Seattle, Washington. The series features an ensemble cast with Ellen Pompeo serving as titular character Meredith Grey, who provides narration for a majority of the series ' episodes. On May 16, 2006, ABC announced plans to relocate Grey 's Anatomy from Sunday evenings to Thursdays to anchor the network 's Thursday evening programming, by airing Thursdays at 9 p.m. In 2007, Rhimes created and produced the Grey 's Anatomy spin - off series Private Practice, which debuted September 26, 2007, on ABC. The show chronicled the life of Dr. Addison Montgomery (Kate Walsh) as she left Seattle Grace Hospital for Los Angeles to join a private practice. The series featured an ensemble cast, including Tim Daly, Amy Brenneman, Audra McDonald and Taye Diggs among others. The first season was shortened because of a writers ' strike and consists of only nine episodes. In May 2012, ABC picked up Private Practice for the 2012 - 13 television season with 13 episodes. The series finale was aired January 22, 2013. In 2010, Rhimes created a new pilot for ABC called Inside the Box, a female - centric ensemble drama set in a Washington, D.C. network news bureau. The lead character was Catherine, an ambitious female news producer who, with her colleagues, pursued "the story '' at all costs while juggling their personal animosities and crises of conscience. It was not picked up by the network. In 2011, Rhimes served as executive producer for the medical drama, Off the Map, which was created by Grey 's Anatomy writer, Jenna Bans. It focused on a group of doctors who practice medicine at a remote clinic in the Amazon. The series was officially cancelled by the ABC network on May 13, 2011. In May 2011, ABC ordered Rhimes 's pilot script Scandal to series. Kerry Washington stars as Olivia Pope, a political crisis management expert who is partially based on former Bush administration press aide Judy Smith. The series debut aired on April 5, 2012. In 2012, she developed the period drama Gilded Lilys, which was not picked up to series. In December 2013, ABC ordered a pilot for a new Rhimes series, How to Get Away with Murder. Actress Viola Davis joined the cast as the lead character in February 2014. It was officially picked up to series on May 8, 2014. In March 2016, ABC premiered The Catch, a comedy - drama led by Rhimes based on a treatment by Kate Atkinson, and starring Mireille Enos and Peter Krause. Later that month, Scandal, How to Get Away with Murder and Grey 's Anatomy were respectively picked up for their sixth, third and thirteenth seasons. The following year, it was announced that Scandal would conclude after its upcoming seventh season, while The Catch was cancelled after its second. On August 14, 2017, Netflix announced that it had entered into an exclusive multi-year development deal with Rhimes, under which all of her future productions will be Netflix Original series; the service already held U.S. streaming rights to past episodes of Grey 's Anatomy and Scandal. Chief content officer Ted Sarandos described Rhimes as being a "true Netflixer at heart '', since "she loves TV and films, she cares passionately about her work, and she delivers for her audience ''. Of the deal, Rhimes explained that "(Sarandos) understood what I was looking for -- the opportunity to build a vibrant new storytelling home for writers with the unique creative freedom and instantaneous global reach provided by Netflix 's singular sense of innovation. The future of Shondaland at Netflix has limitless possibilities. '' The deal was considered to be a coup for Netflix due to her prominence at ABC; it was also considered to be a counter towards a move by ABC 's parent company, Disney, to reduce the availability of their content on Netflix in favor of a planned subscription streaming service of their own. ShondaLand is the name of Rhimes 's production company. ShondaLand and its logo also refer to the shows Rhimes has created and to Rhimes herself. Shows included in ShondaLand are: Rhimes adopted her first daughter in June 2002 and adopted another girl in February 2012. In September 2013, Rhimes welcomed her third daughter via gestational surrogacy. In 2014, Rhimes gave a commencement address at her alma mater, Dartmouth College, and received an honorary doctorate. In September 2015, Rhimes revealed she had lost 117 pounds via exercise and dieting. She is an honorary member of Delta Sigma Theta sorority. Shonda Rhimes has won a Golden Globe award and was nominated for three Emmy Awards. She has also won awards from the Writer 's Guild of America, Producer 's Guild of America, and Director 's Guild of America. Below is a more complete list.

all i got to say is that they don't really care about us lyrics

They Do n't Care About Us - wikipedia "They Do n't Care About Us '' is the fifth single from Michael Jackson 's album HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I, released on March 31, 1996. The song remains one of the most controversial pieces Jackson ever composed. In the US, media scrutiny surrounding allegations of antisemitic lyrics were the catalyst for Jackson issuing multiple apologies and re-recording the song with altered lyrics. The singer countered allegations of antisemitism, arguing that reviews had misinterpreted the context of the song, either unintentionally or deliberately. The song was accompanied by two music videos directed by Spike Lee. The first was shot in two locations in Brazil, in Pelourinho, the historic city center of Salvador, and in a favela of Rio de Janeiro called Dona Marta, where the state authorities had tried to ban all production over fears the video would damage their image, the area and prospects of Rio de Janeiro staging the 2004 Olympics. Still, the residents of the area were happy to see the singer, hoping their problems would be made visible to a wider audience. The second video was shot in a prison and contained video footage of multiple references to human rights abuses. Commercially, the song became a top ten hit in all European countries and number one in Germany for three weeks. In the US, radio stations were reluctant to play the controversial composition; it, however, managed to peak at number 30 on the Billboard Hot 100. The song was remixed with parts of songs such as "Privacy '' (from the album Invincible) and "Tabloid Junkie '', and released on the Immortal album, in November, 2011. The song was performed during Jackson 's third and final concert series, the HIStory World Tour which ran from 1996 to 1997 as part of a medley with "Scream '' and "In the Closet ''. The song was set to be performed on Jackson 's This Is It comeback concert series at The O2 Arena in London from July 2009 to March 2010 but the shows were cancelled due to his sudden death on June 25, 2009. The song begins with a group of children singing the chorus, "All I wan na say is that they do n't really care about us ''. In between the chorus lines, one child chants, "Do n't worry what people say, we know the truth. '' after which another child says, "Enough is enough of this garbage! '' According to the sheet music published on Musicnotes.com by Alfred Music Publishing "They Do n't Care About Us '' is played in the key of D minor and the track 's time signature is common time. The song, which is cited as being a pop song, has a moderately slow tempo of 90 beats per minute. Instruments used include a piano and guitar. Jon Pareles stated that Jackson was calling himself "a victim of police brutality '' and a "victim of hate ''. He continued, "A listener might wonder just who ' Us ' is supposed to be... To make the songs lodge in the ear, Jackson uses elementary singsong melodies -- a ' nyah, nyah ' two - note motif in ' They Do n't Care About Us '... and he comes up with all kinds of surprises in the arrangements ''. James Hunter of Rolling Stone magazine noted that musically, Jackson was no longer trying to hide any eccentricities he had, he expressed the opinion that in "They Do n't Care About Us '', the pop musician sounded more embattled than ever. Jim Farber of New York Daily News said that Jackson "snarled '' while singing, that the song "clicked '' and has an "original clattering rhythm ''. The review of HIStory in The Washington Times noted of "They Do n't Care About Us '': "(it) follows fast, inviting more pathos -- and more controversy. With haunting clapping and a police scanner in the background ''. The Sacramento Bee described it as a "looped reggae - lite dance beat ''. The song gained renewed attention and relevance due to its use during Black Lives Matter protests in 2014 and 2015. In the UK, it peaked at number four and stayed on the chart for three months. The song found particular success in Europe, peaking within the top ten in all countries, except in Spain, where peaked at number 11, and remained in the chart for just one week. European highlights came in Austria, Switzerland, France, Belgium and Sweden, in these countries the song became a top five hit and stayed in their respective charts for a minimum of 21 weeks. The song reached the top of the charts for three weeks in Germany and stayed a full 30 weeks in the survey. It is the longest consecutive chart run of a Michael Jackson song in the German charts. The lyrical controversy surrounding "They Do n't Care About Us '' brought partial commercial disappointment in the US; radio stations were reluctant to play the song. It peaked at number 30 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, falling short of the record breaking success of the two previous singles "Scream / Childhood '' and "You Are Not Alone '', yet the song peaked at number 10 on the US Billboard Hot R&B Singles chart. Producing the first video proved to be a difficult task for Jackson. State authorities unsuccessfully tried to ban the singer filming in Salvador (Pelourinho) and in Rio de Janeiro. Officials in the state of Rio feared images of poverty might affect tourism and accused Jackson of exploiting the poor. Ronaldo Cezar Coelho, the state secretary for Industry, Commerce and Tourism demanded editing rights over the finished product, stating, "I do n't see why we should have to facilitate films that will contribute nothing to all our efforts to rehabilitate Rio 's image ''. Some were concerned that scenes of poverty and human rights abuses would affect their chances of hosting the Olympics in 2004. Others supported Jackson 's wish to highlight the problems of the region, arguing that the government were embarrassed by their own failings. A judge banned all filming but this ruling was overturned by an injunction. Although officials were angry, the residents were not and Jackson was surrounded by crowds of enthusiastic onlookers during filming. One woman managed to push through security to hug Jackson who continued dancing while hugging her. Another woman appeared and hugged him from behind. He then fell to the ground as police pulled the two women off him and escorted them away. After the director helped Jackson get up off the street, he continued to sing and dance. This incident made it into the music video. 1,500 policemen and 50 residents acting as security guards effectively sealed off the Dona Marta favela. Some residents and officials found it offensive that Jackson 's production team had negotiated with drug dealers in order to gain permission to film in one of the city 's shantytowns. The music video was directed by Spike Lee. Asked why he chose Lee to direct the video, Jackson responded, "' They Do n't Care About Us ' has an edge, and Spike Lee had approached me. It 's a public awareness song and that 's what he is all about. It 's a protest kind of song... and I think he was perfect for it ''. Jackson also collaborated with 200 members of the cultural group Olodum, who "swayed to the heavy beat of Salvador 's ' samba - reggae ' music ''. The media interest surrounding the music video exposed Olodum to 140 countries around the world. It brought them worldwide fame and increased their credibility in Brazil. At the beginning of the video, a Brazilian woman says "Michael, eles não ligam pra gente '' which means "Michael, they do n't care about us ''. Speaking of the music video, in The New Brazilian Cinema, Lúcia Nagib observed: When Michael Jackson decided to shoot his new music video in a favela of Rio de Janeiro... he used the favela people as extras in a visual super-spectacle... All the while there is a vaguely political appeal in there... The interesting aspect of Michael Jackson 's strategy is the efficiency with which it gives visibility to poverty and social problems in countries like Brazil without resorting to traditional political discourse. The problematic aspect is that it does not entail a real intervention in that poverty. In 2009, Billboard described the area as "now a model for social development '' and claimed that Jackson 's influence was partially responsible for this improvement. For the first time in his career, Jackson made a second music video for a single. This second version was filmed in a prison with cell mates; in the video Jackson is seen handcuffed. It also contains real footage of police attacking African Americans, the military crackdown of the protest in the Tiananmen Square, the Ku Klux Klan, war crimes, genocide, execution, martial law, and other human rights abuses. The first music video of the song appears on the box set Visionary: The Video Singles, and the video albums HIStory on Film, Volume II and Vision; the latter additionally includes the prison version. The voice intro, "Michael, Michael, eles não ligam pra gente '' (Portuguese for "they do n't care about us ''), was recorded by Angélica Vieira, producer of Manhattan Connection. "They Do n't Care About Us '' was only performed as part of the opening medley for the HIStory World Tour, along with "Scream '' and "In the Closet ''. The segment for "They Do n't Care About Us '' began with a short, military - style dance sequence and contained an excerpt of "HIStory ''. A short unedited video clip released after Jackson 's death of the June 23, 2009 rehearsal for the This Is It concert series shows Jackson performing the song as the main song in a medley with parts of "HIStory '' song as well as "Why You Wanna Trip On Me '' and "She Drives Me Wild '' from Dangerous. The song was later remixed and featured as part of Cirque du Soleil 's Michael Jackson: The Immortal World Tour. The New York Times reported the song contained racist and anti-Semitic content on June 15, 1995, just a day before the album 's release. The publication highlighted the lyrics, "Jew me, sue me, everybody do me / Kick me, kike me, do n't you black or white me. '' Jackson responded directly to the publication, stating: When questioned further about the lyrics on the ABC News program Prime Time Live, Jackson stated, "It 's not anti-Semitic because I 'm not a racist person... I could never be a racist. I love all races. '' The singer also said that some of his closest employees and friends were Jewish. That same day, Jackson received support from his manager and record label, who described the lyrics as "brilliant '', that they were about opposition to prejudice and taken out of context. The following day, two leading members of the Jewish community stated that Jackson 's attempt to make a song critical of discrimination had backfired. They expressed the opinion that the lyrics used were unsuitable for a teenage audience that might not understand the song 's context, adding that the song was too ambiguous for some listeners to understand. They accepted that Jackson meant well and suggested that the entertainer write an explanation in the album booklet. On June 17, Jackson issued another public apology for his choice of words. He promised that future copies of the album would include an apology. By this point, however, two million copies of the record had already been shipped. The singer concluded, "I just want you all to know how strongly I am committed to tolerance, peace and love, and I apologize to anyone who might have been hurt. '' The next day, in his review of HIStory, Jon Pareles of The New York Times alleged, "In... ' They Do n't Care About Us ', he gives the lie to his entire catalogue of brotherhood anthems with a burst of anti-Semitism. '' On June 21, Patrick Macdonald of The Seattle Times criticized Jackson, stating, "He may have lived a sheltered life, but there really is no excuse for using terms like ' Jew me ' and ' kike ' in a pop song, unless you make it clear you are denouncing such terms, and do so in an artful way. '' Two days later, Jackson decided, despite the cost incurred, he would return to the studio and alter the offending wording on future copies of the album; "Jew me '' and "Kike me '' would be substituted with "do me '' and "strike me ''. The music video and some copies of the album still carry the original words, but with loud, abstract noises partially drowning them out. He reiterated his acceptance that the song was offensive to some. Spike Lee said there was some kind of double standard in the music industry. "While the New York Times asserted the use of racial slurs in "They Do n't Care About Us '', they were silent on other racial slurs in the album. The Notorious B.I.G. says "nigga '' on "This Time Around, '' another song on the HIStory album, but it did not attract media attention, as well as, many years before, use in lyrics of word "nigger '' by John Lennon. CD side DVD side

are loans and advances part of current assets

Asset - wikipedia In financial accounting, an asset is an economic resource. Anything tangible or intangible that can be owned or controlled to produce value and that is held by a company to produce positive economic value is an asset. Simply stated, assets represent value of ownership that can be converted into cash (although cash itself is also considered an asset). The balance sheet of a firm records the monetary value of the assets owned by that firm. It covers money and other valuables belonging to an individual or to a business. One can classify assets into two major asset classes: tangible assets and intangible assets. Tangible assets contain various subclasses, including current assets and fixed assets. Current assets include inventory, while fixed assets include such items as buildings and equipment. Intangible assets are nonphysical resources and rights that have a value to the firm because they give the firm some kind of advantage in the marketplace. Examples of intangible assets include goodwill, copyrights, trademarks, patents and computer programs, and financial assets, including such items as accounts receivable, bonds and stocks. An asset is a resource controlled by the entity as a result of past events and from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the entity (Framework Par 49a). One of the most widely accepted accounting definitions of asset is the one used by the International Accounting Standards Board. The following is a quotation from the IFRS Framework: "An asset is a resource controlled by the enterprise as a result of past events and from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the enterprise. '' This means that: Employees are not considered assets like machinery is, even though they can generate future economic benefits. This is because an entity does not have sufficient control over its employees to satisfy the Framework 's definition of an asset. Resources that are expected to yield benefits only for a short time can also be considered not to be assets, for example in the USA the 12 month rule excludes items with a useful life of less than a year. Similarly, in economics an asset is any form in which wealth can be held. There is a growing analytical interest in assets and asset forms in other social sciences too, especially in terms of how a variety of things (e.g. personality, personal data, ecosystems, etc.) can be turned into an asset. In the financial accounting sense of the term, it is not necessary to be able to legally enforce the asset 's benefit for qualifying a resource as being an asset, provided the entity can control its use by other means. The accounting equation is the mathematical structure of the balance sheet. It relates assets, liabilities, and owner 's equity: Assets are listed on the balance sheet. On a company 's balance sheet certain divisions are required by generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP), which vary from country to country. Assets can be divided into e.g. current assets and fixed assets, often with further subdivisions such as cash, receivables and inventory. Assets are formally controlled and managed within larger organizations via the use of asset tracking tools. These monitor the purchasing, upgrading, servicing, licensing, disposal etc., of both physical and non-physical assets. Current assets are cash and other assets expected to be converted to cash or consumed either in a year or in the operating cycle (whichever is longer), without disturbing the normal operations of a business. These assets are continually turned over in the course of a business during normal business activity. There are 5 major items included into current assets: Marketable securities: Securities that can be converted into cash quickly at a reasonable price. The phrase net current assets (also called working capital) is often used and refers to the total of current assets less the total of current liabilities. Often referred to simply as "investments ''. Long - term investments are to be held for many years and are not intended to be disposed of in the near future. This group usually consists of three types of investments: Different forms of insurance may also be treated as long term investments. Also referred to as PPE (property, plant, and equipment), these are purchased for continued and long - term use in earning profit in a business. This group includes as an asset land, buildings, machinery, furniture, tools, IT equipment, e.g., laptops, and certain wasting resources e.g., timberland and minerals. They are written off against profits over their anticipated life by charging depreciation expenses (with exception of land assets). Accumulated depreciation is shown in the face of the balance sheet or in the notes. An asset is an important factor in a balance sheet. These are also called capital assets in management accounting. Intangible assets lack of physical substance and usually are very hard to evaluate. They include patents, copyrights, franchises, goodwill, trademarks, trade names, etc. These assets are (according to US GAAP) amortized to expense over 5 to 40 years with the exception of goodwill. Websites are treated differently in different countries and may fall under either tangible or intangible assets. Tangible assets are those that have a physical substance, such as currencies, buildings, real estate, vehicles, inventories, equipment, art collections, precious metals, rare - earth metals, Industrial metals, and crops. Depreciation is applied to tangible assets when those assets have an anticipated lifespan of more than one year. This process of depreciation is used instead of allocating the entire expense to one year. Tangible assets such as art, furniture, stamps, gold, wine, toys and books have become recognized as an asset class in their own right and many high - net - worth individuals will seek to include these tangible assets as part of their overall asset portfolio. This has created a need for tangible asset managers. There are different methods of assessing the monetary value of the assets recorded on the Balance Sheet. In some cases, the Historical Cost is used; such that the value of the asset when it was bought in the past is used as the monetary value. In other instances, the present fair market value of the asset is used to determine the value shown on the balance sheet.

where is the congo river basin located on a map

Congo basin - wikipedia The Congo Basin is the sedimentary basin of the Congo River. The Congo Basin is located in Central Africa, in a region known as west equatorial Africa. The Congo Basin region is sometimes known simply as the Congo. The basin begins in the highlands of the East African Rift system with input from the Chambeshi River, the Uele and Ubangi Rivers in the upper reaches and the Lualaba River draining wetlands in the middle reaches. Due to the young age and active uplift of the East African Rift at the headlands, the river 's yearly sediment load is very large but the drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of its area. The basin is a total of 3.7 million square kilometers and is home to some of the largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on the planet, in addition to large wetlands. The basin ends where the river empties its load in the Gulf of Guinea on the Atlantic Ocean. The climate is equatorial tropical, with two rainy seasons including very high rainfalls, and high temperature year round. The basin is home to the endangered western lowland gorilla. The basin was the watershed of the Congo River populated by pygmy peoples, and eventually Bantu peoples migrated there and founded the Kingdom of Kongo. Belgium, France, and Portugal later established colonial control over the entire region by the late 19th century. The General Act of the Berlin Conference of 1885 gave a precise definition to the "conventional basin '' of the Congo, which included the entire actual basin plus some other areas. The General Act bound its signatories to neutrality within the conventional basin, but this was not respected during the First World War. Congo is a traditional name for the equatorial Middle Africa that lies between the Gulf of Guinea and the African Great Lakes. It contains some of the largest tropical rainforests in the world. Countries wholly or partially in the Congo region: The Congo forest is an important biodiversity hotspot. It is home to okapi, bonobo and the Congo peafowl, but is also an important source of African teak, used for building furniture and flooring. An estimated 40 million people depend on these woodlands, surviving on traditional livelihoods. At a global level, Congo 's forests act as the planet 's second lung, counterpart to the rapidly dwindling Amazon. They are a huge "carbon sink, '' trapping carbon that could otherwise become carbon dioxide, the main cause of global warming. The Congo Basin holds roughly 8 percent of the world 's forest - based carbon. These forests also affect rainfall across the North Atlantic. In other words, these distant forests are crucial to the future of climate stability, a bulwark against runaway climate change. A moratorium on logging in the Congo forest was agreed with the World Bank and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (RDC, République Démocratique du Congo) in May 2002. The World Bank agreed to provide $90 million of development aid to RDC with the proviso that the government did not issue any new concessions granting logging companies rights to exploit the forest. The deal also prohibited the renewal of existing concessions. Greenpeace is calling on the World Bank to "think outside the box '' and use the forest 's potential in the battle against climate change. If these woodlands are deforested, the carbon they trap will be released into the atmosphere. It says that 8 % of the Earth 's forest - based carbon is stored in the RDC 's forests. Predictions for future unabated deforestation estimate that by 2050 activities in the DRC will release roughly the same amount of carbon dioxide as the United Kingdom has emitted over the last 60 years. The government has written a new forestry code that requires companies to invest in local development and follow a sustainable, twenty - five - year cycle of rotational logging. When a company is granted a concession from central government to log in Congo, it must sign an agreement with the local chiefs and hereditary land owners, who give permission for it to extract the trees in return for development packages. In theory, the companies must pay government nearly $18 m rent a year for these concessions, of which 40 % in taxes paid should be returned to provincial governments for investment in social development of the local population in the logged areas. In its current form, the Kyoto protocol does not reward so - called "avoided deforestation '' - initiatives that protect forest from being cut down. But many climate scientists and policymakers hope that negotiations for Kyoto 's successor will include such measures. If this were the case, there could be a financial incentive for protecting forests. L'Île Mbiye in Kisangani is part of the Sustainable Forest Management in Africa Symposium project of forest ecosystem conservation conducted by Stellenbosch University. RDC is also looking to expand the area of forest under protection, for which it hopes to secure compensation through emerging markets for forest carbon. The main Congolese environmental organization working to save the forests is an NGO called OCEAN, which serves as the link between international outfits like Greenpeace and local community groups in the concessions. Coordinates: 0 ° 00 ′ 00 '' N 22 ° 00 ′ 00 '' E  /  0.0000 ° N 22.0000 ° E  / 0.0000; 22.0000

who is pregnant on season 5 of gossip girl

Gossip Girl (season 5) - wikipedia The fifth season of Gossip Girl, an American teen drama based upon the book series by Cecily von Ziegesar and developed for television by Josh Schwartz and Stephanie Savage. The CW officially renewed the series for a fifth season on April 26, 2011. It was announced later that Taylor Momsen, who played Jenny Humphrey since the pilot, and Jessica Szohr, who joined the series as Vanessa Abrams in season one, would not be returning for the fifth season as regulars. Kaylee DeFer was upgraded to a series regular status in her roles as Serena 's cousin, Charlie Rhodes, and aspiring actress / con artist Ivy Dickens. Hugo Becker also reprises his role as Blair 's love interest, Prince Louis Grimaldi of Monaco. With the confirmation of the 2011 -- 12 schedule, The CW television network announced that Gossip Girl would be returning to Mondays at 8: 00pm as a lead - in to Hart of Dixie. It features 24 episodes. The fifth season premiered on September 26, 2011. While working as a production assistant in Hollywood, Serena makes a mistake while trying to impress her new boss (guest star Michael Michele). Chuck and Nate arrive in Los Angeles to visit Serena where Nate gets involved with a shady older woman (guest star Elizabeth Hurley) and Chuck has a meeting of minds with actress / stuntwoman Zoë Bell (playing herself) as he struggles to get over Blair. Meanwhile, Blair and Louis return to New York from Monaco after spending the summer planning their wedding. Louis ' problem in supporting Blair 's difficult choices and nearly impossible demands threatens their relationship when she begins to see him as weak. Also, Dan gets help from Louis in a desperate attempt to prevent his book from being published in a local magazine. It is revealed in this episode that Dorota is pregnant and expecting her second child. Towards the end of the episode, it is also hinted that Blair is the one that is pregnant in which Dorota lied for her. As she is fitted for her wedding dress, the dress fitter says that by the time of her wedding she will be showing. Also, Serena runs into Charlie in Los Angeles still unaware of her real identity: Ivy Dickens, who has moved to California with her boyfriend, Max. Blair tries to conceal the news of her recent pregnancy from Louis as the arrival of her future sister - in - law Beatrice (guest star Roxane Mesquida) nears. Nate reconnects with the mysterious Diana Payne (guest star Elizabeth Hurley), a woman whom he had a fling with in Los Angeles who offers him a job opportunity to work at her publishing company, called Spectator, in New York. Meanwhile, Dan is desperately in need of help from Chuck to stop his novel from being published, but finds out that Chuck is hiding a secret. Ivy, still in character as Charlie, tries to avoid her real identity from an unsuspecting Serena but her plans affects her life in L.A. with her unsuspecting boyfriend Max. Blair 's plan does n't go accordingly; since Beatrice overhears her tell Dan that she 's pregnant, not bulimic. Serena and Charlie return to New York. Worrying that her identity will be revealed, Ivy decides to start making her own choice by being a part of New York 's social society as Charlie. Meanwhile, Dan learns that his former mentor, Noah Shapiro, is responsible for publishing his novel. After his attempts at stopping Noah fail, Dan soon ends up in the spotlight. Chuck tries to break through his emotional block. Unknowingly, Nate is persuaded by the ruthless man - eater Diana (guest star Elizabeth Hurley) to cross moral lines while interviewing a couple at the Jenny Packham fashion show. Lily is finally released from house arrest and attends the fashion show with Rufus, despite the fact that her social life is in shambles. After learning that Ivy stole some of Charlie 's trust fund money for herself, Carol Rhodes tracks down Ivy to New York where Ivy threatens to reveal their scam, as well as implicate Serena and the entire Van Der Woodsen family, if Carol does not back away. Elsewhere, a very reluctant Blair decides she does not want to learn who the father of her unborn child is, but is later seen telling Chuck that she is pregnant with Louis ' baby, but adds "Part of me wished it was yours ''. He is both amazed and hurt. When Blair tells Louis that she is pregnant, he is ecstatic, but at the end Blair is seen hiding the test results in a drawer. Also, Nate finds Ivy 's missing cell phone with her text messages from her boyfriend Max, but does not make the connection that Ivy and Charlie are one and the same. Dan is about to be announced as author of Inside so he gives a copy of the book to Blair, Serena, Nate, Chuck and Rufus hoping they will be supportive at his upcoming book party. In the book, Dan described Serena as the "old Serena '': drinking, dating teachers, being shallow, partying, reckless, and having random sex. Nate does n't receive a character description, but is joined with Eric (a younger, gay character with political relatives). Chuck is described as being lonely, cynical and without any friends or family. The book talks about Blair and Dan having sex, and when Louis reads it he says he ca n't trust Blair anymore. Blair is afraid she will have to raise the baby on her own if he leaves and finally tells Serena. Louis apologizes for his behavior and agrees to trust Blair. Even Rufus becomes angry and alienated with Dan when he says he had never regretted leaving the music industry to have a family, until upon reading the book, which portrays him as marrying Lily just for money. Meanwhile, Diana makes the connection of Ivy and Charlie being the same person and forces Charlie to work for her at Spectator. Also, Serena 's boss tells her to get the film rights for Inside and that she has only one week, forcing Serena to choose between Dan and her career. Louis ' mother Princess Sophie and his sister Beatrice pay another visit to New York where Blair announces her pregnancy to everyone. While her stepfather and mother, Cyrus and Eleanore, decide to throw a Yom Kippur dinner party to celebrate, Sophie and Beatrice try to get Blair to accept a series of conditions following the marriage. Blair naturally refuses, and Louis must choose between standing beside Blair or his mother. Meanwhile, Serena tries to get back into Dan 's good graces after her boss tells her to ask Dan to gain the movie rights to his book. Charlie asks Nate for help after Diana gives her a difficult assignment to find more dirt on the Van der Woodsen family kept in the family safe. As Rufus and Lily continue to avoid talking with Dan over his book, Chuck connects with an attractive therapist who rebuffs his advances and seems to see right through his character for who he really is. Blair tries out three of her former minions for her Bridesmaids slots, and Charlie willingly teams up with the group in order to seek out a story where she proves herself to be more than a match for the Mean Girls. Nate becomes more frustrated that Diana refuses to publicly speak about their romance. So, Nate tries to make Diana jealous by asking Charlie to accompany him to Diana 's party celebrating the opening of her new gossip Internet blog at Spectator. Meanwhile, Serena is forced by her boss, Jane, to secure the screenwriting rights for Dan 's book, who quickly realizes that Jane wants someone else to write the screenplay in order to make the movie even more sordid and absurd as well as marketable. Also, Chuck discovers that his therapist, Dr. Eliza Barnes, has been recruited by Louis in order to dissuade Chuck from pursuing Blair any further. Several of the group attend a performance of Punchdrunk 's provocative theater experience, "Sleep No More '', which translates to masks, anonymity and some surprising romantic twists by the end of the evening. Dorota follows Blair to the performance to stop her from trying to prove that Chuck 's attempts to reform himself into a better man is a scam. Meanwhile, Diana sets her sights to snag Serena a job at Spectator as part of her twisted quest to ruin Gossip Girl 's website. Charlie / Ivy 's ex-boyfriend, Max, arrives in town for an interview look for her, and ends up as Serena 's date to the performance. Diana sets about manipulating Max, Serena, Charlie, and Nate, hoping to cause a major confrontation for her own deranged enjoyment. Elsewhere, Dan sets out on his book tour, but Rufus and Lily discover that he is n't exactly having the experience as he claims to be. At the end, more shocking twists are revealed as the evil Diana and Nate 's crooked grandfather, William van der Bilt, are revealed to have been working together to orchestrate Nate 's employment with Diana as part of sinister grand plan for Nate, while Max, sent away by Diana on a ruse, accidentally discovers Ivy 's double life of impersonating Serena 's cousin Charlie. Serena is hard at work planning a dream bridal shower for Blair, but it should come as no surprise that Serena has to plant some false information about the shower in order to keep Blair from finding out all the details. Meanwhile, Chuck and Dan decide to spend the day together to distract themselves from the fact that they did n't make the invite list for Blair 's shower. Nate and Serena find a silver bullet in Diana 's war against Gossip Girl when they uncover a list of all of Gossip Girl 's contacts, but struggle about whether to use it or not. But when the list is leaked anyway, Nate and Serena accuse each other, then Nate accuses Diana, but Blair finds out that the culprit is Louis. Elsewhere, Max confronts Ivy about her double life of impersonating Charlie who tells him that Charlie is her real identity. But Max quickly sees through Ivy 's lies and instead of informing Lily or Serena or the authorities with what he knows, he instead blackmails Ivy for a large sum of money. Also, William van der Bilt makes his presence known where he forces Diana to quit as editor - in - chief of Spectator so that Nate can take her place. Chuck tells Dan that he is in love with Blair. The episode ends with Blair visiting Chuck at the Empire after she learns from Serena that Chuck really has changed. CeCe Rhodes arrives back in New York where Lily and Serena are planning to throw her a Studio 54 party in her honor. Serena continues dating Max who begins blackmailing Charlie. Meanwhile, Dan meets with his publicist Alessandra where they create rival "Dan fan '' and "Dan hater '' accounts on Twitter in order to create online buzz for his book. Blair attempts to figure out how to make Louis more like the "new '' Chuck by spending the day with Chuck. She accompanies him to therapy and demands to know how he 's improved himself only to find out that he 's let her go. Upset she runs home and later reveals to Chuck that she 's afraid she is the one that brings the dark side out in him and Louis. Chuck assures her that she is "the lightest thing that ever came into my life '' and tells her he let her go because she asked him to. He just wants her to be happy. Also, Nate is the new boss of the Spectator and one of his employees finds out that his cousin Tripp 's wife, Maureen, might be having an affair. He soon figures out, however, that Maureen is faking an affair in order to create a sympathetic image for Tripp in the public eye before the upcoming election. Serena learns about Ivy and Max and breaks up with him and Carol Rhodes visits to help find a cover story to get "Charlie '' her trust fund and to help keep her there where she 's loved. In the final confrontation, everyone believes Ivy 's false story that she really is Charlie and pretended to be Ivy when she was with Max, even though he calls her a liar and says otherwise. Ivy also finds out that CeCe is sick, but keeps it a secret. The episode ends with Max reaffirming his threats to Ivy to expose her scam, Chuck telling Nate that he still loves Blair, and Blair looking despondent in her bedroom, refusing to talking to Louis who is out of the country. Serena and Lily prepare Charlie for her first debutante ball to welcome her into New York high society, but the vindictive Max is determined to reveal Charlie / Ivy 's secret by any means necessary. Meanwhile, Blair must choose where she stands with both Louis and Chuck as she hides out at the Humphrey loft in Brooklyn from the press. Dan realizes that it is time to tell Blair the truth about his feelings for her. Louis returns to New York where he meets with Serena and confides in her about his fears about his future with Blair. Nate learns that his grandfather, William van der Bilt, owns the majority of stock shares at Spectator and he influenced Diana to hire him. William invites Nate to an upstate retreat, but Nate 's cousin, Tripp, has been excluded. After Dan sacrifices his own love for Blair for her happiness, Chuck and Blair are hurried into a car from Charlie 's debutante ball. Their car is tailed by vicious paparazzi (Charlie sent a blast to Gossip Girl and tipped them off in order to keep them away from her) who cause them to crash, leaving Chuck fighting for his life and the pregnant Blair fighting to keep her baby. After Max 's pleas to both Serena and Nate about Charlie 's real identity fall on deaf ears, he has a run - in with Tripp van der Bilt whom he apparently tells his story about Ivy. Charlie calls Carol Rhodes to tell her that she is leaving New York City after she tells Rufus that she is a fraud. Also, Diana is called by Jack Bass and informed about Chuck and Blair 's car accident; she is somehow involved. Through a series of emotional flashbacks, Blair reveals to Serena what really happened in the aftermath of her car crash with Chuck. Dan tries to help Blair recover, while both Chuck and Louis mistaken their bonding as an affair. Meanwhile, Nate discovers information about the accident that suggests possible foul play. Having successfully shut down Gossip Girl 's website, Serena is reluctant to become the next Gossip Girl as her work at Spectator News takes off. Elsewhere, Lily is worried by Charlie 's long absence and decides to hire a private detective to track her down despite Rufus ' objections. Vera Wang makes a cameo as herself at Blair 's dress fitting. Blair decides to throw herself a bachelorette party, but shady enemies who include Beatrice (guest star Roxane Mesquida), and her co-conspirator cousin Father Cavette, scheme to ruin and humiliate Blair, with an unknowing Chuck as their patsy, in order to prevent Blair 's upcoming marriage by any means necessary. Meanwhile, Nate, with the distant assistance of Gossip Girl, finally discovers that Tripp was responsible for the car accident that affected Blair and Chuck and he contacts William van der Bilt for help to expose Tripp 's scheme. Also, Serena and Dan continue their fake relationship to protect Blair while Dan becomes uncertain about writing again. In the 100th episode, Blair 's wedding day finally arrives, along with a vengeful Georgina Sparks and her co-conspirator husband who are determined to ruin Blair 's wedding by any means necessary. Meanwhile, Serena decides that she has to tell Dan how she feels while Nate unknowingly meets the real Charlie Rhodes working as a waitress at the reception. Elsewhere, Chuck must decide whether or not to make a final grand gesture to show Blair how he feels until Blair 's mother, Eleanor, approaches him to persuade him to stop the wedding. Blair 's estranged father Harold, and her stepfather, Cyrus, try to get Blair to choose one of them to escort her down the aisle, while Louis ' mother, Sophia, again tries to tell him that Blair is not, and never will be, trustworthy. During the wedding, Gossip Girl leaks a video which shows Blair confessing her love for Chuck. However, an interrupted wedding continues and Blair is officially declared the Princess of Monaco. However, at the reception, Louis reveals to Blair that the wedding stands as contracted and "a show '', and their love does not exist, to which Blair reacts in distress and runs away with Dan. The identity of Gossip Girl 's successor is revealed at the end of the episode. Following the wedding, Blair tries to leave for the Dominican Republic, with the help of Dan, to get a divorce from Louis without his consent due to a loophole in the Dominican Republic 's law. However, she realizes that she forgot her passport and so asks Dorota for help. Serena, Chuck, Nate reluctantly team up with Georgina to find Blair, until Georgina gets a tip from one of her sources and she leaves. Georgina then, as Gossip Girl, informs Louis and Sophia of Blair 's location. Nate, Serena and Chuck eventually find Blair in a hotel room with Dan. Sophia finds Blair and threatens to forcefully sell Eleanor 's company as dowry if Blair chooses not to return, on which Blair reluctantly decides to go back. Elsewhere, Nate has another meeting with the real Charlie Rhodes, who goes by the name of Lola. At the end, it is implied that neither Chuck nor Serena, who takes the blame, leaked the video of Blair confessing her love for Chuck. It is revealed that Georgina is simply filling in for Gossip Girl ever since she abandoned the blog after Chuck and Blair 's car accident. It 's Valentine 's Day on the Upper East Side and Blair ca n't resist playing Cupid for someone she loves as she tries to get Serena and Dan back together. Georgina is intent on stirring up more drama and trouble since taking over Gossip Girl 's website. With the help of a group of informants, Georgina decides to crash Nate 's Valentine 's Day party which is being held at the Empire Hotel, while Chuck does not feel in the holiday spirit and falls into his old habits. Meanwhile, Ivy Dickens returns to New York for a quick visit, but has a run - in with the real Charlie Rhodes, working at the party, whom Nate is still pining after. Serena is shocked by something she witnesses at the party when Dan and Blair 's relationship takes a turn when Dan kisses Blair and she kisses him back. Georgina figures out that Dan was the one who leaked the video of Blair confessing her love for Chuck at her wedding, but keeps silent when Dan discovers her own secret of being Gossip Girl. Charlie discovers Ivy, whom she used to know from acting school, has been impersonating her and also remains quiet as she sets out to investigate her. Ivy is also revealed to have spent the last three months hiding out in the Hamptons where she keeps a bedside vigil at a local hospice for a terminally sick CeCe Rhodes. Dan feels honored when he learns that Upright Citizen 's Brigade theater troupe is performing excerpts from his book, Inside. Meanwhile, Blair tries to prove Serena 's suspicions about her feelings for Dan are wrong, in order to save their relationship. A jealous and vindictive Chuck maliciously plots to sabotage Dan 's writing career. On her way out of town, Ivy Dickens ends up on a collision course with the Van der Woodsens and destiny as she continues to look after the cancer - stricken CeCe. Charlie / Lola continues to investigate Ivy 's origins as well as keep what she is doing a secret from Nate and everyone else. Carol Rhodes also arrives back in New York after learning from Lily and Serena about Cece 's medical turn for the worse. It is here at the hospital, that Ivy and Charlie run into each other once again, where this time Charlie finally reveals in front of the whole Van der Woodsen family that Ivy (whom they still know as Charlie) is an impostor. Carol, unable to lie any more, tells the truth about Ivy and all about their scheme. Blair admits to her feelings for Dan. At the end of the episode CeCe dies. Blair thinks her stepfather may have found a potential loophole in her prenuptial agreement that would allow her to escape her marriage to Louis. CeCe Rhodes, before her death, arranged for a secret Irish - themed wake to take place at Van der Woodsen penthouse. Georgina Sparks decides to leave her post at Gossip Girl to her loyal but incompetent husband, Phil, and crash the wake to stir up more trouble. Chuck learns that Dan was the one who sent the video of him and Blair at her wedding ceremony and sends a blast to Gossip Girl. However, Phil inadvertently leaves Chuck 's name in the blast. William Van der Woodsen (guest star William Baldwin) returns to the Upper East Side for the wake, and is the executor of CeCe 's estate. Ivy Dickens is announced as CeCe 's heir and we learn that CeCe was apparently aware the whole time of Ivy 's real identity. Ivy evicts both Lily and Rufus from the Van der Woodsen penthouse. Carol Rhodes also reveals the identity of Charlie 's father as William Van der Woodsen. The real Charlie ' Lola ' Rhodes continues her affair with Nate but has little interest in getting to know her family until Georgina suggests to her there may be another reason why her mother hid her from them. We learn that Blair 's personal accountant, Estée, is in love with Louis, and she convinces Blair to agree to having her marriage annulled as long as she does n't say a word to the media, including Gossip Girl. However this is all a ruse perpetrated by Georgina herself, who sends a photo of Blair and Dan kissing to Gossip Girl and the Waldorf 's are once again threatened with responsibility of paying the dowry and declaring bankruptcy. Blair tells Chuck that she will always love him but is not in love with him anymore. Georgina no longer wants to act as Gossip Girl after revealing to everyone that she has been filling in for the real Gossip Girl. She sends her computer to Serena and leaves for Monaco to help annul Blair 's marriage... in exchange for a favor down the road. Blair tells Dan that he 's the one who has her heart and they begin a relationship. Chuck invites his uncle, Jack, back to New York to thank him for saving his life in the car accident by donating blood, but starts to doubt Jack 's story when Chuck investigates and learns that Jack was recently diagnosed positive with Hepatitis C, and a test on Chuck turns to be negative. Meanwhile, Blair and Dan attempt to consummate their new relationship, but unexpected roadblocks get in their way. Serena takes over the role of Gossip Girl after receiving Georgina 's package, but learns that the job is trickier than she thought. Elsewhere, Ivy believes she has found an ally in William in her quest to be accepted into high society on the Upper East Side. Lily tries to adjust to living in Brooklyn at the Humphrey loft with Rufus until the war against Ivy is settled. Lola decides to help her family, seeing as they are all she has left. Also, Nate is hopeful that a new investor will save his newspaper Spectator. The episode concludes with the real Gossip Girl ready to resume her post, and requesting that Serena give the site back. Chuck discovers that it is his mother who donated the blood. Serena is determined to turn Lola into the next "it - girl '' of the Upper East Side, starting with trying to persuade Lola to model at a Kiki de Montparnasse lingerie show. Meanwhile, Chuck reaches out to Blair for advice about his past but is rejected as she believes he has a hidden agenda. Diana Payne 's return to The Spectator starts a power struggle with Nate for control, while Lola reacts with jealousy; but everything is not what it appears. It is discovered that Chuck paid Blair 's dowry to get rid of Louis ' family. Also, Rufus and Lily have a falling out after Lily goes behind Rufus ' back to play a simple scheme to remove Ivy from their penthouse. Blair and Dan throw a salon as a way of coming out as a couple, but drama caused by their friends derail the night. Lola finds out Serena is posing as Gossip Girl but does n't tell Nate, knowing he would be hurt by the revelation. Lily cuts off Rufus ' debit card after she finds out he has been paying for a hotel for Ivy. It is revealed at the end that Diana is really Chuck 's mother, she was too young to raise a baby and gave him to Elizabeth to look after. Blair feels like her Upper East Side status might be slipping away and devises a plan to assure that does n't happen by upstaging Dan at a publishers gathering. Meanwhile, Lily throws a family gathering including William, Carol, and Lola in an attempt to prove the van der Woodsen family is as united as ever, but Lily has an ulterior motive. Finally, Nate digs into Diana 's past and is surprised by what he discovers. Chuck, Nate, Blair, Serena and Lola team up to uncover what they think is an explosive secret between Diana and Jack. Meanwhile, Dan is offered a prestigious fellowship in Rome for the summer, but turns it down for his relationship with Blair. Dan tells Blair he loves her but she does n't say it back. Nate and Lola team up with Gossip Girl to take back the site from Serena leaving her hopeless. Diana is seen to be running a high class brothel service. At the end of the episode Chuck finds out his father Bart Bass is still alive. Blair enlists Serena to be her stand - in at an important meeting when Blair finds herself needing to be in two places at the same time as Dan seeks to meet with a college rep from Italy for his oversees summer stay in Italy. Meanwhile, Ivy and Lola team up to help Chuck with a personal vendetta against an old enemy of Bart Bass '. Also, Nate makes a decision about the future with Diana Payne (guest star Elizabeth Hurley). In the fifth season finale, when Gossip Girl begins to upload excerpts from Blair 's diary, her love life begins to unravel causing her to choose between Dan and Chuck. Serena is banished from the Waldorf apartment for her part in the reveal of Blair 's diary, she then retaliates by trying to seduce Dan with the help of Blair 's minions. Nate asks Lola to move in with him, but she turns him down when she tells him that her acting group is going on tour. Meanwhile at the Shephard divorce party, Serena and Dan have sex, but when Dan learns she videotaped their encounter just to hurt Blair, he furiously leaves. Elsewhere, Lily chooses to annul her marriage to Rufus, since her marriage to Bart is still valid. Lola receives her share of the Van der Woodsen estate from her biological father, William Van der Woodsen, and also learns that Lily intentionally sabotaged Carol 's defense in court to keep her imprisoned as well as destroyed Ivy 's case in order to keep Cece 's wealth all for herself. Blair accepts an offer from Eleanor to take over her fashion company. Following a Bass Industries press conference, Blair chooses Chuck over Dan, but Chuck rebuffs her when he is preoccupied with his father 's return as head of Bass Industries who ousts Chuck to reclaim his former position as CEO. One week later; Lola hands over her inheritance share to Ivy, who in return promises to keep in touch and help her bring down their common enemy: Lily. Lola leaves town to go on tour with her acting troupe, while Ivy returns to Florida to plot her revenge against Lily. The disgraced Serena leaves town and reverts back to her old self by taking drugs and sleeping with her dealer, whilst the alienated Dan leaves for Rome and prepares to write another hurtful, tell - all book about the Upper East Side with the help of Georgina Sparks. Nate receives CCTV footage from Diana Payne of the real Gossip Girl (a hooded masked figure) stealing Serena 's laptop on the night of Bart 's return. Whilst in Paris, Blair goes to a casino where Chuck and Jack are scheming to bring down Bart Bass and tells Chuck it 's now her turn to fight for him. The CW officially renewed the series for a fifth season on April 26, 2011. On May 19, 2011, with the reveal of The CW 's 2011 -- 12 television schedule, Gossip Girl stayed on Monday night and moved to the 8: 00 pm Eastern / 7: 00 pm Central timeslot as a lead - in to Hart of Dixie, which is produced by Gossip Girl 's executive producers Josh Schwartz and Stephanie Savage. The fifth season premiered on Monday, September 26, 2011. Filming for the season began on July 7, 2011. On August 3, 2011, The CW ordered two additional episodes for the fifth season, which will now total at 24. Executive producer Joshua Safran announced that he would be "pulling out all the stops '' to make the 100th episode of the show special, which is expected to air in January. On the date of the season premiere, the show used footage of the New York cityscape that showed the World Trade Center before the September 11 attacks. Footage containing the World Trade Center have been omitted by films and TV shows such as Sex and the City and The Sopranos to honor individuals who died in the attacks. The network has not responded to criticism regarding the usage of the footage. Despite dwindling ratings, series executives are confident the show will be renewed for a sixth season. Head of Warner Bros. Television, Peter Roth is also confident that the show will return, stating, "I ca n't really say at this point, but I would hope and expect that there would be at least another year -- if not years -- to come. '' Later on, executive producer Stephanie Savage hinted that a sixth and final season is likely. "We 're not writing a series finale this year, '' said Savage. She added "I checked in with the bosses to make sure we 're not shooting ourselves in the foot '' and said the cast contracts run out at the end of the next season so "that feels like probably an organic ending point ''. St. Vincent performed "Cruel '' and "Cheerleader '' from her Strange Mercy album during the Valentine 's Day episode. Blake Lively, Leighton Meester, Penn Badgley, Chace Crawford, and Ed Westwick all returned as series regulars. Kaylee DeFer was upgraded to series regular status, while Taylor Momsen and Jessica Szohr have been invited back as guest stars. Kelly Rutherford and Matthew Settle also returned as regulars. On April 6, 2011 10 Things I Hate About You star Ethan Peck landed a guest - starring role on the show. Peck made his debut in the fourth season finale and was in talks with producers for a recurring role for the fifth season. Peck would later film his scenes with Lively for the season premiere. French actress and model Roxane Mesquida was cast as Beatrice, Louis ' sister and Blair 's nemesis in a recurring role for the fifth season. Actress Elizabeth Hurley has been cast as media mogul Diana Payne and will star in a multi-episode arc with the character being described as "a sexy, smart, self - made media mogul and an all - around force to be reckoned with. '' Former Lost actor Marc Menard will join the cast in the potentially recurring role of Father Cavalia, a handsome priest from Monaco who will preside over Blair 's wedding. Brian J. Smith, best known for his role on Stargate Universe, had been cast as a love interest for Serena while she is in Los Angeles and would appearing on the show as Max, an aspiring chef. Connor Paolo, who is now a regular on Revenge, will not return to the show as Eric van der Woodsen stating, "I 'm done. You should never go back in life. Only forward. '' In an interview with Elle magazine on August 16, 2011, Momsen stated that she had quit the series to focus fully on her music career. Hollywood stuntwoman Zoë Bell was slated to appear on the show and made her debut in the season premiere. New York magazine noted the appearance of American novelist Jay McInerney, who reprised his role as writer Jeremiah Harris. Aaron Tveit, who previously portrayed Nate 's cousin Trip Vanderbilt in the third season, returned to the show for a multi-episode arc. Michelle Trachtenberg will reprise her role as Georgina Sparks, who was last seen in the fourth season finale. Her first appearance will be during the show 's 100th episode. Also returning is William Baldwin as Serena and Eric 's father, William van der Woodsen, for the season 's seventeenth episode, set to air in February 2012. It was also reported that Desmond Harrington who made a cameo appearance in the fall finale will return as Chuck 's Uncle. Also guest starring is One Life to Live 's alum David A. Gregory as a friend of the real Charlie Rhodes (Ella Rae Peck). Cobra Starship 's Gabe Saporta will make a cameo in season 5 finale. Season five opens in Los Angeles, where a vacationing Chuck and Nate decide to visit Serena, who is working on a movie set. Back in New York, Blair learns that planning a royal wedding can be stressful, especially with a baby on the way, and Dan discovers the consequences of writing candidly about his closest friends. Also, the surprise return of cousin Charlie will threaten to destroy the Van der Woodsen family. Confused about Chuck 's sudden change, Blair is determined to prove his behaviour is an act to win her back. The series ' 100th episode focused on Blair 's wedding to prince Louis. "I think it 's our biggest episode since the pilot '', said executive producer Joshua Safran. With the move to 8: 00pm, The CW charged $50,304 for a 30 - second advertising slot before the fifth season began airing. The season premiere was watched by 1.37 million viewers and received a 0.7 rating in the Adults 19 -- 49 demo, down 0.3 vs. last season 's premiere. Episode 23 hit a new series low, hitting for the fourth time a total viewership below the 1 million viewer mark, to 869,000 viewers and a 0.4 in the 18 - 49 demographic.

who discovered 8 comets and developed a catalog of the nebulae and clusters

Caroline Herschel - wikipedia Caroline Lucretia Herschel (/ ˈhɜːrʃəl, ˈhɛər - /; 16 March 1750 -- 9 January 1848) was a German astronomer, whose most significant contributions to astronomy were the discoveries of several comets, including the periodic comet 35P / Herschel -- Rigollet, which bears her name. She was the younger sister of astronomer William Herschel, with whom she worked throughout her career. She was the first woman to be awarded a Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1828), and to be named an Honorary Member of the Royal Astronomical Society (1835, with Mary Somerville). She was also named an honorary member of the Royal Irish Academy (1838). The King of Prussia presented her with a Gold Medal for Science on the occasion of her 96th birthday (1846). Caroline Lucretia Herschel was born in the town of Hanover on 16 March 1750. She was the eighth child and fourth daughter of Isaac Herschel, a self - taught oboist, and his wife, Anna Ilse Moritzen. Isaac became a bandmaster in the Hanoverian Foot Guards, whom he first joined in 1731, and was away with his regiment for substantial periods. He became ill after the Battle of Dettingen (part of the War of the Austrian Succession) in 1743 and never recovered fully; he suffered a weak constitution, chronic pain, and asthma for the remainder of his life. The oldest of their daughters, Sophia, was sixteen years older, and the only surviving girl besides Caroline. She married when Caroline was five, meaning that the younger girl was tasked with much of the household drudgery. Caroline and the other children received a cursory education, learning to read and write and little more. Her father attempted to educate her at home, but his efforts were mostly successful with the boys. At the age of ten, Caroline was struck with typhus, which stunted her growth, such that she never grew taller than four feet three inches. She suffered vision loss in her left eye as a result of her illness. Her family assumed that she would never marry and her mother felt it was best for her to train to be a house servant rather than becoming educated in accordance with her father 's wishes. Her father sometimes took advantage of her mother 's absence by tutoring her individually, or including her in her brother 's lessons, such as violin. Caroline was briefly allowed to learn dress - making. Though she learned to do needlework from a neighbour, her efforts were stymied by long hours of household chores. To prevent her from becoming a governess and earning her independence that way, she was forbidden from learning French or more advanced needlework than what she could pick up from neighbours. Following her father 's death, her brothers William and Alexander proposed that she join them in Bath, England to have a trial period as a singer for musician brother William 's church performances. Caroline eventually left Hanover on 16 August 1772 after her brother 's intervention with their recalcitrant mother. On the journey to England, she was first introduced to astronomy by way of the constellations and opticians ' shops. In Bath, she took on the responsibilities of running William 's household, and began learning to sing. William had established himself as an organist and music teacher at 19 New King Street, Bath (now the Herschel Museum of Astronomy). He was also the choirmaster of the Octagon Chapel. William was busy with his musical career and became fairly busy organising public concerts. Caroline did not blend in with the local society and made few friends, but was finally able to indulge her desire to learn, and took regular singing, English, and arithmetic lessons from her brother, and dance lessons from a local teacher. She also learned to play the harpsichord, and eventually became an integral part in William 's musical performances at small gatherings. She became the principal singer at his oratorio concerts, and acquired such a reputation as a vocalist that she was offered an engagement for the Birmingham festival after a performance of Handel 's Messiah in April 1778, where she was the first soloist. She declined to sing for any conductor but William, and after that performance, her career as a singer began to decline. Caroline was subsequently replaced as a performer by distinguished soloists from outside the area because William wished to spend less time in rehearsals to focus on astronomy. When William became increasingly interested in astronomy, transforming himself from a musician to an astronomer, Caroline again supported his efforts. She said somewhat bitterly, in her Memoir, "I did nothing for my brother but what a well - trained puppy dog would have done, that is to say, I did what he commanded me. '' Ultimately, though, she became interested in astronomy and enjoyed her work. In the 1770s, as William became more interested in astronomy, he started to build his own telescopes from lenses he had ground, unhappy with the quality of lenses he was able to purchase. Caroline would feed him and read to him as he worked, despite her desire to burnish her career as a professional singer. She became a significant astronomer in her own right as a result of her collaboration with him. The Herschels moved to a new house in March 1781 after their millinery business failed, and Caroline was guarding the leftover stock on 13 March, the night that William discovered the planet Uranus. Though he mistook it for a comet, his discovery proved the superiority of his new telescope. Caroline and William gave their last musical performance in 1782, when her brother accepted the private office of court astronomer to King George III; the last few months of their musical career had been a shambles and were critically panned. William 's interest in astronomy started as a hobby to pass time at night. At breakfast the next day he would give an impromptu lecture on what he had learned the night before. Caroline became as interested as William, stating that she was "much hindered in my practice by my help being continually wanted in the execution of the various astronomical contrivances. '' William became known for his work on high performance telescopes, and Caroline found herself supporting his efforts. Caroline spent many hours polishing mirrors and mounting telescopes in order to maximize the amount of light captured. She learned to copy astronomical catalogues and other publications that William had borrowed. She also learned to record, reduce, and organize her brother 's astronomical observations. She recognized that this work demanded speed, precision and accuracy. Caroline was asked to move from the high culture of Bath to the relative backwater of Datchet in 1782, a small town near Windsor Castle where William would be on hand to entertain royal guests. He presumed that Caroline would become his assistant, a role she did not initially accept. She was unhappy with the accommodations they had taken; the house they rented for three years had a leaky ceiling and Caroline described it as "the ruins of a place ''. She was also aghast at the prices in the city and the fact that their domestic servant was imprisoned for theft at the time of her arrival. While William worked on a catalogue of 3,000 stars, studied double stars, and attempted to discover the cause of Mira 's and Algol 's variability, Caroline was asked to "sweep '' the sky, meticulously moving through the sky in strips to search for interesting objects. She was unhappy with this task at the beginning of her work, longing for the culture of Bath and feeling isolated and lonely, but gradually developed a love for the work. On 28 August 1782 Caroline initiated her first record book. She inscribed the first three opening pages: "This is what I call the Bills & Rec. ds of my Comets '', "Comets and Letters '', and "Books of Observations ''. This, along with two subsequent books, currently belong to the Herschel trove at the Royal Astronomical Society in London. On 26 February 1783, Caroline made her first discovery: she had found a nebula that was not included in the Messier catalogue. That same night, she independently discovered Messier 110 (NGC 205), the second companion of the Andromeda Galaxy. William then began to search himself for nebulae, sensing that there were many discoveries to be made. Caroline was relegated to a ladder on William 's 20 - foot reflector, attempting impossible measurements of double stars. William quickly realized his method of searching for nebulae was inefficient and he required an assistant to keep records. Naturally, he turned to Caroline. "But it was not til the last two months of the same year before I felt the least encouragement for spending the starlight nights on a grass - plot covered with dew or hoar frost without a human being near enough to be within call. '' In the summer of 1783, William finished building Caroline a comet - searching telescope, which she began to use immediately. Beginning in October 1783, the Herschels used a 20 - foot reflecting telescope to search for nebulae. Initially, William attempted to both observe and record objects, but this too was inefficient and again turned to Caroline. She sat by a window inside, William shouted his observations, and Caroline recorded. This was not a simple clerical task, however, because she would have to use John Flamsteed 's catalogue to identify the star William used as a reference point for the nebulae. Because Flamsteed 's catalogue was organized by constellation, it was less useful to the Herschels, so Caroline created her own catalogue organized by north polar distance. The following morning, Caroline would go over her notes and write up formal observations, which she called "minding the heavens. '' During 1786 -- 97 she discovered eight comets, the first on 1 August 1786. She had unquestioned priority as discoverer of five of the comets and rediscovered Comet Encke in 1795. Five of her comets were published in Philosophical Transactions. A packet of paper bearing the superscription, "This is what I call the Bills and Receipts of my Comets '' contains some data connected with the discovery of each of these objects. William was summoned to Windsor Castle to demonstrate Caroline 's comet to the royal family. William recorded this phenomenon, himself, terming it "My Sister 's Comet. '' Caroline Herschel is often credited as the first woman to discover a comet; however, Maria Kirch discovered a comet in the early 1700s, but is often overlooked because at the time, the discovery was attributed to her husband, Gottfried Kirch. She wrote a letter to the Astronomer Royal to announce the discovery of her second comet. The third comet was discovered on 7 January 1790, and the fourth one on 17 April 1790. She announced both of these to Sir Joseph Banks, and all were discovered with her 1783 telescope. In 1791, Caroline began to use a 9 - inch telescope for her comet - searching, and discovered three more comets with this instrument. Her fifth comet was discovered on 15 December 1791 and the sixth on 7 October 1795. Caroline wrote in her journal during this time "My brother wrote an account of it to Sir J. Banks, Dr. Maskelyne, and to several astronomical correspondents '' for the discovery of her fifth comet. Two years later, her eighth and last comet was discovered on 6 August 1797, the only comet she discovered without optical aid. She announced this discovery by sending a letter to Banks. In 1787, she was granted an annual salary of £ 50 (equivalent to £ 5,800 in 2018) by George III for her work as William 's assistant. Caroline 's appointment made her the first woman in England honored with an official government position, and the first woman to be paid for her work in astronomy. In 1797 William 's observations had shown that there were a great many discrepancies in the star catalogue published by John Flamsteed, which was difficult to use because it had been published as two volumes, the catalogue proper and a volume of original observations, and contained many errors. William realised that he needed a proper cross-index to properly explore these differences but was reluctant to devote time to it at the expense of his more interesting astronomical activities. He therefore recommended to Caroline that she undertake the task, which ultimately took 20 months. The resulting Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars was published by the Royal Society in 1798 and contained an index of every observation of every star made by Flamsteed, a list of errata, and a list of more than 560 stars that had not been included. In 1825, Caroline donated the works of Flamsteed to the Royal Academy of Göttingen. Throughout her writings, she repeatedly made it clear that she desired to earn an independent wage and be able to support herself. When the crown began paying her for her assistance to her brother in 1787, she became the first woman -- at a time when even men rarely received wages for scientific enterprises -- to receive a salary for services to science. Her pension was £ 50 a year, and it was the first money that Caroline had ever earned in her own right. When William married a rich widow, Mary Pitt (née Baldwin) in 1788, the union caused tension in the brother - sister relationship. Caroline has been referred to as a bitter, jealous woman who worshipped her brother and resented those who invaded their domestic lives. In his book The Age of Wonder, Richard Holmes is more sympathetic to Caroline 's position, noting that the change was in many respects negative for Caroline. With the arrival of William 's wife, Caroline lost her managerial and social responsibilities in the household and accompanying status. She also moved from the house to external lodgings, returning daily to work with her brother. She no longer held the keys to the observatory and workroom, where she had done much of her own work. Because she destroyed her journals from 1788 to 1798, her feelings about the period are not entirely known. In August 1799, Caroline was independently recognized for her work, when she spent a week in Greenwich as a guest of the royal family. Barthélemy Faujas de Saint - Fond indicated she and her brother continued working well during this period. When her brother and his family were away from home, she often returned there to take care of it for them. In later life, she and Lady Herschel exchanged affectionate letters, and she became deeply attached to her nephew, astronomer John Herschel. William 's marriage likely led to Caroline 's becoming more independent of her brother and more a figure in her own right. Caroline made many discoveries independently of William and continued to work solo on many of the astronomical projects which contributed to her rise to fame. In 1802, the Royal Society published Caroline 's catalogue in its Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A under William 's name. This listed around 500 new nebulae and clusters to the already known 2000. Toward the end of Caroline 's life, she arranged two - and - a-half thousand nebulae and star clusters into zones of similar polar distances so that her nephew, John Herschel, could re-examine them systematically. The list was eventually enlarged and renamed the New General Catalogue. Many non-stellar objects are still identified by their NGC number. After her brother died in 1822, Caroline was grief - stricken and moved back to Hanover, Germany, continuing her astronomical studies to verify and confirm William 's findings and producing a catalogue of nebulae to assist her nephew John Herschel in his work. However, her observations were hampered by the architecture in Hanover, and she spent most of her time working on the catalogue. In 1828 the Royal Astronomical Society presented her with their Gold Medal for this work -- no woman would be awarded it again until Vera Rubin in 1996. Upon William 's death, her nephew, John Herschel, took over observing at Slough. Caroline had given him his first introduction into astronomy, when she showed him the constellations in Flamsteed 's Atlas. Caroline added her final entry to her observing book on 31 January 1824 about the Great Comet of 1832, which had already been discovered on 29 December 1823. Throughout the twilight of her life, Caroline remained physically active and healthy, and regularly socialized with other scientific luminaries. She spent her last years writing her memoirs and lamenting her body 's limitations, which kept her from making any more original discoveries. Caroline Herschel died peacefully in Hanover on 9 January 1848. She is buried at 35 Marienstrasse in Hanover at the cemetery of the Gartengemeinde, next to her parents and with a lock of William 's hair. Her tombstone inscription reads, "The eyes of her who is glorified here below turned to the starry heavens. '' With her brother, she discovered over 2400 astronomical objects over twenty years. The asteroid 281 Lucretia (discovered 1888) was named after Caroline 's second given name, and the crater C. Herschel on the Moon is named after her. Adrienne Rich 's 1968 poem "Planetarium '' celebrates Caroline Herschel 's life and scientific achievements. The artwork The Dinner Party, which celebrates historical women who have made extraordinary contributions, features a place setting for Caroline Herschel. Google honoured her with a Google Doodle on her 266th birthday (16 March 2016). Herschel was honoured by the King of Prussia and the Royal Astronomical Society. The gold medal from the Astronomical Society was awarded to her in 1828 "for her recent reduction, to January, 1800, of the (2,500) Nebulæ discovered by her illustrious brother, which may be considered as the completion of a series of exertions probably unparalleled either in magnitude or importance in the annals of astronomical labour. '' She completed this work after her brother 's death and her move to Hanover. The Royal Astronomical Society elected her an Honorary Member in 1835, along with Mary Somerville; they were the first women members. She was also elected as an honorary member of the Royal Irish Academy in Dublin in 1838. In 1846, at the age of 96, she was awarded a Gold Medal for Science by the King of Prussia, conveyed to her by Alexander von Humboldt, "in recognition of the valuable services rendered to Astronomy by you, as the fellow - worker of your immortal brother, Sir William Herschel, by discoveries, observations, and laborious calculations ''. Asteroid 281 Lucretia is named in her honor.

your kiss is my drug meaning in hindi

Your Love Is My Drug - wikipedia "Your Love Is My Drug '' is a song by American singer - songwriter Kesha, taken from her debut studio album, Animal (2010). It was released as the album 's third single on May 14, 2010. The song was written by Kesha and Pebe Sebert, with Ammo, who co-produced the song with Dr. Luke and Benny Blanco. "Your Love Is My Drug '' 's initial writing took place during a plane ride. Described by Kesha as a "pretty happy '' song with dark undertones, the song 's inspiration came from Kesha 's relationship with an ex-boyfriend. Written about the couple 's codependency, the song compares their love for one another to a drug. Prior to the release of Animal, the song charted in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada. After being released as a single the song reached the top five in Australia and the United States, as well as reaching the top ten in Canada. The song has gone on to sell over three million copies in the U.S. alone. Kesha notably performed the song alongside "Tik Tok '' on the 35th season of Saturday Night Live where she was covered in glow in the dark tribal - like make - up. In the psychedelic - influenced music video for the song, Kesha is featured in the desert, while being chased around by a love interest. The video also features a digital animation sequence which was inspired by The Beatles ' film Yellow Submarine. "Your Love Is My Drug '' was written by Kesha, alongside her mother Pebe Sebert and Joshua Coleman. The song was produced by Dr. Luke, Benny Blanco and Ammo. In an interview with MTV, Kesha stated the song was "written on an airplane, in like 10 minutes '' and that the song had a carefree message; it is "stupid and fun '' and not to be taken too seriously. When asked about the final line of the song ("I like your beard '') and where it came from, Kesha explained, "I 've always been into bearded dudes. Hello, I 'm from Nashville, I 'm into hillbillies (...) the redneck look is hot right now, and that 's great for me. I 'm over dudes trying to look like they 're in boy bands. '' Kesha later elaborated explaining the song 's inspiration, "It 's about me and my ex-boyfriend, and our tumultuous, psychotic relationship. We 'd act weird, like drug addicts with each other, calling and seeing each other all the time. I was in love at the time, and (the song) sounds pretty happy, but it 's a little bit of a dark song. You 're so obsessed with somebody you start acting like a weirdo.... I write about falling in love, being in love, breaking up because he 's a loser, being heartbroken. I not only sing about getting rowdy, but love. '' "Your Love Is My Drug '' is a mid-tempo crunkcore and dance - pop song. The song combines heavy Auto - Tune layered with a heavy electronic backdrop. Kesha opens the track singing, "Maybe I need some rehab / Or maybe just need some sleep / I 've got a sick obsession, I 'm seeing it in my dreams '' while she depicts the tale of a teen love obsession. Her vocals throughout the song have been described as a shouty sing - speak style. Sara Anderson of AOL Radio called the song a "bubblegum track '' that fuses elements of "' 80s glam rock '', with "Kesha 's signature auto - tuned vocals and casual chatty ad - libs ''. Kesha ends the song saying, "Your love is my drug... I like your beard, '' which was inspired by her ideal man. The song is in common time with a moderate beat rate of 120 beats per minute. The song is set in the key of F ♯ major and Kesha 's vocal range spans from the note of C ♯ to the note of Eb. Fraser McAlpine from BBC complimented the song and Kesha for knowing her way around a strong pop chorus, giving the single four out of five stars. McAlpine noted that "some evidence of range would be welcomed at this point, (...) (since) there 's a whole other side to her that you 'd never know if you just listened to the singles '' commenting that her persona was the "boozy floozy card '' and that the power ballads on her album could have been better for a release. He went on to conclude "even though her ' act ' is to be far too revealing about her dirty habits, she has still managed to create something of a mystique cloud around herself ''. Billboard magazine 's Monica Herrera was impressed with the song, calling it "blissful ''. She went on to compliment the song for its strong chorus that has the ability to "stick with the listener for days ''. Sara Anderson of AOL Radio called the song "a playful take on a teen love obsession '', complimenting "Kesha 's signature auto - tuned vocals and casual chatty ad - libs ''. Anderson commented on the chorus of the song calling it "a modern Cyndi Lauper - inspired chorus ''. Nate Adams of No Ripcord was positive in his review of the song, calling it "a fun little disco tune '', and wrote that the singer "is n't reinventing the wheel by any stretch of the imagination, but she has her share of catchy would - be hits. '' Robert Copsey of Digital Spy gave the song four out of five stars, commenting that although she sings through the verses in her "usual speak - sing fashion '', the chorus is "joyously irresistible ''. He also brands the song a "bubblegum electro stomper '' adding that the song distinguishes itself from her previous singles writing that it manages to "put some distance between the singer and the novelty sound of her previous hits, while still being the fun, trashy and frankly quite filthy ''. In January 2010, due to strong digital sales, the song charted in Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom, debuting at numbers 48, 27, and 63 respectively. In the United States the song was listed for six weeks before dropping off to re-enter at 91 on the week of April 3, 2010. After weeks of steadily ascending the charts the single reached a peak of four where it was listed for two weeks. The charting gave her her third straight top - ten hit in the country. On June 9, 2010, "Your Love Is My Drug '' reached the number one position on the Billboards Pop Songs chart, making Kesha the fifth female artist since the beginning of 2000, and the third in the last two years, to earn at least two number ones from a debut album. "Your Love Is My Drug '' also peaked at number one on Billboard 's Hot Dance Club Songs where it stayed for one week. The song has received 2 × Platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for sales of 2,000,000 units. As of August 2012, the song has sold 3,110,000 copies in the United States. As of March 2016, "Your Love Is My Drug '' has sold 3.3 million digital copies. In Canada, the song spent a total of six weeks on the chart before dropping off to re-enter at 98. After steadily ascending the charts, the song moved up to reach a peak of six. The single fell the following week to the number seven position where it stayed for two weeks. In the succeeding week the song rose to the number six position where it stayed for an additional three weeks. The song entered at number 63 on the UK Singles Chart, dropping off the chart the following week. The single re-entered the chart on the week of May 16, 2010, at 60. On June 19, 2010 after four weeks of the single climbing the chart, it reached a new peak of 13. "Your Love Is My Drug '' has spent more weeks in the UK top 20 than its higher charting predecessor "Blah Blah Blah ''. In New Zealand the song debuted at number 29 and as of the May 17, 2010 issue it has gone to 15. The single entered the ARIA Charts at number 25. The following week, the single moved up to 17. As of the June 6, 2010 edition the song has reached a peak of three. It has since been certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of 70,000 units. The music video for the song was directed by Honey and it was shot on April 6 and April 7, 2010, in the Lancaster, California desert. It premiered on Vevo at 12: 01 a.m. on May 13, 2010. Kesha described the concept behind the video in an interview with MTV, stating, "I wanted it to be like a psychedelic trip of the mind, comparable with being so disgustingly in love with someone that you lose your head. '' She chose to also incorporate an animal aspect to the video explaining that she was "a huge animal lover ''. Kesha elaborated on the experience, "I also ride an elephant -- no big deal! -- and, um, I dance around a cave with black - light body paint and a python. I was in a cave, in the desert, and it was really fun. '' When asked about the inspiration for the video, she said "This video was inspired by the Beatles ' Yellow Submarine movie, the animation aspect. There 's a little bit of (that) in there too ''. Her love interest in the clip was portrayed by Marc - Edouard Leon, a member of the directing team Skinny. The video begins with Kesha waking up next to her love interest; she then proceeds to run away while being chased by the man. Kesha walks through the desert while split scenes of her are shown where she is riding an elephant and wearing a tiger mask while crawling around in the sand. They are later seen on a boat singing and pretending to row while digitally animated water is added. It then cuts to a scene of all animation in which Kesha is portrayed as a mermaid. The mermaid and the man share a kiss; the video then jumps to a scene on a rocky hillside with Kesha walking around the sand with the man standing above on a rock. The video then cuts to another scene where Kesha is covered in glow in the dark body paint while dancing around in a cave with a python around her neck. The video ends with Kesha and her lover sitting around a campfire while still in the desert. James Montgomery from MTV said that "Your Love Is My Drug '' was a "supremely catchy pop tune '' and that the video was "the perfectly blissed - out accompaniment. '' Montgomery chided the video for "not making much sense '' but noted "that hardly matters '' as "Kesha has stumbled on a perfect formula for pop success: Do n't think too big, or too much. Sometimes an elephant ride is just an elephant ride ''. His conclusion of the video and of Kesha herself was, "It 's a lot harder than you 'd think to make something seem this effortless. Like I said, you can accuse Kesha of many things -- but do n't ever say she 's not smart. '' This song was performed on Saturday Night Live on April 17, 2010. During the performance, Kesha was covered in tribal - like make - up and performed in the dark with only black light lighting, making the make - up glow in the dark. On May 29, 2010, Kesha performed "Your Love Is My Drug '' alongside previous single "Tik Tok '' at the MTV Video Music Awards Japan. She also performed the song in a set for BBC Radio 1 's Big Weekend. On August 13, 2010, Kesha performed "Your Love Is My Drug '' on NBC 's Today Show. Source

who are the commentators on monday night raw

List of WWE Raw on - air personalities - wikipedia This is a list of on - air personalities from the professional wrestling television series WWE 's Raw. On - air personalities include the wrestlers themselves, ring announcers, commentators, and on - screen authority figures. The show also features recurring on - air segments hosted by various personalities.

who holds the record for most tackles in a season

List of National Football League records (individual) - wikipedia This is a list of records in the National Football League (NFL) set by individual players. All - purpose yardage (or combined net yards gained) encompasses rushing, receiving, interception returns, punt returns, kickoff returns and fumble returns. Net average has been compiled since 1976. Punts inside the 20 have been compiled since 1976. Note: These records are not listed in the NFL Record and Fact Book. Note: These records are not listed in NFL Record and Fact Book Note: These records are not listed in NFL Record and Fact Book

when did 3 on 3 overtime start in nhl

Overtime (ice hockey) - wikipedia Overtime is a method of determining a winner in an ice hockey game when the score is tied after regulation. The main methods of determining a winner in a tied game are the overtime period (commonly referred to as overtime), the shootout, or a combination of both. If league rules dictate a finite time in which overtime may be played, with no penalty shoot - out to follow, the game 's winning team may or may not be necessarily determined. Overtime periods are extra periods beyond the third regulation period during a game, where normal hockey rules apply. Although in the past, full - length overtime periods were played, overtimes today are golden goal (a form of sudden death), meaning that the game ends immediately when a player scores a goal. From November 21, 1942, when overtime was eliminated due to war time restrictions and continuing until the 1983 -- 84 season, all NHL regular - season games tied after 60 minutes of play ended as ties. On June 23, 1983, the NHL introduced a regular - season overtime period of five minutes. If the five - minute overtime period ended with no scoring, the game ended as a tie (the World Hockey Association had used a 10 - minute regular season overtime period, as had the NHL prior to World War II). In the first games to go to overtime, on October 5, 1983, the Minnesota North Stars and Los Angeles Kings skated to a 3 -- 3 tie, and the Detroit Red Wings and Winnipeg Jets tied 6 -- 6. The first regular - season game decided by overtime was on October 8, 1983, as the New York Islanders beat the Washington Capitals 8 -- 7. In 1987 -- 88 and since 1995, the American Hockey League has awarded teams one point in the standings for an overtime loss (OTL). In 1998, the AHL introduced a rule where teams will play the five - minute overtime period with four skaters and a goaltender, rather than at full strength (five skaters), except in two - man advantage situations. In a two - man advantage situation, the team with the advantage will play with five skaters against three skaters. The rule was popular and adopted by the NHL and ECHL the next season. Alex Ovechkin has the record for most NHL overtime goals with 20. In the Stanley Cup playoffs and in all one - game playoffs, overtime periods are played like regulation periods except for the golden goal rule -- in an overtime period, the game ends when one team scores a goal; the teams are at full strength (five skaters, barring penalties), there is no shootout, and each overtime period is 20 minutes with full intermissions between overtime periods. Three of the game 's legendary players, Mark Messier (109 playoff goals), Mario Lemieux (77 goals), and Gordie Howe (68 goals) never scored a playoff overtime goal. In many leagues (including the NHL for regular - season games since the 2005 -- 06 season) and in international competitions, a failure to reach a decision in a single overtime may lead to a shootout. Some leagues may eschew overtime periods altogether and end games in shootout should teams be tied at the end of regulation. In the ECHL, regular season overtime periods are played four on four for one five - minute period. In the Southern Professional Hockey League, regular season overtime periods are played three on three for one five - minute period, with penalties resulting in the opponents skating one additional player on ice (up to two additional players) for the penalty for the first three minutes, and a penalty shot in the final two minutes. The AHL, since the 2014 -- 15 season, extended the overtime to seven minutes, with the last three minutes reduced further to three men aside and teams getting an additional skater for each opponent 's penalty. The idea of using 3 - on - 3 skaters for the entirety of a five - minute overtime period for a regular season game was adopted by the NHL on June 24, 2015, for use in the 2015 -- 16 NHL season. In IIHF play, rules for overtime depend on the stage of the competition. For a round robin or preliminary round game that goes to overtime, the teams will play a maximum of five minutes of 3 - on - 3 hockey in the "golden goal '' format. If no one scores in the five minute overtime, a three - round shootout will decide the winner. In the case of a playoff game or a bronze medal game, the teams will play a maximum of ten minutes of 4 - on - 4 hockey in the "golden goal '' format. If there is no score in the overtime, a five - round shootout will decide the winner. If the gold medal game of a top category IIHF championship goes to overtime, the teams will play a maximum of twenty minutes of 5 - on - 5 hockey in the "golden goal '' format. If there is no winner after the overtime, a five - round shootout will decide the winner. In all cases, the teams must change ends, and defend the same side that they did in the second period. In international competition, shootouts (or more formally, game - winning shots (GWS), and, in some European countries, bullets, or bullits), are often used. Each coach selects three skaters from their team to take penalty shots one at a time against the opposing goaltender, with teams alternating shots. Each team gets one shot per round. The winner is the team with more goals after three rounds or the team that amasses an unreachable advantage before then (ex. a team gains a two - goal lead with only one round left). If the shootout is tied after three rounds, tie - breaker rounds are played one at a time (with each team taking one additional shot) until there is a winner. The IIHF first adopted the game - winning - shot procedure in 1992 when a new playoff procedure in the Winter Olympics and World Championships required a winner for each game. At that time, the shootout was five rounds and only used for knock - out games. In 2006, it was reduced to three rounds and used for all games, eliminating the possibility of tied games at IIHF events. Tie - breaker rounds are still used as needed, and the same or new players can take the tie - break shots, which is also done in reverse order. As of May 2016, all IIHF preliminary round games that are not decided by overtime, are decided by a three - round shootout. However, all playoff, bronze medal games and gold medal games of IIHF top level championships (especially the Olympics) are decided by five round shootouts. Most lower minor leagues (ECHL, Central, UHL) have featured a shootout where, at the end of regulation, a shootout similar to the international tournament format is used. However, in 2000, the ECHL adopted the AHL 's four - on - four overtime before the shootout. For the 2004 -- 05 AHL season, the AHL adopted a five - man shootout, which was first used in that league in 1986 -- 87. The standard five - man shootout is used after four - on - four overtime for all minor leagues in North America. The AHL switched to the NHL formatted three - man shootout for the 2014 -- 15 season. The Central Collegiate Hockey Association added the shootout as of the 2008 -- 09 season. Following the lead of minor leagues, as of the 2005 -- 06 season, the NHL ends exhibition and regular season games still tied after a five - minute - length, three - skaters - per - side overtime period (as of the 2015 -- 16 NHL season onwards) with a shootout. The NHL format is a three - round shootout with tiebreaker rounds as needed. All skaters (except goalies) on a team 's roster must shoot before any player can shoot a second time. On December 16, 2014 the longest shootout in NHL history went to 20 rounds before Nick Bjugstad of the Florida Panthers scored to defeat the Washington Capitals; the previous record was 15 rounds. The shootout is not used in the playoffs for any North American league. Instead, full 20 - minute overtime periods are played until one team scores a goal. In the National Hockey League and American Hockey League All - Star Skills Competitions, the competition ends in a penalty shootout known as the Breakaway Relay. Tactics are very important during penalty shots and overtime shootouts for both the shooter and the goalie. Both shooters and goalies commonly consult their teammates and coaches for advice on the opposing player 's style of play. Shooters often consider the goalie 's strengths and weaknesses (such as a fast glove or stick save), preferred goaltending style (such as butterfly or stand - up) and method of challenging the shooter. Goaltenders often consider the shooter 's shot preference, expected angle of attack, a patented move a shooter commonly uses and even handedness of the shooter. Most shooters attempt to out - deke the goalie in order to create a better scoring chance. Former Detroit Red Wings forward Pavel Datsyuk and New York Rangers forward Martin St. Louis are examples of players who commonly use this tactic. However, it is not uncommon for a shooter to simply shoot for an opening without deking. This is commonly referred to as sniping. This is most commonly performed when a goalie challenges a shooter by giving them an open hole (by keeping a glove, pad or stick out of position or being out of sound goaltending position altogether to tempt the shooter to aim for the given opening). Former NHL forwards Markus Näslund and Brett Hull are two players commonly referred to as snipers. Very rarely a shooter may take a slapshot or wrist shot from the point or top of the slot. This is almost exclusively performed when a shooter either has a high level of confidence in their shot or they attempt to catch the goalie by surprise. Retired player Brian Rolston, Detroit Red Wings winger Todd Bertuzzi, Philadelphia Flyers defenseman Chris Pronger, and Vancouver Canucks winger Daniel Sedin have all used this tactic with success. The longest overtime game in history was an in Norwegian GET - ligaen. The game ended after 157: 14 of overtime, in the 8th overtime period. This is a list of all National Hockey League (NHL) overtime games that went into at least three overtimes (winning team is bold). This is a list of the longest games in the highest Swedish leagues. This is a list of Kontinental Hockey League games that went to at least the third overtime. The longest game in Belarusian extraleague is game first of the 2015 Semi-finals on March 7, 2015. Yunost Minsk beat the HK Gomel, 2 -- 1, at Gomel Ice Palace of Sports on a goal by Vitaly Kiryuschenkov at 5: 11 of the sixth 20 - minute overtime period. Alexander Tsetkovsky was the winning goaltender for the Yunost, making 107 saves. This is a list of Gold Medal men 's games from the Olympics that needed overtime. This is a list of Gold Medal women 's games from the Olympics that needed overtime. March 22, 2008: Philip Gogulla of the Cologne Sharks ends the longest German hockey game ever and the third longest worldwide, scoring the ninth - overall goal in a 5: 4 victory over the Mannheim Eagles. The goal comes 8: 16 into the sixth overtime period for a total of 108: 16 of overtime. It is the third quarter - final game (best of seven) in the Kölnarena in Cologne in front of an audience of 17,000. The game had begun at 5: 30 pm and ends at 12: 15 am. March 12, 2017: Joakim Jensen of the Storhamar Ishockey ends the longest hockey game in history, scoring with 2: 46 left in octuple overtime for a total of 157: 14 of overtime, and 217: 14 of hockey played. It was Game 5 of the quarter - finals of the 2016 -- 17 GET - ligaen playoffs against the Sparta Warriors in the CC Amfi. About 1,000 out of the 5,500 people that attended the game watched the entire game. The game started at 18: 00 and ended at 2: 32 the next morning. The longest game in AHL history is game four of the 2018 Atlantic Division Final on May 9, 2018. The Lehigh Valley Phantoms beat the Charlotte Checkers, 2 -- 1, at Bojangles Coliseum on a goal by Alex Krushelnyski at 6: 48 of quintuple overtime. Alex Lyon was the winning goaltender for the Phantoms, making 94 saves. The University of New Brunswick Varsity Reds needed 61: 53 of overtime (four extra periods) to defeat the Acadia University Axemen 3 -- 2 on February 27, 2011 in game two of a best - of - five AUS semi-final series at Fredericton, New Brunswick. Nick MacNeil scored the game - winner at 11: 53 of the seventh period overall. York University Lions and Lakehead University Thunderwolves went to a fourth overtime period (50: 13 minutes of overtime) on February 14, 2007 in Thunder Bay, Ontario, to decide a winner in OUA men 's playoff hockey action. Lakehead won the game at the 13 - second mark of the fourth overtime period. Morgan McHaffie scored at 17: 14 of the sixth overtime period to lead the Queen 's Golden Gaels to a 2 -- 1 win over the host Guelph Gryphons in the first game of the best - of - three OUA women 's hockey final, March 2, 2011. The game, which lasted 167 minutes and 14 seconds, including 107: 14 of extra time, is the longest on record in CIS or NCAA hockey -- women 's or men 's. Winning goaltender Mel Dodd - Moher made 66 saves, while Danielle Skoufranis made 44 saves in a losing cause. It is the longest game ever played sanctioned by Hockey Canada. * Championship Series game. * * Game 7 On May 12, 2008, one of the longest games in IHL history, if not the longest, took place in Fort Wayne, Indiana. It was the seventh game of the Turner Cup Final between the hometown Fort Wayne Komets and Port Huron Icehawks. The game was tied 2 -- 2 through regulation. The first two extra periods solved nothing, but 23 seconds into the third overtime period, at some point after midnight ET, Justin Hodgman scored the winning goal to give the Komets their fifth Turner Cup title. It was the club 's first since 1993, and their sixth overall, with their last championship being the Colonial Cup in 2003. The Komets would win again the following year with an easy game five victory at home, which was the first time in franchise history they won back - to - back championships. They would follow up with a third consecutive Turner Cup in 2010, again clinching on home ice, securing a dynasty. On April 25, 2018, in game 5 of the 2018 VHL finals, SKA - Neva defeated HC Dinamo Saint Petersburg 4 - 3 in a game that needed 103: 36 of overtime to be settled. Svyatoslav Grebinshchikov scored the game - winning goal 3: 36 of sextuple overtime. The longest game in NCAA hockey history was played on March 6 -- 7, 2015. UMass beat Notre Dame, 4 -- 3, in the Hockey East first - round playoff game after 91: 42 of overtime. Shane Walsh scored the winning goal for UMass. The longest game in NCAA hockey history was played at Notre Dame in South Bend, Indiana on March 6, 2015. UMass beat Notre Dame, 4 -- 3, in the Hockey East first round with 8: 18 left in quintuple overtime. Shane Walsh scored the winning goal just after 1: 00 am local time. The previous longest was played on March 12, 2010. Quinnipiac University beat Union College, 3 -- 2, in the ECAC Quarterfinals, as Greg Holt scored with 9: 38 left in quintuple overtime. The 3rd longest game in NCAA hockey history was played on March 5, 2006. Yale University beat Union College, 3 -- 2, in the ECAC Hockey League first - round playoff game after 81: 35 of overtime. David Meckler scored the winning goal with Yale shorthanded. The longest game in NCAA Division III hockey history, and the fourth longest in NCAA history overall, began at 7: 05 pm on February 27, 2010 and ended at 12: 35 am of the following day. Gustavus Adolphus College beat Augsburg College, 6 -- 5, to advance to the MIAC championship game after 78: 38 of overtime. Eric Bigham scored the winning goal. A 2000 NCAA regional final in men 's ice hockey between St. Lawrence University and Boston University ended with 63: 53 of overtime. Manitoba native and minor hockey buddy of Craig McAulay, Robin Carruthers scored the gwg after four periods of overtime play A March 30, 1991 game between Northern Michigan University and Boston University ended with Northern Michigan earning an 8 -- 7 victory over Boston University. Unlikely hero Darryl Plandowski scores in the third overtime period and fifth hour of play to give the Wildcats the title. A March 8, 1997 game between Colorado College and the University of Wisconsin -- Madison ended with Colorado College winning, 1 -- 0, after 69: 30. A March 14, 2003 ECAC Quarterfinal game between Colgate University and Dartmouth ended, 4 -- 3 for Colgate, after 61: 05 in overtime. On March 26, 2006, the Wisconsin Badgers beat the Cornell Big Red 1 -- 0 at 11: 13 into the third overtime at the Midwest Regional Final in the NCAA Tournament at the Resch Center in Green Bay. It was the second - longest NCAA Tournament game in its history and the longest 1 -- 0 game in tournament history. It is currently the ninth - longest game all - time in NCAA Division I history. An March 11, 2007 game between St. Cloud State University and University of Minnesota Duluth during the first round of the WCHA playoffs ended with SCSU winning, 3 -- 2, after 51: 33 of overtime. It is the eighth - longest NCAA Division I game in history. In the first round of the 2008 WCHA hockey tournament featuring the fourth - seeded Minnesota State University, Mankato Mavericks hosting the seventh - seeded University of Minnesota Golden Gophers, the Friday and Sunday games both went into double overtime, and the Saturday night game went into one overtime. The Gophers prevailed two games to one in the series, winning Saturday and Sunday. On March 3, 2012, in the first round of the 2012 ECAC Hockey hockey tournament featuring the seventh - seeded Clarkson Golden Knights men 's ice hockey team hosting the tenth - seeded RPI Engineers men 's ice hockey team, Clarkson beat RPI 4 -- 3 at 13: 48 in the third overtime period, after 113: 48 of play. It is currently the seventh - longest game all - time in NCAA Division I history. On March 10, 1996, New Hampshire defeated Providence, 3 -- 2, in an ECAC Women 's Championship game after 85: 35 of overtime. (This is not an NCAA record, as the NCAA did not officially recognize women 's hockey until the 2001 season; however, it stands as the longest women 's college hockey game) On March 10, 2007, Wisconsin defeated Harvard, 1 -- 0, in an NCAA Women 's Quarterfinal game after 67: 09 of overtime at the Kohl Center in Madison WI. Wisconsin went on to win the national championship. On March 10, 2012, Cornell University defeated Boston University, 8 -- 7, in an NCAA Women 's Quarterfinal game after 59: 50 of overtime at Lynah Rink in Ithaca, New York, surpassing the men 's game from the previous night as the longest hockey game to be played at the rink. On March 21, 2010, Minnesota - Duluth defeated Cornell 3 -- 2 in the NCAA championship game, after 59: 26 of overtime (119: 26 total game time), the longest men 's or women 's hockey championship game in NCAA history. The semi-final game for the 2007 RBC Cup, saw the host Prince George Spruce Kings taking on the Camrose Kodiaks. The game ended up being the longest game in Royal Bank Cup history at 146 minutes and 1 second. The Spruce Kings broke a 2 -- 2 tie just over six minutes into the fifth overtime period to win 3 -- 2 and clinch a berth in the RBC Cup Final against the Aurora Tigers. Jason Yuel of the Spruce Kings scored the winner while goaltender Jordan White stopped 91 of 93 shots for the victory. On February 10, 2007, the Toronto Jr. Canadiens defeated the Pickering Panthers, 4 -- 3, to take a 2 -- 0 series lead in the first round of the OPJHL playoffs, after 104: 32 of overtime. It is the second longest game ever played sanctioned by Hockey Canada. February 1999, the St. Catharines Falcons defeated the Port Colborne Sailors 7 -- 6 to take a 2 -- 1 series lead in the semi-finals of the Golden Horseshoe Jr. B Hockey League Playoffs. Peter Lacey scored 11 minutes into the fifth overtime period, ending the game at 2: 18 am. The game started at 7: 30 pm. It is the longest junior hockey game sanctioned by Hockey Canada Marquette vs Orchard Lake St Marys went eight overtimes during the Michigan State Ice Hockey Division 1 Championship game before Tournament officials stopped the game in consideration of the health and welfare of the players on March 8, 2008. The 1 -- 1 tie resulted in the two teams being declared co-champions. The game lasted 109 minutes. Ryan Morley Stockton of St. Mary 's had a MHSAA - record 58 saves. The longest game in high school history was in a 1996 FCIAC quarterfinal matchup in Darien, Connecticut between archrivals Wilton and Ridgefield that went to a tenth eight - minute overtime period after 45 minutes of regulation (125: 00 of hockey). Chris Ludwig of Wilton scored the game - winner while being hauled down in front of the Ridgefield net in the tenth overtime period. The previous record belonged to the Aurora High School -- Solon High School game in which Aurora won in the eighth overtime period of the Ohio state playoffs. The winning goal was scored with 3: 52 left in the 8th overtime (105th minute), setting an American record. Since 2015, all state tournaments allow up to 5 overtime periods (4 - on - 4 after first overtime), after which best - of - 3 - round shootouts and extra rounds if needed are conducted, to eliminate co-champions.

thelonious monk john coltrane complete 1957 riverside recordings

The complete 1957 Riverside recordings - Wikipedia The Complete 1957 Riverside Recordings is a 2006 release of Thelonious Monk and John Coltrane 's work for the Riverside Records label in 1957, with two tracks previously unreleased in any form. This collection is an almost complete anthology of the work of Monk and Coltrane, who only recorded together in the studio during 1957. The set draws from tracks recorded for Thelonious Monk with John Coltrane, Monk 's Music and a trio track from Thelonious Himself. Thelonious Monk Quartet with John Coltrane at Carnegie Hall and Discovery! are the only other recordings documenting Monk and Coltrane 's work together.

what was the order of admission was illinois

List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union - wikipedia A state of the United States of America is one of the 50 constituent entities that shares its sovereignty with the federal government. Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside, due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the federal government. Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are the primary subdivisions of the United States and possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, such as regulating intrastate commerce, running elections, creating local governments, and ratifying constitutional amendments. Each state has its own constitution grounded in republican principles, and government consisting of executive, legislative, and judicial branches. All states and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state is represented by two Senators, while Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census. Additionally, each state is entitled to select a number of electors to vote in the Electoral College, the body that elects the President of the United States, equal to the total of Representatives and Senators in Congress from that state. Article IV, Section 3, Clause 1 of the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states. The following table is a list of all 50 states and their respective dates of statehood. The first 13 became states in July 1776 upon agreeing to the United States Declaration of Independence, and each joined the first Union of states between 1777 and 1781, upon ratifying the Articles of Confederation, its first constitution. (A separate table is included below showing AoC ratification dates.) These states are presented in the order in which each ratified the 1787 Constitution, thus joining the present federal Union of states. The date of admission listed for each subsequent state is the official date set by Act of Congress. The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles of Confederation for ratification by the individual states on November 15, 1777. The Articles of Confederation came into force on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 states. On March 4, 1789, the general government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under the present Constitution.

around the world in 80 days movie 1956

Around the World in 80 Days (1956 film) - wikipedia Around the World in 80 Days (sometimes spelled as Around the World in Eighty Days) is a 1956 American epic adventure - comedy film starring Cantinflas and David Niven, produced by the Michael Todd Company and released by United Artists. The epic picture was directed by Michael Anderson and produced by Mike Todd, with Kevin McClory and William Cameron Menzies as associate producers. The screenplay was written by James Poe, John Farrow, and S.J. Perelman based on the classic novel of the same name by Jules Verne. The music score was composed by Victor Young in his final film, and the Todd - AO 70 mm cinematography (shot in Technicolor) was by Lionel Lindon. The film 's seven - minute - long animated title sequence, shown at the end of the film, was created by award - winning designer Saul Bass. The film won five Academy Awards, including Best Picture. Broadcast journalist Edward R. Murrow presents an onscreen prologue, featuring footage from A Trip to the Moon (1902) by Georges Méliès, explaining that it is based loosely on the book From the Earth to the Moon by Jules Verne. Also included is the launching of an unmanned rocket and footage of the earth receding. In 1872, an English gentleman Phileas Fogg (David Niven) claims he can circumnavigate the world in eighty days. He makes a £ 20,000 wager (worth about £ 1.6 million in 2015) with four sceptical fellow members of the Reform Club (each contributing £ 5,000 to the bet) that he can arrive back eighty days from exactly 8: 45 pm that evening. Together with his resourceful valet, Passepartout (Cantinflas), Fogg goes hopscotching around the globe generously spending money to encourage others to help him get to his destinations faster so he can accommodate tight steamship schedules. They set out on the journey from Paris by hot air balloon upon learning the mountain train tunnel is blocked. The two accidentally end up in Spain, where Passepartout engages in a comic bullfight. Next, he goes to Brindisi. Meanwhile, suspicion grows that Fogg has stolen £ 55,000 (around £ 4.5 million today) from the Bank of England so Police Inspector Fix (Robert Newton) is sent out by Scotland Yard to trail him (starting in Suez) and keeps waiting for a warrant to arrive so he can arrest Fogg in the British ports they visit. In India, Fogg and Passepartout rescue young widow Princess Aouda (Shirley MacLaine) from being forced into a funeral pyre with her late husband. The three visit Hong Kong, Yokohama, San Francisco, and the Wild West. After sailing across the Atlantic, and only hours short of winning his wager, Fogg is arrested upon arrival at Liverpool, by the diligent yet misguided Inspector Fix. At the jail, the humiliated Fix informs Fogg that the real culprit was caught in Brighton. Though he is now exculpated, he has insufficient time to reach London before his deadline and thus has lost everything -- but the love of the winsome Aouda. Salvation is at hand when, upon returning to London, Passepartout buys a newspaper and sees it is still Saturday. Fogg then realizes that by traveling east towards the rising sun and by crossing the International Date Line, he has gained a day. There is still time to reach the Reform Club and win the bet. Fogg arrives at the club just before the 8: 45 pm chime. Aouda and Passepartout then arrive, surprising everyone, as no woman has ever entered the Reform Club before. The film boasts an all star cast, with David Niven and Cantinflas in the lead roles of Fogg and Passepartout. Fogg is the classic Victorian gentleman, well - dressed, well - spoken, and extremely punctual, whereas his servant Passepartout (who has an eye for the ladies) provides much of the comic relief as a "jack of all trades '' for the film in contrast to his master 's strict formality. Joining them are Shirley MacLaine as Princess Aouda and Robert Newton as the detective Fix, in his last role. The role of Passepartout was greatly expanded from the novel to accommodate Cantinflas, the most famous Latin - American comedian at the time, and winds up as the focus of the film. While Passepartout describes himself as a Parisian in the novel, this is unclear in the film -- he has a French name, but speaks Spanish when he and his master arrive in Spain by balloon. In the Spanish version the name of his character was changed from the French Passepartout to the Spanish "Juan Picaporte ''. There is also a comic bullfighting sequence especially created for Cantinflas that is not in the novel. Indeed, when the film was released in some non-English speaking nations, Cantinflas was billed as the lead. According to the guidebook, this was done because of an obstacle Todd faced in casting Cantinflas, who had never before appeared in an American movie and had turned down countless offers to do so. Todd allowed Cantinflas to appear in the film as a Latin, "so, '' the actor said himself, "... to my audience in Latin America, I 'll still be Cantinflas. '' Over 40 famous performers make cameo appearances, including Marlene Dietrich, Ronald Colman, George Raft, and Frank Sinatra. The film was significant as the first of the so - called Hollywood "make work '' films, employing dozens of faded film personalities. John Wayne turned down Todd 's offer for the role of the Colonel leading the Cavalry charge, a role filled by Colonel Tim McCoy. Promotional material released at the time quoted a Screen Actors Guild representative looking at the shooting call sheet and crying: "Good heavens Todd, you 've made extras out of all the stars in Hollywood! '' Shirley MacLaine and Glynis Johns are the last surviving members of the entire cast. Around the World in 80 Days was produced by Michael Todd, a Broadway showman who had never before produced a movie. The director he hired, Michael Anderson, had directed the highly acclaimed British war movie The Dam Busters, the 1956 film of George Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty - Four and other classic films. Todd sold his interest in the Todd - AO film format to help finance the film. Because Todd - AO ran at 30 frames per second, which was incompatible with the 35mm standard of 24 fps, Around the World in 80 Days was, like the first film in Todd - AO, Oklahoma!, filmed twice. However, unlike Oklahoma! which was filmed additionally in 35mm CinemaScope, Around the World in 80 Days was filmed simultaneously in Todd - AO at 24 frames per second so that from this negative, 35mm reduction prints could be made. After these two films, the specification for Todd - AO was altered from the third film in the format, South Pacific, to 24 fps running, making it unnecessary to film subsequent productions twice. In the autobiographical book The Moon 's a Balloon, published in 1972, the actor David Niven discussed his meeting with Todd and the subsequent events that led to the film being produced. According to Niven, when Todd asked him if he would appear as Fogg, Niven enthusiastically replied, ' I 'd do it for nothing! ' He later admitted to being grateful that Todd did not hold him to his claim. He also described the first meeting between Todd and Robert Newton (who suffered from drinking problems) when the latter was offered the role of the detective, Fix; Niven alleged that Newton was offered the part on condition that he did not drink any alcohol during the filming, and that his celebration following the completion of his role led to his untimely demise (he did not live to see the film released). Filming took place in late 1955, from August 9 to December 20. The crew worked fast (75 actual days of filming), producing 680,000 feet (210,000 m) of film, which was edited down to 25,734 feet (7,844 m) of finished film. The picture cost just under $6 million to make, employing 112 locations in 13 countries and 140 sets. Todd said he and the crew visited every country portrayed in the picture, including England, France, India, Spain, Thailand and Japan. According to the Time magazine review of the film, the cast including extras totalled 68,894 people; it also featured 7,959 animals, "including four ostriches, six skunks, 15 elephants, 17 fighting bulls, 512 rhesus monkeys, 800 horses, 950 burros, 2,448 American buffalo, 3,800 Rocky Mountain sheep and a sacred cow that eats flowers on cue. '' There is also a cat, at the Reform Club. The wardrobe department spent $410,000 to provide 74,685 costumes and 36,092 trinkets. Some 10,000 extras were used in filming the bullfight scene in Spain, with Cantinflas as the matador; Cantinflas had previously done some bullfighting. They used all 6,500 residents of a small Spanish town called Chinchón, 45 kilometres (28 mi) from Madrid, but Todd decided there were n't enough spectators. So he found 3,500 more from nearby towns. He used 650 Indians for a fight on a train in the West. Many were indeed Indians, but some were Hollywood extras. All 650 had their skin color altered with dye. Todd used about 50 US gallons (190 l; 42 imp gal) of orange - coloured dye for those extras. Todd sometimes used models of boats, ships and trains in the film, but he often decided that they did n't look realistic so he switched to the real thing where he could. The scene of a collapsing train bridge is partly without models. The overhead shot of a train crossing a bridge was full scale, but the bridge collapse was a large - scale miniature, verifiable by observing the slightly jerky motion of the rear passenger car as the train pulls away, as well as the slowed - down water droplets which are out of scale in the splashing river below. All the steamships shown in the first half are miniatures shot in an outdoor studio tank. The exception is the American ship shown at the intermission point, which is real. A tunnel was built for a train sequence out of paper mache. After the train filming was complete, the "tunnel '' was pushed over into the gorge. The scenes of the crossing of the Atlantic Ocean by steamship took place off San Francisco and were shot on a specially built prop steamer, a converted barge mocked up to resemble a small ocean - going steamship, with mock paddles driven by the electric motor from an old streetcar. In his memoirs, Niven described the whole thing as being dangerously unstable (though stability improved as it was dismantled as though to feed it into its own furnaces as the plot required). One of the most famous sequences in the film, the flight by hydrogen balloon, is not in the original Jules Verne novel. Because the film was made in Todd AO, the sequence was expressly created to show off the locations seen on the flight, as projected on the giant curved screen used for the process. A similar balloon flight can be found in an earlier Jules Verne novel, Five Weeks in a Balloon, in which the protagonists explore Africa from a hydrogen balloon. Many of the balloon scenes with Niven and Cantinflas were filmed using a 160 - foot (49 m) crane. Even that height bothered Niven, who was afraid of heights. Tom Burges, who was shorter than Niven, was used as a stand - in for scenes where the balloon is seen from a distance. Many of the lots used in the film are now on the land occupied by Century City, an office complex in the L.A. area. In his memoirs, Niven related that Todd completed filming whilst in considerable debt. The post-production work on the film was an exercise in holding off Todd 's creditors long enough to produce a saleable movie, and the footage was worked upon under the supervision of Todd 's creditors and returned to a secure vault each night, as if it were in escrow. The film 's release and subsequent success vindicated Todd 's considerable efforts. The film premiered on October 17, 1956 at the Rivoli Theater in New York City. By the time of Todd 's accidental death 18 months later in a private plane crash, it had grossed $33 million. In Spanish and Latin American posters and programs of the movie, Cantinflas is billed above the other players because he was very popular in Spanish - speaking countries. There were two souvenir programs sold in theatres. For Roadshow screenings Todd - AO is mentioned, though for general release those pages are not contained in the book. The program was created by Todd 's publicist, Art Cohn, who died in the plane crash with him. His biography, The Nine Lives of Michael Todd, was published after their deaths which put a macabre spin on the title. Bosley Crowther called the film a "sprawling conglomeration of refined English comedy, giant - screen travel panoramics and slam - bang Keystone burlesque '' and said Todd and the film 's crew "commandeered the giant screen and stereophonic sound as though they were Olsen and Johnson turned loose in a cosmic cutting - room, with a pipe organ in one corner and all the movies ever made to toss around. '' Time magazine called it "brassy, extravagant, long - winded and funny '' and the "Polyphemus of productions, '' saying "as a travelogue, Around the World is at least as spectacular as anything Cinerama has slapped together. '' Time highlighted the performance of "the famous Mexican comic, Cantinflas (who in) his first U.S. movie... gives delightful evidence that he may well be, as Charles Chaplin once said he was, "the world 's greatest clown. '' Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes retrospectively collected 35 reviews and gave the film an aggregate score of 74 %, with a rating average of 6.1 / 10, with the site 's consensus stating: "It 's undeniably shallow, but its cheerful lack of pretense -- as well as its grand scale and star - stuffed cast -- help make Around the World in 80 Days charmingly light - hearted entertainment. '' The development of the film and the personal life of actor Mario Moreno during that time were dramatized later in the 2014 film, Cantinflas. Todd claimed that the film won 70 to 80 awards, including five Academy awards. The film was nominated for eight Oscars, of which it was awarded five, beating out critically and publicly praised films Friendly Persuasion, The Ten Commandments, Giant, and The King and I: Although not nominated for best original song, the film 's theme song "Around the World '' (music by Victor Young, words by Harold Adamson), became very popular. It was a hit for Bing Crosby in 1957, and was a staple of the easy - listening genre for many years: "Around the world I searched for you / I traveled on when hope was gone to keep a rendezvous... No more will I go all around the world / For I have found my world in you. '' It is also one of the few Best Picture winners not to be nominated in any acting category. The film was also nominated for three Golden Globes, of which it was awarded two: On the first anniversary of the film 's release, Todd threw a party at the Madison Square Garden attended by 18,000 people; Time magazine called the party a "spectacular flop '' though Todd shrugged off the remark, saying "You ca n't say it was a little bust. '' The film was originally distributed by United Artists in two Todd - AO 70 mm versions, one for Todd - AO 70 mm release at 30 frames per second, and an alternate 70 mm version at 24 frames per second reduced to 35 mm for general release. The original Todd - AO 70mm running time without the extra music was 179 minutes. However, after the Chicago showing Todd cut four minutes out of the Western sequence where Cantinflas is pursued by Indians. The 70mm print shown at The Rivoli theatre in NYC was 175 minutes. However, the original 35mm Technicolor / anamorphic magnetic stereo and mono optical prints ran the complete 179 minutes with the chase scene intact. Although the leaders on the optical sound prints were labelled for Perspecta directional encoding, the prints do not contain the signal and were standard mono. In 1968, additional cuts were made including removing most of the prologue with the changing aspect ratios. Only a brief few shots with Edward R. Murrow remained and the entire "Trip to the Moon '' clips were cut. Since the opening shot of Murrow was 1.33 window boxed in the wide frame, they had to crop and blow up that shot for the 2.35 ratio which made it very grainy. The intermission was also cut for the 1968 re-release which included the freeze frame of the ship and fade into the second half. The reels just jump cut with an awkward sound gap between the first and second half. The chase scene was missing from this version too which reduced the running time to 167 minutes. However, some uncut 179 - minute 35mm Technicolor prints were struck too which meant at least some theatres played the Roadshow version even though the vast majority showed the shorter cut. 35mm IB / Scope copies of both versions exist from 1968. The 24 frames per second 70mm prints were also the 167 - minute version in that year too. As a publicity stunt, Todd Jr. called the press when he removed a 70mm copy from a bank vault claiming it had been stored there since 1956 for safe keeping and was being shown at a theatre again. It was absurd since an original 70mm would 've faded to pink by 1968 and the copy they exhibited was the cut re-issue 167 - minute version. Around 1976, after its last network television broadcast on CBS, UA lost control of the film to Elizabeth Taylor, who was the widow of producer Michael Todd and had inherited a portion of Todd 's estate. In 1983, Warner Bros. acquired the rights to the film from Taylor, and reissued the film theatrically in a re-edited 143 - minute version (this version would subsequently air only once on Turner Classic Movies, this was before any restoration on the movie was announced). In the years that followed, a pan-and - scan transfer of the alternate 24 frame / s version (presented at its full 183 - minute length) was shown on cable television. In 2004, WB issued a digitally restored version of the 24 frame / s incarnation on DVD, also at its full 183 - minute length, but also including the original intermission, Entr'acte, and exit music segments that were a part of the original 1956 theatrical release, and for the first time on home video at its original 2.2: 1 aspect widescreen ratio. This restored version was reconstructed from the best available elements of the 24 frame / s edition WB could find, and was subsequently shown on Turner Classic Movies. The original elements from the 30 frame / s / 70 mm Todd - AO version (as well as the original prints derived from these elements) still exist, albeit in faded condition due to the passage of time, but remain to be formally restored by WB. There is some missing footage in the India train ride where the image artificially fades in and out to compensate for the missing shots. Warner 's retained Andy Pratt Film Labs who in conjunction with Eastman Kodak developed a method to remove the cracked and fading to brown, clear lacquer from the original 65 mm Technicolor negative. Warners did nothing further to restore the negative. Due to costs of making a 70 mm release print even without magnetic striping, using DTS disk for audio, there are no immediate plans for any new prints. The 65 mm roadshow print negative was used for the DVD release. Had any 35 mm Anamorphic elements been used the aspect ratio would have been 2.35: 1. Mike Todd had limited 35 mm anamorphic prints made with a non-standard compression ratio to provide a 2.21: 1 viewing experience. These special 35 mm prints are called Cinestage, the same name of Mike Todd 's showcase theatre in Chicago. Best available prints of the 30 frame / s / 70 mm version have recently been exhibited in revival movie houses worldwide. As of the present time, WB remains the film 's rights holder. The DVDs for Around the World in 80 Days include four hours of supplemental material, in addition to the restored three - hour wide - screen presentation. Included on one of the disks is a documentary film, about 50 minutes long, about Michael Todd. The soundtrack was commercially released on vinyl and audio tape. Two CD versions were released as well, including a digital remastering of the original Decca Records album on MCA in the 1980s and an expanded version with extra tracks on the Hit Parade Records label in Canada in 2007. There was also a model kit of the balloon, a board game, and a Dell Comics adaptation. A Cantinflas puppet was released separately, dressed in an outfit similar to the Passepartout costume.

what is the gst and pst in bc

Sales taxes in British Columbia - wikipedia Sales taxes in British Columbia are consumption taxes levied in the province since the introduction of the Provincial Sales Tax (PST) on 1 July 1948, part of the Social Service Tax Act. Sales in the province have also been subject to the federal Goods and Services Tax (GST) since its introduction on 1 January 1991. On 1 July 2010, the PST and GST were combined into the Harmonized Sales Tax (HST) levied according to the provisions of the GST. The conversion to HST was controversial. Popular opposition led to a referendum on the tax system, the first such referendum in the Commonwealth of Nations, resulting in the province reverting to the former PST / GST model on 1 April 2013. The sales taxes levied in the province are the separate 7 % PST and 5 % GST. The former British Columbia Provincial Sales Tax (PST) was introduced on July 1, 1948 as part of the Social Service Tax Act. The tax was initially set at 3 %, but later rose to 7 %. The PST was collected on most goods and some services. The main difference between the national Goods and Services Tax and the B.C. PST was its taxable base, since the GST taxation was levied regardless of whether the good or service was for ' final use ' or not. Non-Taxable Sales and Services When a good or service is not subject to PST, a specific exemption in the legislation is n't needed. Similar to the old PST, the following are n't taxable under the new PST. The PST revenue was estimated at $5.087 billion for the 2009 / 2010 fiscal year, from which about $2 billion was paid directly by the business sector. PST revenue accounted for about 13 % of the province 's total revenues which were budgeted at $38.812 billion. The HST was a value added tax that combined a 5 % federal portion and a 7 % provincial portion into one tax paid on almost all purchases of goods and services. The HST came into effect amidst contention among British Columbians on July 1, 2010. The BC Liberal government announced on July 23, 2009 that it intended to replace the PST by an HST, combining the GST with a provincial tax following the same rules as the GST. Had the HST passed the referendum, the BC Liberals contended that they would reduce it to 10 % in 2014. The governing Liberals contended that, although PST was a retail tax, the business sector was also subject to a 7 % PST on most of its input; business in BC was put at a competitive disadvantage with business in other jurisdictions not subject to similar taxation. The Liberals argued that transferring this tax to the consumer favoured both exportation and investment in productivity. A federal Conservative government study considered this a more efficient method of taxation; labour - intensive service industries (like hairdresser or hospitality services), where inputs are marginal, would be disfavoured. The HST added an additional 7 % of sales tax to the following items: The HST lowered the sales tax on the following items: Some believed that the HST would generate significantly more revenue according to the following reasoning: While the PST revenue was estimated at $5.083 billion for 2009 / 2010, several sources concur to estimate the 5 % GST revenue for British Columbia of about $5 billion (or a tax base at about $100 billion after the current GST exemption concerning the public sector). This reasoning argued that, since most sales subject to GST would be HST taxable (at 7 % for the BC HST revenue), this revenue could be multiplied by 7 % / 5 % to estimate the gross BC HST revenue. If the taxable base were roughly the same, this would result in approximately $7 billion in BC HST revenue. This did not take into account the additional transition payment of $1.6 billion provided by the Federal Government, as a consequence of the HST adoption, and collection cost saving estimated at $30 million. According to BC government 's projection, gross BC HST revenue for 2011 / 12 would be $6.92 billion. After various rebates, the net BC HST revenue would be $5.38 billion, which is $410 million more than the would - be BC PST revenue ($4.97 billion) if there were no reform. The BC government argued that the $410 million difference, however, would be returned to residents through HST - related personal income tax reductions in the forms of BC HST credit and increased basic personal amount. The overall fiscal impact of harmonization on BC households was therefore supposedly neutral. In order to be revenue neutral, the BC government had several options: The Memorandum agreed between the provincial and the federal government gave the former the flexibility to The Memorandum seemed to prefer the second path by suggesting exemption of motive fuel, children 's clothing and footwear, children 's car seats, feminine hygiene and books. In addition, and following the rationale justifying the introduction of the HST, the BC government, following the example of the Ontario government, might choose to reduce other taxes including some claimed by the Fraser Institute to be inefficient in economic terms such as personal income taxes. Rather than decrease the rate of the HST across the board, the Provincial Government has chosen to favour some special interest group industries, which has received some criticism: Some note that all those discretionary exemptions defeat one purpose of the HST, which is tax harmonization, with cost saving achieved by red tape reduction. The HST shift appears to benefit mostly the capital intensive multinational industries such as mining and forestry in BC. The government, having chosen to exclude most of the labour - intensive service industry from HST tax relief, appeared to favour the rural BC interior over the urban area ridings. The exemption on automotive fuel was one consequence of this choice. In other words, the tax shift would favour declining legacy industry, representing a declining share of the BC GDP. However, the government has adopted the following policy on goods taxation: In 2008, BC introduced a carbon tax as part of its effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, which is applied to motor fuels as well as other fuels. Implementation of the carbon tax was controversial as the 2010 BC Budget granted petroleum fuels a 5 % reduction from the carbon tax, while imposing the full carbon tax on renewable fuels. While motor fuels are also subject to HST, the province decided upon implementation of the HST that it would rebate the 7 % provincial portion of the HST on motor fuels at the time of purchase. The BC government chose not to reduce the carbon tax and / or other taxes on motor fuels such as transportation infrastructure and transit taxes and then add the HST. This decision meant that businesses which purchase motor fuel to operate their businesses were unable to deduct any of the provincial taxes they pay on motor fuels from the HST they collect on their sales. This outcome is particularly harsh on businesses that had not been required to collect the PST but must use motor fuels to operate their businesses, such as sightseeing and adventure tour businesses. The HST, in BC, was reported to be a tax shift onto consumers and away from business. The BC government estimated business would pay $1.9 billion less in sales taxes. It claimed that this would boost investment from corporations as their MTR is reduced. The claim is made that this would benefit consumers through more jobs and lower prices. A report done for the BC Ministry of Finance by University of Calgary economics professor Jack Mintz predicted that moving to the HST would create 11,300 jobs per year, increasing employment income by around $333 million, and result in capital investment of $1.15 billion / year. In 2009 / 2010, the Government spent $70 million in the promotion of healthy living and sports. Introduction of the HST added a new taxation of 7 % for numerous health - friendly activities: The HST increased the price of heating fuel (previously exempted by the PST). The government claimed it planned to provide a tax credit to mitigate this effect. Under HST, as it was under GST and PST, renting a home was exempt. The purchase of an existing home is exempt from the HST, while the purchase of a new home was subject to a GST rebate of 36 % if the purchase price was below $350,000, up to a maximum rebate of $8,750 (which made the tax rate effectively 3.2 %). Under the PST, the purchase of a new home was tax exempt. Under the BC HST, up to $200,000 of the provincial part of the HST could be refunded (making the purchase of new home under $400,000 virtually tax free). Nevertheless, the service of real estate agents and home appraisals became subject to full HST, whereas before they were only subject to GST. The BC Liberal government argued the change would have little effect on the market: The government argued that HST effect on new home pricing would be mitigated by suppression of the PST on the construction inputs. On 26 August 2011 Elections BC, the independent electoral overseer, announced that British Columbia voters, via a mail - in ballot, defeated the new tax in the binding referendum conducted in June and July 2011. This was the first binding referendum on taxation in any state / provincial or national jurisdiction in the Commonwealth of Nations. The referendum results were as follows: Elections BC compiled the vote totals by electoral district; the HST was voted down in 60 of British Columbia 's 85 districts. The HST was rejected by local majorities in 27 of the 49 districts held by the governing Liberals, and in 33 of the 36 seats held by the opposition NDP. The HST was approved by local majorities in 22 of the Liberal - held districts, and in three NDP - held districts. There was considerable local variation in the vote results. The anti-HST vote was highest in Surrey - Green Timbers, where 75.51 % voted Yes (and 24.49 % voted No). The anti-HST vote was lowest in West Vancouver - Sea to Sky, where 39.22 % voted Yes (and 60.78 % voted No). As of April 2013, the 5 % Federal GST and 7 % provincial PST are collected separately again.

squeeze pulling mussels from a shell lyrics meaning

Pulling Mussels (from the Shell) - wikipedia "Pulling Mussels (From the Shell) '' is a song by the band Squeeze. First released on the 1980 album Argybargy, it received positive critical reviews, peaked at No. 44 on the UK Singles Chart, and became one of Squeeze 's most popular songs. The song is about one of the band members ' experiences at a holiday camp. The song "Pulling Mussels '' was written by band members Chris Difford and Glenn Tilbrook. According to critic Chris Woodstra, it is an "observation of the British working class '' and "offers a series of detailed snapshots of the different walks of life on a seaside holiday in Leysdown on Sea. '' The lyrics are based on Difford 's own experiences. Rob Sachs interviewed Difford and wrote that the song "is about a memory he has from his time spent at a British holiday camp in, a budget resort type of place that includes basic accommodations, entertainment, and other facilities. '' The lines "They do it down on Camber Sands / They do it at Waikiki '' refer to a sand dune system in East Sussex, England, and the Honolulu, Hawaii beach, respectively. The phrase "pulling mussels '' is British slang for sexual intercourse, mainly used in England. The song features piano playing by keyboardist Jools Holland. "Pulling Mussels '' was released as the first track on Squeeze 's album Argybargy in February 1980. The 7 '' single was released in April 1980 with the B - side "What the Butler Saw ''. The song has also been included on several of Squeeze 's compilation albums, such as Singles -- 45 's and Under, Greatest Hits, and The Big Squeeze -- The Very Best of Squeeze. It was re-recorded for the 2010 album Spot the Difference. A live version was included on A Round and a Bout. "Pulling Mussels '' received positive reviews from music critics. It has been variously described as "a timeless cult classic '', "a brilliant slice of pop genius '', "a pop classic of the new wave era '', and "a piece of pop mastery ''. In 2007, Anna Borg wrote, "The build up before the chorus always gets me, even 25 years later. '' Allmusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine described the song as "a vivid portrait of a seaside vacation where Difford 's vignettes are made all the more vivid by Tilbrook 's bright, invigorating pop. '' It is regarded as one of Squeeze 's catchiest songs. The single debuted on the UK chart at No. 52 on 10 May 1980. It stayed on the chart for six weeks, peaking at No. 44 on 24 May. Though the song did not chart in the United States, it became a hit on the country 's college radio stations and in new wave clubs. "Pulling Mussels '' is a "crowd favorite '' at Squeeze concerts. The band performed the song on Saturday Night Live on 20 November 1982. They played the song at concerts during the 1980s and early 1990s. In 2001, it was the finale of a Glenn Tilbrook show in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. Squeeze played "Pulling Mussels '' last during concerts in 2010. 7 - inch vinyl

dragon ball super episode 66 english subbed download

List of Dragon Ball Super episodes - wikipedia Dragon Ball Super is a Japanese anime television series produced by Toei Animation that began airing on July 5, 2015 on Fuji TV. It is the first Dragon Ball television series featuring a new storyline in 18 years. Storywise, the series retells the events of the last two Dragon Ball Z films, Battle of Gods and Resurrection ' F ', which themselves follow the events of Dragon Ball Z. Afterward, the series proceeds to tell an original story about the exploration of other universes, the reemergence of Future Trunks, and new threats to the Future Earth known as Goku Black and a Supreme Kai from Universe 10 named Zamasu. Later on, Goku, Vegeta, Gohan, Krillin, Android 17, Android 18, Piccolo, Tien, Master Roshi, and a temporarily revived Frieza participate in a universal tournament held by Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō to decide the fate of multiple universes. If they lose in the universal tournament then Universe Seven will be erased. Thirteen pieces of theme music are used: two opening themes and eleven ending themes. The first opening theme song for episodes 1 to 76 is "Chōzetsu Dynamic! '' (超絶 ☆ ダイナミック!, Chōzetsu Dainamikku, "Excellent Dynamic! '') performed by Kazuya Yoshii of The Yellow Monkey. The lyrics were penned by Yukinojo Mori who has written numerous songs for the Dragon Ball series. The second opening theme song for episodes 77 to 131 is "Limit - Break x Survivor '' (限界 突破 × サバイバー, Genkai Toppa x Sabaibā) by Kiyoshi Hikawa. Mori wrote the lyrics for the rock number "Genkai Toppa x Survivor ''. Takafumi Iwasaki composed the music. The first ending theme song for episodes 1 to 12 is "Hello Hello Hello '' (ハロー ハロー ハロー, Harō Harō Harō) by Japanese rock band Good Morning America. The second ending theme song for episodes 13 to 25 is "Starring Star '' (スターリング スター, Sutāringu Sutā) by Key Talk. The third ending theme song for episodes 26 to 36 is "Usubeni '' (薄 紅, "Light Pink '') by Lacco Tower. The fourth ending theme song for episodes 37 to 49 is "Forever Dreaming '' (フォーエバー ドリーミング, Fōebā Dorīmingu) by Czecho No Republic. The fifth ending theme song for episodes 50 to 59 is "Yokayoka Dance '' (よかよか ダンス, Yokayoka Dansu, "It 's Fine Dance '') by idol group Batten Showjo Tai. The sixth ending theme for episodes 60 to 72 is "Chao Han Music '' (炒飯 MUSIC, Chāhan Myūjikku) by Arukara. The seventh ending theme song for episodes 73 to 83 is "Aku no Tenshi to Seigi no Akuma '' (悪 の 天使 と 正義 の 悪魔, An Evil Angel and the Righteous Devil) by THE COLLECTORS. The eighth ending theme song for episodes 84 to 96 is "Boogie Back '' by Miyu Innoue. The ninth ending theme song for episodes 97 to 108 is "Haruka '' by Lacco Tower. The tenth ending theme song for episodes 109 to 121 is "By A 70cm Square Window '' by RottenGraffty. The eleventh ending theme song for episodes 122 to 131 is "Lagrima '' by OnePixcel. The first series set was released on Japanese Blu - ray and DVD sets that contain twelve episodes each. The first set was released on December 2, 2015. The second set was released on March 2, 2016. The third set was released on July 2, 2016. The fourth set was released on October 10, 2016. Dragon Ball Super received an English - language dub that premiered on the Toonami channel in Southeast Asia in January 2017. The series has been aired in Israel on Nickelodeon and in Portugal on SIC. Toei Animation Europe announced that Dragon Ball Super would be broadcast in France, Italy, Spain, and English - speaking Africa in Fall 2016. An official English sub of the series would be simulcasted legally on Crunchyroll, Daisuki.net, and Anime Lab beginning October 22, 2016. Funimation announced the company acquired the rights to the series and will be producing an English dub. As well as officially announcing the dub, it was also announced they will be simulcasting the series on their streaming platform, FunimationNow. Funimation 's English dub of Dragon Ball Super began airing on Adult Swim 's Toonami block starting on January 7, 2017. 6 Nueva TBA (1 -- TBA) December 14, 2018 -- TBA TBA) The Supreme Kais are surprised that the universe is still intact following the battle, but they fear the worst is still to come. On Earth, Vegeta, Whis, and the others are still standing by while watching the battle. Whis is surprised by the Super Saiyan God 's power and its ability to keep up with his trainee. In space, Goku struggles to keep up with Beerus ' attack, which ultimately ends up in a massive explosion that blinds everyone on Earth. Shortly after, the light clears out, which reveals everything to be as it was prior to the explosion. Beerus explains that he used his full power to negate the explosion, which saved the universe. Seeing it as a perfect opportunity to boast, Mr. Satan arranges to have himself be falsely credited with saving the planet yet again. Despite being at his limit, Goku remains calm, which annoys the God of Destruction. Beerus thinks Goku might have a strategy that he has been hiding, which Goku promptly denies. Goku says that everything he had been doing was improvised as they fought. The Gods quickly power up and continue fighting, but this time both are at their limit. As soon as they start, Goku loses his Super Saiyan God aura and reverts to the ordinary Super Saiyan form. Upon noticing that, Beerus decides to quit. He thinks it is pointless to fight an ordinary Super Saiyan. However, Goku does not notice and keeps going at it. Whis is able to sense Goku 's mortal energy. Whis assumes that the battle has concluded and that Goku has lost. However, Piccolo begs to differ. Surprised that Goku is still able to hit him even after losing his Super Saiyan God form, Beerus surmises that Goku 's body has adjusted to the Super Saiyan God power. This made him stronger in his ordinary form. With or without the Super Saiyan God form, Goku proclaims that it is still him that Beerus is up against. Beerus and Goku resume their battle of Gods. To counter Goku 's increase in power, Kefla powers up to Super Saiyan 2, and the two of them face off. Goku still easily dodges Kefla 's attacks, but his own attacks are not strong enough to take her down. Whis explains that when Goku launches his attacks, it interferes with his concentration and prevents him from using Ultra Instinct to its full potential. Jiren senses the energy from the battle, which prompts him to awaken from his meditation and rejoin Toppo and Dyspo. Vegeta realizes that Ultra Instinct is the level of skill that Whis was training him and Goku to attain, and decides that he must reach it too. Goku begins running low on stamina, so he declares that he will end the fight with his next attack. Kefla panics and unleashes a multitude of deadly energy beams. Her ultimate attack devastates the ring, but Goku easily dodges her blasts while charging a Kamehameha. Goku jumps into the air, so Kefla focuses all of her power into a single blast and launches it at him, taking advantage of his apparent inability to dodge. However, he backflips and uses the charged - up energy to slide over her attack, and launches his Kamehameha at point - blank range, blasting Kefla out of the ring and eliminating her. Her Potara earrings shatter, and she splits back into Kale and Caulifla. With both of them eliminated, Saonel and Pirina are the only remaining warriors from Team Universe 6. )

why is hydrogen bond not a chemical bond

Hydrogen bond - wikipedia A hydrogen bond is a partially electrostatic attraction between a hydrogen (H) which is bound to a more electronegative atom such as nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), or fluorine (F), and another adjacent atom bearing a lone pair of electrons. Hydrogen bonds can occur between molecules (intermolecular) or within different parts of a single molecule (intramolecular). Depending on the nature of the donor and acceptor atoms which constitute the bond, their geometry, and environment, the energy of a hydrogen bond can vary between 1 and 40 kcal / mol. This makes them somewhat stronger than a van der Waals interaction, and weaker than fully covalent or ionic bonds. This type of bond can occur in inorganic molecules such as water and in organic molecules like DNA and proteins. Intermolecular hydrogen bonding is responsible for the high boiling point of water (100 ° C) compared to the other group 16 hydrides that have much weaker hydrogen bonds. Intramolecular hydrogen bonding is partly responsible for the secondary and tertiary structures of proteins and nucleic acids. It also plays an important role in the structure of polymers, both synthetic and natural. In 2011, an IUPAC Task Group recommended a modern evidence - based definition of hydrogen bonding, which was published in the IUPAC journal Pure and Applied Chemistry. This definition specifies: The hydrogen bond is an attractive interaction between a hydrogen atom from a molecule or a molecular fragment X -- H in which X is more electronegative than H, and an atom or a group of atoms in the same or a different molecule, in which there is evidence of bond formation. A hydrogen atom attached to a relatively electronegative atom is the hydrogen bond donor. C-H bonds only participate in hydrogen bonding when the carbon atom is bound to electronegative substituents, as is the case in chloroform, CHCl. In a hydrogen bond, the electronegative atom not covalently attached to the hydrogen is named proton acceptor, whereas the one covalently bound to the hydrogen is named the proton donor. In the donor molecule, the H center is protic. The donor is a Lewis base. Hydrogen bonds are represented as H Y system, where the dots represent the hydrogen bond. Liquids that display hydrogen bonding (such as water) are called associated liquids. The hydrogen bond is often described as an electrostatic dipole - dipole interaction. However, it also has some features of covalent bonding: it is directional and strong, produces interatomic distances shorter than the sum of the van der Waals radii, and usually involves a limited number of interaction partners, which can be interpreted as a type of valence. These covalent features are more substantial when acceptors bind hydrogens from more electronegative donors. Hydrogen bonds can vary in strength from weak (1 -- 2 kJ mol) to strong (161.5 kJ mol in the ion HF). Typical enthalpies in vapor include: The X − H distance is typically ≈ 110 pm, whereas the H Y distance is ≈ 160 to 200 pm. The typical length of a hydrogen bond in water is 197 pm. The ideal bond angle depends on the nature of the hydrogen bond donor. The following hydrogen bond angles between a hydrofluoric acid donor and various acceptors have been determined experimentally: Strong hydrogen bonds are revealed by downfield shifts in the H NMR spectrum. For example, the acidic proton in the enol tautomer of acetylacetone appears at δ15. 5, which is about 10 ppm downfield of a conventional alcohol. In the IR spectrum, hydrogen bonding shifts the X-H stretching frequency to lower energy (i.e. the vibration frequency decreases). This shift reflects a weakening of the X-H bond. Certain hydrogen bonds - improper hydrogen bonds - show a blue shift of the X-H stretching frequency and a decrease in the bond length... Hydrogen bonding is of continuing theoretical interest. According to a modern description O: H-O integrates both the intermolecular O: H lone pair ": '' nonbond and the intramolecular H-O polar - covalent bond associated with O-O repulsive coupling. Quantum chemical calculations of the relevant interresidue potential constants (compliance constants) revealed large differences between individual H bonds of the same type. For example, the central interresidue N − H N hydrogen bond between guanine and cytosine is much stronger in comparison to the N − H N bond between the adenine - thymine pair. Theoretically, the bond strength of the hydrogen bonds can be assessed using NCI index, non-covalent interactions index, which allows a visualization of these non-covalent interactions, as its name indicases, using the electron density of the system. From interpretations of the anisotropies in the Compton profile of ordinary ice that the hydrogen bond is partly covalent. However, this interpretation was challenged. Most generally, the hydrogen bond can be viewed as a metric - dependent electrostatic scalar field between two or more intermolecular bonds. This is slightly different from the intramolecular bound states of, for example, covalent or ionic bonds; however, hydrogen bonding is generally still a bound state phenomenon, since the interaction energy has a net negative sum. The initial theory of hydrogen bonding proposed by Linus Pauling suggested that the hydrogen bonds had a partial covalent nature. This interpretation remained controversial until NMR techniques demonstrated information transfer between hydrogen - bonded nuclei, a feat that would only be possible if the hydrogen bond contained some covalent character. In the book The Nature of the Chemical Bond, Linus Pauling credits T.S. Moore and T.F. Winmill with the first mention of the hydrogen bond, in 1912. Moore and Winmill used the hydrogen bond to account for the fact that trimethylammonium hydroxide is a weaker base than tetramethylammonium hydroxide. The description of hydrogen bonding in its better - known setting, water, came some years later, in 1920, from Latimer and Rodebush. In that paper, Latimer and Rodebush cite work by a fellow scientist at their laboratory, Maurice Loyal Huggins, saying, "Mr. Huggins of this laboratory in some work as yet unpublished, has used the idea of a hydrogen kernel held between two atoms as a theory in regard to certain organic compounds. '' A ubiquitous example of a hydrogen bond is found between water molecules. In a discrete water molecule, there are two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Two molecules of water can form a hydrogen bond between them; the simplest case, when only two molecules are present, is called the water dimer and is often used as a model system. When more molecules are present, as is the case with liquid water, more bonds are possible because the oxygen of one water molecule has two lone pairs of electrons, each of which can form a hydrogen bond with a hydrogen on another water molecule. This can repeat such that every water molecule is H - bonded with up to four other molecules, as shown in the figure (two through its two lone pairs, and two through its two hydrogen atoms). Hydrogen bonding strongly affects the crystal structure of ice, helping to create an open hexagonal lattice. The density of ice is less than the density of water at the same temperature; thus, the solid phase of water floats on the liquid, unlike most other substances. Liquid water 's high boiling point is due to the high number of hydrogen bonds each molecule can form, relative to its low molecular mass. Owing to the difficulty of breaking these bonds, water has a very high boiling point, melting point, and viscosity compared to otherwise similar liquids not conjoined by hydrogen bonds. Water is unique because its oxygen atom has two lone pairs and two hydrogen atoms, meaning that the total number of bonds of a water molecule is up to four. The number of hydrogen bonds formed by a molecule of liquid water fluctuates with time and temperature. From TIP4P liquid water simulations at 25 ° C, it was estimated that each water molecule participates in an average of 3.59 hydrogen bonds. At 100 ° C, this number decreases to 3.24 due to the increased molecular motion and decreased density, while at 0 ° C, the average number of hydrogen bonds increases to 3.69. A more recent study found a much smaller number of hydrogen bonds: 2.357 at 25 ° C. The differences may be due to the use of a different method for defining and counting the hydrogen bonds. Where the bond strengths are more equivalent, one might instead find the atoms of two interacting water molecules partitioned into two polyatomic ions of opposite charge, specifically hydroxide (OH) and hydronium (H O). (Hydronium ions are also known as "hydroxonium '' ions.) Indeed, in pure water under conditions of standard temperature and pressure, this latter formulation is applicable only rarely; on average about one in every 5.5 × 10 molecules gives up a proton to another water molecule, in accordance with the value of the dissociation constant for water under such conditions. It is a crucial part of the uniqueness of water. Because water may form hydrogen bonds with solute proton donors and acceptors, it may competitively inhibit the formation of solute intermolecular or intramolecular hydrogen bonds. Consequently, hydrogen bonds between or within solute molecules dissolved in water are almost always unfavorable relative to hydrogen bonds between water and the donors and acceptors for hydrogen bonds on those solutes. Hydrogen bonds between water molecules have an average lifetime of 10 seconds, or 10 picoseconds. A single hydrogen atom can participate in two hydrogen bonds, rather than one. This type of bonding is called "bifurcated '' (split in two or "two - forked ''). It can exist, for instance, in complex natural or synthetic organic molecules. It has been suggested that a bifurcated hydrogen atom is an essential step in water reorientation. Acceptor - type hydrogen bonds (terminating on an oxygen 's lone pairs) are more likely to form bifurcation (it is called overcoordinated oxygen, OCO) than are donor - type hydrogen bonds, beginning on the same oxygen 's hydrogens. For example, hydrogen fluoride -- which has three lone pairs on the F atom but only one H atom -- can form only two bonds; (ammonia has the opposite problem: three hydrogen atoms but only one lone pair). Hydrogen bonding plays an important role in determining the three - dimensional structures and the properties adopted by many synthetic and natural proteins. In these macromolecules, bonding between parts of the same macromolecule cause it to fold into a specific shape, which helps determine the molecule 's physiological or biochemical role. For example, the double helical structure of DNA is due largely to hydrogen bonding between its base pairs (as well as pi stacking interactions), which link one complementary strand to the other and enable replication. In the secondary structure of proteins, hydrogen bonds form between the backbone oxygens and amide hydrogens. When the spacing of the amino acid residues participating in a hydrogen bond occurs regularly between positions i and i + 4, an alpha helix is formed. When the spacing is less, between positions i and i + 3, then a 3 helix is formed. When two strands are joined by hydrogen bonds involving alternating residues on each participating strand, a beta sheet is formed. Hydrogen bonds also play a part in forming the tertiary structure of protein through interaction of R - groups. (See also protein folding). The role of hydrogen bonds in protein folding has also been linked to osmolyte - induced protein stabilization. Protective osmolytes, such as trehalose and sorbitol, shift the protein folding equilibrium toward the folded state, in a concentration dependent manner. While the prevalent explanation for osmolyte action relies on excluded volume effects, that are entropic in nature, recent circular dichroism (CD) experiments have shown osmolyte to act through an enthalpic effect. The molecular mechanism for their role in protein stabilization is still not well established, though several mechanism have been proposed. Recently, computer molecular dynamics simulations suggested that osmolytes stabilize proteins by modifying the hydrogen bonds in the protein hydration layer. Several studies have shown that hydrogen bonds play an important role for the stability between subunits in multimeric proteins. For example, a study of sorbitol dehydrogenase displayed an important hydrogen bonding network which stabilizes the tetrameric quaternary structure within the mammalian sorbitol dehydrogenase protein family. A protein backbone hydrogen bond incompletely shielded from water attack is a dehydron. Dehydrons promote the removal of water through proteins or ligand binding. The exogenous dehydration enhances the electrostatic interaction between the amide and carbonyl groups by de-shielding their partial charges. Furthermore, the dehydration stabilizes the hydrogen bond by destabilizing the nonbonded state consisting of dehydrated isolated charges. Wool, being a protein fibre, is held together by hydrogen bonds, causing wool to recoil when stretched. However, washing at high temperatures can permanently break the hydrogen bonds and a garment may permanently lose its shape. Hydrogen bonds are important in the structure of cellulose and derived polymers in its many different forms in nature, such as such as cotton and flax. Many polymers are strengthened by hydrogen bonds within and between the chains. Among the synthetic polymers, a well characterized example is nylon, where hydrogen bonds occur in the repeat unit and play a major role in crystallization of the material. The bonds occur between carbonyl and amine groups in the amide repeat unit. They effectively link adjacent chains, which help reinforce the material. The effect is great in aramid fibre, where hydrogen bonds stabilize the linear chains laterally. The chain axes are aligned along the fibre axis, making the fibres extremely stiff and strong. The hydrogen - bond networks make both natural and synthetic polymers sensitive to humidity levels in the atmosphere because water molecules can diffuse into the surface and disrupt the network. Some polymers are more sensitive than others. Thus nylons are more sensitive than aramids, and nylon 6 more sensitive than nylon - 11. A symmetric hydrogen bond is a special type of hydrogen bond in which the proton is spaced exactly halfway between two identical atoms. The strength of the bond to each of those atoms is equal. It is an example of a three - center four - electron bond. This type of bond is much stronger than a "normal '' hydrogen bond. The effective bond order is 0.5, so its strength is comparable to a covalent bond. It is seen in ice at high pressure, and also in the solid phase of many anhydrous acids such as hydrofluoric acid and formic acid at high pressure. It is also seen in the bifluoride ion (F − H − F). Symmetric hydrogen bonds have been observed recently spectroscopically in formic acid at high pressure (> GPa). Each hydrogen atom forms a partial covalent bond with two atoms rather than one. Symmetric hydrogen bonds have been postulated in ice at high pressure (Ice X). Low - barrier hydrogen bonds form when the distance between two heteroatoms is very small. The hydrogen bond can be compared with the closely related dihydrogen bond, which is also an intermolecular bonding interaction involving hydrogen atoms. These structures have been known for some time, and well characterized by crystallography; however, an understanding of their relationship to the conventional hydrogen bond, ionic bond, and covalent bond remains unclear. Generally, the hydrogen bond is characterized by a proton acceptor that is a lone pair of electrons in nonmetallic atoms (most notably in the nitrogen, and chalcogen groups). In some cases, these proton acceptors may be pi - bonds or metal complexes. In the dihydrogen bond, however, a metal hydride serves as a proton acceptor, thus forming a hydrogen - hydrogen interaction. Neutron diffraction has shown that the molecular geometry of these complexes is similar to hydrogen bonds, in that the bond length is very adaptable to the metal complex / hydrogen donor system. The dynamics of hydrogen bond structures in water can be probed by the IR spectrum of OH stretching vibration. In the hydrogen bonding network in protic organic ionic plastic crystals (POIPCs), which are a type of phase change material exhibiting solid - solid phase transitions prior to melting, variable - temperature infrared spectroscopy can reveal the temperature dependence of hydrogen bonds and the dynamics of both the anions and the cations. The sudden weakening of hydrogen bonds during the solid - solid phase transition seems to be coupled with the onset of orientational or rotational disorder of the ions. Hydrogen bonding is a key to the design of drugs. According to Lipinski 's rule of five the majority of orally active drug tend to have between five and ten hydrogen bonds. These interactions exist between nitrogen -- hydrogen and oxygen -- hydrogen centers. As with many other rules of thumb, many exceptions exist.

how did india's government change during the maurya dynasty

Maurya Empire - Wikipedia The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power founded by Chandragupta Maurya which dominated ancient India between c. 322 and 187 BCE. Originating from the kingdom of Magadha in the Indo - Gangetic Plain in the eastern side of the Indian subcontinent, the empire had its capital city at Pataliputra (modern Patna). The empire was the largest to have ever existed in the Indian subcontinent, spanning over 5 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles) at its zenith under Ashoka. Chandragupta Maurya raised an army and with the assistance of Chanakya (also known as Kauṭilya), overthrew the Nanda Empire in c. 322 BCE and rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India, taking advantage of the disruptions caused by the withdrawal westward of Alexander the Great 's armies. By 317 BCE the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India, defeating and conquering the satraps left by Alexander. Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led by Seleucus I, a Macedonian general from Alexander 's army, gaining additional territory west of the Indus River. The Maurya Empire was one of the largest empires of the world in its time. At its greatest extent, the empire stretched to the north along the natural boundaries of the Himalayas, to the east into Assam, to the west into Balochistan (southwest Pakistan and southeast Iran) and the Hindu Kush mountains of what is now Afghanistan. The Empire was expanded into India 's central and southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta and Bindusara, but it excluded a small portion of unexplored tribal and forested regions near Kalinga (modern Odisha), until it was conquered by Ashoka. It declined for about 50 years after Ashoka 's rule ended, and it dissolved in 185 BCE with the foundation of the Shunga dynasty in Magadha. Under Chandragupta Maurya and his successors, internal and external trade, agriculture, and economic activities all thrived and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single and efficient system of finance, administration, and security. After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced nearly half a century of peace and security under Ashoka. Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of the sciences and of knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya 's embrace of Jainism increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka 's embrace of Buddhism has been said to have been the foundation of the reign of social and political peace and non-violence across all of India. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist missionaries into Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia, North Africa, and Mediterranean Europe. The population of the empire has been estimated to be about 50 -- 60 million, making the Mauryan Empire one of the most populous empires of Antiquity. Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary sources of written records of Mauryan times. The Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath has been made the national emblem of India. The Maurya Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, with help from Chanakya, at Takshashila. According to several legends, Chanakya travelled to Magadha, a kingdom that was large and militarily powerful and feared by its neighbors, but was insulted by its king Dhana Nanda, of the Nanda dynasty. Chanakya swore revenge and vowed to destroy the Nanda Empire. Meanwhile, the conquering armies of Alexander the Great refused to cross the Beas River and advance further eastward, deterred by the prospect of battling Magadha. Alexander returned to Babylon and re-deployed most of his troops west of the Indus River. Soon after Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE, his empire fragmented, and local kings declared their independence, leaving several smaller disunited satraps. The Greek generals Eudemus and Peithon ruled until around 317 BCE, when Chandragupta Maurya (with the help of Chanakya, who was now his advisor) utterly defeated the Macedonians and consolidated the region under the control of his new seat of power in Magadha. Chandragupta Maurya 's rise to power is shrouded in mystery and controversy. On one hand, a number of ancient Indian accounts, such as the drama Mudrarakshasa (Poem of Rakshasa -- Rakshasa was the prime minister of Magadha) by Vishakhadatta, describe his royal ancestry and even link him with the Nanda family. A kshatriya clan known as the Maurya 's are referred to in the earliest Buddhist texts, Mahaparinibbana Sutta. However, any conclusions are hard to make without further historical evidence. Chandragupta first emerges in Greek accounts as "Sandrokottos ''. As a young man he is said to have met Alexander. He is also said to have met the Nanda king, angered him, and made a narrow escape. Chanakya 's original intentions were to train a guerilla army under Chandragupta 's command. The Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta as well as the Jaina work Parishishtaparvan talk of Chandragupta 's alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, sometimes identified with Porus Chanakya encouraged Chandragupta Maurya and his army to take over the throne of Magadha. Using his intelligence network, Chandragupta gathered many young men from across Magadha and other provinces, men upset over the corrupt and oppressive rule of king Dhana Nanda, plus the resources necessary for his army to fight a long series of battles. These men included the former general of Taxila, accomplished students of Chanakya, the representative of King Porus of Kakayee, his son Malayketu, and the rulers of small states. The Macedonians (described as Yona or Yavana in Indian sources) may then have participated, together with other groups, in the armed uprising of Chandragupta Maurya against the Nanda dynasty. The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandragupta 's alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, often identified with Porus. This Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a composite and powerful army made up of Yavanas (Greeks), Kambojas, Shakas (Scythians), Kiratas (Nepalese), Parasikas (Persians) and Bahlikas (Bactrians) who took Pataliputra (also called Kusumapura, "The City of Flowers ''): With the help of these elements from Central Asia, Chandragupta was apparently able to defeat the Nanda / Nandin rulers of Magadha so as to found the powerful Maurya Empire in northern India. Preparing to invade Pataliputra, Maurya came up with a strategy. A battle was announced and the Magadhan army was drawn from the city to a distant battlefield to engage with Maurya 's forces. Maurya 's general and spies meanwhile bribed the corrupt general of Nanda. He also managed to create an atmosphere of civil war in the kingdom, which culminated in the death of the heir to the throne. Chanakya managed to win over popular sentiment. Ultimately Nanda resigned, handing power to Chandragupta, and went into exile and was never heard of again. Chanakya contacted the prime minister, Rakshasas, and made him understand that his loyalty was to Magadha, not to the Nanda dynasty, insisting that he continue in office. Chanakya also reiterated that choosing to resist would start a war that would severely affect Magadha and destroy the city. Rakshasa accepted Chanakya 's reasoning, and Chandragupta Maurya was legitimately installed as the new King of Magadha. Rakshasa became Chandragupta 's chief advisor, and Chanakya assumed the position of an elder statesman. The approximate extent of the Magadha state in the 5th century BCE. The Maurya Empire when it was first founded by Chandragupta Maurya c. 320 BCE, after conquering the Nanda Empire when he was only about 20 years old. Chandragupta extended the borders of the Maurya Empire towards Seleucid Persia after defeating Seleucus c. 305 BCE. Bindusara extended the borders of the empire southward into the Deccan Plateau c. 300 BCE. Ashoka extended into Kalinga during the Kalinga War c. 265 BCE, and established superiority over the southern kingdoms. Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund believe that Ashoka 's empire did not include large parts of India, which were controlled by autonomous tribes Chandragupta campaigned against the Macedonians when Seleucus I Nicator, in the process of creating the Seleucid Empire out of the eastern conquests of Alexander the Great, tried to reconquer the northwestern parts of India in 305 BCE. Seleucus failed (Seleucid -- Mauryan war), the two rulers finally concluded a peace treaty: a marital treaty (Epigamia) was concluded, in which the Greeks offered their Princess for alliance and help from him. Chandragupta snatched the satrapies of Paropamisade (Kamboja and Gandhara), Arachosia (Kandhahar) and Gedrosia (Balochistan), and Seleucus I Nicator received 500 war elephants that were to have a decisive role in his victory against western Hellenistic kings at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE. Diplomatic relations were established and several Greeks, such as the historian Megasthenes, Deimakos and Dionysius resided at the Mauryan court. Chandragupta established a strong centralized state with an administration at Pataliputra, which, according to Megasthenes, was "surrounded by a wooden wall pierced by 64 gates and 570 towers ''. Aelian, although not expressly quoting Megasthenes nor mentionning Pataliputra, described Indian palaces as superior in splendor to Persia 's Susa or Ectabana. The architecture of the city seems to have had many similarities with Persian cities of the period. Chandragupta 's son Bindusara extended the rule of the Mauryan empire towards southern India. The famous Tamil poet Mamulanar of the Sangam literature described how the Deccan Plateau was invaded by the Maurya army. He also had a Greek ambassador at his court, named Megasthenes. Megasthenes describes a disciplined multitude under Chandragupta, who live simply, honestly, and do not know writing: Bindusara was the son of the first Mauryan emperor Chandragupta Maurya and his queen Durdhara. During his reign, the empire expanded southwards. According to the Rajavalikatha, a Jain work, the original name of this emperor was Simhasena. According to a legend mentioned in the Jain texts, Chandragupta 's Guru and advisor Chanakya used to feed the emperor small doses of poison with his food to build his immunity against possible assassination attempts by his enemies. One day, Chandragupta, not knowing about the poison, shared his food with his pregnant wife, who was 7 days away from delivery. The queen collapsed and died within few minutes. Chanakya entered the room at the very moment she collapsed, and, in order to save the child in the womb, he immediately cut open the dead queen 's belly and took the baby out. By that time a drop of poison had already reached the baby and touched its head, due to which the child got a permanent blueish spot (a "bindu '') on his forehead. Thus, the newborn was named "Bindusara ''. Bindusara, just 22 years old, inherited a large empire that consisted of what is now, Northern, Central and Eastern parts of India along with parts of Afghanistan and Baluchistan. Bindusara extended this empire to the southern part of India, as far as what is now known as Karnataka. He brought sixteen states under the Mauryan Empire and thus conquered almost all of the Indian peninsula (he is said to have conquered the ' land between the two seas ' -- the peninsular region between the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea). Bindusara did n't conquer the friendly Tamil kingdoms of the Cholas, ruled by King Ilamcetcenni, the Pandyas, and Cheras. Apart from these southern states, Kalinga (modern Odisha) was the only kingdom in India that did n't form the part of Bindusara 's empire. It was later conquered by his son Ashoka, who served as the viceroy of Ujjaini during his father 's reign. Bindusara 's life has not been documented as well as that of his father Chandragupta or of his son Ashoka. Chanakya continued to serve as prime minister during his reign. According to the medieval Tibetan scholar Taranatha who visited India, Chanakya helped Bindusara "to destroy the nobles and kings of the sixteen kingdoms and thus to become absolute master of the territory between the eastern and western oceans. '' During his rule, the citizens of Taxila revolted twice. The reason for the first revolt was the maladministration of Susima, his eldest son. The reason for the second revolt is unknown, but Bindusara could not suppress it in his lifetime. It was crushed by Ashoka after Bindusara 's death. Ambassadors from the Seleucid Empire (such as Deimachus) and Egypt visited his courts. He maintained good relations with the Hellenic World. Unlike his father Chandragupta (who at a later stage converted to Jainism), Bindusara believed in the Ajivika sect. Bindusara 's guru Pingalavatsa (Janasana) was a Brahmin of the Ajivika sect. Bindusara 's wife, Queen Subhadrangi (Queen Aggamahesi) was a Brahmin also of the Ajivika sect from Champa (present Bhagalpur district). Bindusara is credited with giving several grants to Brahmin monasteries (Brahmana - bhatto). Bindusara died in 272 BCE (some records say 268 BCE) and was succeeded by his son Ashoka. As a young prince, Ashoka (r. 272 -- 232 BCE) was a brilliant commander who crushed revolts in Ujjain and Takshashila. As monarch he was ambitious and aggressive, re-asserting the Empire 's superiority in southern and western India. But it was his conquest of Kalinga (262 -- 261 BCE) which proved to be the pivotal event of his life. Although Ashoka 's army succeeded in overwhelming Kalinga forces of royal soldiers and civilian units, an estimated 100,000 soldiers and civilians were killed in the furious warfare, including over 10,000 of Ashoka 's own men. Hundreds of thousands of people were adversely affected by the destruction and fallout of war. When he personally witnessed the devastation, Ashoka began feeling remorse. Although the annexation of Kalinga was completed, Ashoka embraced the teachings of Buddhism, and renounced war and violence. He sent out missionaries to travel around Asia and spread Buddhism to other countries. Ashoka implemented principles of ahimsa by banning hunting and violent sports activity and ending indentured and forced labor (many thousands of people in war - ravaged Kalinga had been forced into hard labour and servitude). While he maintained a large and powerful army, to keep the peace and maintain authority, Ashoka expanded friendly relations with states across Asia and Europe, and he sponsored Buddhist missions. He undertook a massive public works building campaign across the country. Over 40 years of peace, harmony and prosperity made Ashoka one of the most successful and famous monarchs in Indian history. He remains an idealized figure of inspiration in modern India. The Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, are found throughout the Subcontinent. Ranging from as far west as Afghanistan and as far south as Andhra (Nellore District), Ashoka 's edicts state his policies and accomplishments. Although predominantly written in Prakrit, two of them were written in Greek, and one in both Greek and Aramaic. Ashoka 's edicts refer to the Greeks, Kambojas, and Gandharas as peoples forming a frontier region of his empire. They also attest to Ashoka 's having sent envoys to the Greek rulers in the West as far as the Mediterranean. The edicts precisely name each of the rulers of the Hellenic world at the time such as Amtiyoko (Antiochus), Tulamaya (Ptolemy), Amtikini (Antigonos), Maka (Magas) and Alikasudaro (Alexander) as recipients of Ashoka 's proselytism. The Edicts also accurately locate their territory "600 yojanas away '' (a yojanas being about 7 miles), corresponding to the distance between the center of India and Greece (roughly 4,000 miles). Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a succession of weaker kings. Brihadratha, the last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty, held territories that had shrunk considerably from the time of emperor Ashoka. Brihadratha was assassinated in 185 BCE during a military parade by the Brahmin general Pushyamitra Shunga, commander - in - chief of his guard, who then took over the throne and established the Shunga dynasty. Buddhist records such as the Ashokavadana write that the assassination of Brihadratha and the rise of the Shunga empire led to a wave of religious persecution for Buddhists, and a resurgence of Hinduism. According to Sir John Marshall, Pushyamitra may have been the main author of the persecutions, although later Shunga kings seem to have been more supportive of Buddhism. Other historians, such as Etienne Lamotte and Romila Thapar, among others, have argued that archaeological evidence in favour of the allegations of persecution of Buddhists are lacking, and that the extent and magnitude of the atrocities have been exaggerated. The fall of the Mauryas left the Khyber Pass unguarded, and a wave of foreign invasion followed. The Greco - Bactrian king, Demetrius, capitalized on the break - up, and he conquered southern Afghanistan and parts of northwestern India around 180 BCE, forming the Indo - Greek Kingdom. The Indo - Greeks would maintain holdings on the trans - Indus region, and make forays into central India, for about a century. Under them, Buddhism flourished, and one of their kings, Menander, became a famous figure of Buddhism; he was to establish a new capital of Sagala, the modern city of Sialkot. However, the extent of their domains and the lengths of their rule are subject to much debate. Numismatic evidence indicates that they retained holdings in the subcontinent right up to the birth of Christ. Although the extent of their successes against indigenous powers such as the Shungas, Satavahanas, and Kalingas are unclear, what is clear is that Scythian tribes, renamed Indo - Scythians, brought about the demise of the Indo - Greeks from around 70 BCE and retained lands in the trans - Indus, the region of Mathura, and Gujarat. The Empire was divided into four provinces, with the imperial capital at Pataliputra. From Ashokan edicts, the names of the four provincial capitals are Tosali (in the east), Ujjain (in the west), Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila (in the north). The head of the provincial administration was the Kumara (royal prince), who governed the provinces as king 's representative. The kumara was assisted by Mahamatyas and council of ministers. This organizational structure was reflected at the imperial level with the Emperor and his Mantriparishad (Council of Ministers). Historians theorise that the organisation of the Empire was in line with the extensive bureaucracy described by Kautilya in the Arthashastra: a sophisticated civil service governed everything from municipal hygiene to international trade. The expansion and defense of the empire was made possible by what appears to have been one of the largest armies in the world during the Iron Age. According to Megasthenes, the empire wielded a military of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots and 9,000 war elephants besides followers and attendants. A vast espionage system collected intelligence for both internal and external security purposes. Having renounced offensive warfare and expansionism, Ashoka nevertheless continued to maintain this large army, to protect the Empire and instil stability and peace across West and South Asia. For the first time in South Asia, political unity and military security allowed for a common economic system and enhanced trade and commerce, with increased agricultural productivity. The previous situation involving hundreds of kingdoms, many small armies, powerful regional chieftains, and internecine warfare, gave way to a disciplined central authority. Farmers were freed of tax and crop collection burdens from regional kings, paying instead to a nationally administered and strict - but - fair system of taxation as advised by the principles in the Arthashastra. Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across India, and a network of regional governors and administrators and a civil service provided justice and security for merchants, farmers and traders. The Mauryan army wiped out many gangs of bandits, regional private armies, and powerful chieftains who sought to impose their own supremacy in small areas. Although regimental in revenue collection, Maurya also sponsored many public works and waterways to enhance productivity, while internal trade in India expanded greatly due to new - found political unity and internal peace. Under the Indo - Greek friendship treaty, and during Ashoka 's reign, an international network of trade expanded. The Khyber Pass, on the modern boundary of Pakistan and Afghanistan, became a strategically important port of trade and intercourse with the outside world. Greek states and Hellenic kingdoms in West Asia became important trade partners of India. Trade also extended through the Malay peninsula into Southeast Asia. India 's exports included silk goods and textiles, spices and exotic foods. The external world came across new scientific knowledge and technology with expanding trade with the Mauryan Empire. Ashoka also sponsored the construction of thousands of roads, waterways, canals, hospitals, rest - houses and other public works. The easing of many over-rigorous administrative practices, including those regarding taxation and crop collection, helped increase productivity and economic activity across the Empire. In many ways, the economic situation in the Mauryan Empire is analogous to the Roman Empire of several centuries later. Both had extensive trade connections and both had organizations similar to corporations. While Rome had organizational entities which were largely used for public state - driven projects, Mauryan India had numerous private commercial entities. These existed purely for private commerce and developed before the Mauryan Empire itself. Hoard of mostly Mauryan coins. Silver punch mark coin of the Maurya empire, with symbols of wheel and elephant. 3rd century BCE. Mauryan coin with arched hill symbol on reverse. Mauryan Empire coin. Circa late 4th - 2nd century BCE. Mauryan Empire, Emperor Salisuka or later. Circa 207 - 194 BCE. Hinduism was the major religion at the time of inception of the empire, Hindu priests and ministers such as Chanakya used to be an important part of the emperor 's court. James Hastings writes that they are devotees of Narayana (Vishnu), although Shilanka, speaking of the Ekandandins in another connection, identifies them as Shaivas (devotees of Shiva). Scholar James Hastings identifies the name "Mankhaliputta '' or "Mankhali '' with the bamboo staff. Scholar Jitendra N. Banerjea compares them to the Pasupatas Shaivas. Another scholar, Charpentier, believes that the Ajivikas worshiped Shiva before Makkhali Goshala. As Chanakya wrote in his text Chanakya Niti, "Humbly bowing down before the almighty Lord Sri Vishnu, the Lord of the three worlds, I recite maxims of the science of political ethics (niti) selected from the various satras (scriptures) ''. Even after embracing Buddhism, Ashoka retained the membership of Hindu Brahmana priests and ministers in his court. Mauryan society began embracing the philosophy of ahimsa, and given the increased prosperity and improved law enforcement, crime and internal conflicts reduced dramatically. Also greatly discouraged was the caste system and orthodox discrimination, as Mauryans began to absorb the ideals and values of Jain and Buddhist teachings. Magadha, the centre of the empire, was also the birthplace of Buddhism. Ashoka initially practised Hinduism but later embraced Buddhism; following the Kalinga War, he renounced expansionism and aggression, and the harsher injunctions of the Arthashastra on the use of force, intensive policing, and ruthless measures for tax collection and against rebels. Ashoka sent a mission led by his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta to Sri Lanka, whose king Tissa was so charmed with Buddhist ideals that he adopted them himself and made Buddhism the state religion. Ashoka sent many Buddhist missions to West Asia, Greece and South East Asia, and commissioned the construction of monasteries and schools, as well as the publication of Buddhist literature across the empire. He is believed to have built as many as 84,000 stupas across India, such as Sanchi and Mahabodhi Temple, and he increased the popularity of Buddhism in Afghanistan, Thailand and North Asia including Siberia. Ashoka helped convene the Third Buddhist Council of India 's and South Asia 's Buddhist orders near his capital, a council that undertook much work of reform and expansion of the Buddhist religion. Indian merchants embraced Buddhism and played a large role in spreading the religion across the Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta Maurya embraced Jainism after retiring, when he renounced his throne and material possessions to join a wandering group of Jain monks. Chandragupta was a disciple of the Jain monk Bhadrabahu. It is said that in his last days, he observed the rigorous but self - purifying Jain ritual of santhara (fast unto death), at Shravana Belgola in Karnataka. However, his successor, Bindusara, was a follower of another ascetic movement, Ājīvika, and distanced himself from Jain and Buddhist movements. Samprati, the grandson of Ashoka, also embraced Jainism. Samprati was influenced by the teachings of Jain monks and he is known to have built 125,000 derasars across India. Some of them are still found in the towns of Ahmedabad, Viramgam, Ujjain, and Palitana. It is also said that just like Ashoka, Samprati sent messengers and preachers to Greece, Persia and the Middle East for the spread of Jainism, but, to date, no research has been done in this area. Thus, Jainism became a vital force under the Mauryan Rule. Chandragupta and Samprati are credited for the spread of Jainism in South India. Lakhs of temples and stupas were erected during their reign. However, due to lack of royal patronage, its own strict principles, and the rise of Shankaracharya and Ramanuja, Jainism, once a major religion of southern India, began to decline. The greatest monument of this period, executed in the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, was the old palace at the site of Kumhrar. Excavations at the site of Kumhrar nearby have unearthed the remains of the palace. The palace is thought to have been an aggregate of buildings, the most important of which was an immense pillared hall supported on a high substratum of timbers. The pillars were set in regular rows, thus dividing the hall into a number of smaller square bays. The number of columns is 80, each about 7 meters high. According to the eyewitness account of Megasthenes, the palace was chiefly constructed of timber, and was considered to exceed in splendour and magnificence the palaces of Susa and Ecbatana, its gilded pillars being adorned with golden vines and silver birds. The buildings stood in an extensive park studded with fish ponds and furnished with a great variety of ornamental trees and shrubs. Kauṭilya 's Arthashastra also gives the method of palace construction from this period. Later fragments of stone pillars, including one nearly complete, with their round tapering shafts and smooth polish, indicate that Ashoka was responsible for the construction of the stone columns which replaced the earlier wooden ones. During the Ashokan period, stonework was of a highly diversified order and comprised lofty free - standing pillars, railings of stupas, lion thrones and other colossal figures. The use of stone had reached such great perfection during this time that even small fragments of stone art were given a high lustrous polish resembling fine enamel. This period marked the beginning of the Buddhist school of architecture. Ashoka was responsible for the construction of several stupas, which were large domes and bearing symbols of Buddha. The most important ones are located at Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati, Bodhgaya and Nagarjunakonda. The most widespread examples of Mauryan architecture are the Ashoka pillars and carved edicts of Ashoka, often exquisitely decorated, with more than 40 spread throughout the Indian subcontinent. The peacock was a dynastic symbol of Mauryans, as depicted by Ashoka 's pillars at Nandangarh and Sanchi Stupa. Remains of the Ashokan Pillar in polished stone, to the right of the Southern Gateway. Remains of the shaft of the pillar of Ashoka, under a shed near the Southern Gateway. The Sanchi pillar capital of Ashoka as discovered (left), and simulation of original appearance (right). Flame palmettes and geese adorn the abacus. The protection of animals in India became serious business by the time of the Maurya dynasty; being the first empire to provide a unified political entity in India, the attitude of the Mauryas towards forests, their denizens, and fauna in general is of interest. The Mauryas firstly looked at forests as resources. For them, the most important forest product was the elephant. Military might in those times depended not only upon horses and men but also battle - elephants; these played a role in the defeat of Seleucus, one of Alexander 's former generals. The Mauryas sought to preserve supplies of elephants since it was cheaper and took less time to catch, tame and train wild elephants than to raise them. Kautilya 's Arthashastra contains not only maxims on ancient statecraft, but also unambiguously specifies the responsibilities of officials such as the Protector of the Elephant Forests. On the border of the forest, he should establish a forest for elephants guarded by foresters. The Office of the Chief Elephant Forester should with the help of guards protect the elephants in any terrain. The slaying of an elephant is punishable by death. The Mauryas also designated separate forests to protect supplies of timber, as well as lions and tigers for skins. Elsewhere the Protector of Animals also worked to eliminate thieves, tigers and other predators to render the woods safe for grazing cattle. The Mauryas valued certain forest tracts in strategic or economic terms and instituted curbs and control measures over them. They regarded all forest tribes with distrust and controlled them with bribery and political subjugation. They employed some of them, the food - gatherers or aranyaca to guard borders and trap animals. The sometimes tense and conflict - ridden relationship nevertheless enabled the Mauryas to guard their vast empire. When Ashoka embraced Buddhism in the latter part of his reign, he brought about significant changes in his style of governance, which included providing protection to fauna, and even relinquished the royal hunt. He was the first ruler in history to advocate conservation measures for wildlife and even had rules inscribed in stone edicts. The edicts proclaim that many followed the king 's example in giving up the slaughter of animals; one of them proudly states: Our king killed very few animals. However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect more the desire of rulers than actual events; the mention of a 100 ' panas ' (coins) fine for poaching deer in royal hunting preserves shows that rule - breakers did exist. The legal restrictions conflicted with the practices freely exercised by the common people in hunting, felling, fishing and setting fires in forests. Relations with the Hellenistic world may have started from the very beginning of the Maurya Empire. Plutarch reports that Chandragupta Maurya met with Alexander the Great, probably around Taxila in the northwest: Chandragupta ultimately occupied Northwestern India, in the territories formerly ruled by the Greeks, where he fought the satraps (described as "Prefects '' in Western sources) left in place after Alexander (Justin), among whom may have been Eudemus, ruler in the western Punjab until his departure in 317 BCE or Peithon, son of Agenor, ruler of the Greek colonies along the Indus until his departure for Babylon in 316 BCE. Seleucus I Nicator, the Macedonian satrap of the Asian portion of Alexander 's former empire, conquered and put under his own authority eastern territories as far as Bactria and the Indus (Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55), until in 305 BCE he entered into a confrontation with Emperor Chandragupta: Though no accounts of the conflict remain, it is clear that Seleucus fared poorly against the Indian Emperor as he failed to conquer any territory, and in fact was forced to surrender much that was already his. Regardless, Seleucus and Chandragupta ultimately reached a settlement and through a treaty sealed in 305 BCE, Seleucus, according to Strabo, ceded a number of territories to Chandragupta, including large parts of what is now Afghanistan and parts of Balochistan. It is generally thought that Chandragupta married Seleucus 's daughter, or a Greek Macedonian princess, a gift from Seleucus to formalise an alliance. In a return gesture, Chandragupta sent 500 war elephants, a military asset which would play a decisive role at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE. In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched an ambassador, Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and later Deimakos to his son Bindusara, at the Mauryan court at Pataliputra (modern Patna in Bihar state). Later, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of Ashoka, is also recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court. Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received vast territory west of the Indus, including the Hindu Kush, modern - day Afghanistan, and the Balochistan province of Pakistan. Archaeologically, concrete indications of Mauryan rule, such as the inscriptions of the Edicts of Ashoka, are known as far as Kandahar in southern Afghanistan. The treaty on "Epigamia '' implies lawful marriage between Greeks and Indians was recognized at the State level, although it is unclear whether it occurred among dynastic rulers or common people, or both.. Classical sources have also recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent various aphrodisiacs to Seleucus: His son Bindusara ' Amitraghata ' (Slayer of Enemies) also is recorded in Classical sources as having exchanged presents with Antiochus I: The Greek population apparently remained in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under Ashoka 's rule. In his Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, some of them written in Greek, Ashoka relates that the Greek population within his realm was absorbed, integrated, and converted to Buddhism: Fragments of Edict 13 have been found in Greek, and a full Edict, written in both Greek and Aramaic, has been discovered in Kandahar. It is said to be written in excellent Classical Greek, using sophisticated philosophical terms. In this Edict, Ashoka uses the word Eusebeia ("Piety '') as the Greek translation for the ubiquitous "Dharma '' of his other Edicts written in Prakrit: Also, in the Edicts of Ashoka, Ashoka mentions the Hellenistic kings of the period as recipients of his Buddhist proselytism, although no Western historical record of this event remains: Ashoka also encouraged the development of herbal medicine, for men and animals, in their territories: The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as leading Greek ("Yona '') Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism (the Mahavamsa, XII). Sophagasenus was an Indian Mauryan ruler of the 3rd century BCE, described in ancient Greek sources, and named Subhagasena or Subhashasena in Prakrit. His name is mentioned in the list of Mauryan princes, and also in the list of the Yadava dynasty, as a descendant of Pradyumna. He may have been a grandson of Ashoka, or Kunala, the son of Ashoka. He ruled an area south of the Hindu Kush, possibly in Gandhara. Antiochos III, the Seleucid king, after having made peace with Euthydemus in Bactria, went to India in 206 BCE and is said to have renewed his friendship with the Indian king there: "He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus and descended into India; renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army: leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure which this king had agreed to hand over to him ''. Polybius 11.39 According to Vicarasreni of Merutunga, Mauryans rose to power in 312 BC. cultural period (Punjab - Sapta Sindhu) (Kuru - Panchala) (Central Gangetic Plain) (Northeast India) (Brahmin ideology) Painted Grey Ware culture (Kshatriya / Shramanic culture) Northern Black Polished Ware Rise of Shramana movements Jainism - Buddhism - Ājīvika - Yoga Nanda empire Early Pandyan Kingdom Satavahana dynasty Cheras 46 other small kingdoms in Ancient Thamizhagam (continued) (300 BC -- 200 AD) Maha - Meghavahana Dynasty Early Pandyan Kingdom Satavahana dynasty Cheras 46 other small kingdoms in Ancient Thamizhagam Indo - Scythians Indo - Parthians Pandyan Kingdom (Under Kalabhras) Varman dynasty Pandyan Kingdom (Under Kalabhras) Kadamba Dynasty Western Ganga Dynasty Pandyan Kingdom (Under Kalabhras) Vishnukundina Kabul Shahi Kalabhra dynasty Pandyan Kingdom (Under Kalabhras) Pandyan Kingdom (Revival) Pallava Kalachuri Pandyan Kingdom Medieval Cholas Pandyan Kingdom (Under Cholas) Chera Perumals of Makkotai Kamboja - Pala dynasty Medieval Cholas Pandyan Kingdom (Under Cholas) Chera Perumals of Makkotai Rashtrakuta References Sources

south park episode the simpsons already did it

Simpsons Already Did It - wikipedia "Simpsons Already Did It '' is the seventh episode of the sixth season of the American animated television series South Park, and the 86th episode of the series overall. It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on June 26, 2002. In the episode, which continues on from the events of the previous episode "Professor Chaos '', Butters thinks up a series of schemes to take over the world, but realizes that each one has already been performed on The Simpsons. Meanwhile, Ms. Choksondik dies and Cartman, Kyle and Stan think that they are responsible. The episode was written by series co-creator Trey Parker and is rated TV - MA in the United States. Kyle, Stan and Tweek are making a snowman, when Stan tells Tweek to put the carrot on for the nose. Tweek replies ' But what if when I 'm putting on the nose, the snowman comes to life and tries to kill me? ' referring to what happened in the short Jesus vs. Frosty. Cartman shows Kyle, Stan, and Tweek an advertisement he found for "Sea People '' (a parody of Sea - Monkeys). Cartman imagines them to be a race similar to mermaids who will "take me away from this crappy goddamn planet full of hippies. '' He convinces everyone to chip in so they can buy them. Meanwhile, Butters, in his evil alter - ego persona Professor Chaos, is trying to figure out a way to bring disarray to the town. When he plots to block out the sun, his assistant, Dougie / General Disarray, informs him that it mirrors a plot of Mr. Burns ' from The Simpsons and Butters abandons the idea. Cartman soon begins to prepare for the Sea People, even making a sign to welcome them, but after placing them in the water, Stan reveals that they are simply brine shrimp. Cartman, in a fit of rage, begins to berate his friends, but lightens up after the group decides to place the shrimp in Ms. Choksondik 's coffee. The scene then cuts to Ms. Choksondik 's house, where she has died and an ambulance is taking away her corpse. Butters decides to cut the head off of the town 's central statue -- which mirrors Bart Simpson 's decapitation of Springfield 's Jebediah Springfield statue. On the news report, the newscaster interprets Butters ' vandalism as an homage to The Simpsons; the police are not investigating the crime because they want the statue to remain headless as a tribute. Upon hearing that semen was discovered in the teacher 's stomach, the boys conclude that they killed Ms. Choksondik with their "sea men ''. They go to the morgue to steal the evidence, fearful that they will "find the women too! '' Butters devises increasingly outlandish schemes, but Dougie keeps pointing out that they have already been done on The Simpsons. Eventually, Chef explains that there is a difference between "sea men / semen '' and "Sea People '', and that the brine shrimp did not kill their teacher. Cartman then discovers that when the semen they recovered has been added to the Sea People aquarium, it combines with the Brine Shrimp to create an intelligent race of actual sea people. Trying to come up with an original plot, Butters watches every episode of The Simpsons twice before introducing his newest plan: build a machine that replaces the cherry centers of chocolate covered cherries with rancid mayonnaise (a plot that Dougie / General Disarray dismisses as being too uninspired to appear on The Simpsons). As Butters is about to use his device, a Simpsons commercial announces that Bart will do exactly the same thing in that night 's episode. Butters has a nervous breakdown and begins picturing the town in the animation style of The Simpsons. At the Cartman household, the boys have bought more Sea People, a larger aquarium, and several gallons of semen. Their Sea - Ciety evolves into an Ancient Greek-esque civilization, and they begin worshipping Cartman. Stan and Kyle invite Butters and others to see the aquarium. Butters then states that the Sea - Ciety plot is similar to that of the "Treehouse of Horror VII '' short "The Genesis Tub ''. Though the boys agree with him, they also note that The Simpsons has done everything, so worrying about that is pointless. Chef also points out that they in turn borrowed their ideas from a classic Twilight Zone episode, "The Little People ''. Butters understands and everyone returns to their normal appearance. Butters then happily leaves, getting ready to wreak havoc once again. The Sea People on the other side of the aquarium begin worshipping Tweek, leading to a holy war. Seconds later they develop nuclear weapons and destroy themselves, like the Futurama episode "Godfellas '', another show made by Matt Groening. While Kyle concludes war is inevitable, Cartman wonders, "Why ca n't societies live in peace? '' The episode received generally positive reviews. Travis Pickett of IGN gave it an 8.5 rating, especially praising Trey Parker and Matt Stone for managing to contrast the episode with the actual Simpsons with themes like Cartman performing fellatio on "some guy in an alley '', while respectfully paying their dues. "Simpsons Already Did It '' was inspired by the fact that The Simpsons did in fact beat South Park to several plot concepts. In the season 4 episode "The Wacky Molestation Adventure '', Butters was supposed to block out the sun, but one writer pointed out that "The Simpsons already did it. '' The episode "calls out '' the obvious observation that The Simpsons have realized a vast number of ideas throughout their long - lived run. Some have found a certain reciprocity to this statement, finding instances of repetitiveness in The Simpsons itself while quoting South Park. However, although the motif throughout the episode is "Simpsons did it first '', South Park creators released their feature film based on the series in 1999, eight years prior to The Simpsons Movie. The Simpsons crew has a friendly relationship with South Park, which they demonstrated several times, going as far as sending flowers to the South Park studios when South Park parodied Family Guy in the season 10 episodes "Cartoon Wars Part I '' and "Part II ''. In 2010, The Simpsons crew congratulated South Park for reaching 200 episodes, with a message reading "Congratulations on 200 Episodes. (We Already Did It.) (Twice.) ''. Soon after, in reference to the controversies and terrorist threats surrounding depictions of the Muslim prophet Muhammad in the South Park episodes "200 '' and "201 '', the chalkboard gag on that week 's The Simpsons episode, "The Squirt and the Whale '', read "South Park -- We 'd stand beside you if we were n't so scared ''. South Park was parodied in a 2003 Simpsons episode, "The Bart of War '', showing a scene with the four South Park boys Stan, Kyle, Kenny and Cartman drawn in Simpsons style, with Marge disapproving of Bart and Milhouse 's apparent enjoyment of "cartoon violence '', and the latter two contemplating about adults voicing children 's characters. The 2009 Simpsons episode "O Brother, Where Bart Thou? '' has Bart, Milhouse, Nelson and Ralph dressed up as, standing at the bus stop -- similarly to the iconic bus stop scenes of South Park --, and Otto using the catchphrase "Oh my God! I killed Kenny! '' when he hits Ralph (dressed as Kenny) driving the school bus.

football hall of famer who appeared on dancing with the stars

Deion Sanders - wikipedia Deion Luywnn Sanders Sr. (/ ˈdiːɒn /; born August 9, 1967), nicknamed "Primetime '', is a former American football and baseball player who works as an analyst for CBS Sports and the NFL Network. He is currently the offensive coordinator at Trinity Christian - Cedar Hill high school where his sons go to school. He was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2011. Sanders played football primarily at cornerback, but also as a kick returner, punt returner, and occasionally wide receiver. He played in the National Football League (NFL) for the Atlanta Falcons, the San Francisco 49ers, the Dallas Cowboys, the Washington Redskins and the Baltimore Ravens, winning the Super Bowl with both the 49ers and the Cowboys. An outfielder in baseball, he played professionally for the New York Yankees, the Atlanta Braves, the Cincinnati Reds and the San Francisco Giants, and participated in the 1992 World Series with the Braves. He attended Florida State University, where he was recognized as a two - time All - American in football, and also played baseball and ran track. Sanders founded the Prime Prep Academy charter school in 2012 and has coached at the school. The school was closed January 30, 2015, due to financial insolvency. In 2014, he debuted his new show, the Deion Family Playbook. Sanders was born in Fort Myers, Florida. He attended North Fort Myers High School in North Fort Myers, and was a letterman and All - State honoree in football, basketball and baseball. In 1985, Sanders was named to the Florida High School Association All - Century Team which selected the top 33 players in the 100 - year history of high school football in the state. The Kansas City Royals selected Sanders out of North Fort Myers High School in the sixth round of the 1985 Major League Baseball draft. He did not sign with the Royals. Sanders enrolled at Florida State University and played three sports for the Florida State Seminoles: football, baseball, and track. Beginning his freshman year, he started in the Seminoles ' secondary, played outfield for the baseball team that finished fifth in the nation, and helped lead the track and field team to a conference championship. Under head coach Bobby Bowden, Sanders was a two - time consensus All - American cornerback in 1987 and 1988, and a third team All - American in 1986, intercepting 14 passes in his career, including three in bowl games, and managed to return one interception 100 yards for a touchdown breaking Fred Biletnikoff 's interception return record by one yard. He won the Jim Thorpe Award in 1988. He was also a standout punt returner for Florida State, leading the nation in 1988 with his punt return average, and breaking the school 's record for career punt return yards. Sanders made an interception with 5 seconds left to seal Florida State 's 13 - 7 win over Auburn in the 1989 Sugar Bowl, during the 1988 postseason. Based on those accolades, his jersey at Florida State, # 2, was retired in 1995. He finished his career with 126 punt returns for 1,429 yards. Bowden would later state that Sanders was his "measuring stick for athletic ability ''. While playing baseball under head coach Mike Martin at Florida State, Sanders hit. 331 in 1986; he was known more for base stealing, compiling 27 stolen bases in 1987. Sanders once played the first game of a baseball doubleheader, ran a leg of a 4 × 100 relay, then returned to play another baseball game. Sanders played a nine - year, part - time baseball career, playing left and center field in 641 games with 4 teams. He was originally drafted by the Kansas City Royals in the 6th round of the 1985 draft, but did not sign with them. The New York Yankees selected Sanders in the 30th round of the 1988 Major League Baseball draft, and he signed with the team on June 22. He opened the 1989 season with the Albany - Colonie Yankees of the Class AA Eastern League. Though he planned to leave the Yankees in July to attend NFL training camp, he became embroiled in a contract dispute with the Falcons, and used the Yankees as leverage. He received a promotion to the major leagues, and spent the summer with the Columbus Clippers of the Class AAA International League. He made his major league baseball debut on May 31, 1989. Sanders made the Yankees ' Opening Day roster for the 1990 season. On May 22, 1990, Sanders became involved in a dispute with Chicago White Sox ' catcher Carlton Fisk. Sanders started by stepping up to the plate with one out and a runner on third, drawing a dollar sign in the dirt before the pitch and then failed to run to first base after hitting a routine pop fly to shortstop, trotting back to the dugout instead. The Yankee fans booed, and Fisk told Sanders to "run the fucking ball out '' and called Sanders a "piece of shit. '' Later in the game, Sanders told Fisk that "the days of slavery are over. '' Fisk was furious. "He comes up and wants to make it a racial issue, there 's no racial issue involved. There is a right way and a wrong way to play this game. '' By mid-July, Sanders expressed that he was unsure if he would remain with the Yankees or report to NFL training camp for the upcoming NFL season. He requested a $1 million salary for the 1991 season, and the Yankees ended negotiations on a contract extension with Sanders. He left the team, finishing the 1990 season with a. 158 batting average and three home runs in 57 games. In September 1990, the Yankees placed Sanders on waivers with the intention of giving him his release, as Yankees ' general manager Gene Michael said that Sanders ' football career was stunting his baseball development. Sanders later signed with the Atlanta Braves for the 1991 MLB season. On July 31, Sanders hit a key three - run homer to spark a comeback win against the Pittsburgh Pirates during the Braves ' run to the National League West Division title. However, he had to leave the Braves the very next day to report to the Atlanta Falcons because of a clause in his NFL contract and missed the postseason. Before the 1992 season, Sanders reworked his NFL deal whereby he still reported to the Falcons for training camp in August, but was allowed to rejoin the Braves for the postseason. During his most productive year in the majors, the 1992 season, he hit. 304 for the team, stole 26 bases, and led the NL with 14 triples in 97 games. During the 1989 season, he hit a major league home run and scored a touchdown in the NFL in the same week, the only player ever to do so. Sanders is also the only man to play in both a Super Bowl and a World Series. In four games of the 1992 World Series, Sanders batted. 533 with 4 runs, 8 hits, 2 doubles, and 1 RBI while playing with a broken bone in his foot. Despite Sanders 's performance, the Braves ultimately lost to the Toronto Blue Jays in six games. In Game 3, he narrowly avoided being a victim of what would have been only the second triple play in World Series history (following Bill Wambsganss 's unassisted triple play in 1920). With Sanders on second base and Terry Pendleton on first, David Justice hit a deep fly ball to center field that Blue Jays center fielder Devon White unexpectedly caught with a leaping effort. Pendleton passed Sanders on the bases for the second out, but umpire Bob Davidson called Sanders safe after he scampered back to second base. Replays showed that Toronto third baseman Kelly Gruber tagged him on the heel before he returned to second. In 1997, Sanders finished 2nd in the NL with 56 stolen bases in 115 games while with the Cincinnati Reds before leaving baseball for three years. Sanders returned to the Reds in 2001, but was released after playing in only 29 games and batting just. 173. Following his release from the Reds he signed a minor league contract with the Toronto Blue Jays triple - A affiliate, Syracuse Chiefs. Sanders was hitting. 252 for Syracuse before the Washington Redskins found a loophole in his contract which compelled him to return to the Redskins. His football contract had been negotiated to allow for Sanders to play both baseball and football, but the terms of the contract stated that Sanders could miss NFL training camp and the first few games of the season only if he were playing Major League Baseball. Since he was not then on an MLB roster, Sanders had to leave Syracuse and return to the Redskins so he would not violate his NFL contract. But before arriving at training camp, Sanders informed Redskins personnel he was retiring from professional baseball. In his final professional baseball game, Sanders hit a solo home run and an RBI single in Syracuse 's 12 - 6 win over the Toledo Mud Hens. As those in MLB and the NFL urged Sanders to concentrate on only one sport, he would often explain, "football is my wife and baseball is my mistress. '' At the 1989 NFL Scouting Combine, Sanders ran a 4.27 second 40 - yard dash. He was the fifth pick overall in the 1989 NFL Draft by the Atlanta Falcons, where he played until 1993. Despite fumbling (and recovering) his first NFL punt (which was re-kicked on a penalty), Sanders ran for a touchdown on his second attempt of his first game. During his time in Atlanta, he intercepted 24 passes (including a career - high 7 in 1993), three of which he returned for touchdowns. In 1992, he also led the league in kickoff return yards (1,067), yards per return (26.7) and return touchdowns (2). On October 11, 1992, Sanders played in a Falcons game in Miami and then flew to Pittsburgh, hoping to play in the Braves ' League Championship Series game against the Pirates that evening and become the first athlete to play in two professional leagues in the same day. Sanders ultimately did not, however, appear in the baseball game that night. Over his five years with the Falcons, Sanders scored ten touchdowns (three defensive, three kick returns, two punt returns, and two receptions). After five seasons Sanders signed on to play the 1994 season with the San Francisco 49ers, where he had arguably his best season as a professional football player, recording six interceptions and returning them for an NFL best and a then - NFL record 303 yards and three touchdowns. Two of his interceptions were returned for a gain of at least 90 yards, making him the first player to do this in NFL history. On October 16, 1994, Sanders made his dramatic return to the Georgia Dome in a 49er uniform. After getting into a scuffle with his former Falcon teammate Andre Rison, Sanders intercepted a pass from quarterback Jeff George and returned it 93 yards while mockingly staring down the entire Falcons sideline before high - stepping into the end zone. Sanders was later voted the 1994 NFL Defensive Player of the Year and recorded an interception in the 49ers 49 -- 26 victory over the San Diego Chargers in Super Bowl XXIX, earning him his first championship ring. Following his successful season with the 49ers, Sanders, along with his agent Eugene Parker, courted numerous teams in need of a cornerback. The several teams in the "Deion Sweepstakes '', as it was called by the media, were the Philadelphia Eagles, Oakland Raiders, Miami Dolphins, New Orleans Saints, San Francisco 49ers and the Dallas Cowboys, who had lost their starting cornerback Kevin Smith to injury for the rest of the season. On September 9, 1995 (which fell in Week 2 of that NFL season), Sanders signed a lucrative contract with the Dallas Cowboys (seven years, $35 million with a $12.999 million signing bonus, because owner Jerry Jones was superstitious of the number 13), essentially making him, at the time, the highest - paid defensive player in the NFL. Sanders later stated in his book Power, Money & Sex: How Success Almost Ruined My Life that the Oakland Raiders offered him more money than any other team, but he chose to play in Dallas for more time on the offensive side of the ball, a chance to win back - to - back Super Bowls, and because of his friendship with Cowboys wide receiver Michael Irvin. Arthroscopic surgery kept him sidelined until his debut in Week 9, which was once again in Atlanta against the Falcons; the Cowboys won, 28 - 13. He went on to help the Cowboys win their third title in four years in Super Bowl XXX against the Pittsburgh Steelers, where he returned a punt for 11 yards and caught a 47 - yard reception on offense, setting up Dallas ' first touchdown of the game and a 27 -- 17 victory. Sanders played four more seasons with Dallas, earning Pro Bowl selection in all of them. On June 2, 2000, he was released in a salary cap move. Soon after being released by the Cowboys, the Washington Redskins and Daniel Snyder signed Sanders to a hefty $56 million, 7 - year contract. At the end of the 2000 season and an above - average statistical year, Sanders abruptly retired after only playing one year with the Redskins. In 2004, Sanders announced that he was going to end his retirement, after being lured back to football by Ravens cornerback Corey Fuller, linebacker Ray Lewis and best friend Joe Zorovich. A major reason for doing so was to play with Ray Lewis. He signed a 1 - year deal with the Baltimore Ravens to be a nickelback. Sanders chose to wear the number 37, which matched his age at the time, to preemptively let people know that he was well aware of his relative senior status as an NFL player (additionally, the number 21, used by Sanders throughout his career, was already being worn by Ravens Pro Bowl cornerback Chris McAlister). Against the Buffalo Bills in Week 7 of 2004, Sanders scored his ninth career interception return touchdown, moving him into a tie for second place with Ken Houston and Aeneas Williams, and behind Rod Woodson (with 12) for all - time in the statistical category. In January 2006, after playing two seasons as a corner and safety for Baltimore in which the Ravens did not qualify for the postseason, Sanders once again retired from the NFL and became an analyst for the NFL Network. During his 14 - year NFL career, Sanders was a perennial All - Pro and one of the strongest pass defenders ever. He was known for being a relatively poor tackler and he was not much of a factor in run support. Sanders also occasionally lined up with his team 's offense. During the 1996 season, Sanders skipped the baseball season, concentrating on football, and attended the first NFL training camp of his career to better familiarize himself with the nuances of the wide receiver position. He became only the second two - way starter (after the Cardinals ' Roy Green) in the NFL since Chuck Bednarik for the first half of the season due. Sanders is the only man to play in both a Super Bowl and a World Series, to hit an MLB home run and score an NFL touchdown in the same week, and to have both a reception and an interception in the Super Bowl. He is one of two players to score an NFL touchdown six different ways. During his career, Sanders intercepted 53 passes for 1,331 yards (a 25.1 yards per return average), recovered four fumbles for 15 yards, returned 155 kickoffs for 3,523 yards, gained 2,199 yards on 212 punt returns, and caught 60 passes for 784 yards. Sanders amassed 7,838 all - purpose yards and scored 22 touchdowns: nine interception returns, six punt returns, three kickoff returns, three receiving, and one fumble recovery. His 19 defensive and return touchdowns was an NFL record (now held by Devin Hester with 20 return touchdowns). In the postseason, Sanders added 5 more interceptions, as well as 3 receptions for 95 yards, 4 carries for 39 yards, and two touchdowns (one rushing and one receiving). He was selected to eight Pro Bowls and won the NFL Defensive Player of the Year Award in 1994. Sanders also had a rushing TD in the playoffs (against the Philadelphia Eagles in January 1996). This makes him (including post season) one of only two players in NFL history (Bill Dudley being the other) to score a touchdown six different ways (interception return, punt return, kickoff return, receiving, rushing, and a fumble recovery). On February 6, 2011, at Super Bowl XLV in Arlington, Texas, Sanders performed the pre-game coin toss. Sanders did not attend classes or take final exams during the fall semester of his senior year at Florida State, yet played in the Sugar Bowl against Auburn. This caused the Florida State Legislature to create the ' Deion Sanders rule ', whereby a football athlete at any state university could not play in a bowl game if he failed to successfully complete the previous semester. In 1995, he signed with the Dallas Cowboys for a minimum yearly base salary and a nearly $13 million signing bonus in an attempt to circumvent the NFL 's salary cap. This caused the NFL to institute its own ' Deion Sanders rule ' whereby a prorated portion of a player 's signing bonus counted against the salary cap. Sanders became known for sporting a "do - rag '' or bandana and for his high - stepping into the end zone followed by his touchdown dance celebrations. At the end of his Hall of Fame speech, he put a bandana on his bust. His "Prime Time '' nickname was given to him by a friend and high - school teammate, Florida Gators defensive back Richard Fain. The two played pickup basketball games together during the prime time television hour, and Sanders ' athletic display during those games earned him the nickname. His other nickname is "Neon Deion ''. Following his first Super Bowl victory with the San Francisco 49ers, Sanders hosted Saturday Night Live, broadcast on February 18, 1995. In January 1995, Sanders became the official spokesman of the Sega Sports line of video games. Sanders has also appeared in television commercials for such companies as Nike, Pepsi, Burger King, Pizza Hut, and American Express. These included a Road Runner Pepsi ad, with Sanders as Wile E. Coyote, and a Pizza Hut commercial in which he appeared with Dallas Cowboys owner Jerry Jones. He also makes a cameo as himself in the film Celtic Pride. Sanders, known for his custom - made showy suits and flashy jewelry, frequently capitalized on his image. On December 26, 1994, Sanders released Prime Time, a rap album on Bust It Records (MC Hammer 's label, of whom Sanders is a friend) that featured the singles "Must Be the Money '' and "Prime Time Keeps on Tickin ' ''. The album was universally panned by critics, and despite Sanders ' fame, neither the album nor its singles charted in the Top 40. Sanders also appeared in Hammer 's "Too Legit to Quit '' music video, and his alter - ego "Prime Time '' showed up in Hammer 's "Pumps and a Bump '' video. Hammer, a big sports fan, had launched a new enterprise during his career called Roll Wit It Entertainment & Sports Management and boasted such clients as Evander Holyfield, Deion Sanders and Reggie Brooks. In 1995, Hammer released "Straight to My Feet '' (with Deion Sanders) from the Street Fighter soundtrack (released in December 1994). The song charted # 57 in the UK. After retiring from the NFL, Sanders worked as a pre-game commentator for CBS ' The NFL Today until 2004, when contract negotiations failed. Sanders turned down a 30 % salary increase demanding to be paid $2.5 million, the highest of any NFL TV analyst. He was replaced by Shannon Sharpe. During Sanders ' run, he participated in several sketches. The first was "Primetime and 21st '', a mock street corner where Sanders (not yet a regular panelist) would give his opinions. Another was his "Sanders Claus '' persona, one of numerous sketches that involved young kids in football jerseys, representing NFL players, receiving a sarcastic gift from Sanders. Deion actually debuted as "Sanders Claus '' in a set of Nike commercials. Sanders still takes presents at Christmas time to local children 's hospitals in his area dressed as "Sanders Claus ''. Sanders frequently made guest appearances on ESPN, especially on the ESPN Radio Dallas affiliate, and briefly hosted a show called The New American Sportsman. He also hosted the 2002 Miss USA pageant. Sanders also was co-host of the 2004 GMA Music Awards broadcast, taped in late April 2004, and slated for air on UPN in May 2004. When negotiations with fellow Viacom property CBS failed (see above) two weeks before the broadcast, and he signed a deal with ESPN, UPN promptly canceled the broadcast, and the show aired on the i Network in December 2004 (both UPN and CBS are now owned by CBS Corporation). Sanders works at NFL Network as an analyst on a number of the network 's shows. Prior to the Sunday night game, Sanders, alongside host Rich Eisen and Steve Mariucci, breaks down all the action from the afternoon games on NFL GameDay. At the conclusion of all the action on Sunday, Sanders, Mariucci, Michael Irvin and host Fran Charles recap the day 's action with highlights, analysis and postgame interviews. For the 2010 season, Sanders joined Eisen, Mariucci and Marshall Faulk on the road for Thursday Night Kickoff presented by Lexus, NFL Network 's two - hour pregame show leading into Thursday Night Football. The group broadcasts live from the stadium two hours prior to all eight live Thursday Night Football games and returns for the Sprint halftime show and Kay Jewelers postgame show. Sanders also has a segment called "Let 's Go Primetime '' on NFL Network. In 2008, Sanders and his wife starred in the reality show Deion & Pilar: Prime Time Love, centering on them and their five children living in the small town of Prosper, Texas. Sanders appeared as himself in the fourth season of The League, playing a prospective buyer of Andre 's apartment. In 2014, Sanders was featured in an episode of Running Wild with Bear Grylls, where he and Grylls hiked in the desert of southern Utah for two days, rappelling down canyon walls and later climbing up a mesa. Sanders served as an alumni captain for Team Sanders in the 2014 Pro Bowl. In 2014, he rejoined CBS Sports as a studio analyst for Thursday games only. He still works for the NFL Network on Sundays. Sanders and his girlfriend Tracey Edmonds were featured together on an episode of Tiny House Nation that first aired on January 21, 2017. In addition to his sports career, Sanders also had a career in music as a rapper. He released his debut album, Prime Time, through Hammer 's Bust It Records label via Capitol Records, in 1994. Sanders moved on to other ventures after his retirement. In 2003, Sanders took interest in Devin Hester, a return specialist from Miami. Sanders mentored Hester, counseling and advising him during various points of his collegiate career. The Chicago Bears drafted Hester in the second round of the 2006 NFL Draft. Since then, Hester has broken the record for the most total returns for touchdowns in NFL history with 15 punt returns and 5 kick off returns. Hester has cited Sanders as one of his major inspirations and idols, and thanked him for his training and advice. Hester, also known as "Anytime '', occasionally performs Sanders ' signature touchdown dance and high - steps in homage to his mentor. Sanders also tried to adopt a high school running back, Noel Devine, who was one of the top recruits in 2007. Sanders was advised against this, but responded, "He does n't have parents; they died. God put this young man in my heart. This is not about sports. This is about a kid 's life. '' He now mentors Devine, and was a factor in Devine 's extended wait to sign a letter - of - intent to West Virginia University. Devine eventually signed to play football for the Mountaineers. Sanders has also been a mentor to Oakland Raiders wide receiver Michael Crabtree, as well as Dallas Cowboys wide receiver, Dez Bryant. In January 2004, Sanders was hired as an assistant coach to the Dallas Fury, a women 's professional basketball team in the National Women 's Basketball League, even though Sanders had never played organized basketball either in college or the professional level. On September 2, 2005, in response to the after - effects of Hurricane Katrina, Sanders challenged all professional athletes in the four major sports to donate $1,000 each to relief efforts, hoping to raise between $1.5 and $3 million total. Sanders said "Through unity, we can touch thousands... I have friends and relatives that feel this pain. Help in any way you can. '' In April 2006, Sanders became an owner of the Austin Wranglers, an Arena Football League team. Sanders has occasionally served as a celebrity spokesperson, such as representing Monitronics, a security system firm, at an industry conference in the spring of 2010. In 2012, he co-founded Prime Prep Academy, a grouping of charter schools in Texas. The school was plagued by ethical, legal, and financial issues, and closed on January 30, 2015, due to financial insolvency. Sanders has been married twice -- to Carolyn Chambers (1989 -- 1998), with whom he has two children (Deion Jr. and Deiondra), and Pilar Biggers - Sanders (1999 -- 2013) with whom he has three children (Shilo, Shelomi Golenzer and Shedeur). Sanders, along with J.M. Black, published his autobiography, Power, Money & Sex: How Success Almost Ruined My Life. World Publishing 1998. The book was inspired after he began counseling with Bishop T.D. Jakes. He notes his agent Eugene E. Parker as another person who influenced his life. He appeared with his family on the NBC show Celebrity Family Feud which premiered on June 24, 2008. On September 22, 2011, he served Pilar Biggers - Sanders with divorce papers. He then backed away from the story and denied he and Pilar would be divorcing. By December 17, 2011, he had followed through with filing for divorce. On March 12, 2013, he was awarded primary custody of his two sons, Shilo and Shedeur, and Pilar was awarded primary custody of their daughter Shelomi. However, one week later, a judge awarded custody of Shelomi to him as well. During the divorce battle, Pilar made several accusations of abuse against him on social media and in interviews, leading him to file a Defamation of Character lawsuit against her. In 2015, he seemed to have won when the court awarded him a $2.2 million judgment against his ex-wife in the case. However, in August, 2017, on appeal the case went against him. Sanders is presented as a devout Christian speaker with a fee range of $30,001 - $50,000. He has been in a relationship with Tracey Edmonds since 2012. Sanders has made an effort to coach at several different stops. His first being with the charter school Prime Prep Academy in 2012 which he helped found, but was later fired as the coach after a school staffer alleged Sanders assaulted the staffer. Sanders denied the claim and the charter school later shut down in 2015 due to financial mismanagement. In 2015, Sanders was named the CEO of FOCUS Academies and granted the head coaching position at the Triple A Academy where Sanders led them to face his alma mater North Fort Myers high school in Florida and featured a key matchup between several ranked recruits.. On August 17, 2017 it was announced by CBS Sports that Deion Sanders would be switching coaching positions at a new high school to become the offensive coordinator at Trinity Christian - Cedar Hill high school in Cedar Hill, Texas. The move was significant for Sanders as both his sons play at the high school. Sanders will serve on the staff as offensive coordinator under former Dallas Cowboy Aveion Cason.

sons of anarchy episode where jax kills clay

Clay Morrow - wikipedia Clarence "Clay '' Morrow was a fictional character in the FX television series Sons of Anarchy. He is played by Ron Perlman. He is the former International President of the Sons of Anarchy Motorcycle Club, but is also something of a vigilante as he does everything in his power to ensure that drug dealers and rapists stay out of his town. However, during the fourth season, Clay involves the club with a number of drug dealings with the cartel for his own protection and greed, wavering in his allegiance, and gradually reveals himself to be one of the story 's antagonists. He is 6 ' 2 '' and has a number of tattoos, most notably a Grim Reaper on his upper right arm and a Paratrooper tattoo on his upper left, along with the words "Death From Above '' indicating that he served as a paratrooper in a military unit. He also wears a golden pin of the same symbol on his kutte. This symbol is often confused with the US Army Parachutist badge. The Paratrooper symbol that Clay wears is an unofficial symbol, and would serve to indicate service, particularly combat service, as a paratrooper, and consists of a skull, with wings coming from the bottom of the skull, and curving up to meet the top of the skull. Given that his and Gemma Teller 's machinations are the driving source of conflict throughout the story, it can be argued that both he and Gemma are the series ' main antagonists. Morrow, of Irish descent, was born in 1949 but is not a native of Charming, California. He is one of the original "First 9 '' members of the Sons of Anarchy Motorcycle Club, formed in 1967, but was not a founding member. Of the first nine, he was the youngest and one of only three who were not war veterans. He did later go on to serve in the military, however, joining the US Army as an Airborne qualified Infantryman in 1969 and was deployed to Vietnam until 1972 (commemorated by a tattoo on his left arm and the paratrooper pin on his vest). When he returned from service, he remained a member of the club and opened the Teller - Morrow Automotive Repair shop with John Teller, the club President and his best friend. Whilst serving as the Vice President during the early 1990s, he was responsible for a number of murders during the SAMCRO - Mayan War, including that of Lowell Harland, Sr., a mechanic at the auto shop who became an ATF informant. In 1993, he became the President of the club 's Mother Charter, based in Charming (which also means that he was International President), after the death of John Teller. He went on to marry John Teller 's widow Gemma Teller Morrow in the mid-1990s and made their son, Jax Teller, Vice-President. It is implied that under Morrow, SAMCRO has become more of a criminal enterprise than before, much to Jax 's disillusionment. On his colors he wears patches reading "First 9 '' and "President ''. He suffers from osteoarthritis (degenerative arthritis) in his hands, which is slowly worsening as the series progresses. He makes several attempts to hide it from his brothers to protect his position as President, as a rule among members of the Sons of Anarchy prevents members from leading if they ca n't hold the grip of their motorcycle and ride effectively. Season One begins with the Sons of Anarchy finding their weapon storage warehouse being burned down. The SOA rush to the scene, where local police officers are already investigating. Clay talks to Sheriff Vic Trammel about the blaze, who claims that propane tanks inside the building blew up, and that he suspects arson due to the bootprints inside. Trammel then shows Clay the burned corpses of the people hidden beneath the building, who were illegal immigrants. It is later revealed that they were Mexican prostitutes "owned '' by the club 's Sergeant - at - Arms, Tig Trager. Clay then goes to meet Laroy, the leader of the One - Niners, in the East Bay. He is due to sell guns to the gang, but as they were destroyed, he must explain what happened at the warehouse. Laroy needs the guns to protect their heroin trade from another motorcycle club, the Mayans, and eventually lets Clay have some more time to get more guns together for him. The Sons of Anarchy then work out that it was the Mayans who stole the guns and destroyed the storage warehouse, and decide to get some payback. Juice Ortiz, the club 's intelligence officer, finds out where the Mayans stored the guns and Clay, Tig, Jax and Chibs Telford all head out to San Leandro to retrieve them. When they arrive at the industrial storage warehouse and find the guns, three Mayans turn up in a car outside. Clay and Tig then shoot and kill the Mayans. Jax is shot by another man, who has a number of Nazi and White supremacist tattoos. He was a member of the Nordics, a local skinhead gang who are allied with the Mayans, and it later emerges that his name is Whistler. Jax turns around and shoots Whistler twice, killing him. They escape with the weapons and destroy the building using explosives. Wayne Unser, the Chief of the Charming Police Department, has always gotten on well with the Sons of Anarchy during his time in charge, and has even employed them as muscle, at times. However, he is dying from cancer and will retire at the end of the month, handing power over to his Deputy, David Hale, who is overtly suspicious of the SOA and will almost definitely begin an investigation into the club. To warn Unser to keep Hale off their case, Clay, Bobby Munson (the club 's Treasurer) and Opie Winston hijack a shipment that they are supposed to protect, and threaten to hijack more. As a goodwill gesture, they give the contents of the truck to the local Italian American Mafia, as their gun delivery is late. Meanwhile, Tig comes forth and tells Clay that he has been having sex with both of the women found at the warehouse and that his DNA is in the police database. Clay orders Tig and Bobby to get rid of the bodies. The pair then retrieve the corpses from the police site and burn them in a furnace. Hale is enraged when he discovers that the bodies are missing, and he threatens Clay that he will close the SOA down for good. Local businessman Elliot Oswald goes to Clay after his 13 - year - old daughter is raped at a carnival and asks the Sons of Anarchy to hunt down the rapist and kill him, in exchange for money. Clay refuses the money but insists that if they catch him, he must carry out the punishment himself. Juice and Gemma discover that the rapist is one of the carnies and the gang capture him and bring him to Oswald, who tries to castrate him but can not bring himself to do it. Clay then carries the punishment out, but wears gloves whilst doing it. He then frames Oswald for the crime, as only Oswald 's fingerprints are on the knife, because Oswald was about to sell off much of the land around Charming to big business and housing, which would challenge the SOA 's reign over the town. Jax is unhappy that Clay did not tell him of the plan, however, and tells him to always inform him on his future motives. When a Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives agent arrives in Charming and begins investigating the club, Clay decides that they should move their weapons to Indian Hills, Nevada, where their brother club, the Devil 's Tribe, are based. He also sends Bobby and Jax to inform the Devil 's Tribe that the Sons of Anarchy will be patching over them, and Tig and Juice to steal a truck to transport the guns in. Clay also travels to Indian Hills to perform the patch - over ceremony and brings a number of SOA Washington members as protection in case the Mayans retaliate for an earlier conflict involving Jax, Bobby and five Mayans. At the patch - over party, he has sex with Cherry, a woman whom Half - Sack likes, as revenge for his calling Gemma a MILF earlier. The Mayans eventually retaliate, as predicted, by attacking the Devil 's Tribe clubhouse, and a large shootout ensues. Otto Delaney and a number of other imprisoned SAMCRO members have been protecting Chuck in Stockton prison. He is wanted by the Triads because he stole money from them, then informed on a number of their members when he was arrested. When Clay and Jax visit Otto in prison, he tells them that if they protect Chuck when he is released, he will inform them where the money that he has skimmed from the Asian Triads gang is located. They agree and pick him up from prison and bring him to the clubhouse. SAMCRO intends to wait until the restaurant, where the money is stored, closes before raiding it, but Chuck 's frequent unconscious masturbating is unbearable for them and they decide to raid the restaurant straight away. However, just after they steal the money and some counterfeiting plates, the Triads turn up. Instead of starting a war, Clay decides to make a deal; SAMCRO hands over Chuck and the plates for $60,000 from the Triads as the skim money is all counterfeit. Meanwhile, Kyle Hobart, a disgraced former SAMCRO member, goes to Jax and asks him if the Sons want in on his deal selling stolen car parts. Jax accepts and invites him to the clubhouse that night. This was a setup, however, to punish him for not having his SOA tattoo removed after being disowned by the club. At the clubhouse, they tie him up and Tig uses a blowtorch to burn off the tattoo. Jax and Piney sell five AK - 47s to Nate Meineke and his right - wing state militia. They then use these guns to ambush a prison convoy and free one of their members, Frank Cison. Three police officers are killed during the assault. Meineke drops his cell phone at the scene, and his last calls have been to Clay Morrow. When the ATF finds the phone, they arrest Clay and raid the clubhouse. Clay is later released because no evidence is found, meaning he can no longer be kept in custody. Meanwhile, Jax, Piney and Opie Winston decide to kill Meineke and his gang to keep them from snitching if they are apprehended by the authorities. They pretend to sell them more weapons. The "boxes of guns '' are actually filled with explosives, however, and the militia load their trucks with them. All of the militia are killed when the bombs are detonated. Workmen working for the Water and Power Board near the highway dig up three skeletons, two of which were Mayans killed in the war of 1992. The other was Lowell Harland, Sr., a mechanic at Teller - Morrow. He was killed for being a "junkie rat ''. To stop the bodies from being identified, Clay, Jax and Tig break into the local morgue, prepared to steal the bones. However, the corpses have already been identified. When Clay tells Lowell, Jr. about his father 's death, Lowell runs away. Clay tracks him down and eventually brings him back to town. Clay is almost killed when the Mayans attempt to shoot him while at a deal with Cameron Hayes of the True IRA at a bar. The two Mayan soldiers are gunned down by Tig and the shotgun - toting barman, however. Clay then calls in the Sons of Anarchy State Presidents and Vice-Presidents from Washington, Utah and Nevada, in a bid to wipe out the Mayans. After the shooting, he questions Jax 's commitment to the club and Jax 's willingness to kill. Clay is taken to the local police station for questioning about the recent shootings, by Wayne Unser. Ernest Darby is also being held there, and Clay tells Unser to bring Álvarez in, in order for the three gang leaders to hold a meeting and, hopefully, prevent further bloodshed. He meets with Darby first, and tells him not to retaliate because it would start a war on the streets of Charming. He then meets with Álvarez and the pair make a deal; the Sons of Anarchy will begin selling guns to the Mayans, and all Mayan - SOA disputes (over turf, businesses, etc.) end in the SOA 's favor. Álvarez also gives the Sons permission to kill Esai, as revenge for the attempted hit on Clay. After the clubhouse is raided and Bobby is arrested for the murder of Brenan Hefner, Clay and Tig suspect Opie of being the witness who identified him. It was another person, however. When Opie turns up at the clubhouse, Tig checks his car for bugs and finds a microphone. He also finds a recording device in Opie 's mobile phone. Both were planted by the ATF without Opie 's knowledge. Clay and Tig then decide to kill him. Clay and Tig again meet with One - Niners ' leader Laroy, and they discuss taking out the Mayans. They agree that the Sons would meet the Mayans for an arms deal and when they left, the Niners would eliminate the Mayans and take the guns as payment. However, when Clay, Tig, Opie and Jax meet Álvarez and his crew at a warehouse in Oakland, the Niners try to take out the Mayans and SOA. The group escapes, but a number of Mayans and Niners are killed in the shootout. Tig attempts to kill Opie during the havoc, but finds himself unable to do so. Later on at Jax 's son Abel 's homecoming party, Tig follows Opie 's car home and shoot the driver dead. However, the driver is Opie 's wife, Donna, who has switched vehicles with Opie. Just after Tig leave to kill Opie, Clay is approached by Wayne Unser and told that Opie is, in fact, not an informant and that the ATF has set him up. Clay tries to phone Tig to tell him, but Tig is not carrying his phone. Rosen, the club 's lawyer, meets with Clay and tells him that the ATF has put a warrant out for Opie 's arrest and that he will most likely get convicted of Hefner 's murder because of the witness. Clay, Tig and Juice then meet with Vic Trammel and offer him money to reveal the location of the witness. Trammell does not know, however, so they go to Elliot Oswald. They again blackmail him with the knife that he used to kill the rapist earlier in the season, this time to get his friends in the US Attorney 's office to tell him the witness ' case number and location. He then sends Chibs, Happy and Tig to kill the witness, who is at a safe house in San Joaquin. Jax goes to the safe house and stops the trio from killing the witness, but threatens her into leaving the state. At Church, Jax confronts Clay and asks if he killed Donna. Clay denies this. Season One ends at Donna 's funeral, which is attended by Sons of Anarchy from all over the country. There, Jax and Clay stare at each other and it is plain to see that the club is coming apart from inside. In the first episode of Season Two we see that Clay is still struggling with remorse for what he did to Donna, and that he is going head to head with Jax over her death. We see him giving Opie a fake story of how a Mayan MC member killed Donna and he throws a welcome back party for Bobby. When Ethan Zobelle and the L.O.A.N. start threatening members of SAMCRO, Clay is all for immediate retaliation, but he is at odds with Jax, who feels the club may be walking into a trap. He has recently learned of his wife Gemma 's rape at the hands of L.O.A.N. and settled his differences with Jax, so the two can work together to get revenge. Clay is now shown to be more in tune with Jax 's method of operation, opting to do more recon work before entering potentially lethal situations. In the season two finale, Clay neglects to inform Marcus Alvarez that Ethan Zobelle is an F.B.I. informant, knowing the Mayan leader would kill Zobelle himself, forfeiting Clay 's opportunity to do the deed. Later in the episode, the Sons ambush the Mayan convoy containing Zobelle and Clay spares Alvarez 's life. Clay and the others corner Zobelle in a deli, but decide to abandon the scene after learning of his grandson 's kidnapping. He is last seen consoling his distraught stepson Jax, whose son Abel (Clay 's grandson) has been kidnapped by IRA gun dealer Cameron Hayes. In the first episodes we see that Clay is still saddened by the loss of Abel, and is willing to help Jax at all costs. Also, his arthritis continues to worsen. As shown in the episode "Home '', it got so bad that Jax had to tie Clay 's hands to the handlebars. In the episode "Turas '', when SAMCRO are nearly killed by a bomb hidden in a gun shipment put there by the SAMBEL Sergeant - at - Arms, Jax has a shell shocked vision of his biological father speaking to him but it turns out to actually be Clay. In the episode "Firinne '', Clay kills McGee, member of the First 9 and President of the Belfast Chapter, for his treachery against the club by pushing him off a roof after taking his cut. He later burns the cut after expressing remorse for the killing. In the Season 3 finale, when Clay learns of Jax 's betrayal, he appears enraged and says "Jax will die ''. In the end, it is revealed that he knew of Jax 's deal with Stahl and that it was part of a plan to execute Jimmy O. and Stahl. When the plan is done, Clay and the others share a laugh, much to the confusion of the ATF agents. Also in the end of the episode, as Tara is reading the letters John Teller wrote to Maureen Ashby, Teller says he fears that Clay and Gemma will kill him because of his betraying Gemma by having an affair and attempting to alter the clubs focus on criminal activity, leading to much speculation that Clay and Gemma might have killed John Teller. Clay is seen as one of the many SAMCRO members released from prison. He later escapes their sheriff tail and accompanies Jax and Opie 's meeting with the Russians, where he settles their differences and forms a partnership with them. He attends Opie 's wedding and goes to test a new gun given to them by Putlova. As he 's firing the gun he turns and shoots Putlova 's bodyguards and Jax stabs Putlova to death as revenge for trying to kill him in prison. He also tells Gemma that his arthritis has gotten worse and that he has only 1 or 2 years left before he has to step down as President of SAMCRO. Also, while in prison, he set up a deal to run cocaine for the Gallindo Cartel, but this does not sit well with the other members of the club, as SOA avoids drugs. When the club goes to Arizona and meets the Tucson charter, SAMTAZ, he demands that the charter stop dealing meth. This request is denied, as selling generates too much money for the club to give up. Otto wants Luann 's murderer dead, and the issue is raised in the chapel. Clay is then confronted by Piney, who threatens Clay that if Clay does not kill the cocaine deal with the Gallindo Cartel, Piney will distribute letters to the club about John Teller 's murder to the other members. Clay discusses the threat with Gemma, revealing that Clay did kill Teller. Clay later meets Unser and obtains the letters from him, unaware that Gemma has the same plan. After Unser gets a copy of the letters, he confronts Clay. Clay replies he does not regret doing what he did because it protected the Club and Charming. When he visits a tied Georgie Caruso, he claims that he has connections with millionaire Japanese families. Clay immediately sees an opportunity to make Jacob Hale believe he has investors in time. His idea is that he will have the investors pull out at the last minute, which will put an end to Charming Heights. After retrieving the last brick of cocaine that Juice had stolen, framing Miles for it, Clay asks Romeo for help killing Tara, to keep the secret of the letters hidden. Clay comes to Piney 's cabin in the night. After discussing trust issues and differences in the cabin, Clay leaves, only to break down the door, knocking Piney off his feet. Piney begs Clay not to get Tara involved in the letters from JT. Clay shoots Piney in the chest with a shotgun, killing him. This makes Piney the 3rd member of the First 9, and the 2nd and final co-founding member of the Sons of Anarchy to be killed at the hands of Clay. Clay leaves the markings of the cartel to implicate them for the murder. Given the club 's difficult circumstances, Clay calls the Irish Kings for a meeting to set a new deal that lets them survive the war against Lobo Sonora. He later learns that the One Niners have been dealing with the Sonora and the Sons plan an attack using the Niners to lure them. This fails, however, as Sonora 's men were equipped with grenade launchers. Luis, Romero 's right - hand man, gives Clay a cell phone with his contact to kill Tara. Jax confronts Clay when he hears from Bobby that Clay wanted Bobby, instead of Opie, as president as was the deal. Clay says it is Tara 's fault that Jax changed, but Jax warns him to never insult her again. Gemma tells Clay that Tara will not reveal the letters to Jax for fear that Jax will get deeper into the club out of guilt. Clay promises to Gemma he wo n't hurt Tara, however he uses the cell phone Luis gave him, and the next morning pays the contact 25,000 dollars for the murder. After finding out that Jax and the babies are with her, Clay desperately tries to stop the hit, but is unsuccessful and Tara has her hand broken by a car door while struggling to escape. Clay meets Romeo and gets a refund, with Romeo taking the matter into his hands personally, and Clay reluctantly agrees that Tara is best dead. Gemma confronts Clay about the hit and a violent fight ensues between the two, including Gemma shooting at Clay (deliberately missing) and getting in a powerful punch and a kick against Clay with Clay getting injured but Clay gets the upper hand and severely beats Gemma 's face. That night he decides to sleep in the clubhouse. Opie later finds out that Clay was behind the death of Piney and seeks revenge, ending up shooting Clay in the torso twice. Clay survived the shooting but was shown to be in intensive care. Later in the episode Gemma gave Jax his father 's letters to Maureen Ashby. After reading the letters, and realizing Clay is responsible for the death of John Teller, Jax vowed to kill Clay. Jax puts a knife up to Clay 's throat and makes him step down as President and orders him to never go near his family again. Although Clay tries to explain his reasons Jax refuses to listen and takes his President patch, thus ending Clays reign as President of SAMCRO. Clay is shown to have been discharged from the hospital, but requires an oxygen tank due to his lung injury. He is shown trying to make amends with Gemma, but she coldly brushes him off. He later reveals to the club he murdered Piney, but states that Piney was drunk and tried to kill him first and Opie found out and is the one who shot him. The club 's rules (due to him having killed a member) means they must vote on kicking him out. When Jax questions his motives for telling the club, he denies any. His arthritis is shown to have reached the point to where he ca n't ride his bike at all. He later goes to his and Gemma 's burglarized house and expresses concern over his safe being stolen. He then goes and visits Opie and convinces him not to walk away from the club because of him, seeing as though he 's "half dead already ''. He later finds out where Gemma has been going from Juice. He goes to the brothel and confronts Nero, the owner and Gemma 's new suitor. He then "seeks comfort '' with a young prostitute to anger Gemma. Gemma then attacks the girl causing her to leave. When Nero 's operation is later shut down, and he and Gemma are arrested, it 's likely Clay was behind it. The next episode "Small World '' shows Clay having recovered to the point of no longer needing his oxygen tank, though he continues to wear it (either for sympathy or to keep people off - guard). He later helps Gemma take care of a dead body (Nero 's half - sister) and the two seem to be on better terms. At the end of the episode, he confronts the three Nomads responsible for the Charming burglaries and the death of Sheriff Roosevelt 's wife. He punches one in the face exclaiming "You were n't supposed to kill her! '' This shows Clay to have been pulling the strings behind the home invasions. The next episode "Toad 's Wild Ride '' reveals the Nomads, (Go - Go, Greg and Frankie) made a deal with Clay to help him get back at the head of the table in exchange for a cut of Clay 's share of the guns and cocaine money. The break - ins were Clay 's way of turning Charming against Jax. When Unser (who has been investigating the break - ins) comes close to discovering the truth, Go - Go and Greg meet with Clay to discuss killing him, while Frankie goes underground. Clay meets with Unser in his trailer talking about the trust and friendship between them. When Go - Go and Greg break in the door, Unser shoots Go - Go with a double - barreled shotgun and Clay betrays them, shooting Greg in the head with his pistol. When Juice (who saw Go - Go and Greg going to Unser 's trailer) asks Clay what is happening, Clay denies involvement. Jax and the rest of the club find out about their attack on Unser and Jax privately accuses Clay of using the Nomads to undermine his leadership. Clay states that Pope is the one who hired the Nomads, Jax claims they 'll find Frankie and learn the truth. In "Ablation '' Clay visits Gemma, Abel, and Thomas in the hospital after a marijuana - induced car crash. He tells Jax that a truck ran her off the road to protect her. When Jax learns about the lie, he tells Clay he understands why he lied and that Gemma is dead to his family, and he wants him to take care of her. "Andare Pascare '' shows the club discovering that Frankie is hiding with a Mafia family, paying them with money stolen from Nero. They take a unanimous vote to kill him after extracting the information they need. When Clay learns from Jimmy Cacuzza the location of a Mafia safehouse where Frankie is hiding, Clay and Juice go there to kill him to keep him from outing Clay (Juice acting under the pretense of scouting it out). When Frankie barricades himself in the house and shoots at the two, Clay drives the van into the gas tank outside, blowing up the house. Just as Clay is about to kill Frankie, Jax and the others show up, having seen the explosion. However Frankie is quickly gunned down by the enraged Mafia Don for killing one of his men before he can tell them anything. Bobby later asks Clay if there 's anything he wants to tell him (implying he also knows about his dealings with the Nomads). When Clay claims his conscience is clear, Bobby states "I hope you 're as smart as you think you are, cause I 'm sicking of burning friends ''. The episode ends with Gemma coming to Clay to help him with his cortisone shots. The next episode "Crucifixed '' shows Clay negotiating with Romeo and Luis for protection as once the RICO case is gone, he will no longer need Clay and will most likely kill him. Romeo suggests getting rid of Jax and putting Clay back at the head of the table. Clay disagrees to taking the deal, Romeo states "Yes you will. '' Later, Gemma and Clay draw closer at Clay 's place, where Gemma insists they return home. They are last seen sitting on their bed talking, where Clay confesses he ca n't bear losing her again. Gemma kisses him passionately and they sink onto the bed. The next episode "To Thine Own Self '' shows Clay learning of Otto 's murder of a nurse, ending the RICO case. He is shown, for unknown reasons, trying to save Jax from Romeo and warns him to work with the cartel long enough to make the Club legitimate and leave. He refuses stating "I 'm done bowing down to greedy men who have nothing to believe in ''. When Jax reveals a new deal to the Club, which would allow the Mayans and Triads to take over muling the cocaine and selling big guns, respectively, Clay votes yes along with everyone else. He is later shown moving legal documents given to him by the Nomads to another location, to protect himself from the Club finding this important evidence of his betrayal. The end of the episode shows Bobby going to Clay and Gemma 's house to talk to him about "trying to keep you alive. '' It 's revealed in "Darthy '' that Bobby convinced Clay to confess his role in the Nomad attacks in exchange for vetoing his death: club - sanctioned assassinations (known as "A Visit from Mr. Mayhem '') require a unanimous vote. Clay also meets with Gaylen, tells him he plans on starting his own crew to run any guns SAMCRO does n't pick up, and asks for a plane to Belfast to wait out any immediate danger. He also gives Juice a gun that he values for all he has done for him. At the end of the episode, Clay has been voted out of the club after revealing everything. After Jax beats Clay in frustration for not being allowed to kill him, Happy removes the former Club President 's SAMCRO tattoos on his back and arm by smudging them over with a needle and black tattoo ink as the rest of the club looks on. He is shown to be ready to leave in the season finale when Roosevelt and several policemen state they found his gun (the same one he gave Juice) at a crime scene as the murder weapon that killed Damon Pope and three of his men. When he asks Gemma to vouch for him, she states he was gone with the gun and she did n't know he was going to kill anyone. He is arrested and is last seen in a prison transport van with two black men. Meanwhile, Jax has convinced Pope 's lieutenants that Clay was Pope 's killer; per Pope 's standing order in the event of his death, they offer a $5 million reward for Clay 's murder. At the beginning of the season, Clay is being held in protective custody after his arrest for Damon Pope 's murder. Clay is visited by retired US Marshall Lee Toric, the brother of the nurse Otto murdered. Toric, who had sworn revenge against the motorcycle club, tells Clay he can only remain in protective custody if he cooperates in building a case against SAMCRO. Clay initially refuses, but after being transferred to general population and realizing he is certain to be murdered in retaliation for two deaths he had nothing to do with and did n't even approve, he agrees to help Toric and is returned to protective custody. He later demands a sit - down with Gemma and Jax before he signs the deal. He meets with Gemma and seems apologetic, though Gemma suspects he has ulterior motives. He meets Jax and states that he will give Toric nothing and that he is sorry. In response to this he is shipped to Stockton, where he is attacked by three black men, but they spare him and offer him a shank. He later uses it to kill a member of a Neo-Nazi group and gets protection from the black gang. He is visited once more by Toric, who shows him the brutalized Otto. Clay slips Otto a shank and leaves. Despite threats that he will meet the same fate, Clay refuses to sign. Toric is later killed by Otto with the shank Clay gave him and Otto is killed by the guards in response. Following the fallout between Jax and the IRA, Clay is contacted by Galen O'Shea with the opportunity to continue as the main weapon distributor for the IRA in Northern California. The IRA will arrange to have Clay escape from the prison transport on the way to his hearing and he will retreat to Belfast and build his own new crew. Clay requests a conjugal visit with Gemma so that he can have her relate this information to Jax. He pays off two guards to allow him to chat with Gemma, but when the visit is over, the guards demand to watch Clay and Gemma have sex while they masturbate. They threaten to have Clay killed and Gemma grudgingly agrees to do it. Afterwards Clay vows to kill the two guards, but Gemma tells him that SAMCRO needs him alive. When Clay 's transport date is moved up, Galen enlists SAMCRO to assist in attacking his transport truck to free him; Bobby is shot during the attack and Juice kills a guard. After meeting up with the Irish, Jax kills Galen and his men. He explains the situation, stating the Club took a unanimous vote how to handle the situation. Clay, accepting of his fate, stands ready. Jax then executes Clay by shooting him in the neck and then five times in the chest while he is on the floor. Jax then arranges the bodies to make it look like Clay had a falling out with the Irish and they all died in a shootout, allowing him to finally get revenge against Clay as well as Galen.

who was in the philippines before the spanish

History of the Philippines (900 -- 1521) - wikipedia Neolithic age Iron age Events / Artifacts (by geography from North to South) Legendary Events / Artifacts American colonial period The recorded History of the Philippines begins with the creation of the Laguna Copperplate Inscription (LCI) in 900, the first written document found in an ancient Philippine language. The inscription itself identifies the date of its creation, and on its deciphering in 1992 moved the boundary between Philippine history and prehistory back 600 years. Prior to the LCI, the earliest record of the Philippine Islands corresponded with the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in 1521. Magellan 's arrival marks the beginning of the Spanish colonial period. Other sources of pre-colonial history include archeological findings, records from contact with the Song Dynasty, the Bruneian Empire, Japan, and Muslim traders, genealogical records of Muslim rulers, and the collected accounts which were put into writing by Spanish chroniclers in the 17th century, as well as then - extant cultural patterns which had not yet been swept away by the coming tide of hispanization. Iron age finds in Philippines point to the existence of trade between Tamil Nadu and the Philippine Islands during the ninth and tenth centuries B.C. The Philippines is believed by some historians to be the island of Chryse, the "Golden One, '' which is the name given by ancient Greek writers in reference to an island rich in gold east of India. Pomponius Mela, Marinos of Tyre and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentioned this island in 100 BC, and it is basically the equivalent to the Indian Suvarnadvipa, the "Island of Gold. '' Josephus calls it in Latin Aurea, and equates the island with biblical Ophir, from where the ships of Tyre and Solomon brought back gold and other trade items. The Visayan Islands, particularly Cebu had earlier encounter with the Greek traders in 21 AD. The Limestone tombs of Kamhantik in the Buenavista Protected Landscape in Quezon province was known to Manila researchers of the National Museum of the Philippines in 2011. The coffins were believed to be at least 1,000 years old, initially. It is composed of fifteen limestone coffins that can be dated back from the period of 10th to 14th century based on one of National Museum 's top archaeologist "a complex archaeological site with both habitation and burial remains from the period of approximately 10th to the 14th century... the first of its kind in the Philippines having carved limestone tombs. '' However, after carbon - dating the human bones found on the site, it was known that the age of the site is much older, between 890 - 1030 AD. The archaeological site is part of 280 hectares (692 acres) of forest land that was declared a government - protected area in 1998 to keep away treasure hunters and slash - and - burn farmers. However, the site has been looted already prior to proper archaeological research. All of the lids of the coffins have already been stolen, along with most of the remains, jars, and possible jewelries inside the coffins that may have been sarcophagi. In January 1990, the Laguna Copperplate, then just a thin piece of crumpled and blackened metal, was offered for sale to and was acquired by the National Museum of the Philippines after previous efforts to sell it to the world of antiques had been unsuccessful. On examination, it was found to measure about 20 cm square and to be fully covered on one side with an inscription in ten lines of finely written characters. Antoon Postma deciphered the text and discovered that it identified the date of its creation as the "Year of Sakya 822, month of Vaisakha. '' According to Jyotisha (Hindu astronomy), this corresponded with the year 900. Prior to the deciphering of the LCI, Philippine history was traditionally considered to begin at 1521, with the arrival of Magellan and his chronicler, Antonio Pigafetta. History could not be derived from pre-colonial records because such records typically did not survive: most of the writing was done on perishable bamboo or leaves. Furthermore, zealous Spanish Christian missionaries burnt whole libraries of documents considered pagan. Because the deciphering of the LCI made it out to be the earliest written record of the islands that would later become the Philippines, the LCI moved the boundary between Philippine history and prehistory back 600 years. The inscription forgives the descendants of Namwaran from a debt of 926.4 grams of gold, and is granted by the chief of Tondo (an area in Manila) and the authorities of Paila, Binwangan and Pulilan, which are all locations in Luzon. The words are a mixture of mostly Sanskrit along with some Old Malay, Old Javanese and Old Tagalog. The subject matter proves conclusively that a developed society with traders, rulers and international trading existed in the Philippines prior to the Spanish colonization. The references to the Chief of Medang Kingdom in Indonesia imply that there were cultural and trade links with empires and territories in other parts of Maritime Southeast Asia, particularly Srivijaya. The copperplate indicate the presence of writing and of written records at the time, and the earliest proof of Philippines language. Since at least the 3rd century, the indigenous people were in contact with the other Southeast Asian and East Asian nations. Fragmented ethnic groups established several polities formed by the assimilation of several small political units known as barangay each headed by a Datu, who was then answerable to a Rajah or a Lakan, who headed the city state. Each barangay consisted of about 100 families. Some barangays were big or city - sized, such as Zubu (Cebu), Maktan (Mactan), Butuan, Ogtong (Oton) and Halaud (Araut or Halaur, which is Dumangas at present) in Panay, Mait (Ma - i), Bigan (Vigan) and Selurong (Manila). Each of these big barangays had a population of more than 2,000. The city - statehood system was also used by the freedom - loving Waray people of Samar and eastern Leyte, the head - hunting Ilongots of the Cagayan Valley (now primarily live in Nueva Viscaya and Nueva Ecija after the Ilokano migrations to the Cagayan Valley), and the peacock - dressed Gaddang people of the Cagayan Valley. Unlike other areas in the country like Tondo or Cebu which had royal families, the ancient city - states of the Warays, Ilongots and Gaddangs were headed through an indigenous leadership system. Both civilizations developed their own tools and craftsmanship as proven by archaeological evidences in central Cagayan Valley and southwest Samar. The head of the Ilongot was known as the Benganganat, while the head of the Gaddanf was the Mingal. The Batanes islands also had its own political system, prior to colonization. The archipelagic polity was headed by the Mangpus. The Ivatan of Batanes, due to geography, built the only stone castles known in precolonial Philippines. These castles, called idjang, were not for royalty, but for the people during times of natural calamity and invasions. Gold was also regarded with high social value by the Ivatan, having contact with both Taiwan and northern Luzon, later on with the kingdom of Ryukyu, and then Japan. The British visited the archipelago in 1687, but never subjugated the people. The Spanish, after subjugating most of the Philippines, were only able to subjugate the Ivatan on 1783, where they were confronted by Mangpus Kenan Aman Dangat, the Mangpus of Batanes at the time. Dangat was executed by the Spanish, and the islands were controlled by Spain through Manila. The Ilokano people at the northwest side of Luzon, who classically were located in what is now Ilocos Sur, was headed by the Babacnang. The traditional name of the polity of the Ilokano was Samtoy. The polity did not have a royal family, rather, it was headed by its own chieftancy. The polity had trade contacts with both China and Japan. The people of the Cordilleras, collectively known by the Spanish as Igorot, were headed by the Apo. These civilizations were highland plutocracies with their very own distinct cultures, where most were headhunters. According to literature, some Igorot people were always at war with the lowlanders from the west, the Ilokanos. The Subanons of Zamboanga Peninsula also had their own statehood during this period. They were free from colonization, until they were overcame by the Islamic subjugations of the Sultanate of Sulu in the 13th century. They were ruled by the Timuay. The Sama - Bajau peoples of the Sulu Archipelago, who were not Muslims and thus not affiliated with the Sultanate of Sulu, were also a free statehood and was headed by the Nakurah until the Islamic colonization of the archipelago. The Lumad (autochtonous groups of inland Mindanao) were known to have been headed by the Datu. By the 14th century, these polities were organized in strict social classes: The Datu or ruling class, the Maharlika or noblemen, the Timawa or freemen, and the dependent class which is divided into two, the Aliping Namamahay (Serfs) and Aliping Saguiguilid (Slaves). In the earliest times, the items which were prized by the people included jars, which were a symbol of wealth throughout South Asia, and later metal, salt and tobacco. In exchange, the people would trade feathers, rhino horn, hornbill beaks, beeswax, birds nests, resin and rattan. In a book entitled Tubod The Heart of Bohol published and accredited by the National Commission for Culture and the Arts of the Philippines, around the 12th century, a group of people from Northern Mindanao settled in the straight between mainland Bohol and the neighbouring island of Panglao. Those people came from a nation in northern Mindanao called Lutao (probably the animist kingdom of what will soon be the Islamic Lanao). According to the much credited book, those people established the Kingdom of Dapitan in western Bohol because the true indigenous people of Bohol in the Anda peninsula and nearby areas were not open to them, forcing them to establish settlement in the western part of the island. The kingdom was first built with hardwood on the soft seabed. It engaged it trade with nearby areas and some Chinese merchants. The Jesuit Alcina tales about a rich nation he called the ' Venice of the Visayas ', pointing to the Kingdom of Dapitan at that time. The Jesuit also tells of a princess named Bugbung Hamusanum, whose beauty caused her suitor to raid parts of southern China to win her hand. By 1563, before the full Spanish colonization agenda came to Bohol, the Kingdom of Dapitan was at war with the Ternateans of the Moluccas (who were also raiding the Rajahnate of Butuan). At the time, Dapitan was ruled by two brothers named Dalisan and Pagbuaya. The Ternateans at the time were allied to the Portuguese. Dapitan was destroyed and King Dalisan was killed in battle. His brother, King Pagbuaya, together with his people fled back to Mindanao and established a new Dapitan in the northern coast of the Zamboanga peninsula. The new Dapitan eventually was subjugated by the Spanish. The script used in writing down the LCI is Kawi, which originated in Java, and was used across much of Maritime Southeast Asia. But by at least the 13th century or 14th century, its descendant known in Tagalog as Baybayin was in regular use. The term baybayin literally means syllables, and the writing system itself is a member of the Brahmic family. One example of the use of Baybayin from that time period was found on an earthenware burial jar found in Batangas. Though a common perception is that Baybayin replaced Kawi, many historians believe that they were used alongside each other. Baybayin was noted by the Spanish to be known by everyone, and was generally used for personal and trivial writings. Kawi most likely continued to be used for official documents and writings by the ruling class. Baybayin was simpler and easier to learn, but Kawi was more advanced and better suited for concise writing. Although Kawi came to be replaced by the Latin script, Baybayin continued to be used during the Spanish colonization of the Philippines up until the late 19th Century. Closely related scripts still in use among indigenous peoples today include Hanunóo, Buhid and Tagbanwa. The earliest date suggested for direct Chinese contact with the Philippines was 982. At the time, merchants from "Ma - i '' (now thought to be either Bay, Laguna on the shores of Laguna de Bay, or a site on the island of Mindoro) brought their wares to Guangzhou and Quanzhou. This was noted by the Sung Shih (History of the Sung) by Ma Tuan - lin who compiled it with other historical records in the Wen - hsien T'ung - K'ao at the time around the transition between the Sung and Yuan dynasties. Present - day Siquijor also had its fair share of royalties during this period. The island kingdom was called _́ Katagusan _́, from tugas, the molave trees that cover the hills, which abounded the island along with fireflies. During this time, the people of the kingdom was already in contact with Chinese traders, as seen through archaeological evidences which includes Chinese ceramics and other Chinese objects. The art of traditional healing and traditional witchcraft belief systems also developed within this period. During the arrival of the Spanish, the ruler of the island was King Kihod, as recorded by de Legazpi 's chronicles. Out of natural hospitality, the Spaniards were greeted by King Kihod, who presented himself with the words ' si Kihod ' (I am Kihod). The Spaniards mistakenly thinking that he was talking about the island, adopted the name Sikihod which later changed to Siquijor, as it was easier to pronounce. In 1380, Makhdum Karim, the first Islamic missionary to the Philippines brought Islam to the Archipelago. Subsequent visits of Arab, Malay and Javanese missionaries helped strengthen the Islamic faith of the Filipinos, most of whom (except for those in the north) would later become Christian under the Spanish colonization. The Sultanate of Sulu, the largest Islamic kingdom in the islands, encompassed parts of Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines. The royal house of the Sultanate claim descent from Muhammad. Around 1405, the year that the war over succession ended in the Majapahit Empire, Muslim traders introduced Islam into the Hindu - Malayan empires and for about the next century the southern half of Luzon and the islands south of it were subject to the various Muslim sultanates of Borneo. During this period, the Japanese established a trading post at Aparri and maintained a loose sway over northern Luzon. Around the year 1500, the Sultanate of Brunei under Sultan Bolkiah attacked the Kingdom of Tondo and established a city with the Malay name of Selurong (later to become the city of Maynila) on the opposite bank of Pasig River. The traditional Rajahs of Tondo, the Lakandula, retained their titles and property but the real political power came to reside in the House of Soliman, the Rajahs of Manila. Historian Ambeth Ocampo notes an overlap in the history of pre-colonial Philippines and the Spanish colonial period, claiming that while Magellan 's arrival in 1521 marked the first documented arrival of European colonizers to this country, it was not until the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi in 1565 that the Europeans had any marked impact on the lifestyle of the residents of the Philippine Archipelago. "También fundó convento el Padre Fray Martin de Rada en Araut -- que ahora se llama el convento de Dumangas -- con la advocación de nuestro Padre San Agustín... Está fundado este pueblo casi a los fines del río de Halaur, que naciendo en unos altos montes en el centro de esta isla (Panay)... Es el pueblo muy hermoso, ameno y muy lleno de palmares de cocos. Antiguamente era el emporio y corte de la más lucida nobleza de toda aquella isla. '' de SAN AGUSTIN OSA (1650 -- 1724), Fr Gaspár; DIAZ OSA, Fr Casimiro (1698). Conquistas de las Islas Philipinas. Parte primera: la temporal, por las armas del señor don Phelipe Segundo el Prudente, y la espiritual, por los religiosos del Orden de Nuestro Padre San Augustin; fundacion y progreso de su Provincia del Santissimo Nombre de Jesus (in Spanish). Madrid: Imprenta de Manuel Ruiz de Murga. ISBN 978 - 8400040727. OCLC 79696350. "The second part of the work, compiled by Casimiro Díaz Toledano from the manuscript left by Gaspár de San Agustín, was not published until 1890 under the title: Conquistas de las Islas Filipinas, Parte segunda '', pp. 374 - 376. "Contrary to popular belief, the so - called "Spanish period '' in Philippine history does not begin with Magellan 's arrival in Cebu and his well - deserved death in the Battle of Mactan in 1521. Magellan may have planted a cross and left the Santo Niño with the wife of Humabon, but that is not a real "conquista '' (conquest). The Spanish dominion over the islands to be known as "Filipinas '' began only in 1565, with the arrival of Legazpi. ''

where does the term four come from in golf

Fore (golf) - Wikipedia "Fore! '', originally an Australian interjection, is used to warn anyone standing or moving in the flight of a golf ball. The mention of the term in an 1881 Australian Golf Museum indicates that the term was in use at least as early as that period. It is believed to come from the military "beware before '', which an artilleryman about to fire would yell alerting nearby infantrymen to drop to the ground to avoid the shells overhead. (Before may mean "in front of (the gun being fired) ''; fore may mean "(look) ahead ''.) Other possible origins include the term being derived from the term "fore - caddie '', a caddie waiting down range from the golfer to find where the ball lands. These caddies were often warned about oncoming golf balls by a shout of the term "fore - caddie '' which was eventually shortened to just "fore! ''. The Colonel Bogey March is based on the descending minor third which the original Colonel Bogey whistled instead of yelling Fore around 1914.

what is a group of red river hogs called

Red river hog - wikipedia The red river hog (Potamochoerus porcus), also known as the bush pig (but not to be confused with P. larvatus, common name "bushpig ''), is a wild member of the pig family living in Africa, with most of its distribution in the Guinean and Congolian forests. It is rarely seen away from rainforests, and generally prefers areas near rivers or swamps. The red river hog has striking orange to reddish - brown fur, with black legs and a tufted white stripe along the spine. Adults have white markings around the eyes and on the cheeks and jaws; the rest of the muzzle and face are a contrasting black. The fur on the jaw and the flanks is longer than that on the body, with the males having especially prominent facial whiskers. Unlike other species of pig native to tropical Africa, the entire body is covered in hair, with no bare skin visible. Adults weigh 45 to 115 kg (99 to 254 lb) and stand 55 to 80 cm (22 to 31 in) tall, with a length of 100 to 145 cm (39 to 57 in). The thin tail is 30 to 45 cm (12 to 18 in) long and ends in a tuft of black hair. The ears are also long and thin, ending in tufts of white or black hair that may each 12 cm (4.7 in) in length. Boars are somewhat larger than sows, and have distinct conical protuberances on either side of the snout and rather small, sharp tusks. The facial protuberances are bony and probably protect the boar 's facial tendons during head - to - head combat with other males. Red river hogs have a dental formula of 3.1. 3 - 4.3 3.1. 3 - 4.3, similar to that of wild boar. Both sexes have scent glands close to the eyes and on the feet; males have additional glands near the tusks on the upper jaw and on the penis. There is also a distinctive glandular structure about 2 cm (0.79 in) in diameter on the chin, which probably has a tactile function. Females have six teats. The red river hog lives in rainforests, wet dense savannas, and forested valleys, and near rivers, lakes and marshes. The species ' distribution ranges from the Congo area and Gambia to the eastern Congo, southwards to the Kasai and the Congo River. The exact delineation of its range versus that of the bushpig is unclear; but in broad terms, the red river hog occupies western and central Africa, and the bushpig occupies eastern and southern Africa. Where the two meet, they are sometimes said to interbreed, although other authorities dispute this. Although numerous subspecies have been identified in the past, none are currently recognised. The species is omnivorous, eating mainly roots and tubers, and supplements its diet with fruit, grasses, herbs, eggs, dead animal and plant remains, insects, and lizards. It uses its large muzzle to snuffle about in the soil in search of food, as well as scraping the ground with their tusks and fore - feet. They can cause damage to agricultural crops, such as cassava and yams. Red river hogs are often active during the day, but are primarily nocturnal or crepuscular. They typically live in small groups of approximately six to ten animals, composed of a single adult male, and a number of adult females and their young. However, much larger groups, some with over 30 individuals, have been noted in particularly favourable habitats. The boar defends its harem aggressively against predators, with leopards being a particularly common threat. They communicate almost continuously with grunts and squeals with a repertoire that can signal alarm, distress, or passive contact. Red river hogs breed seasonally, so that the young are born between the end of the dry season in February and the midpoint of the rainy season in July. The oestrus cycle lasts 34 to 37 days. The male licks the female 's genital region before mating, which lasts about five to ten minutes. Gestation lasts 120 days. The mother constructs a nest from dead leaves and dry grass before giving birth to a litter of up to six piglets, with three to four being most common. The piglets weigh 650 to 900 g (23 to 32 oz) at birth, and are initially dark brown with yellowish stripes and spots. They are weaned after about four months, and develop the plain reddish adult coat by about six months; the dark facial markings do not appear until they reach adulthood at about two years of age. They probably live for about fifteen years in the wild.

what are the main ideas of conflict theory

Conflict theories - wikipedia Conflict theories are perspectives in sociology and social psychology that emphasize a materialist interpretation of history, dialectical method of analysis, a critical stance toward existing social arrangements, and political program of revolution or, at least, reform. Conflict theories draw attention to power differentials, such as class conflict, and generally contrast historically dominant ideologies. It is therefore a macro level analysis of society. Karl Marx is the father of the social conflict theory, which is a component of the four paradigms of sociology. Certain conflict theories set out to highlight the ideological aspects inherent in traditional thought. While many of these perspectives hold parallels, conflict theory does not refer to a unified school of thought, and should not be confused with, for instance, peace and conflict studies, or any other specific theory of social conflict. Of the classical founders of social science, conflict theory is most commonly associated with Karl Marx (1818 -- 1883). Based on a dialectical materialist account of history, Marxism posited that capitalism, like previous socioeconomic systems, would inevitably produce internal tensions leading to its own destruction. Marx ushered in radical change, advocating proletarian revolution and freedom from the ruling classes. At the same time, Karl Marx was aware that most of the people living in capitalist societies did not see how the system shaped the entire operation of society. Just as modern individuals see private property (and the right to pass that property on to their children) as natural, many of the members in capitalistic societies see the rich as having earned their wealth through hard work and education, while seeing the poor as lacking in skill and initiative. Marx rejected this type of thinking and termed it false consciousness, explanations of social problems as the shortcomings of individuals rather than the flaws of society. Marx wanted to replace this kind of thinking with something Engels termed class consciousness, the workers ' recognition of themselves as a class unified in opposition to capitalists and ultimately to the capitalist system itself. In general, Marx wanted the proletarians to rise up against the capitalists and overthrow the capitalist system. The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild - master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary re-constitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes. In the social productions of their existence, men inevitably enter into definite relations, which are independent of their will, namely relations of production appropriate to a given stage in the development of their material forces of production. The totality of these relations of production constitutes the economic structure of society, the real foundation, on which arises a legal and political superstructure and to which correspond definite forms of social consciousness. The mode of production of material life conditions the general process of social, political and intellectual life. It is not the consciousness of men that determines their existence, but their social existence that determines their consciousness. At a certain stage of development, the material productive forces of society come into conflict with the existing relations of production or -- this merely expresses the same thing in legal terms -- with the property relations within the framework of which they have operated hitherto. From forms of development of the productive forces, these relations turn into their fetters. Then an era of social revolution begins. The changes in the economic foundation lead sooner or later to the transformation of the whole immense superstructure. In studying such transformations it is always necessary to distinguish between the material transformation of the economic conditions of production, which can be determined with the precision of natural science, and the legal, political, religious, artistic or philosophic -- in short, ideological forms in which men become conscious of this conflict and fight it out. Just as one does not judge an individual by what he thinks about himself, so one can not judge such a period of transformation by its consciousness, but, on the contrary, this consciousness must be explained from the contradictions of material life, from the conflict existing between the social forces of production and the relations of production. No social order is ever destroyed before all the productive forces for which it is sufficient have been developed, and new superior relations of production never replace older ones before the material conditions for their existence have matured within the framework of the old society. Two early conflict theorists were the Polish - Austrian sociologist and political theorist Ludwig Gumplowicz (1838 -- 1909) and the American sociologist and paleontologist Lester F. Ward (1841 -- 1913). Although Ward and Gumplowicz developed their theories independently they had much in common and approached conflict from a comprehensive anthropological and evolutionary point - of - view as opposed to Marx 's rather exclusive focus on economic factors. Gumplowicz, in Grundriss der Soziologie (Outlines of Sociology, 1884), describes how civilization has been shaped by conflict between cultures and ethnic groups. Gumplowicz theorized that large complex human societies evolved from the war and conquest. The winner of a war would enslave the losers; eventually a complex caste system develops. Horowitz says that Gumplowicz understood conflict in all its forms: "class conflict, race conflict and ethnic conflict '', and calls him one of the fathers of Conflict Theory. What happened in India, Babylon, Egypt, Greece and Rome may sometime happen in modern Europe. European civilization may perish, over flooded by barbaric tribes. But if any one believes that we are safe from such catastrophes he is perhaps yielding to an all too optimistic delusion. There are no barbaric tribes in our neighbourhood to be sure -- but let no one be deceived, their instincts lie latent in the populace of European states. Ward directly attacked and attempted to systematically refute the elite business class 's laissez - faire philosophy as espoused by the hugely popular social philosopher Herbert Spencer. Ward 's Dynamic Sociology (1883) was an extended thesis on how to reduce conflict and competition in society and thus optimize human progress. At the most basic level Ward saw human nature itself to be deeply conflicted between self - aggrandizement and altruism, between emotion and intellect, and between male and female. These conflicts would be then reflected in society and Ward assumed there had been a "perpetual and vigorous struggle '' among various "social forces '' that shaped civilization. Ward was more optimistic than Marx and Gumplowicz and believed that it was possible to build on and reform present social structures with the help of sociological analysis. Durkheim (1858 -- 1917) saw society as a functioning organism. Functionalism concerns "the effort to impute, as rigorously as possible, to each feature, custom, or practice, its effect on the functioning of a supposedly stable, cohesive system, '' The chief form of social conflict that Durkheim addressed was crime. Durkheim saw crime as "a factor in public health, an integral part of all healthy societies. '' The collective conscience defines certain acts as "criminal. '' Crime thus plays a role in the evolution of morality and law: "(it) implies not only that the way remains open to necessary changes but that in certain cases it directly prepares these changes. '' Weber 's (1864 -- 1920) approach to conflict is contrasted with that of Marx. While Marx focused on the way individual behaviour is conditioned by social structure, Weber emphasized the importance of "social action, '' i.e., the ability of individuals to affect their social relationships. C. Wright Mills has been called the founder of modern conflict theory. In Mills 's view, social structures are created through conflict between people with differing interests and resources. Individuals and resources, in turn, are influenced by these structures and by the "unequal distribution of power and resources in the society. '' The power elite of American society, (i.e., the military -- industrial complex) had "emerged from the fusion of the corporate elite, the Pentagon, and the executive branch of government. '' Mills argued that the interests of this elite were opposed to those of the people. He theorized that the policies of the power elite would result in "increased escalation of conflict, production of weapons of mass destruction, and possibly the annihilation of the human race. '' Gene Sharp (born 21 January 1928) is a Professor Emeritus of political science at the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth. He is known for his extensive writings on nonviolent struggle, which have influenced numerous anti-government resistance movements around the world. In 1983 he founded the Albert Einstein Institution, a non-profit organization devoted to studies and promotion of the use of nonviolent action in conflicts worldwide. Sharp 's key theme is that power is not monolithic; that is, it does not derive from some intrinsic quality of those who are in power. For Sharp, political power, the power of any state -- regardless of its particular structural organization -- ultimately derives from the subjects of the state. His fundamental belief is that any power structure relies upon the subjects ' obedience to the orders of the ruler (s). If subjects do not obey, leaders have no power. Sharp has been called both the "Machiavelli of nonviolence '' and the "Clausewitz of nonviolent warfare. '' Sharp 's scholarship has influenced resistance organizations around the world. Most recently the protest movement that toppled President Mubarak of Egypt drew extensively on his ideas, as well as the youth movement in Tunisia and the earlier ones in the Eastern European colour revolutions that had previously been inspired by Sharp 's work. A recent articulation of conflict theory is found in Alan Sears ' (Canadian sociologist) book A Good Book, in Theory: A Guide to Theoretical Thinking (2008): Although Sears associates the conflict theory approach with Marxism, he argues that it is the foundation for much "feminist, post-modernist, anti-racist, and lesbian - gay liberationist theories. '' Conflict theory is most commonly associated with Marxism, but as a reaction to functionalism and the positivist method may also be associated with number of other perspectives, including:

who founded jamestown in what is now virginia

Jamestown, Virginia - wikipedia The Jamestown settlement in the Colony of Virginia was the first permanent English settlement in the Americas. It was located on the east bank of the Powhatan (James) River about 2.5 mi (4 km) southwest of the center of modern Williamsburg. William Kelso writes that Jamestown "is where the British Empire began ''. It was established by the Virginia Company of London as "James Fort '' on May 4, 1607 O.S.; (May 14, 1607 N.S.), and was considered permanent after brief abandonment in 1610. It followed several failed attempts, including the Lost Colony of Roanoke, established in 1585 on Roanoke Island. Jamestown served as the capital of the colony of Virginia for 83 years, from 1616 until 1699. The settlement was located within the country of Tsenacommacah, which was ruled by the Powhatan Confederacy, and specifically in that of the Paspahegh tribe. The natives initially welcomed and provided crucial provisions and support for the colonists, who were not agriculturally inclined. Relations soured fairly early on, however, leading to the total annihilation of the Paspahegh in warfare within three years. Mortality was very high at Jamestown itself due to disease and starvation, with over 80 percent of the colonists perishing in 1609 -- 10 in what became known as the "Starving Time ''. The Virginia Company brought eight Polish and German colonists in 1608 in the Second Supply, some of whom built a small glass factory -- although the Germans and a few others soon defected to the Powhatans with weapons and supplies from the settlement. The Second Supply also brought the first two European women to the settlement. In 1619, the first documented Africans came to Jamestown -- about 50 men, women, and children aboard a Portuguese slave ship that had been captured in the West Indies and brought to the Jamestown region. They most likely worked in the tobacco fields as indentured servants, but they became slaves as time went on. The modern conception of slavery in the United States was formalized in 1640 (the John Punch hearing) and was fully entrenched in Virginia by 1660. The London Company 's second settlement in Bermuda claims to be the site of the oldest town in the English New World, as St. George 's, Bermuda was officially established in 1612 as New London, whereas James Fort in Virginia was not converted into James Towne until 1619, and further did not survive to the present day. In 1676, Jamestown was deliberately burned during Bacon 's Rebellion, though it was quickly rebuilt. In 1699, the capital was relocated from Jamestown to what is today Williamsburg, Virginia, after which Jamestown ceased to exist as a settlement, existing today only as an archaeological site. Today, Jamestown is one of three locations composing the Historic Triangle of Colonial Virginia, along with Williamsburg and Yorktown, with two primary heritage sites. Historic Jamestowne is the archaeological site on Jamestown Island and is a cooperative effort by Jamestown National Historic Site (part of Colonial National Historical Park) and Preservation Virginia. Jamestown Settlement, a living history interpretive site, is operated by the Jamestown Yorktown Foundation, a state agency of the Commonwealth of Virginia. Spain, Portugal, and France moved quickly to establish a presence in the New World, while other European countries moved more slowly. The English did not attempt to found colonies until many decades after the explorations of John Cabot, and early efforts were failures -- most notably the Roanoke Colony which vanished about 1590. Late in 1606, English colonizers set sail with a charter from the London Company to establish a colony in the New World. The fleet consisted of the ships Susan Constant, Discovery, and Godspeed, all under the leadership of Captain Christopher Newport. They made a particularly long voyage of four months, including a stop in the Canary Islands and subsequently Puerto Rico, and finally departed for the American mainland on April 10, 1607. The expedition made landfall on April 26, 1607 at a place which they named Cape Henry. Under orders to select a more secure location, they set about exploring what is now Hampton Roads and an outlet to the Chesapeake Bay which they named the James River in honor of King James I of England. Captain Edward Maria Wingfield was elected president of the governing council on April 25, 1607. On May 14, he selected a piece of land on a large peninsula some 40 miles (64 km) inland from the Atlantic Ocean as a prime location for a fortified settlement. The river channel was a defensible strategic point due to a curve in the river, and it was close to the land, making it navigable and offering enough land for piers or wharves to be built in the future. Perhaps the most favorable fact about the location was that it was not inhabited by nearby Virginia Indian tribes, who regarded the site as too poor and remote for agriculture. The island was swampy and isolated, and it offered limited space, was plagued by mosquitoes, and afforded only brackish tidal river water unsuitable for drinking. The Jamestown settlers arrived in Virginia during a severe drought, according to a research study conducted by the Jamestown Archaeological Assessment (JAA) team in the 1990s. The JAA analyzed information from a study conducted in 1985 by David Stahle and others, who obtained borings of 800 year - old baldcypress trees along the Nottoway and Blackwater rivers. The lifespan of these trees is up to 1,000 years and their rings offer a good indication of an area 's annual amount of rainfall. The borings revealed that the worst drought in 700 years occurred between 1606 and 1612. This severe drought affected the Jamestown colonists and Powhatan tribe 's ability to produce food and obtain a safe supply of water. The settlers also arrived too late in the year to get crops planted. Many in the group were either gentlemen unused to work or their manservants, both equally unaccustomed to the hard labor demanded by the harsh task of carving out a viable colony. One of these was Robert Hunt, a former vicar of Reculver, England who celebrated the first known Eucharist in the territory of the future United States on June 21, 1607. In a few months, 80 % of the party were dead; some of the survivors were deserting to the Indians whose land they had colonized. Virginia Native Americans had established settlements long before the English settlers arrived, and there were an estimated 14,000 in the region who were politically known as Tsenacommacah and who spoke an Algonquian language. They were the Powhatan Confederacy, ruled by their paramount chief known as Wahunsenacawh or "Chief Powhatan ''. Wahunsenacawh initially sought to resettle the English colonists from Jamestown, considered part of Paspahegh territory, to another location known as Capahosick where they would make metal tools for him as members of his Confederacy, but this never transpired. The first explorers had been welcomed by the Indians with dancing, feasting, and tobacco ceremonies. Despite the hospitality of Wahunsenacawh, the presence of the English settlers and perhaps a further expedition up the James River by Captain Christopher Newport provoked the Paspahegh, Weyanock, and other groups to mount a series of attacks on the fort during a period of violence lasting from May 27 to July 14, 1607. Two - thirds of the settlers died before ships arrived in 1608 with supplies and German, Polish, and Slovak craftsmen, who helped to establish the first manufactories in the colony. As a result, glassware became the foremost American products to be exported to Europe at the time. Clapboard had already been sent back to England beginning with the first returning ship. The delivery of supplies in 1608 on the First and Second Supply missions of Captain Newport had also added to the number of hungry settlers. It seemed certain at that time that the colony at Jamestown would meet the same fate as earlier English attempts to settle in North America, specifically the Roanoke Colony (Lost Colony) and the Popham Colony, unless there was a major relief effort. The Germans who arrived with the Second Supply and a few others defected to the Powhatans, with weapons and equipment. The Germans even planned to join a rumored Spanish attack on the colony and urged the Powhatans to join it. The Spanish were driven off by the timely arrival in July 1609 of Captain Samuel Argall in Mary and John, a larger ship than the Spanish reconnaissance ship La Asunción de Cristo. Argall 's voyage also prevented the Spanish from gaining knowledge of the weakness of the colony. Don Pedro de Zúñiga, the Spanish ambassador to England, was desperately seeking this (in addition to spies) in order to get Philip III of Spain to authorise an attack on the colony. The investors of the Virginia Company of London expected to reap rewards from their speculative investments. With the Second Supply, they expressed their frustrations and made demands upon the leaders of Jamestown in written form. They specifically demanded that the colonists send commodities sufficient to pay the cost of the voyage, a lump of gold, assurance that they had found the South Sea, and one member of the lost Roanoke Colony. It fell to the third president of the Council Captain John Smith to deliver a bold and much - needed wake - up call in response to the investors in London, demanding practical laborers and craftsmen who could help make the colony more self - sufficient. After Smith was forced to return to England due to an explosion which gave him deep burn wounds during a trading expedition, the colony was led by George Percy, who proved incompetent in negotiating with the native tribes. There are indications that those in London comprehended and embraced Smith 's message. The Third Supply mission of 1609 was to be by far the largest and best equipped. They also had a new purpose - built flagship, Sea Venture, constructed, and placed in the most experienced of hands, Christopher Newport. On June 2, 1609, Sea Venture set sail from Plymouth as the flagship of a seven - ship fleet (towing two additional pinnaces) destined for Jamestown, Virginia as part of the Third Supply, carrying 214 settlers. On July 24, the fleet ran into a strong storm, likely a hurricane, and the ships were separated. Although some of the ships did make it to Jamestown, the leaders, and most of the supplies had been aboard Sea Venture, which fought the storm for three days before Admiral of the Company, Sir George Somers, deliberately drove it onto the reefs of Bermuda to prevent its foundering. This allowed all aboard to be landed safely. The survivors (including Lieutenant - General Sir Thomas Gates, Captain Christopher Newport, Sylvester Jordain, Stephen Hopkins, later of Mayflower, and secretary William Strachey) were stranded on Bermuda for approximately nine months. During that time, they built two new ships, the pinnaces Deliverance and Patience. The original plan was to build only one vessel, Deliverance, but it soon became evident that it would not be large enough to carry the settlers and all of the food (salted pork) that was being sourced on the islands. While the Third Supply was stranded in Bermuda, the colony at Jamestown was in even worse shape. In the "Starving Time '' of 1609 -- 1610, the Jamestown settlers faced rampant starvation for want of additional provisions. During this time, lack of food drove people to eat snakes and even boil the leather from shoes for sustenance. Only 60 of the original 214 settlers at Jamestown survived. There is scientific evidence that the settlers at Jamestown had turned to cannibalism during the starving time. The ships from Bermuda arrived in Jamestown on 23 May 1610. Many of the surviving colonists were near death, and Jamestown was judged to be unviable. Everyone was boarded onto Deliverance and Patience, which set sail for England. However, on June 10, 1610, the timely arrival of another relief fleet, bearing Governor Baron De La Warr (who would eventually give his name to the colony of Delaware), which met the two ships as they descended the James River, granted Jamestown a reprieve. The Colonists called this The Day of Providence. The fleet brought not only supplies, but also additional settlers. All the settlers returned to the colony, though there was still a critical shortage of food. Relations between the colonists and the Powhatans quickly deteriorated after De La Warr 's arrival, eventually leading to conflict. The Anglo - Powhatan War lasted until Samuel Argall captured Wahunsenacawh 's daughter Matoaka, better known by her nickname Pocahontas, after which the chief accepted a treaty of peace. Due to the aristocratic backgrounds of many of the new colonists, a historic drought and the communal nature of their work load, progress through the first few years was inconsistent at best. By 1613, six years after Jamestown 's founding, the organizers and shareholders of the Virginia Company were desperate to increase the efficiency and profitability of the struggling colony. Without stockholder consent the Governor, Sir Thomas Dale, assigned 3 - acre (12,000 m) plots to its "ancient planters '' and smaller plots to the settlement 's later arrivals. Measurable economic progress was made, and the settlers began expanding their planting to land belonging to local native tribes. That this turnaround coincided with the end of a drought that had begun the year before the English settlers ' arrival probably indicates multiple factors were involved besides the colonists ' ineptitude. Among the colonists who survived the Third Supply was John Rolfe, who carried with him a cache of untested new tobacco seeds from Bermuda, which had grown wild there after being planted by shipwrecked Spaniards years before. In 1614, Rolfe began to successfully harvest tobacco. Prosperous and wealthy, he married Pocahontas, daughter of Chief Powhatan, bringing several years of peace between the English and natives. However, at the end of a public relations trip to England, Pocahontas became sick and died on March 21, 1617. The following year, her father also died. Powhatan 's brother, a fierce warrior named Opchanacanough, became head of the Powhatan Confederacy. As the English continued to appropriate more land for tobacco farming, relations with the natives worsened. Due to the high cost of the trans - atlantic voyage at this time, many English settlers came to Jamestown as indentured servants: in exchange for the passage, room, board, and the promise of land or money, these immigrants would agree to work for three to seven years. Immigrants from continental Europe, mainly Germans, were usually redemptioners -- they purchased some portion of their voyage on credit and, upon arrival, borrowed or entered into a work contract to pay the remainder of their voyage costs. Along with European indentured servants, around 20 African slaves arrived in Jamestown in 1619. These slaves were captives taken from a ship headed for Mexico. Though these Africans started in Jamestown as slaves, some were able to obtain the status of indentured servant later in life. In 1619, the first representative assembly in America convened in the Jamestown Church, "to establish one equal and uniform government over all Virginia '' which would provide "just laws for the happy guiding and governing of the people there inhabiting. '' This became known as the House of Burgesses (forerunner of the Virginia General Assembly). Initially, only men of English origin were permitted to vote. On June 30, 1619, in what was the first recorded strike in Colonial America, the Polish artisans protested and refused to work if not allowed to vote ("No Vote, No Work ''). On July 21, 1619, the court granted the Poles and Slovaks equal voting rights. Afterwards, the labor strike (the first "in American history '') was ended and the artisans resumed their work. Individual land ownership was also instituted, and the colony was divided into four large "boroughs '' or "incorporations '' called "citties '' by the colonists. Jamestown was located in James Cittie. After several years of strained coexistence, Chief Opchanacanough and his Powhatan Confederacy attempted to eliminate the English colony once and for all. On the morning of March 22, 1622, they attacked outlying plantations and communities up and down the James River in what became known as the Indian Massacre of 1622. More than 300 settlers were killed in the attack, about a third of the colony 's English - speaking population. Sir Thomas Dale 's development at Henricus, which was to feature a college to educate the natives, and Wolstenholme Towne at Martin 's Hundred, were both essentially wiped out. Jamestown was spared only through a timely warning by a Virginia Indian employee. There was not enough time to spread the word to the outposts. Of the 6,000 people who came to the settlement between 1608 and 1624, only 3,400 survived. In 1624, King James revoked the Virginia Company 's charter, and Virginia became a royal colony. Despite the setbacks, the colony continued to grow. Ten years later, in 1634, by order of King Charles I, the colony was divided into the original eight shires of Virginia (or counties), in a fashion similar to that practiced in England. Jamestown was now located in James City Shire, soon renamed the "County of James City '', better known in modern times as James City County, Virginia, the nation 's oldest county. Another large - scale "Indian attack '' occurred in 1644. In 1646, Opchanacanough was captured and while in custody an English guard shot him in the back -- against orders -- and killed him. Subsequently, the Powhatan Confederacy began to decline. Opechancanough 's successor signed the first peace treaties between the Powhatan Indians and the English. The treaties required the Powhatan to pay yearly tribute payment to the English and confined them to reservations. A generation later, during Bacon 's Rebellion in 1676, Jamestown was burned, eventually to be rebuilt. During its recovery, the Virginia legislature met first at Governor William Berkeley 's nearby Green Spring Plantation, and later at Middle Plantation, which had been started in 1632 as a fortified community inland on the Virginia Peninsula, about 8 miles (13 km) distant. When the statehouse burned again in 1698, this time accidentally, the legislature again temporarily relocated to Middle Plantation, and was able to meet in the new facilities of the College of William and Mary, which had been established after receiving a royal charter in 1693. Rather than rebuilding at Jamestown again, the capital of the colony was moved permanently to Middle Plantation in 1699. The town was soon renamed Williamsburg, to honor the reigning monarch, King William III. A new Capitol building and "Governor 's Palace '' were erected there in the following years. This was a revolutionary change. Due to the movement of the capital to Williamsburg, the old town of Jamestown began to slowly disappear from view. Those who lived in the general area attended services at Jamestown 's church until the 1750s, when it was abandoned. By the mid-18th century, the land was heavily cultivated, primarily by the Travis and Ambler families. During the American Revolutionary War, although the Battle of Green Spring was fought nearby at the site of former Governor Berkeley 's plantation, Jamestown was apparently inconsequential. In 1831, David Bullock purchased Jamestown from the Travis and Ambler families. During the American Civil War, in 1861, Confederate William Allen, who owned the Jamestown Island, occupied Jamestown with troops he raised at his own expense with the intention of blockading the James River and Richmond from the Union Navy. He was soon joined by Lieutenant Catesby ap Roger Jones, who directed the building of batteries and conducted ordnance and armor tests for the first Confederate ironclad warship, CSS Virginia, which was under construction at the Gosport Naval Shipyard in Portsmouth in late 1861 and early 1862. Jamestown had a peak force of 1,200 men. During the Peninsula Campaign, which began later that spring, Union forces under General George B. McClellan moved up the Peninsula from Fort Monroe in an attempt to capture the Confederate capital of Richmond. The Union forces captured Yorktown in April 1862, and the Battle of Williamsburg was fought the following month. With these developments, Jamestown and the lower James River were abandoned by the Confederates. Some of the forces from Jamestown, and the crew of Virginia, relocated to Drewry 's Bluff, a fortified and strategic position high above the river about 8 miles (13 km) below Richmond. There, they successfully blocked the Union Navy from reaching the Confederate capital. Once in Federal hands, Jamestown became a meeting place for runaway slaves, who burned the Ambler house, an eighteenth - century plantation house, which along with the old church was one of the few remaining signs of old Jamestown. When Allen sent men to assess the damage in late 1862, they were killed by the former slaves. Following the Confederate surrender at Appomattox Courthouse, the oath of allegiance was administered to former Confederate soldiers at Jamestown. In the years after the Civil War, Jamestown became quiet and peaceful once again. In 1892, Jamestown was purchased by Mr. and Mrs. Edward Barney. The following year, the Barneys donated 221⁄2 acres of land, including the ruined church tower, to the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities (now known as Preservation Virginia). By this time, erosion from the river had eaten away the island 's western shore. Visitors began to conclude that the site of James Fort lay completely underwater. With federal assistance, a sea wall was constructed in 1900 to protect the area from further erosion. The archaeological remains of the original 1607 fort, which had been protected by the sea wall, were not discovered until 1996. In 1932, George Craghead Gregory of Richmond was credited with discovering the foundation of the first brick statehouse (capitol) building, circa 1646, at Jamestown on the land owned by Preservation Virginia. Around 1936, Gregory, who was active with the Virginia Historical Society, founded the Jamestowne Society for descendants of stockholders in the Virginia Company of London and the descendants of those who owned land or who had domiciles in Jamestown or on Jamestown Island prior to 1700. Colonial National Monument was authorized by the U.S. Congress on July 3, 1930 and established on December 30, 1930. In 1934, the National Park Service obtained the remaining 1,500 acres (610 hectares) portion of Jamestown Island which had been under private ownership by the Vermillion family. The National Park Service partnered with Preservation Virginia to preserve the area and present it to visitors in an educational manner. On June 5, 1936, the national monument was re-designated a national historical park, and became known as Colonial National Historical Park. From 1936 J.C. "Pinky '' Harrington worked on the NPS 's excavations at Jamestown. In 1954 John L. Cotter took charge of field projects at Jamestown, conducted with the site 's 350th anniversary (1957) in mind. Cotter worked with Edward B. Jelks and Harrington to survey the area 's colonial sites. In 1957 Cotter and J. Paul Hudson co-authored New Discoveries at Jamestown. Cotter contributed, along with Jelks, Georg Neumann, and Johnny Hack, to the 1958 report Archaeological Excavations at Jamestown. In the present time, as part of the Colonial National Historical Park, the Jamestown Island area is home to two heritage tourism sites related to the original fort and town. Nearby, the Jamestown - Scotland Ferry service provides a link across the navigable portion of the James River for vehicles and affords passengers a view of Jamestown Island from the river. Historic Jamestowne, located at the original site of Jamestown, is administered by Preservation Virginia and the National Park Service. The central 221⁄2 acres of land, where the archaeological remains of the original James Fort were found, are owned by Preservation Virginia (formerly known as the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities); the remaining 1,500 acres (6.1 km) are held by the National Park Service and is part of the Colonial National Historical Park. The site gained renewed importance when in 1996 the Jamestown Rediscovery project began excavations in search of the original James Fort site, originally in preparation for the quadricentennial of Jamestown 's founding. The primary goal of the archaeological campaign was to locate archaeological remains of "the first years of settlement at Jamestown, especially of the earliest fortified town; (and the) subsequent growth and development of the town ''. Today, visitors to Historic Jamestowne can view the site of the original 1607 James Fort, the 17th - century church tower and the site of the 17th - century town, as well as tour an archaeological museum called the Archaearium and view many of the close to two million artifacts found by Jamestown Rediscovery. They also may participate in living history ranger tours and Archaeological tours given by the Jamestown Rediscovery staff. Visitors can also often observe archaeologists from the Jamestown Rediscovery Project at work, as archaeological work at the site continues. As of 2014, the archaeological work and studies are ongoing. In addition to their newsletter and website, new discoveries are frequently reported in the local newspaper, the Virginia Gazette based in nearby Williamsburg, and by other news media, often worldwide. Jamestown Settlement is a living - history park and museum located 1.25 miles (2.01 km) from the original location of the colony and adjacent to Jamestown Island. Initially created for the celebration of the 350th anniversary in 1957, Jamestown Settlement is operated by the Jamestown - Yorktown Foundation, and largely sponsored by the Commonwealth of Virginia. The museum complex features a reconstruction of a Powhatan village, the James Fort as it was c. 1610 -- 1614, and seagoing replicas of the three ships that brought the first settlers, Susan Constant, Godspeed, Discovery. With the national independence of the United States established by the end of the 18th century, Jamestown came to be looked at as a starting point. Its founding in 1607 has been regularly commemorated, with the most notable events being held every fifty years. The bicentennial of Jamestown on May 13 -- 14, 1807, was called the Grand National Jubilee. Over 3,000 people attended the event, many arriving on vessels which anchored in the river off the island. May 13 was the opening day of the festival, which began with a procession which marched to the graveyard of the old church, where the attending bishop delivered the prayer. The procession then moved to the Travis mansion, where the celebrants dined and danced in the mansion that evening. Also during the festivities, students of the College of William and Mary gave orations. An old barn on the island was used as a temporary theater, where a company of players from Norfolk performed. Attending were many dignitaries, politicians, and historians. The celebration concluded on May 14 with a dinner and toast at the Raleigh Tavern in Williamsburg. In 1857, the Jamestown society organized a celebration marking the 250th anniversary of Jamestown 's founding. According to the Richmond Enquirer, the site for the celebration was on 10 acres (40,000 m) on the spot where some of the colonists ' houses were originally built. However, it is also speculated that the celebration was moved further east on the island closer to the Travis grave site, in order to avoid damaging Major William Allen 's corn fields. The attendance was estimated at between 6,000 and 8,000 people. Sixteen large steam ships anchored offshore in the James River and were gaily decorated with streamers. Former US President John Tyler of nearby Sherwood Forest Plantation gave a 21⁄2 hour speech, and there were military displays, a grand ball and fireworks. The 100th anniversary of the Surrender at Yorktown in 1781 had generated a new interest in the historical significance of the colonial sites of the Peninsula. Williamsburg, a sleepy but populated town of shops and homes, was still celebrating Civil War events. However, as the new century dawned, thoughts turned to the upcoming 300th anniversary of the founding of Jamestown. The Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities (now known as Preservation Virginia) started the movement in 1900 by calling for a celebration honoring the establishment of the first permanent English colony in the New World at Jamestown to be held on the 300th anniversary in 1907. As a celebration was planned, virtually no one thought that the actual isolated and long - abandoned original site of Jamestown would be suitable for a major event because Jamestown Island had no facilities for large crowds. The original fort housing the Jamestown settlers was believed to have been long ago swallowed by the James River. The general area in James City County near Jamestown was also considered unsuitable, as it was not very accessible in the day of rail travel before automobiles were common. As the tricentennial of the 1607 Founding of the Jamestown neared, around 1904, despite an assumption in some quarters that Richmond would be a logical location, leaders in Norfolk began a campaign to have a celebration held there. The decision was made to locate the international exposition on a mile - long frontage at Sewell 's Point near the mouth of Hampton Roads. This was about 30 miles (48 km) downstream from Jamestown in a rural section of Norfolk County. It was a site which could become accessible by both long - distance passenger railroads and local streetcar service, with considerable frontage on the harbor of Hampton Roads. This latter feature proved ideal for the naval delegations which came from points all around the world. The Jamestown Exposition of 1907 was one of the many world 's fairs and expositions that were popular in the early part of the 20th century. Held from April 26, 1907 to December 1, 1907, attendees included US President Theodore Roosevelt, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, the Prince of Sweden, Mark Twain, Henry H. Rogers, and dozens of other dignitaries and famous persons. A major naval review featuring the United States ' Great White Fleet was a key feature. U.S. Military officials and leaders were impressed by the location, and the Exposition site later formed the first portion of the large U.S. Naval Station Norfolk in 1918 during World War I. With America 's increased access to automobiles, and with improved roads and transportation, it was feasible for the 350th anniversary celebration to be held at Jamestown itself in 1957. Although erosion had cut off the land bridge between Jamestown Island and the mainland, the isthmus was restored and new access provided by the completion of the National Park Service 's Colonial Parkway which led to Williamsburg and Yorktown, the other two portions of Colonial Virginia 's Historic Triangle. There were also improvements of state highways. The north landing for the popular Jamestown Ferry and a portion of State Route 31 were relocated. Major projects such were developed by non-profit, state and federal agencies. Jamestown Festival Park was established by the Commonwealth of Virginia adjacent to the entrance to Jamestown Island. Full - sized replicas of the three ships that brought the colonists, Susan Constant, Godspeed, and Discovery were constructed at a shipyard in Portsmouth, Virginia and placed on display at a new dock at Jamestown, where the largest, Susan Constant, could be boarded by visitors. On Jamestown Island, the reconstructed Jamestown Glasshouse, the Memorial Cross and the visitors center were completed and dedicated. A loop road was built around the island. Special events included army and navy reviews, air force fly - overs, ship and aircraft christenings and even an outdoor drama at Cape Henry, site of the first landing of the settlers. This celebration continued from April 1 to November 30 with over a million participants, including dignitaries and politicians such as the British Ambassador and U.S. Vice President Richard Nixon. The highlight for many of the nearly 25,000 at the Festival Park on October 16, 1957 was the visit and speech of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and her consort, Prince Philip. Queen Elizabeth II loaned a copy of the Magna Carta for the exhibition. It was her first visit to the United States since assuming the throne. The 1957 Jamestown Festival was so successful that tourists still kept coming long after the official event was completed. Jamestown became a permanent attraction of the Historic Triangle, and has been visited by families, school groups, tours, and thousands of other people continuously ever since. Early in the 21st century, new accommodations, transportation facilities and attractions were planned in preparation for the quadricentennial of the founding of Jamestown. Numerous events were promoted under the banner of America 's 400th Anniversary and promoted by the Jamestown 2007 Commission. The commemoration included 18 months of statewide, national and international festivities and events, which began in April 2006 with a tour of the new replica Godspeed. In January 2007, the Virginia General Assembly held a session at Jamestown. On May 4, 2007, Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and Prince Philip attended a ceremony commemorating the 400th anniversary of the settlement 's arrivals, reprising the honor they paid in 1957. In addition to the Virginia State Quarter, Jamestown was also the subject of two United States commemorative coins celebrating the 400th anniversary of its settlement. A silver dollar and a gold five dollar coin were issued in 2007. In 2019 Jamestown, in cooperation with Williamsburg, will hold a commemoration that marks the 400th anniversary of three landmark events in American history: the first meeting of the Virginia House of Burgesses, the arrival of the first Africans to English North America, and the first Thanksgiving. Attribution:

who is captain of the toronto maple leafs

Toronto Maple Leafs - Wikipedia Blue, white The Toronto Maple Leafs (officially the Toronto Maple Leaf Hockey Club) are a professional ice hockey team based in Toronto, Ontario. They are members of the National Hockey League 's Atlantic Division in the Eastern Conference. The club is owned by Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment, Ltd. and are represented by Chairman Larry Tanenbaum. With an estimated value of US $1.4 billion in 2017 according to Forbes, the Maple Leafs are the second most valuable franchise in the NHL, after the New York Rangers. The Maple Leafs ' broadcasting rights are split between BCE Inc. and Rogers Communications. For their first 14 seasons, the club played their home games at the Mutual Street Arena, before moving to Maple Leaf Gardens in 1931. The Maple Leafs moved to their present home, the Air Canada Centre in February 1999. The club was founded in 1917, operating simply as Toronto and known then as the Toronto Arenas. Under new ownership, the club was renamed the Toronto St. Patricks in 1919. In 1927 the club was purchased by Conn Smythe and renamed the Maple Leafs. A member of the "Original Six '', the club was one of six NHL teams to have endured through the period of League retrenchment during the Great Depression. The club has won thirteen Stanley Cup championships, second only to the 24 championships of the Montreal Canadiens. The Maple Leafs history includes two recognized dynasties, from 1947 to 1951; and from 1962 to 1967. Winning their last championship in 1967, the Maple Leafs ' 50 - season drought between championships is the longest current drought in the NHL. The Maple Leafs have developed rivalries with three NHL franchises, the Detroit Red Wings, the Montreal Canadiens, and the Ottawa Senators. The Maple Leafs have retired the use of thirteen numbers in honour of nineteen players. In addition, a number of individuals who hold an association with the club have been inducted in the Hockey Hall of Fame. The Maple Leafs are presently affiliated with two minor league teams, the Toronto Marlies of the American Hockey League, and the Orlando Solar Bears of the ECHL. The National Hockey League was formed in 1917 in Montreal by teams formerly belonging to the National Hockey Association (NHA) that had a dispute with Eddie Livingstone, owner of the Toronto Blueshirts. The owners of the other four clubs -- the Montreal Canadiens, Montreal Wanderers, Quebec Bulldogs and the Ottawa Senators -- wanted to replace Livingstone, but discovered that the NHA constitution did not allow them to simply vote him out of the league. Instead, they opted to create a new league, the NHL, and did not invite Livingstone to join them. They also remained voting members of the NHA, and thus had enough votes to suspend the other league 's operations, effectively leaving Livingstone 's league with one team. The NHL had decided that it would operate a four - team circuit, made up of the Canadiens, Maroons, Ottawa, and one more club in either Quebec or Toronto. Toronto 's inclusion in the NHL 's inaugural season was formally announced on November 26, 1917, with concerns over the Bulldog 's financial stability surfacing. The League granted temporary franchise rights to the Arena Company, owners of the Arena Gardens. The NHL granted the Arena responsibility of the Toronto franchise for only the inaugural season, with specific instructions to resolve the dispute with Livingstone, or transfer ownership of the Toronto franchise back to the League at the end of the season. The franchise did not have an official name, but was informally called "the Blueshirts '' or "the Torontos '' by the fans and press. Although the inaugural roster was made up of players leased from the Blueshirts, including Harry Cameron and Reg Noble, the Blueshirts are viewed as a separate franchise. During the inaugural season the club performed the first trade in NHL history, sending Sammy Hebert to the Senators, in return for cash. Under manager Charlie Querrie, and head coach Dick Carroll, the team won the Stanley Cup in the inaugural 1917 -- 18 season. For the next season, rather than return the Blueshirts ' players to Livingstone as originally promised, on October 19, 1918, the Arena Company applied to become permanent franchise, the Toronto Arena Hockey Club, which was readily granted by the NHL. The Arena Company also decided that year that only NHL teams were allowed to play at the Arena Gardens -- a move which effectively killed the NHA. Livingstone sued to get his players back. Mounting legal bills from the dispute forced the Arenas to sell some of their stars, resulting in a horrendous five - win season in 1918 -- 19. With the company facing increasing financial difficulties, and the Arenas officially eliminated from the playoffs, the NHL agreed to let the team forfeit their last two games. Operations halted on February 20, 1919, with the NHL ending its season and starting the playoffs. The Arenas '. 278 winning percentage that season remains the worst in franchise history. However, the 1919 Stanley Cup Finals ended without a winner due to the worldwide flu epidemic. The legal dispute forced the Arena Company into bankruptcy, and it was forced to sell the team. On December 9, 1919, Querrie brokered the team 's purchase by the owners of the St. Patricks Hockey Club, allowing him to maintain an ownership stake in the team. The new owners renamed the team the Toronto St. Patricks (or St. Pats for short), which they used until 1927. Changing the colours of the team from blue to green, the club won their second Stanley Cup championship in 1922. Babe Dye scored four times in the 5 -- 1 Stanley Cup - clinching victory against the Vancouver Millionaires. In 1924 Jack Bickell invested C $25,000 in the St. Pats as a favour to his friend Querrie, who needed to financially reorganize his hockey team. After a number of financially difficult seasons, the St. Patricks ' ownership group seriously considered selling the team to C.C. Pyle for C $200,000 (equivalent to $2,822,000 in 2016). Pyle sought to move the team to Philadelphia. However, Toronto Varsity Graduates ' coach Conn Smythe put together a group of his own and made a $160,000 (equivalent to $2,258,000 in 2016) offer. With the support of St. Pats shareholder J.P. Bickell, Smythe persuaded Querrie to accept their bid, arguing that civic pride was more important than money. After taking control on February 14, 1927, Smythe immediately renamed the team the Maple Leafs, after the national symbol of Canada. He attributed his choice of a maple leaf for the logo to his experiences as a Canadian Army officer and prisoner of war during World War I. Viewing the maple leaf as a "badge of courage '', and a reminder of home, Smythe decided to give the same name to his hockey team, in honour of the many Canadian soldiers who wore it. However, the team was not the first to use the name. A Toronto minor - league baseball team had used the name "Maple Leafs '' since 1895. Initial reports were that the team 's colours were to be red and white, but the Leafs wore white sweaters with a green maple leaf for their first game on February 17, 1927. On September 27, 1927, it was announced that the Leafs had changed their colour scheme to blue and white. Although Smythe later stated he chose blue because it represents the Canadian skies and white to represent snow, these colours were also used on his gravel and sand business ' trucks. The colour blue was also a colour historically associated with the City of Toronto. The use of blue by Toronto - based sports clubs began with the Argonaut Rowing Club in the 19th century, later adopted by their football team, the Toronto Argonauts, in 1873. By 1930 Smythe saw the need to construct a new arena, viewing the Arena Gardens as a facility lacking modern amenities and seating. Finding an adequate number of financiers, he purchased land from the Eaton family, and construction of the arena was completed in five months. The Maple Leafs debuted at their new arena, Maple Leaf Gardens, with a 2 -- 1 loss to the Chicago Black Hawks on November 12, 1931. The debut also featured Foster Hewitt in his newly constructed press box above the ice surface, where he began his famous Hockey Night in Canada radio broadcasts that eventually came to be a Saturday - night tradition. The press box was often called ' the gondola ', a name that emerged during the Gardens ' inaugural season, when a General Motors advertising executive remarked how it resembled the gondola of an airship. By the 1931 -- 32 NHL season, the Maple Leafs were led by the "Kid Line '' consisting of Busher Jackson, Joe Primeau and Charlie Conacher and coached by Dick Irvin. The team captured their third Stanley Cup that season, vanquishing the Chicago Black Hawks in the first round, the Montreal Maroons in the semifinals, and the New York Rangers in the finals. Smythe took particular pleasure in defeating the Rangers that year. He had been tapped as the Rangers ' first general manager and coach for their inaugural season (1926 -- 27), but had been fired in a dispute with Madison Square Garden management before the season had begun. Maple Leafs ' star forward Ace Bailey was nearly killed in 1933 when Boston Bruins defenceman Eddie Shore checked him from behind at full speed into the boards. Leafs defenceman Red Horner knocked Shore out with a punch, but Bailey, writhing on the ice, had his career ended. The Leafs held the Ace Bailey Benefit Game, the NHL 's first All - Star Game, to collect medical funds to help Bailey. His jersey was retired later the same night. The Leafs reached the finals five times in the next seven years, but bowed out to the now - defunct Maroons in 1935, the Detroit Red Wings in 1936, Chicago in 1938, Boston in 1939 as well as the Rangers in 1940. After the end of the 1939 -- 40 season, Smythe allowed Irvin to leave the team as head coach, replacing him with former Leafs captain Hap Day. In the 1942 Stanley Cup Finals, the Maple Leafs were down three games to none in the best - of - seven series against Detroit. Fourth - line forward Don Metz then galvanized the team, to score a hat - trick in game four and the game - winner in game five. Goalie Turk Broda shut out the Wings in game six, and Sweeney Schriner scored two goals in the third period to win the seventh game 3 -- 1, completing the reverse - sweep. The Leafs remain the only team to have successfully performed a reverse - sweep in the Stanley Cup finals. Captain Syl Apps won the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy that season, not taking one penalty, and finished his ten - season career with an average of 5 minutes, 36 seconds in penalties a season. Smythe, who reenlisted in the Canadian Army at the outbreak of World War II, was given leave from military duty to view the final game of the 1942 finals. He arrived at the game in full military regalia. Earlier, at the outbreak of war, Smythe arranged for many of his Maple Leafs players and staff to take army training with the Toronto Scottish Regiment. Most notably, the Leafs announced a large portion of their roster had enlisted, including Apps, and Broda, who did not play on the team for several seasons due to their obligations with the Canadian Forces. During this period, the Leafs turned to lesser - known players such as rookie goaltender Frank McCool and defenceman Babe Pratt. The Maple Leafs beat the Red Wings in the 1945 Finals. They won the first three games, with goaltender McCool recording consecutive shutouts. However, in a reverse of the 1942 finals, the Red Wings won the next three games. The Leafs were able to win the series, winning the seventh game by the score of 2 -- 1 to prevent a complete reversal of the series played three years ago. After the end of the war, players who had enlisted were beginning to return to their teams. With Apps and Broda regaining their form, the Maple Leafs beat the first - place Canadiens in the 1947 finals. In an effort to bolster their centre depth, the Leafs acquired Cy Thomas and Max Bentley in the following the off - season. With these key additions, the Leafs were able to win a second consecutive Stanley Cup, sweeping the Red Wings in the 1948 finals. With their victory in 1948, the Leafs moved ahead of Montreal as the team having won the most Stanley Cups in League history. Apps announced his retirement following the 1948 finals, with Ted Kennedy replacing him as the team 's captain. Under a new captaincy, the Leafs managed to make it to the 1949 finals, facing the Red Wings, who had finished the season with the best overall record. However, the Leafs went on to win their third consecutive Cup, sweeping the Red Wings in four games. This brought the total of Detroit 's play off game losses against the Leafs to eleven. The Red Wings were able to end this losing streak in the following post-season, eliminating Toronto in the 1950 NHL playoffs. The Maple Leafs and Canadiens met again in the 1951 finals, with five consecutive overtime games played in the series. Defenceman Bill Barilko managed to score the series - winning goal in overtime, leaving his defensive position (in spite of coach Joe Primeau 's instructions not to) to pick up an errant pass and score. Barilko helped the club secure its fourth Stanley Cup in five years. His glory was short - lived, as he disappeared in a plane crash near Timmins, Ontario, four months later. The crash site was not found until a helicopter pilot discovered the plane 's wreckage plane about 80 kilometres (50 mi) north of Cochrane, Ontario eleven years later. The Leafs did not win another Cup during the 1950s, with rumours swirling that the team was "cursed '', and would not win a cup until Barilko 's body was found. The "curse '' came to an end after the Leafs ' 1962 Stanley Cup victory, which came six weeks before to the discovery of the wreckage of Barilko 's plane. Their 1951 victory was followed by lacklustre performances in the following seasons. The team finished third in the 1951 -- 52 season, and were eventually swept by the Red Wings in the semi-finals. With the conclusion of the 1952 -- 53 regular season, the Leafs failed to make it to the post-season for the first time since the 1945 -- 46 playoffs. The Leafs ' poor performance may be attributed partly to a decline in their sponsored junior system (including the Toronto St. Michael 's Majors and the Toronto Marlboros). The junior system was managed by Frank J. Selke until his departure to the Canadiens in 1946. In his absence, the quality of players it produced declined. Many who were called up to the Leafs in the early 1950s were found to be seriously lacking in ability. It was only later in the decade that the Leafs ' feeder clubs produced prospects that helped them become competitive again. After a two - year drought from the playoffs, the Maple Leafs clinched a berth after the 1958 -- 59 season. Under Punch Imlach, their new general manager and coach, the Leafs made it to the 1959 Finals, losing to the Canadiens in five games. Building on a successful playoff run, the Leafs followed up with a second - place finish in the 1959 -- 60 regular season. Although they advanced to their second straight Cup Finals, the Leafs were again defeated by the Canadiens in four games. Beginning in the 1960s, the Leafs became a stronger team, with Johnny Bower as goaltender, and Bob Baun, Carl Brewer, Tim Horton and Allan Stanley serving as the Maple Leafs ' defencemen. In an effort to bolster their forward group during the 1960 off - season, Imlach traded Marc Reaume to the Red Wings for Red Kelly. Originally a defenceman, Kelly was asked to make the transition to the role of centre, where he remained for the rest of his career. Kelly helped reinforce a forward group made up of Frank Mahovlich, and team captain George Armstrong. The beginning of the 1960 -- 61 season also saw the debut of rookies Bob Nevin, and Dave Keon. Keon previously played for the St. Michael 's Majors (the Maple Leafs junior affiliate), but had impressed Imlach during the Leafs ' training camp, and joined the team for the season. Despite these new additions, the Leafs ' 1961 playoff run ended in the semifinals against the Red Wings, with Armstrong, Bower, Kelly and others, suffering from injuries. In November 1961, Smythe sold nearly all of his shares in the club 's parent company, Maple Leaf Gardens Limited (MLGL), to a partnership composed of his son Stafford Smythe, and his partners, newspaper baron John Bassett and Toronto Marlboros President Harold Ballard. The sale price was $2.3 million (equivalent to $18,810,000 in 2016), a handsome return on Smythe 's original investment 34 years earlier. Initially, Conn Smythe claimed that he knew nothing about his son 's partners and was furious with the arrangement. However, he did not stop the deal because of it. Conn Smythe was given a retiring salary of $15,000 per year for life, an office, secretary, a car with a driver, and seats to home games. Smythe sold his remaining shares in the company, and resigned from the board of directors in March 1966, after a Muhammad Ali boxing match was scheduled for the Gardens. Smythe found Ali 's refusal to serve in the United States Army offensive, noting that the Gardens was "no place for those who want to evade conscription in their own country ''. He had also said that because the Gardens ' owners agreed to host the fight they had "put cash ahead of class ''. Under the new ownership, Toronto won another three straight Stanley Cups. The team won the 1962 Stanley Cup Finals beating the defending champion Chicago Black Hawks on a goal from Dick Duff in Game 6. During the 1962 -- 63 season, the Leafs finished first in the league for the first time since the 1947 -- 48 season. In the following playoffs, the team won their second Stanley Cup of the decade. The 1963 -- 64 season saw certain members of the team traded. With Imlach seeking to reinvigorate the slumping Leafs, he made a mid-season trade that sent Duff, and Nevin to the Rangers for Andy Bathgate and Don McKenney. The Leafs managed to make the post-season as well as the Cup finals. The 1964 Cup finals were perhaps most notable for Baun 's performance. During game six, Baun suffered a fractured ankle and required a stretcher to be taken off the ice. He returned to play with his ankle frozen, and eventually scored the overtime, game - winning goal against the Red Wings. Winning game seven 4 -- 0, with two goals from Bathgate, the Leafs won their third consecutive Stanley Cup. The two seasons after the Maple Leafs ' Stanley Cup victories, the team saw several player departures, including Bathgate, and Brewer, as well as several new additions, including Marcel Pronovost, and Terry Sawchuk. During the 1966 -- 67, the team had lost 10 games in a row, sending Imlach to the hospital with a stress - related illness. However, from the time King Clancy took over as the head coach, to Imlach 's return, the club was on a 10 - game undefeated streak, building momentum before the playoffs. The Leafs made their last Cup finals in 1967. Playing against Montreal, the heavy favourite for the year, the Leafs managed to win, with Bob Pulford scoring the double - overtime winner in game three; Jim Pappin scored the series winner in Game 6. Keon was named the playoff 's most valuable player, and was awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy. From 1968 to 1970, the Maple Leafs made it to the playoffs only once. They lost several players to the 1967 expansion drafts, and the team was racked with dissension because of Imlach 's authoritative manner, and his attempts to prevent the players from joining the newly formed Players ' Association. Imlach 's management of the team was also brought into question due to some of his decisions. It was apparent that he was too loyal to aging players who had been with him since 1958. In 1967 -- 68 season, Mahovlich was traded to Detroit in a deal that saw the Leafs acquire Paul Henderson, and Norm Ullman. The Leafs managed to return to the playoffs after the 1968 -- 69 season, only to be swept by the Bruins. Immediately after, Stafford Smythe confronted Imlach and fired him. This act was not without controversy, with some older players, including Horton, declaring that, "if this team does n't want Imlach, I guess it does n't want me ''. The Maple Leafs completed the 1969 -- 70 season out of the playoffs. With their low finish, the Leafs were able to draft Darryl Sittler at the 1970 NHL Amateur Draft. The Leafs returned to the playoffs after the 1970 -- 71 season with the addition of Sittler, as well as Bernie Parent and Jacques Plante, who were both acquired through trades during the season. They were eliminated in the first round against the Rangers. A series of events in 1971 made Harold Ballard the primary owner of the Maple Leafs. After a series of disputes between Bassett, Ballard and Stafford Smythe, Bassett sold his stake in the company to them. Shortly afterwards, Smythe died in October 1971. Under the terms of Stafford 's will, of which Ballard was an executor, each partner was allowed to buy the other 's shares upon their death. Stafford 's brother and son tried to keep the shares in the family, but in February 1972 Ballard bought all of Stafford 's shares for $7.5 million, valuing the company at $22 million (equivalent to $128,986,000 in 2016). Six months later, Ballard was convicted of charges including fraud, and theft of money and goods, and spent a year at Milhaven Penitentiary. By the end of 1971, the World Hockey Association (WHA) began operations as a direct competitor to the NHL. Believing the WHA would not be able to compete against the NHL, Ballard 's attitude caused the Maple Leafs to lose key players, including Parent to the upstart league. Undermanned and demoralized, the Leafs finished with the fourth - worst record for the 1972 -- 73 season. They got the fourth overall pick in the 1973 NHL Amateur Draft, and drafted Lanny McDonald. General Manager Jim Gregory also acquired the 10th overall pick from the Philadelphia Flyers, and the 15th overall pick from the Bruins, using them to acquire Bob Neely and Ian Turnbull. In addition to these first round picks, the Leafs also acquired Börje Salming during the 1973 off - season. Despite acquiring Tiger Williams in the 1974 draft, and Roger Neilson as head coach in the 1977 -- 78 season, the Maple Leafs found themselves eliminated in the playoffs by stronger Flyers or Canadiens teams from 1975 to 1979. Although Neilson was a popular coach with fans and his players, he found himself at odds with Ballard, who fired him late in the 1977 -- 78 season. Nielson was later reinstated after appeals from the players and public. He continued as Leafs ' head coach until after the 1979 playoffs, when he was fired again, alongside Gregory. Gregory was replaced by Imlach as General Manager. In the first year of his second stint as general manager, Imlach became embroiled in a dispute with Leafs ' captain Darryl Sittler over his attempt to take part in the Showdown series for Hockey Night in Canada. In a move to undermine Sittler 's influence on the team, Imlach traded McDonald, who was Sittler 's friend. By the end of the 1979 -- 80 season, Imlach had traded away nearly half of the roster he had at the beginning of his tenure as general manager. With the situation between Ballard and Sittler worsening, Sittler asked to be traded. Forcing the Leafs ' hand, the club 's new general manager, Gerry McNamara, traded Sittler to the Flyers on January 20, 1982. Rick Vaive was named the team 's captain shortly after Sittler 's departure. The Maple Leafs ' management continued in disarray throughout most of the decade, with an inexperienced McNamara named as Imlach 's replacement in September 1981. He was followed by Gord Stellick on April 28, 1988, who was replaced by Floyd Smith on August 15, 1989. Coaching was similarly shuffled often after Nielson 's departure. Imlach 's first choice for coach was his former player Smith, although he did not finish the 1979 -- 80 season after being hospitalized by a car accident on March 14, 1980. Joe Crozier was named the new head coach until January 10, 1981, when he was succeeded by Mike Nykoluk. Nykoluk was head coach until April 2, 1984. Dan Maloney returned as head coach from 1984 to 1986, with John Brophy named head coach from 1986 to 1988. Both coaches had little success during their tenures. Doug Carpenter was named the new head coach to begin the 1989 -- 90 season, when the Leafs posted their first season above. 500 in the decade. The team did not have much success during the decade, missing the playoffs entirely in 1982, 1984 and 1985. However, the low finishes allowed the team to draft Wendel Clark first overall at the 1985 NHL Entry Draft. Clark managed to lead the Leafs to the playoffs from 1986 to 1988, as well as the 1990 playoffs, although they were always eliminated in the first round. Ballard died on April 11, 1990. Don Crump, Don Giffin, and Steve Stavro were named executors of Ballard 's estate. Stavro succeeded Ballard as chairman of Maple Leaf Gardens Ltd. and governor of the Maple Leafs. Cliff Fletcher was hired by Giffin to be the new general manager, although this was opposed by Stavro, who told Fletcher that he wanted to appoint his own general manager. In 1992, Fletcher set about building a competitive club, hiring Pat Burns as the new coach, and by making a series of trades and free agent acquisitions, such as acquiring Doug Gilmour and Dave Andreychuk, which turned the Leafs into a contender. Assisted by stellar goaltending from minor league call - up Felix Potvin, the team posted a then - franchise - record 99 points. Toronto dispatched the Detroit Red Wings in seven games in the first round, then defeated the St. Louis Blues in another seven games in the Division Finals. Hoping to meet long - time rival Montreal (who was playing in the Wales Conference finals against the New York Islanders) in the Cup finals, the Leafs faced the Los Angeles Kings in the Campbell Conference finals. They led the series 3 -- 2, but dropped game six in Los Angeles. The game was not without controversy, as Wayne Gretzky clipped Gilmour in the face with his stick, but referee Kerry Fraser did not call a penalty, and Gretzky scored the winning goal moments later. The Leafs eventually lost in game seven 5 -- 4. The Leafs had another strong season in 1993 -- 94, starting the season on a 10 - game winning streak, and finishing it with 98 points. The team made it to the conference finals again, only to be eliminated by the Vancouver Canucks in five games. At the 1994 NHL Entry Draft, the Leafs packaged Wendel Clark in a multi-player trade with the Quebec Nordiques that landed them Mats Sundin. Larry Tanenbaum bought a stake in Maple Leaf Gardens Limited (MLGL) in 1996, becoming partners with Stavro. On February 12, 1998, MLGL purchased the Toronto Raptors, a National Basketball Association franchise, and the Air Canada Centre arena the Raptors were building, from Allan Slaight and Scotiabank. With the acquisition, MLGL was renamed to Maple Leafs Sports & Entertainment (MLSE), acting as the parent company of the two teams. Missing two consecutive playoffs in 1997 and 1998, the Leafs relieved Fletcher as general manager. Curtis Joseph was acquired as the team 's starting goalie, while Pat Quinn was hired as the head coach before the 1998 -- 99 season. Realigning the NHL 's conferences in 1998, the Leafs were moved from the Western to the Eastern Conference. On February 13, 1999, the Leafs played their final game at the Gardens before moving to their new home at the Air Canada Centre. In the 1999 playoffs, the team advanced to the Conference Finals, but lost in five games to the Buffalo Sabres. In the 1999 -- 2000 season, the Leafs hosted the 50th NHL All - Star Game. By the end of the season, they recorded their first 100 - point season and won their first division title in 37 years. In both the 2000 and 2001 playoffs, the Leafs defeated the Ottawa Senators in the first round, and lost to the New Jersey Devils in the second round. In 2002 playoffs, the Leafs dispatched the Islanders and the Senators, in the first two rounds, only to lose to the Cinderella - story Carolina Hurricanes in the Conference Finals. The 2002 season was particularly impressive in that injuries sidelined many of the Leafs ' better players, but the efforts of depth players, including Alyn McCauley, Gary Roberts and Darcy Tucker, led them to the Conference Finals. As Joseph opted to become a free agent during the 2002 off - season, the Leafs signed Ed Belfour as the new starting goaltender. Belfour played well during the 2002 -- 03 season and was a finalist for the Vezina Trophy. The Leafs lost to Philadelphia in seven games during the first round of the 2003 playoffs. In 2003, an ownership change occurred in MLSE. Stavro sold his controlling interest in MLSE to the Ontario Teachers ' Pension Plan (OTPP) and resigned his position as chairman in favour of Tanenbaum. Quinn remained as head coach, but was replaced as general manager by John Ferguson Jr... Before the 2003 -- 04 season, the team held their training camp in Sweden and played in the NHL Challenge against teams from Sweden and Finland. The Leafs went on to enjoy a very successful regular season, leading the NHL at the time of the All - Star Game (with Quinn named head coach of the East 's All - Star Team). They finished the season with a franchise - record 103 points. They finished with the fourth - best record in the League, and their highest overall finish in 41 years, achieving a. 628 win percentage, their best in 43 years, and third - best in franchise history. In the 2004 playoffs, the Leafs defeated the Senators in the first round of the post-season for the fourth time in five years, with Belfour posting three shutouts in seven games, but lost to the Flyers in six games during the second round. Following the 2004 -- 05 NHL lockout, the Maple Leafs experienced their longest playoff drought in the club 's history. They struggled in the 2005 -- 06 season; despite a late - season surge (9 -- 1 -- 2 in their final 12 games), led by goaltender Jean - Sebastien Aubin, Toronto was out of playoff contention for the first time since 1998. This marked the first time the team had missed the postseason under Quinn, who was later relieved as head coach. Quinn 's dismissal was controversial since many of the young players who were key contributors to the Leafs ' late - season run had been drafted by him before Ferguson 's arrival, while Ferguson 's signings (Jason Allison, Belfour, Alexander Khavanov, and Eric Lindros) had suffered season - ending injuries. Paul Maurice, who had previously coached the inaugural season of the Maple Leafs ' Toronto Marlies farm team, was named as Quinn 's replacement. On June 30, 2006, the Leafs bought out fan - favourite Tie Domi 's contract. The team also decided against picking up the option year on goaltender Ed Belfour 's contract; he became a free agent. However, despite the coaching change, as well as a shuffle in the roster, the team did not make the playoffs in 2006 -- 07. During the 2007 -- 08 season, John Ferguson, Jr. was fired in January 2008, and replaced by former Leafs ' general manager Cliff Fletcher on an interim basis. The Leafs did not qualify for the post-season, marking the first time since 1928 the team had failed to make the playoffs for three consecutive seasons. It was also Sundin 's last year with the Leafs, as his contract was due to expire at the end of the season. However, he refused Leafs management 's request to waive his no - trade clause in order for the team to rebuild by acquiring prospects and / or draft picks. On May 7, 2008, after the 2007 -- 08 season, the Leafs fired Maurice, as well as assistant coach Randy Ladouceur, naming Ron Wilson as the new head coach, and Tim Hunter and Rob Zettler as assistant coaches. On November 29, 2008, the Maple Leafs hired Brian Burke as their 13th non-interim, and the first American, general manager in team history. The acquisition ended the second Cliff Fletcher era and settled persistent rumours that Burke was coming to Toronto. On June 26, 2009, Burke made his first appearance as the Leafs GM at the 2009 NHL Entry Draft, selecting London Knights forward Nazem Kadri with the seventh overall pick. On September 18, 2009, Burke traded Toronto 's first - and second - round 2010, as well as its 2011 first - round picks, to the Boston Bruins in exchange for forward Phil Kessel. On January 31, 2010, the Leafs made another high - profile trade, this time with the Calgary Flames in a seven - player deal that brought defenceman Dion Phaneuf to Toronto. On June 14, during the off - season, the Leafs named Phaneuf captain after two seasons without one following Sundin 's departure. On February 18, 2011, the team traded long - time Maple Leafs defenceman Tomas Kaberle to the Bruins in exchange for prospect Joe Colborne, Boston 's first - round pick in 2011, and a conditional second - round draft choice. On March 2, 2012, Burke fired Wilson and named Randy Carlyle the new head coach. However, the termination proved to be controversial as Wilson had received a contract extension just two months prior to being let go. Changes at the ownership level also occurred in August 2012, when the OTPP completed the sale of their shares in MLSE to BCE Inc. and Rogers Communications. On January 9, 2013, Burke was fired as general manager, replaced by Dave Nonis. In their first full season under the leadership of Carlyle, Toronto managed to secure a playoff berth in the 2012 -- 13 season (which was shortened again due to another lock - out) for the first time in eight years. However, the Leafs lost in seven games to eventual 2013 Stanley Cup finalist Boston in the first round. Despite the season 's success, it was not repeated during the 2013 -- 14 season, as the Leafs failed to make the playoffs. Shortly after the end of the 2013 -- 14 regular season, Brendan Shanahan was named as the president and an alternate governor of the Maple Leafs. On January 6, 2015, the Leafs fired Randy Carlyle as head coach, and assistant coach Peter Horachek took over on an interim basis immediately. While the Leafs had a winning record before Carlyle 's firing, the team eventually collapsed. On February 6, 2015, the Leafs set a new franchise record of 11 consecutive games without a win. At the beginning of February, Shanahan gained the approval of MLSE 's Board of Directors to begin a "scorched earth '' rebuild of the club. Both Dave Nonis and Horachek were relieved of their duties on April 12, just one day after the season concluded. In addition, the Leafs also fired a number of assistant coaches, including Steve Spott, Rick St. Croix; as well as individuals from the Leafs ' player scouting department. On May 20, 2015, Mike Babcock was named as the new head coach, and on June 23, Lou Lamoriello was named the 16th general manager in team history. On July 1, 2015, the Leafs packaged Kessel in a multi-player deal to the Pittsburgh Penguins in return for three skaters, including Kasperi Kapanen, a conditional first round pick, and a third round pick. Toronto also retained $1.2 million of Kessel 's salary for the remaining seven seasons of his contract. During the following season, on February 9, 2016, the Leafs packaged Phaneuf in another multi-player deal, acquiring four players, as well as a 2017 2nd - round pick from the Ottawa Senators. The team finished last in the NHL for the first time since the 1984 -- 85 season and secured a 20 percent chance at winning the first overall pick in the 2016 NHL Entry Draft. They were also guaranteed to pick no lower than fourth. They subsequently won the draft lottery and used the first overall pick to draft Auston Matthews. In their second season under Babcock, Toronto secured the final Eastern Conference wildcard spot for the 2017 playoffs. On April 23, 2017, the Maple Leafs were eliminated from the playoffs by the top - seeded Washington Capitals. With a score of 2 -- 1 in the sixth game of the first round, Marcus Johansson scored the winner for the Capitals 6: 31 into overtime. The price of a Maple Leafs home game ticket is the highest amongst any team in the NHL. The Air Canada Centre holds 18,900 seats for Leafs games, with 15,500 reserved for season ticket holders. Because of the demand for season tickets, their sale is limited to the 10,000 people on the waiting list. As of March 2016, Leafs ' season tickets saw a renewal rate of 99.5 percent, a rate that would require more than 250 years to clear the existing waiting list. In a 2014 survey by ESPN The Magazine, the Leafs were ranked last out of the 122 professional teams in the Big Four leagues. Teams were graded by stadium experience, ownership, player quality, ticket affordability, championships won and "bang for the buck ''; in particular, the Leafs came last in ticket affordability. Leafs fans have been noted for their loyalty to the team, in spite of their performance. In a study conducted by Fanatics in March 2017, the Leafs and the Minnesota Wild were the only two NHL teams to average arena sellouts, with average win percentages below the league 's average. Conversely, fans of other teams harbour an equally passionate dislike of the team. In November 2002, the Leafs were named by Sports Illustrated hockey writer Michael Farber as the "Most Hated Team in Hockey ''. Despite their loyalty, there have been several instances where the fanbase voiced their displeasure with the club. During the 2011 -- 12 season, fans attending the games chanted for the dismissal of head coach Ron Wilson, and later general manager Brian Burke. Wilson was let go shortly after the fans ' outburst, even though he had been given a contract extension months earlier. Burke alluded to the chants noting "it would be cruel and unusual punishment to let Ron coach another game in the Air Canada Centre ''. In the 2014 -- 15 season fans threw Leafs jerseys onto the ice to show their disapproval of the team 's poor performances in the past few decades. Similarly, during the later portion of the 2015 -- 16 season which overlaps with the start of Major League Baseball 's season, fans were heard sarcastically chanting "Let 's go Blue Jays! '' as a sign of their shift in priority from an under - performing team to the 2016 Blue Jays season. Many Leafs fans live outside the Greater Toronto Area (GTA), and throughout Ontario, including the Ottawa Valley, the Niagara Region, and Southwestern Ontario. As a result, Leafs -- Senators games at the Canadian Tire Centre in Ottawa, and Leafs -- Sabres games at the KeyBank Center in Buffalo, host a more neutral attendance, due in part to the Leafs fans in those areas, and to those cities ' proximity to the GTA and the relative ease in getting tickets to those teams ' games. The Leafs are also a popular team in Atlantic Canada. In November 2016, a survey was conducted that found 20 percent of respondents from Atlantic Canada viewed the Leafs as their favourite team; second only to the Montreal Canadiens at 26 percent. The Leafs were found to be the most favoured team in Prince Edward Island, with 24 percent of respondents favouring the Leafs; and the second favourite team in Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland and Labrador (19 and 24 percent respectively, both trailing respondents who favoured the Canadiens by one percent). -- Bob Nevin During the 25 years of the Original Six - era (1942 -- 67), teams played each other 14 times during the regular season, and with only four teams continuing into the playoffs, rivalries were intense. As one of this era 's most successful teams, the Maple Leafs established historic rivalries with the two other most successful teams at the time, the Montreal Canadiens and the Detroit Red Wings. In addition to the Canadiens and Red Wings, the Maple Leafs have also developed a rivalry with the Ottawa Senators. The Detroit Red Wings and the Maple Leafs are both Original Six teams, playing their first game together in 1927. From 1929 to 1993, the teams met each other in the 16 playoff series, as well as seven Stanley Cup Finals. Meeting one another for a combined 23 times in the postseason, they have played each other in more postseason series than any other two teams in NHL history with the exception of the Bruins and Canadiens who have played a total of 34 postseason series. Overlapping fanbases, particularly in markets such as Windsor, Ontario, have added to the rivalry. The rivalry between the Detroit Red Wings and the Maple Leafs was at its height during the Original Six - era. The Leafs and Red Wings met in the postseason six times during the 1940s, including four Stanley Cup finals. The Leafs beat the Red Wings in five of their six meetings. In the 1950s, the Leafs and Red Wings met one another in six Stanley Cup semifinals; the Red Wings beat the Leafs in five of their six meetings. From 1961 to 1967, the two teams met one another in three playoff series, including two Stanley Cup finals. Within those 25 years, the Leafs and Red Wings played a total of 15 postseason series including six Cup Finals; the Maple Leafs beat the Red Wings in all six Cup Finals. The teams have only met three times in the postseason since the Original Six - era, with their last meeting in 1993. After the Leafs moved to the Eastern Conference in 1998, they faced each other less often, and the rivalry began to stagnate. The rivalry became intradivisional once again in 2013, when Detroit was moved to the Atlantic division of the Eastern Conference as part of a realignment. The rivalry between the Montreal Canadiens and the Maple Leafs is the oldest in the NHL, featuring two clubs that were active since the inaugural NHL season in 1917. In the early 20th century, the rivalry was an embodiment of a larger culture war between English Canada and French Canada. The Canadiens have won 24 Stanley Cups, while the Maple Leafs have won 13, ranking them first and second for most Cup wins. The height of the rivalry was during the 1960s, when the Canadiens and Leafs combined to win all but one Cup. The two clubs had 15 postseason meetings. However, failing to meet each other in the playoffs since 1979, the rivalry has waned. It also suffered when Montreal and Toronto were placed in opposite conferences in 1981, with the Leafs in the Clarence Campbell / Western Conference and the Canadiens in the Prince of Wales / Eastern Conference. In 1998, the Leafs were moved into the Eastern Conference 's Northeast Division. The rivalry 's cultural imprint may be seen in literature and art. The rivalry from the perspective of the Canadiens fan is perhaps most famously captured in the popular Canadian short story "The Hockey Sweater '' by Roch Carrier. Originally published in French as "Une abominable feuille d'érable sur la glace '' ("An abominable maple leaf on the ice ''), it referred to the Maple Leafs sweater a mother forced her son to wear. The son is presumably based on Carrier himself when he was young. This rivalry is also evident in Toronto 's College subway station, which displays murals depicting the two teams, one on each platform. The modern Ottawa Senators entered the NHL in 1992, but the rivalry between the two teams did not begin to emerge until the late 1990s. From 1992 to 1998, Ottawa and Toronto played in different conferences (Eastern and Western respectively), which meant they rarely played each other. However, before the 1998 -- 99 season, the conferences and divisions were realigned, with Toronto moved to the Eastern Conference 's Northeast Division with Ottawa. From 2000 to 2004, the teams played four post-season series; the Leafs won all four playoff series. Due in part to the number Leafs fans living in the Ottawa Valley, and in part to Ottawa 's proximity to Toronto, Leafs -- Senators games at the Canadian Tire Centre in Ottawa hold a more neutral audience. As a result of both Bell Canada and Rogers Communications having an ownership stake in MLSE, Maple Leafs broadcasts are split between the two media companies; with regional TV broadcasts split between Rogers ' Sportsnet Ontario and Bell 's TSN4. Colour commentary for Bell 's television broadcasts is performed by Jamie McLennan and Ray Ferraro, while play - by - play is provided by Chris Cuthbert and Gord Miller. Colour commentary for Rogers ' television broadcasts is performed by Greg Millen, while play - by - play is provided by Paul Romanuk. MLSE also operates a regional specialty channel, the Leafs Nation Network. The Leafs Nation Network broadcasts programming related to the Maple Leafs, as well as games for the Toronto Marlies, the Maple Leafs ' American Hockey League affiliate. Like the Maple Leafs television broadcasts, radio broadcasts are split evenly between Rogers ' CJCL (Sportsnet 590, The Fan) and Bell 's CHUM (TSN Radio 1050). Both Bell and Rogers ' radio broadcasts have their colour commentary provided by Jim Ralph, with play - by - play provided by Joe Bowen. Foster Hewitt was the Leafs ' first play - by - play broadcaster, providing radio play - by - play from 1927 to 1978. In addition, he provided play - by - play for television from 1952 to 1958, and colour commentary from 1958 to 1961. Originally aired over CFCA, Hewitt 's broadcast was picked up by the Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission (the CRBC) in 1933, moving to CBC Radio (the CRBC 's successor) three years later. As the show was aired on Canadian national radio, Hewitt became famous for the phrase "He shoots, he scores! '' as well as his sign - on at the beginning of each broadcast, "Hello, Canada, and hockey fans in the United States and Newfoundland. '' The team 's first home was the Arena Gardens, later known as the Mutual Street Arena. From 1912 until 1931, the Arena was ice hockey 's premier site in Toronto. The Arena Gardens was the third arena in Canada to feature a mechanically - frozen, or artificial, ice surface, and for 11 years was the only such facility in Eastern Canada. The Arena was demolished in 1989, with most of the site converted to residential developments. In 2011, parts of the site were made into a city park, known as Arena Gardens. In 1931, over a six - month period, Conn Smythe built Maple Leaf Gardens on the northwest corner of Carlton Street and Church Street, at a cost of C $1.5 million (C $23.5 million in 2018). The arena soon acquired nicknames including the "Carlton Street Cashbox '', and the "Maple Leaf Mint '', since the team 's games were constantly sold out. The Maple Leafs won 11 Stanley Cups while playing at the Gardens. The first annual NHL All - Star Game was also held at Maple Leaf Gardens in 1947. The Gardens opened on November 12, 1931, with the Maple Leafs losing 2 -- 1 to the Chicago Blackhawks. On February 13, 1999, the Maple Leafs played their last game at the Gardens, suffering a 6 -- 2 loss to the Blackhawks. The building is presently used as a multi-purpose facility, with a Loblaws grocery store occupying retail space on the lower floors, and an athletics arena for Ryerson University, occupying another level. The Maple Leafs presently use two facilities in the City of Toronto. The club moved from the Gardens on February 20, 1999, to their current home arena, the Air Canada Centre, a multi-purpose indoor entertainment arena on Bay Street in Downtown Toronto. The arena is owned by the Maple Leafs ' parent company MLSE, and is shared with the NBA 's Toronto Raptors (another MLSE subsidiary), as well as the National Lacrosse League 's Toronto Rock. In addition to the main arena, the Maple Leafs also operate a practice facility at the MasterCard Centre for Hockey Excellence. Opened in 2009 by the Lakeshore Lions Club, the arena adopted the name of the Lions ' old arena, the Lakeshore Lions Arena. Facing financial difficulties, in September 2011, the City of Toronto took over ownership of the arena from the Lions ' Club. It is now a City of Toronto controlled Corporation. Renamed the Mastercard Centre, the facility has three NHL rinks and one Olympic - sized rink. The team is represented through a number of images and symbols, including the maple leaf logo found on the club 's uniform, and their mascot. The Maple Leafs ' jersey has a long history and is one of the best - selling NHL jerseys among fans. The club 's uniforms have been altered several times. The club 's first uniforms were blue and featured the letter T. The first major alteration came in 1919, when the club was renamed the St. Patricks. The uniforms were green with "Toronto St. Pats '' on the logo, lettered in green either on a white "pill '' shape or stripes. When the club was renamed the Maple Leafs in the 1927 -- 28 season, the logo was changed, and the team reverted to blue uniforms. The logo was a 48 - point maple leaf with the words lettered in white. The home jersey was blue with alternating thin - thick stripes on the arms, legs and shoulders. The road uniform was white with three stripes on the chest and back, waist and legs. For 1933 -- 34, the alternating thin - thick stripes were replaced with stripes of equal thickness. This remained the basic design for the next 40 years. In 1937, veins were added to the leaf and "Toronto '' curved downwards at the ends instead of upwards. In 1942, the 35 - point leaf was introduced. In 1946, the logo added trimming to the leaf with a white or blue border, while "C '' for captain and "A '' for alternate captain first appeared on the sweaters. In 1947, the "Toronto Maple Leafs '' lettering was in red for a short time. In 1958, a six - eyelet lace and tie was added to the neck and a blue shoulder yoke was added. In 1961, player numbers were added on the sleeves. The fourth major change came in the 1966 -- 67 season, when the logo was changed to an 11 - point leaf, similar to the leaf on the then - new flag of Canada to commemorate the Canadian Centennial. Before the 1970 -- 71 season, the Leafs adopted a new 11 - point leaf logo, with a Kabel bold - font "Toronto '' going straight across, running parallel to the other words. Other changes to the sweater removed the arm stripes, extended the yoke to the end of the sleeves, added a solid stripe on the waist, three stripes on the stockings and a miniature Leaf crest on the shoulders. In 1973, the jersey 's neck was a lace tie - down design, before the V - neck returned in 1976. In 1977, player names were added to the away jerseys and in 1979 to the home jerseys, but not until after the Leafs were fined by the NHL for refusing to comply with a new rule. With the NHL 's 75th anniversary season (1991 -- 92 season), the Leafs wore "Original Six '' style uniforms similar to the designs used in the 1940s. Because of the fan reaction to the previous season 's classic uniforms, the first changes to the Maple Leafs uniform in over twenty years were made. Two stripes on the arms and waist were added. A "TML '' logo was added to the shoulder. The older veined - style Maple Leafs logo was reused as a shoulder crest on the sweater from 1992 to 2000, and again from 2008 to 2016. When the Reebok Edge uniform system was introduced in the 2007 -- 08 season, the tail stripes were absent from the change, but returned three years later. In addition, the veined leaf logo returned to the uniforms. For the 2014 NHL Winter Classic the Leafs wore a sweater inspired by their earlier uniforms in the 1930s. On February 2, 2016, the team unveiled a new logo for the 2016 -- 17 season in honour of its centennial, dropping the use of the Kabel - style font lettering used from 1970; it returns the logo to a form inspired by the earlier designs, with 31 points to allude to the 1931 opening of Maple Leaf Gardens, and 17 veins a reference to its establishment in 1917. 13 of the veins are positioned along the top part in honour of its 13 Stanley Cup victories. The logo was subsequently accompanied by a new uniform design that was unveiled during the 2016 NHL Entry Draft on June 24, 2016. The Maple Leafs ' mascot is Carlton the Bear, an anthropomorphic polar bear whose name and number (# 60) comes from the location of Maple Leaf Gardens at 60 Carlton Street, where the Leafs played throughout much of their history. The Maple Leafs are presently affiliated with two minor league teams, the Toronto Marlies of the American Hockey League, and the Orlando Solar Bears of the ECHL. The Marlies play from Ricoh Coliseum in Toronto. Prior to its move to Ricoh Colosseum in 2005, the team was located in St. John 's Newfoundland and was known as the St. John 's Maple Leafs. The Marlies originated from the New Brunswick Hawks, who later moved to St. Catherines, Newmarket, and St. John 's, before finally moving to Toronto. The Marlies was named after the Toronto Marlboros, a junior hockey team named after the Duke of Marlborough. Founded in 1903, the Marlboros were sponsored by the Leafs from 1927 to 1989. The Marlboros constituted one of two junior hockey teams the Leafs formerly sponsored, the other being the Toronto St. Michael 's Majors. The Solar Bears is an ECHL team based in Orlando, Florida. The Solar Bears became affiliated with the Maple Leafs and the Marlies in July 2013, and are presently their only NHL and AHL affiliates. Unlike the Marlies, the Solar Bears are not owned by the Leafs ' parent company, but are instead owned by Richard DeVos, owner of the National Basketball Association 's Orlando Magic. The Maple Leafs is one of six professional sports teams owned by Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment (MLSE). Initially the ownership of the club was granted to the Arena Gardens of Toronto, Limited; an ownership group fronted by Henry Pellatt, that owned and managed Arena Gardens. After the League 's inaugural season, Arena Gardens petitioned the League for a permanent franchise, with team manager Charles Querrie, and the Arena Gardens treasurer Hubert Vearncombe as its owners. Facing financial issues stemming from litigations from Eddie Livingstone, Querrie brokered the sale of the Arena Garden 's share to the owners of the amateur St. Patricks Hockey Club. Maintaining his shares in the club, Querrie fronted the new ownership group until 1927, when the club was put up for sale. Toronto Varsity Blues coach Conn Smythe put together an ownership group and purchased the franchise for $160,000. In 1929, Smythe decided, in the midst of the Great Depression, that the Maple Leafs needed a new arena. To finance it, Smythe launched Maple Leaf Gardens Limited, a publicly traded management company to own both the Maple Leafs and the new arena, which was named Maple Leaf Gardens. Smythe transferred his ownership of the Leafs to the company in exchange for shares in MLGL, and sold shares in the holding company to the public to help fund construction of the arena. Although Smythe was the face of MLGL from its founding, he did not gain principal ownership of the company until 1947. Smythe remained the principal owner of the company until 1961, when he sold 90 percent of his shares to an ownership group consisting of Harold Ballard, John Bassett, and Stafford Smythe. Ballard gained principal ownership of the company in February 1972, shortly following the death of Stafford Smythe. Ballard was the principal owner of MLGL until his death in 1990. The company remained a publicly traded company until 1998, when an ownership group fronted by Steve Stavro privatized the company by acquiring more than the 90 percent of stock necessary to force objecting shareholders out. The present ownership structure emerged in 2012, after the Ontario Teachers ' Pension Plan (the company 's former principal owner) announced the sale of its 75 percent stake in MLSE to a partnership between Bell Canada and Rogers Communications, in a deal valued at $ 1.32 billion. As part of the sale, two numbered companies were created to jointly hold stock. This ownership structure ensures that, at the shareholder level, Rogers and Bell vote their overall 75 percent interest in the company together and thus decisions on the management of the company must be made by consensus between the two. The remaining 25 percent is owned by Larry Tanenbaum, who is also the chairman of MLSE. Bell 's pension fund owns a portion of Bell 's share of MLSE, in order to retain its existing 18 percent interest in the Montreal Canadiens; as NHL rules prevent any shareholder that owns more than 30 percent of a team from holding an ownership position in another. While initially primarily a hockey company, with ownership stakes in a number of junior hockey clubs including the Toronto Marlboros of the Ontario Hockey Association, the company later branched out to own the Hamilton Tiger - Cats of the CFL from the late 1970s to late 1980s. On February 12, 1998, MLGL purchased the Toronto Raptors of the National Basketball Association, who were constructing the Air Canada Centre. After the Raptors purchase, MLGL changed names to MLSE. The company 's portfolio has since expanded to include the Toronto FC of Major League Soccer, the Toronto Marlies of the AHL, the Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League and a 37.5 percent stake in Maple Leaf Square. Updated March 22, 2018. There have been twenty - one team captains throughout the team 's history. Ken Randall served as the team 's first captain in the inaugural 1917 -- 18 NHL season. The first captain to have served the position for multiple seasons was Reg Noble, serving as captain from 1920 to 1924. John Ross Roach was the first goaltender to be named captain in the NHL, and the only goaltender to serve as the Leafs ' captain. He was one of only six goalies in NHL history to have been officially recognized as the team captain. George Armstrong, captain from 1958 through 1969, was the longest serving captain in the team 's history. In 1997, Mats Sundin became the first non-Canadian to captain the Maple Leafs. His tenure as captain holds the distinction as the longest captaincy for a non-North American born player in NHL history. The last player named to the position was Dion Phaneuf on June 14, 2010. No replacement has been named since he was traded on February 9, 2016. Three captains of the Maple Leafs have held the position at different points in their career. Syl Apps ' first tenure as the captain began from 1940 to 1943, before he stepped down and left the club to enlist in the Canadian Army. Bob Davidson served as the Maple Leafs captain until Apps ' return from the Army in 1945, when he resumed his captaincy until 1948. Ted Kennedy 's first tenure as captain was from 1948 to 1955. He announced his retirement from the sport at the end of the 1954 -- 55 season, with Sid Smith succeeding him as captain. Although Kennedy missed the entire 1955 -- 56 season, he came out of retirement to play the second half of the 1956 -- 57 season. During that half season, Kennedy served his second tenure as the Maple Leafs ' captain. Darryl Sittler was the third player to have been named the team 's captain twice. As a result of a dispute between Sittler and the Maple Leafs ' general manager Punch Imlach, Sittler relinquished the captaincy on December 29, 1979. The dispute was resolved in the following off - season, after a heart attack hospitalized Imlach. Sittler arranged talks with Ballard to resolve the issue, eventually resuming his captaincy on September 24, 1980. No replacement captain was named during the interim period. The Maple Leafs have had 39 head coaches (including four interim coaches). The franchise 's first head coach was Dick Carroll, who coached the team for two seasons. A number of coaches have served as the Leafs head coach on multiple occasions. King Clancy was named the head coach on three separate occasions while Charles Querrie and Punch Imlach served the position on two occasions. Mike Babcock is the current head coach. He was named as coach on May 20, 2015, signing an eight - year $50 - million contract, becoming the highest paid NHL coach in history. Punch Imlach coached the most games of any Leafs ' head coach with 750 games, and has the most all - time points with the Maple Leafs, with 865. He is followed by Pat Quinn, who coached 574 games, with 678 points all - time with the Maple Leafs. Quinn also has the most points in a season of any Maple Leafs ' coach, with 103 in the 2002 -- 03 season. Both Mike Rodden and Dick Duff, have the fewest points with the Maple Leafs, with 0. Both were interim coaches who coached only two games each in 1927 and 1980 respectively, losing both games. Five Maple Leafs ' coaches have been inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame as players, while four others were inducted as builders. Pat Burns is the only Leafs ' head coach to win a Jack Adams Award with the team. In the 1963 NHL Amateur Draft, the NHL 's inaugural draft, the Maple Leafs selected Walt McKechnie, a centre from the London Nationals with their first pick, sixth overall. Two Maple Leafs captains were obtained through the draft, Darryl Sittler in the 1970 draft; as well as Wendel Clark in the 1985 NHL Entry Draft. The Maple Leafs have drafted two players with a first overall draft pick; Clark in the 1985 draft, and Auston Matthews in the 2016 draft. Timothy Liljegren was the most recent player selected by the Maple Leafs in the first round, using the seventeenth overall pick at the 2017 draft. The Maple Leafs have retired the numbers of 19 players (as some players used the same number, only 13 numbers have been retired). Between October 17, 1992, and October 15, 2016, the Maple Leafs took a unique approach to retired numbers. Whereas players who suffered a career ending injury had their numbers retired, "great '' players had their number "honoured ''. Honoured numbers remained in general circulation for players, however, during Brian Burke 's tenure as the Maple Leafs ' general manager, use of honoured numbers required his approval. During this period, only two players met the criteria, the first being number 6, worn by Ace Bailey and retired on February 14, 1934; and Bill Barilko 's number 5, retired on October 17, 1992. The retirement of Bailey 's number holds the distinction of being the first of its kind in professional sports. It was briefly taken out of retirement before to the 1968 -- 69 season, after he asked that Ron Ellis be allowed to wear his number. Bailey 's number returned to retirement after Ellis 's final game on January 14, 1981. The first players to have their numbers honoured were Syl Apps and Ted Kennedy, on October 3, 1993. Mats Sundin was the last player to have his number honoured on February 11, 2012. On October 15, 2016, before the home opening game of the team 's centenary season, the Maple Leafs announced they had changed their philosophy on retiring numbers, and that the numbers of those 16 honoured players would now be retired, in addition to the retirement of Dave Keon 's number. As well as honouring and retiring the numbers, the club also commissioned statues of former Maple Leafs. The group of statues, known as Legends Row, is a 9.2 metres (30 ft) granite hockey bench with statues of former club players. Unveiled in September 2014, it is located outside Gate 5 of the Air Canada Centre, at Maple Leaf Square. As of October 2017, statues have been made of 14 players with retired numbers. In addition to the thirteen numbers retired by the Maple Leafs, the number 99 is also retired from use in the organization. At the 2000 NHL All - Star Game hosted in Toronto, the NHL announced the League - wide retirement of Wayne Gretzky 's number 99, retiring it from use throughout all its member teams, including the Maple Leafs. The Toronto Maple Leafs acknowledges an affiliation with 75 inductees of the Hockey Hall of Fame. The 75 inductees include 62 former players as well as 13 builders of the sport. The Maple Leafs have the greatest number of players inducted in the Hockey Hall of Fame The 13 individuals recognized as builders of the sport include former Maple Leafs broadcasters, executives, head coaches, and other personnel relating to the club 's operations. Inducted in 2017, Dave Andreychuk was the latest Maple Leafs player to be inducted in the Hockey Hall of Fame. These are the top franchise leaders in regular season points, goals, assists, points per game, games played, and goaltending wins as of the end of the 2015 -- 16 season. Footnotes Citations Works cited

who is the singer for system of a down

Serj Tankian - Wikipedia Serj Tankian (Armenian: (ˈsɛɾʒ thɑnˈkjɑn); born August 21, 1967) is a Lebanese - born Armenian - American singer - songwriter, composer, multi-instrumentalist, record producer, poet and political activist. He is best known as the lead vocalist, songwriter, keyboardist, and occasional live rhythm guitarist of the alternative metal band System of a Down, formed in 1994. During his musical career, Tankian has released five albums with System of a Down, one with Arto Tunçboyacıyan (Serart), as well as the five solo albums Elect the Dead, Imperfect Harmonies, Harakiri, Orca, and Jazz - Iz - Christ. A live orchestral version of Elect the Dead incorporating the Auckland Philharmonia Orchestra named Elect the Dead Symphony was released. In 2002, Tankian and Rage Against the Machine / Audioslave guitarist Tom Morello co-founded a non-profit political activist organization, Axis of Justice. Tankian also founded the music label Serjical Strike Records, and is represented by Velvet Hammer Music and Management Group under System of a Down. On August 12, 2011, Tankian was awarded the Armenian Prime Minister 's Medal for his contributions to the recognition of the Armenian Genocide and the advancement of music. He is widely considered and ranked as one of the greatest vocalists in metal history, with praise given to his unusual delivery and his wide vocal range. Serj Tankian is currently listed as one of the Top 100 Heavy Metal Vocalists by Hit Parader, ranked at # 26. A study conducted by VVN Music found Tankian to possess a moderately - high and diverse vocal range, not only in metal, but in all of popular music, with a range of 4.2 octaves. This range is comparable to Rob Halford, Elvis Presley, Freddie Mercury, Anthony Kiedis, Hansi Kürsch, and Steven Tyler (range of 4 octaves and 1 note). Tankian was born to Armenian parents in Beirut, Lebanon on August 21, 1967. His grandparents hailed from what is now Turkey. At age seven, he moved with his parents to Los Angeles, California. In his youth, he attended bilingual Rose and Alex Pilibos Armenian School, which was also attended by Tankian 's future System of a Down bandmates Daron Malakian and Shavo Odadjian. Tankian was accepted into California State University, Northridge. This is where Tankian first began to play instruments and write songs. The early beginnings of System of a Down lie in a band named Soil (not to be confused with the Chicago - based band SOiL) with Tankian on vocals & keyboards, Daron Malakian on vocals & lead guitar, Dave Hakopyan on bass and Domingo Laranio on drums. The band hired Shavo Odadjian as their then - manager but for him to later join as rhythm guitarist. Laranio and Hakopyan later left the band feeling that it was not going anywhere, leading to Soil splitting up. After Soil split up, Tankian, Odadjian and Malakian formed a new band they called System of a Down, after a poem Malakian wrote called Victims of a Down. Their original drummer was Ontronik Khachaturian, with whom they had spent time playing with in Soil, though he was later replaced by John Dolmayan after breaking his hand shortly before a gig the band had been booked to play, giving Dolmayan the last - minute call up. The band quickly began touring the Southern California rock clubs, and began to attract a strong following. The band achieved commercial success with the release of five studio albums, three of which debuted at number one on the Billboard 200. System of a Down has been nominated for four Grammy Awards, and their song "B.Y.O.B. '' won the Best Hard Rock Performance of 2006. In May 2006 the band announced they were going on hiatus. On November 29, 2010, following several weeks of internet rumors, System of a Down officially announced that they would play shows in Europe during Festivals and in North America, mostly in US, embarking on a tour for the following three years. In an interview with Rolling Stone on January 8, 2015, Tankian said that the band may consider recording a new album after they finish the Wake Up The Souls Tour. Tankian 's breakthrough as a solo artist came with the release of his debut record Elect the Dead. The first singles from Elect the Dead are "The Unthinking Majority '' and "Empty Walls ''. The music video "Feed Us '' was released on the Swedish and UK MTV. Tankian appeared on MTV 's You Rock The Deuce to promote Elect the Dead. A music video was directed and filmed for every song on the record, each by unique directors. Tankian explained, "I asked each of the directors for their visual interpretation of my work. They were asked not to write treatments and that they could make whatever they liked. The results have been overwhelmingly amazing! '' Some music videos were initially released exclusively to those who purchased the limited edition of Elect the Dead, while all of the music videos, except "Money '', have since been publicly released on Tankian 's website and YouTube channel. Some videos have alternative versions which were originally released as well, but later altered. Three different promo versions of the album have surfaced to the public. The instrumental promotional version, issued by Serjical Strike / Reprise Records and intended for the music and movie industry, contains instrumental versions of the twelve album tracks. Another promotional version, issued by Reprise Records and made only for individual reviewers, features the album in final master form. This promotional CD - R, which was labeled "Smart Talk '' as a codename for "Serj Tankian '' to prevent leaking by unauthorized persons, also indicates that the album was finalized prior to August 20, 2007 (2007 - 08 - 20). Before this a similar but undated promo, also under the name ' Smart Talk ', was issued featuring the final versions of the songs, albeit not yet mastered. Whilst the printed track list on this version is identical to the released album, tracks ten and eleven are in fact juxtaposed on the promo itself. The official tour for Elect the Dead commenced on October 12, 2007 with a show at Chicago 's Vic theater. Roughly one thousand people attended the first concert. Although Tankian had stated he would not be performing any material by his former band, System of a Down, he performed "Charades '' and "Blue '', songs co-written by Daron Malakian, the guitarist of System of a Down. "Blue '' had previously appeared on their Fourth Demo Tape in 1998, and Charades was attempted during the 2005 Mezmerize / Hypnotize sessions, but never released (although a short video clip of Tankian and Dolmayan playing the song in a recording studio was featured on "the Making of Mezmerize / Hypnotize ''). Although it is originally a song restricted to piano and vocals, Tankian used his backing band, the Flying Cunts of Chaos (F.C.C.), to provide guitars, drums, and bass. The songs "Beethoven 's Cunt '', Empty Walls, and Sky Is Over are available as downloadable content for Rock Band. A portion of the song "Lie Lie Lie '' is currently featured in the opening title sequence of NBC 's Fear Itself, a horror anthology show from the creators of Masters of Horror, and can be viewed on the show 's main website. More recently, he sang with Les Rita Mitsouko on the song "Terminal Beauty ''. Also, he sang with the band Fair to Midland during a live improvisational version of their song "Walls of Jericho '', from the album Fables from a Mayfly: What I Tell You Three Times Is True, which was a massive hit with fans. Tankian is also politically involved. Together with Tom Morello, he founded the organization Axis of Justice and often speaks publicly against violence and injustice in the world. Tankian released a new song "Fears '' in November 2008 exclusively in support of Amnesty International 's Global Write - A-Thon. On March 16, 2009, Tankian performed with the Auckland Philharmonia Orchestra in New Zealand, an orchestral version of the album Elect the Dead. The live performance was captured in a CD / DVD titled Elect the Dead Symphony which was released on March 9, 2010. Tankian co-wrote a musical with the American playwright Steven Sater. It is based on the Ancient Greek tragedy Prometheus Bound. It will open at the American Repertory Theater on March 14, 2011. In 2009, Tankian collaborated with the band Viza (previously known as Visa) for their track "Viktor ''. Viza is signed to Tankian 's Serjical Strike label. On February 15, 2010, Tankian released a new single, "The Charade ''. The song is available as a digital download on iTunes. On April 9, 2013, Tankian collaborated with Device, a band led by Disturbed frontman David Draiman. Tankian 's second solo album was originally due in 2009. It is said to be more of a jazz and orchestral based sound. Said Tankian of the second album, "I 'm structuring the next record kind of like a jazz orchestral. I 've got a full orchestra interested, so I want this giant electric guitar in the air to be played by a full orchestra. I want the orchestra to be the electric guitar. I want to make an orchestra do what it 's never done before, like a GG Allin type orchestra. Think of that. '' The album had the working title Music Without Borders, however, the final album title is Imperfect Harmonies. On June 23, 2010, a promo single from his upcoming album Imperfect Harmonies was released called "Borders Are ''. The first radio single from Imperfect Harmonies, "Left Of Center '', was released on July 13, 2010. A third single, "Disowned Inc. '' was released on August 9, 2010. Imperfect Harmonies was released on September 21, 2010. Preceding the album 's release, two contests were announced (one consisting of brainteasers related to the album / song titles, the other an art contest) in which fans could win prizes such as Tankian 's autograph and merchandise. On August 22, 2010, a music video for Left Of Center was released on Tankian 's MySpace account. The premiere date for Tankian and Sater 's Prometheus Bound at the American Repertory Theater is February 25, 2011. The singer has said that collaborating on the show has been a great learning experience for him. "I 've been using a lot of my archives, a lot of different types of music that I had already put together for underscoring and what not, '' he said. "It 's quite diverse, from noise to jazz to electronic stuff to hip - hop songs to rock songs to cool, piano dark underscores, and that 's a whole different bag of tricks there because it 's always evolving. Unlike a film score that 's very linear and you get a scene to score for, this is something where you do another workshop and one song is gone, that underscore changes to 20 seconds and they need something else on the spot. Everything 's always changing until the show comes, so it 's quite interesting. '' In January 2011 Tankian released a music video for his song Reconstructive Demonstrations from his album Imperfect Harmonies. Tankian also announced on his Facebook page, during the video 's release, that a new EP entitled Imperfect Remixes would be released sometime within 2011. On February 3, Tankian uploaded a photo of him singing into a microphone onto his Facebook fan page, accompanied with the description "New music video coming soon... '' On March 1, Tankian released Imperfect Remixes and the music video for Goodbye, a remix of Gate 21 from Imperfect Harmonies. In early July 2011, Tankian posted a video on YouTube showing two samples of new songs. During the video he said "next year ''. In multiple interviews he has stated that he has been working on a rock record that will be released in 2011, and some side projects including jazz, electronic, and symphonic records. It was later confirmed that his third album would be called Harakiri and will be released on July 10, 2012. This will be the first of four new albums to be released in the near future. The first single from Harakiri, "Figure It Out '', was released on May 1. A music video for the song appeared on Tankian 's official YouTube page. A second single from the album, "Cornucopia '', was released on June 10. A third single, title track "Harakiri '', was made available as a preorder bonus from Tankian 's website on June 20. He released his fourth studio album Orca Symphony No. 1 on June 25, 2013. The album takes the form of a classical symphony. A professionally sampled studio version was released on November 30, 2012, while the live recorded version was released on June 25, 2013 through Serjical Strike Records. His fifth studio album Jazz - Iz - Christ was released on July 23, 2013, by Serjical Strike Records. The release features Tankian 's vocals on only four of the 15 tracks; all others are instrumental, except for "End of Time '', which features a female vocalist. The last project Fuktronic, an electronic music collaboration with Mindless Self Indulgence 's Jimmy Urine remains to be released as of 2015, although the duo released a sample on SoundCloud. Fuktronic is described as "the team of Serj Tankian and Jimmy Urine from Mindless Self Indulgence, making a soundtrack for the ultimate British Gangster Film. It 's an electronic album with 12 tracks (4 instrumental and 8 tracks that have original scripted dialogue that portrays the trials and tribulations of a fresh out of prison British gangster who has n't learned his lesson). '' He appeared on the Tech N9ne album Something Else in 2013 on the song "Straight Out the Gate ''. He was a surprise guest performer for the Game of Thrones Live Concert Experience in Los Angeles on March 25, 2017 singing The Rains of Castamere. In June and July 2017, he was a guest on multiple shows of the Prophets of Rage during System of a Down 's European tour, singing "Like a Stone '' in memory of his friend, Audioslave 's recently passed Chris Cornell. In November 2017, Swedish independent label Woah Dad! acquired the albums that Tankian recorded for Reprise Records. Tankian is passionate about human rights, recognition of genocides, and social justice. These traits have helped to shape his lyrical style in which he writes music. He has organized and participated in many protests, from Armenian Genocide recognition to Axis of Justice protests held by him and co-founder Tom Morello. He also covers many important current issues in his music. In System of A Down and solo record songs many issues are addressed like the War on Terror, overpopulation, genocide, environmentalism, and the American prison system. He and his bandmates from System of a Down starred in a film called Screamers that covers the United States position on genocide. In the film there is an interview shown between Tankian and his grandfather, who is a survivor of the Armenian Genocide and tells of what he saw during it. Tankian has stated that he has "the same religion as that tree over there. It 's a mix of Native American, Buddhist and transcendental ideas. I like to think of earth as mother. I like to think of sky as grandfather. God has been used for ulterior motives. '' In another interview, he has said: "I believe very firmly that indigenous populations had a really good, intuitive understanding of why we 're here. And we 're trying to gain that same understanding through psychology and intellect in modern civilization. '' Following the September 11 attacks he wrote an essay in which he wrote: "If we carry out bombings on Afghanistan or elsewhere to appease public demand, and very likely kill innocent civilians along the way, we 'd be creating many more martyrs going to their deaths in retaliation against the retaliation. As shown from yesterday 's events, you can not stop a person who 's ready to die. '' In the 2008 Democratic Party primaries Tankian originally supported Rep. Dennis Kucinich from Ohio, and subsequently stated that Barack Obama "presents the best possible scenario for a hopeful future, but I do n't personally put my trust in any political office. '' In the 2016 Democratic Party primaries Tankian endorsed Bernie Sanders in August 2015. He wrote on Facebook: "When it comes to standing up to the oligarchs, leading the fight for civil rights, income equality, and so much more, no other politician has been so consistent and incorruptible as Bernie Sanders. '' He praised Sanders in May 2016, stating: "He 's said what he 's done and he 'd done what he says in the Senate. All his contributions are from private individuals; everyone else 's are from major donors and corporations. It does not take a genius to see who 's working for whom here. '' Concerning the Syrian Civil War, Tankian called for negotiating with Bashar al - Assad and letting Iran deal with Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and accused Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Turkey of supporting ISIS. Tankian is an advocate of environmental and animal protection. He became a vegetarian, claiming in an interview with PETA that his change was due to "touring and its variety of edible crap, '' and also he felt it was "instinctive somewhat. '' Furthermore, he also feels the need for respect towards ' mother earth '. In July 2009, Tankian signed a PETA petition against the slaughtering methods of chickens in KFC slaughterhouses. On June 9, 2012, Tankian married his long - time girlfriend Angela Madatyan in a private ceremony in Simi Valley, California. Madatyan was born in Vanadzor, Armenia. On October 24, 2014, Tankian announced that he and his wife had their first child, a son named Rumi. He now resides in Warkworth, a semi-rural town north of Auckland, New Zealand. The F.C.C. (Flying Cunts of Chaos) was Tankian 's backing band when he played live. They began playing for him in 2007 and stopped in 2009. They recorded a debut album in 2009, however the album was not released. A single, "Daysheet Blues '' is the only material released by the group in July 2010. They joined Tankian again briefly in 2010. System of a Down has been nominated for four Grammy Awards, of which has won one in 2006 for Best Hard Rock Performance for the song B.Y.O.B.. The band has also been nominated for several Kerrang! and MTV awards. General

who is the boss in the office season 9

The Office (U.S. season 9) - wikipedia The ninth and final season of the American television comedy The Office premiered on NBC on September 20, 2012, and concluded on May 16, 2013, consisting of 25 episodes. The Office is an American adaptation of the British comedy series of the same name, and is presented in a mockumentary format, portraying the daily lives of office employees in the Scranton, Pennsylvania branch of the fictitious Dunder Mifflin Paper Company. The ninth season of The Office aired on Thursdays at 9: 00 p.m. (Eastern) in the United States, as part of the Comedy Night Done Right television block. This is the second season not to star Steve Carell as lead character Michael Scott, although he returned for a cameo appearance in the series finale. The ninth season largely focuses on the relationship between Jim (John Krasinski) and Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer). After Jim decides to follow his dream and start a sports marketing company in Philadelphia, Pam begins to worry about moving, and the couple 's relationship experiences stress. Meanwhile, Andy Bernard (Ed Helms) abandons the office for a three - month boating trip, and eventually quits his job to pursue his dream of becoming a star, although he soon becomes famous for a viral video. Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) is finally promoted to regional manager. The documentary airs, and a year later, the members of the office gather for Dwight and Angela 's marriage as well as a final round of interviews. Following the decline in ratings from the previous year, the ninth season of The Office managed to stabilize around 4 million viewers per episode. The series finale, however, was watched by over 5.69 million viewers, making it the highest - rated episode that the show had aired in over a year. The season ranked as the ninety - fourth most watched television series during the 2012 -- 13 television year and saw a decrease in ratings from the previous season. Critical reception was moderately positive; although some critics took issue with certain aspects, such as the reveal of the in - series documentary crew, many argued that it was an improvement over the previous season. Others lauded the way the show was able to successfully wrap - up its story arcs. "Finale '' was nominated for three awards at the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards, and won for Outstanding Single - Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series. The ninth season of the show was produced by Reveille Productions and Deedle - Dee Productions, both in association with Universal Television. The show is based on the British comedy series of the same name, which was created by Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant for the BBC. In addition, the two are executive producers on the show. On May 11, 2012, NBC renewed The Office for a ninth season. Series developer Greg Daniels returned as showrunner this season. Daniels stated that the season would feature more big season arcs, saying "I 'll tell you that the last couple of years, I do n't think we did any big arc - type things in the way that we used to in the beginning, I think the thing we 're going to do is bring back a lot of arcs. '' Brent Forrester, who had been a consulting producer and writer since the third season was promoted to executive producer, alongside new series writer Dan Sterling. In a conference call with reporters on August 21, 2012, Daniels announced that this would be the final season of the series. Daniels said, "This year feels like the last chance to really go out together and make an artistic ending for the show that pays off a lot of the stuff that matters most to fans. '' Daniels also said all the questions would be answered, such as who was behind the documentary, and why they had been filming it for so long, as well as the reveal of the Scranton Strangler. A central point during the season was the romance between Erin Hannon (Ellie Kemper) and Pete Miller (Jake Lacy). According to Michael Ausiello of TVLine, the nature of their relationship was heavily debated by the writers and producers; he noted that "the triangle (between Andy, Erin, and Pete) has stirred up a number of debates in the writers room, which tells me even they do n't know at this point which guy Erin will choose. '' Daniels consulted with Kemper and asked for her input, as he felt she had the best understanding of Erin 's characterization. For the season, cast members John Krasinski, Jenna Fischer, Rainn Wilson, and Ed Helms were credited as producers. Krasinski also directed an episode. Guest directors for the season included noted actor Bryan Cranston, who directed the episode "Work Bus '', and filmmaker Jon Favreau, who directed the episode "Moving On ''. Daniels directed the first episode, which he also wrote. This marked the first time that he had both written and directed an episode of The Office since the fourth season entry "Fun Run ''. Ken Kwapis directed the series finale; he also directed the show 's pilot episode. While The Office was mainly filmed on a studio set at Valley Center Studios in Van Nuys, California, the city of Scranton, Pennsylvania, where the show is set, was also used for shots of the opening theme. Angela Kinsey and Rainn Wilson, during an interview, expressed the hope to film an episode of the season in Scranton. Although this never came to fruition, exterior shots of the real Scranton bar The Bog were featured in the tenth episode "Lice ''. Originally, the season was supposed to contain 24 episodes, which would have meant that the series aired exactly 200 episodes. However, the series ' penultimate episode was elongated into 2 separate episodes, resulting in "Finale '' -- which was announced previously as an hour - long special -- being the 24th and 25th episodes of the season. This meant that the last part of "Finale '' is the series ' 201st episode. On March 19, 2013, the official Office fansite OfficeTally launched a campaign on Change.org to "super-size or extend '' the finale; this campaign was motivated by a statement made by Daniels, in which he mentioned he would "beg '' the studio to air a longer episode. On May 2, 2013 the petition amassed 20,000 signatures. On May 7, NBC announced the series finale would be extended, and air in a 75 - minute time slot. A one - hour retrospective of the series aired prior to the one - hour series finale on May 16. The Office employs an ensemble cast. Most of the main characters, and some supporting ones, are based on characters from the British version of The Office. While these characters normally have the same attitudes and perceptions as their British counterparts, the roles have been redesigned to better fit the American show. The show is known for its large cast size, many of whom are known particularly for their improvisational work. Rainn Wilson portrays Dwight Schrute, who, based upon Gareth Keenan, is the Assistant to the Regional Manager, although the character frequently fails to include "to the '' in his title. John Krasinski portrays Jim Halpert, a sales representative and prankster, who is based upon Tim Canterbury, and is married to Pam Halpert, the office administrator. Pam (Jenna Fischer), who is based on Dawn Tinsley, is shy, but is often a cohort with Jim in his pranks on Dwight. Ed Helms plays Andy Bernard, the preppy manager -- who was previously a salesman -- and boastful Cornell alumnus whose love for a cappella music and awkward social skills generates mixed feelings from his employees. Krasinski and Helms appeared in fewer episodes in order to film several upcoming movies. Helms was temporarily written out of the series with a storyline that saw his character travel to the Caribbean with his brother on a boat. As such, Helms made only a small appearance in "The Whale '' and was absent from the following eight episodes. He returned in the episode "Couples Discount ''. According to TVLine, he returned to work right before the show 's Christmas break. Wilson was initially slated to appear in only 13 episodes before leaving for a planned Dwight - centric spin - off, but the spin - off was not picked up by NBC. Mindy Kaling and B.J. Novak have much lesser roles as Kelly Kapoor and Ryan Howard, respectively. Both Kaling and Novak appeared in the season opener "New Guys '', and both returned for the series finale. Actress Catherine Tate, who joined the series as a series regular midway through season eight portraying Nellie Bertram, continued with the series. Clark Duke and Lacy joined the cast as customer service representatives hired to deal with the many neglected customer service complaints Kelly has amassed over the years; Lacy 's character, Pete, is also a love interest for Erin. Kinsey and Wilson also noted that the cast and crew could neither "confirm nor deny '' but were "hoping '' for a return of Steve Carell as Michael Scott. In mid-December, Krasinski later revealed that he was optimistic about a return; in an interview with E! Online Krasinski said that the producers were supposedly "still trying to figure out (Carell 's) schedule '' and that the finale "just would n't be the same without him ''. However, NBC chairman Robert Greenblatt later admitted during an interview that while he is "hopeful '', he does not think Carell will return; he noted that Carell was satisfied with his character 's exit and did not want to tarnish it. On January 16, Daniels revealed that Carell would not appear in the finale in any capacity, a decision that Carell later reiterated. Three months later, however, the producers for The Office mounted "an 11th - hour effort last month '' to get Carell to make a cameo in the show 's final episode, according to TVLine. Carell 's personal representative confirmed that Carell was on the set for the final episode, but that he did not film any scenes. However, an anonymous source close to the show cryptically said "do n't rule anything out ''. TVLine later reported on May 6, that Carell would appear in a cameo, although NBC declined to comment and Carell 's representatives continued to deny the reports. Carell, however, did end up returning for the finale; his character, Michael Scott, becomes Dwight 's best man at his wedding. A month after the episode aired, Carell explained in an interview with TVLine that he "lied for months to the press, to almost everyone, really ''. He noted that he "felt terribly for the cast and for (executive producer) Greg Daniels, because they all lied, too. '' Krasinski, on the other hand, explained that "It was so thrilling. We all just flat - out lied... It was just one of those things that we all vowed and had to protect ''. In addition to Carell, the season also saw the return of several "veteran cast members ''. Former series regular David Denman was the first to do so, appearing as Roy Anderson in the second episode of the season "Roy 's Wedding ''; he was last seen as part of the Threat Level Midnight film in season seven. Josh Groban reprised his role as Andy 's brother, Walter Jr, appearing in the episode "The Boat ''. Melora Hardin returned as Jan Levinson in the episode "The Whale '' and had a small vocal cameo in the episode "Couples Discount ''. "Junior Salesman '' saw the return of several minor characters, including Lance Krall as Sensei Ira (who first appeared in the second - season episode "The Fight ''), Noel Petok as Troy Underbridge (who first appeared in the fourth - season episode "Night Out ''), Beth Grant as Dwight 's babysitter (who first appeared in the fourth - season episode "Dinner Party ''), and James Urbaniak as Rolf (who first appeared in the fifth - season episode "Company Picnic ''). Although cast member Zach Woods ' series regular contract was not renewed for the season, he returned to the series as a guest star, in the episode "Moving On ''. David Koechner returned as Todd Packer in "The Farm ''. "Finale '' also featured the return of several recurring characters, such as Nancy Carell as Carol Stills (who played the recurring role of Michael 's real - estate agent and short - time girlfriend), Sendhil Ramamurthy as Ravi, Jackie Debatin as Elizabeth (who first appeared in the third season episode "Ben Franklin ''), Devon Abner as Devon (who was a former Dunder Mifflin employee fired in "Halloween ''), and Spencer Daniels as Jake Palmer (who first played Meredith 's son in the season two episode "Take Your Daughter to Work Day ''). Stephen Colbert guest starred in the Halloween episode as Broccoli Rob, a former member of Here Comes Treble, Andy 's a cappella group. The episode "Lice '' guest starred Julius Erving playing himself as an investor in Jim 's sports marketing business. Former NBC co-chairman and The Office executive producer Ben Silverman had a minor recurring role as one of Jim 's colleagues. He appeared in the episodes "Here Comes Treble '', "Suit Warehouse '', "Customer Loyalty '', and "Moving On ''. The fourteenth episode, "Junior Salesmen '', featured several guest stars. These included Eric Wareheim as Gabor, Matt L. Jones as Zeke, and Will McCormack as Wolf. In the episode "Promos '', athlete Ryan Howard played a version of himself. Comedian Roseanne Barr had a two - episode arc as a talent agent named Carla Fern, and first appeared in the episode "Stairmageddon ''. Michael Imperioli guest starred in the episode "Livin ' the Dream '' as Sensei Billy, acting as a foil for Dwight. The episode "A.A.R.M. '' guest starred Aaron Rodgers, Clay Aiken, Mark McGrath, Santigold, and Jessica St. Clair, all playing themselves. The series finale guest starred: Rachael Harris as Angela 's sister; Joan Cusack and Ed Begley Jr. as Erin 's biological parents; Malcolm Barrett as Stanley 's replacement; and Bill Hader and Seth Meyers as themselves. The season aired on Thursdays at 9: 00 p.m., as part of the Comedy Night Done Right programming block. The season premiere, "New Guys '' received a 2.1 / 6 percent share in the Nielsen ratings among viewers aged 18 to 49, meaning that 2.1 percent of viewers aged 18 to 49 watched the episode, and 6 percent of viewers watching television at the time watched the episode. The episode was viewed by 4.28 million viewers and became the lowest - rated season premiere for the series. In addition, it marked a 46 percent drop in viewership from the season eight premiere "The List ''. For the first sixteen episodes, the series was able to maintain roughly 4 million viewers. However, starting with the seventeenth episode "The Farm '', ratings began to drop below this threshold. The series hit an all - time low with the twentieth episode, "Paper Airplane '', which was viewed by only 3.25 million viewers, and received a 1.7 rating / 5 percent share. The series finale was viewed by 5.69 million viewers and received a 3.0 rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49. This made it the highest - rated episode of the season; it also marked an increase in the previous season finale, which garnered only 4.49 million viewers. "Finale '' was the most watched episode of The Office since the eighth season episode "Pool Party '', but ranked as the third - least watched finale of the series, following the eighth - and first - season finales. Although in its ninth season, The Office no longer was NBC 's highest - rated scripted comedy series -- it was surpassed by Go On -- it often ranked as the highest - rated scripted NBC series on Thursday nights. Rainn Wilson argued that the show 's lower ratings were a combination of the overall trend in lower television ratings in 2012, as well as the fact that "NBC did n't promote (the series) one bit ''. NBC increased their usual ad - price by 200 percent for the finale, asking for $400,000 per commercial. This was largely due to the anticipated increase in viewership that the finale would bring. The season ranked as the ninety - fourth most watched television series during the 2012 -- 13 season, with an average of 5.061 million viewers. The season also tied with the CBS series Rules of Engagement and the Fox series American Dad! to be the forty - third most watched television series in the 18 - to 49 - year - old demographic. In this category, the show received a 2.6 rating. This meant that, on average, the season was viewed by 2.6 percent of all 18 - to 49 - year - olds. It was viewed by 3.32 million in this demographic. In terms of viewers, the ninth season ranked as the lowest - rated season of The Office, although it beat the first season 's ranking, which was the 102nd most watched program for the 2004 -- 05 year. The ninth season of The Office received moderately positive reviews from television critics. Based on seven critiques, review aggregation website Metacritic gave the ninth season of the show a 64 out of 100 rating, which denotes "generally favorable reviews ''. Entertainment website Holy Moly named the series one of the best shows during the 2012 -- 13 season, writing that "this final season of The Office has been great '' largely due to the fact that "every single relationship in the show rings true with the audience. '' Michael Tedder of Vulture commented that he was "willing to call it the fourth best season of the show overall, which is by no means faint praise. '' He explained that this was largely due to the fact that the "final season was a chance to see how everyone else would end up ''. Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club wrote that "the tension between Jim and Pam in the final season ended up being highly controversial for a number of reasons... but it also provided the most hopeful moments of the series ' final stretch '' (although he did note that it was clear that the writers had "blatantly '' set up the drama). He concluded that the finale was able to successfully return the series "to what had always been its heart -- to have true fulfillment ''. Roth Cornet of IGN awarded the season an 8.5 out of 10, denoting a "great '' year. She felt that the character growth in the final few episodes was particularly well executed, and the last stretch of the season helped raise it after a rocky start; ultimately, she felt that the writers were able to craft the proper ending for the show. She was, however, critical of Andy 's characterization, noting that he was merely used as a plot device when convenient. Many critics argued that the season was an improvement, in both writing and humor, over the previous season. Several specific episodes received praise. Andrea Reiher of Zap2it named "Dwight Christmas '' the best comedy TV episode of 2012. She wrote that the episode "was not only funny but had a huge nostalgia factor '', and continued the show 's trend of strong Christmas episodes. Reiher also praised the episode 's two subplots, writing that "drunk Darryl and Die Hard '' helped produce "a classic episode of The Office that brought back the warm and fuzzy feelings of the early seasons of the show. '' The season 's penultimate entry, "A.A.R.M. '', received a glowing response from many critics. Alan Sepinwall of HitFix wrote that the episode was "surprisingly... terrific in most areas. '' Roth Cornet of IGN noted that "The interplay between Jim, Dwight, and Pam has been the core of the series since Michael Scott 's departure, and it was good to see the trio front and center once again as The Office comes to a close. '' The series finale, in particular, was praised by critics. Sepinwall called it "a tremendously satisfying conclusion to a show that could make us gasp with laughter, but that could also make us cry or smile ''. Cornet wrote that it "was a strong hour of television (and) the finale shone and delivered on all of its promise. '' Nick Campbell of TV.com wrote that the episode was "just right '' for the series. Other episodes were not received as positively. "Lice '', for instance, was called "terrible '' by Campbell, as well as the "epitome of filler '' by Brett Davinger of The California Literary Review. "The Farm '' was largely derided due to its uneven nature, and the broad humor that it used. The reveal of the in - series documentary crew in "Customer Loyalty '' received large amounts of critical attention. E! Online named the reveal one of the "Best TV Moments of the Week ''. Verne Gay of Newsday called the scene a "historic '' moment for the show. Conversely, Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club wrote an article that argued that the mockumentary format made the camera "an audience surrogate '', and that by revealing the documentary crew, "the audience no longer felt welcome ''. The subplot involving Brian (played by Chris Diamantopoulos), a boom mic operator for the in - series documentary, was met with mostly negative reviews. Michael Tedder of Vulture called it "the least interesting way this camera crew reveal could have gone ''. Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic criticized the reintroduction of the character in the episode "Promos '', noting that his reappearance felt "forced ''. McNutt called it "an abandoned novelty ''. Daniels later revealed in an interview that the subplot was a red herring to keep viewers emotionally invested in Pam and Jim 's story. He explained, "we never intended him to actually (interfere with Pam and Jim 's marriage), but wanted people to worry about it so they would be engaged in the story. '' On December 12, 2012, the series was nominated for a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series, but lost to Modern Family. Michael Scott 's return was nominated and won the fan - voted "Best TV Moment '' at the 3rd Critics ' Choice Television Awards on June 10, 2013. Greg Daniels was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series at the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards for "Finale ''. "Finale '' was also nominated for an Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series Emmy and an Outstanding Single - Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series Emmy; David Rogers and Claire Scanlon for "Finale '' won the latter, marking the fifth win for The Office at the Emmys overall and the series ' first win since 2009. Rogers and Scanlon also won an American Cinema Editors award for Best Edited Half - Hour Series for Television. In addition, the web documentary "The Office: The Farewells '', which aired on NBC.com prior to the series ' conclusion, was nominated for an Outstanding Special Class Program Creative Arts Emmy Award. In the following table, "U.S. viewers (million) '' refers to the number of Americans who viewed the episode on the night of broadcast. Episodes are listed by the order in which they aired, and may not necessarily correspond to their production codes. ^ ‡ denotes an hour - long episode (with advertisements; actual runtime around 42 minutes). ^ * denotes an extended 75 - minute episode (with advertisements; actual runtime around 52 minutes).

the bill of rights originally had how many amendments

United States Bill of Rights - wikipedia The Bill of Rights in the United States is the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution. Proposed following the often bitter 1787 -- 88 debate over ratification of the U.S. Constitution, and written to address the objections raised by Anti-Federalists, the Bill of Rights amendments add to the Constitution specific guarantees of personal freedoms and rights, clear limitations on the government 's power in judicial and other proceedings, and explicit declarations that all powers not specifically delegated to Congress by the Constitution are reserved for the states or the people. The concepts codified in these amendments are built upon those found in several earlier documents, including the Virginia Declaration of Rights and the English Bill of Rights, along with earlier documents such as Magna Carta (1215). In practice, the amendments had little impact on judgments by the courts for the first 150 years after ratification. On June 8, 1789, Representative James Madison introduced nine amendments to the Constitution in the House of Representatives. Madison proposed inserting specific rights limiting the power of Congress in Article One, Section 9. Seven of these limitations would become part of the ten ratified Bill of Rights amendments. Ultimately, on September 25, 1789, Congress approved twelve articles of amendment to the Constitution, each consisting of one one - sentence paragraph, and submitted them to the states for ratification. Contrary to Madison 's original proposal that the articles be incorporated into the main body of the Constitution, they were proposed as supplemental additions (codicils) to it. Articles Three through Twelve were ratified as additions to the Constitution on December 15, 1791, and became Amendments One through Ten of the Constitution. Article Two became part of the Constitution on May 5, 1992, as the Twenty - seventh Amendment. Article One is still pending before the states. Although Madison 's proposed amendments included a provision to extend the protection of some of the Bill of Rights to the states, the amendments that were finally submitted for ratification applied only to the federal government. The door for their application upon state governments was opened in the 1860s, following ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment. Since the early 20th century both federal and state courts have used the Fourteenth Amendment to apply portions of the Bill of Rights to state and local governments. The process is known as incorporation. There are several original engrossed copies of the Bill of Rights still in existence. One of these is on permanent public display at the National Archives in Washington, DC Prior to the ratification and implementation of the United States Constitution, the thirteen sovereign states followed the Articles of Confederation, created by the Second Continental Congress and ratified in 1781. However, the national government that operated under the Articles of Confederation was too weak to adequately regulate the various conflicts that arose between the states. The Philadelphia Convention set out to correct weaknesses of the Articles that had been apparent even before the American Revolutionary War had been successfully concluded. The convention took place from May 14 to September 17, 1787, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Although the Convention was purportedly intended only to revise the Articles, the intention of many of its proponents, chief among them James Madison of Virginia and Alexander Hamilton of New York, was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one. The convention convened in the Pennsylvania State House, and George Washington of Virginia was unanimously elected as president of the convention. The 55 delegates who drafted the Constitution are among the men known as the Founding Fathers of the new nation. Thomas Jefferson, who was Minister to France during the convention, characterized the delegates as an assembly of "demi - gods. '' Rhode Island refused to send delegates to the convention. On September 12, George Mason of Virginia suggested the addition of a Bill of Rights to the Constitution modeled on previous state declarations, and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts made it a formal motion. However, the motion was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations after only a brief discussion. Madison, then an opponent of a Bill of Rights, later explained the vote by calling the state bills of rights "parchment barriers '' that offered only an illusion of protection against tyranny. Another delegate, James Wilson of Pennsylvania, later argued that the act of enumerating the rights of the people would have been dangerous, because it would imply that rights not explicitly mentioned did not exist; Hamilton echoed this point in Federalist No. 84. Because Mason and Gerry had emerged as opponents of the proposed new Constitution, their motion -- introduced five days before the end of the convention -- may also have been seen by other delegates as a delaying tactic. The quick rejection of this motion, however, later endangered the entire ratification process. Author David O. Stewart characterizes the omission of a Bill of Rights in the original Constitution as "a political blunder of the first magnitude '' while historian Jack N. Rakove calls it "the one serious miscalculation the framers made as they looked ahead to the struggle over ratification ''. Thirty - nine delegates signed the finalized Constitution. Thirteen delegates left before it was completed, and three who remained at the convention until the end refused to sign it: Mason, Gerry, and Edmund Randolph of Virginia. Afterward, the Constitution was presented to the Articles of Confederation Congress with the request that it afterwards be submitted to a convention of delegates, chosen in each State by the people, for their assent and ratification. Following the Philadelphia Convention, some leading revolutionary figures such as Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, and Richard Henry Lee publicly opposed the new frame of government, a position known as "Anti-Federalism ''. Elbridge Gerry wrote the most popular Anti-Federalist tract, "Hon. Mr. Gerry 's Objections '', which went through 46 printings; the essay particularly focused on the lack of a bill of rights in the proposed constitution. Many were concerned that a strong national government was a threat to individual rights and that the president would become a king. Jefferson wrote to Madison advocating a Bill of Rights: "Half a loaf is better than no bread. If we can not secure all our rights, let us secure what we can. '' The pseudonymous Anti-Federalist "Brutus '' wrote, We find they have, in the ninth section of the first article declared, that the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless in cases of rebellion -- that no bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be passed -- that no title of nobility shall be granted by the United States, etc. If every thing which is not given is reserved, what propriety is there in these exceptions? Does this Constitution any where grant the power of suspending the habeas corpus, to make ex post facto laws, pass bills of attainder, or grant titles of nobility? It certainly does not in express terms. The only answer that can be given is, that these are implied in the general powers granted. With equal truth it may be said, that all the powers which the bills of rights guard against the abuse of, are contained or implied in the general ones granted by this Constitution. He continued with this observation: Ought not a government, vested with such extensive and indefinite authority, to have been restricted by a declaration of rights? It certainly ought. So clear a point is this, that I can not help suspecting that persons who attempt to persuade people that such reservations were less necessary under this Constitution than under those of the States, are wilfully endeavoring to deceive, and to lead you into an absolute state of vassalage. Supporters of the Constitution, known as Federalists, opposed a bill of rights for much of the ratification period, in part due to the procedural uncertainties it would create. Madison argued against such an inclusion, suggesting that state governments were sufficient guarantors of personal liberty, in No. 46 of The Federalist Papers, a series of essays promoting the Federalist position. Hamilton opposed a bill of rights in The Federalist No. 84, stating that "the constitution is itself in every rational sense, and to every useful purpose, a bill of rights. '' He stated that ratification did not mean the American people were surrendering their rights, making protections unnecessary: "Here, in strictness, the people surrender nothing, and as they retain everything, they have no need of particular reservations. '' Patrick Henry criticized the Federalist point of view, writing that the legislature must be firmly informed "of the extent of the rights retained by the people... being in a state of uncertainty, they will assume rather than give up powers by implication. '' Other anti-Federalists pointed out that earlier political documents, in particular the Magna Carta, had protected specific rights. In response, Hamilton argued that the Constitution was inherently different: Bills of rights are in their origin, stipulations between kings and their subjects, abridgments of prerogative in favor of privilege, reservations of rights not surrendered to the prince. Such was the Magna Charta, obtained by the Barons, swords in hand, from King John. In December 1787 and January 1788, five states -- Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, and Connecticut -- ratified the Constitution with relative ease, though the bitter minority report of the Pennsylvania opposition was widely circulated. In contrast to its predecessors, the Massachusetts convention was angry and contentious, at one point erupting into a fistfight between Federalist delegate Francis Dana and Anti-Federalist Elbridge Gerry when the latter was not allowed to speak. The impasse was resolved only when revolutionary heroes and leading Anti-Federalists Samuel Adams and John Hancock agreed to ratification on the condition that the convention also propose amendments. The convention 's proposed amendments included a requirement for grand jury indictment in capital cases, which would form part of the Fifth Amendment, and an amendment reserving powers to the states not expressly given to the federal government, which would later form the basis for the Tenth Amendment. Following Massachusetts ' lead, the Federalist minorities in both Virginia and New York were able to obtain ratification in convention by linking ratification to recommended amendments. A committee of the Virginia convention headed by law professor George Wythe forwarded forty recommended amendments to Congress, twenty of which enumerated individual rights and another twenty of which enumerated states ' rights. The latter amendments included limitations on federal powers to levy taxes and regulate trade. A minority of the Constitution 's critics, such as Maryland 's Luther Martin, continued to oppose ratification. However, Martin 's allies, such as New York 's John Lansing, Jr., dropped moves to obstruct the Convention 's process. They began to take exception to the Constitution "as it was, '' seeking amendments. Several conventions saw supporters for "amendments before '' shift to a position of "amendments after '' for the sake of staying in the Union. The New York Anti-Federalist "circular letter '' was sent to each state legislature proposing a second constitutional convention for "amendments before '', but it failed in the state legislatures. Ultimately, only North Carolina and Rhode Island waited for amendments from Congress before ratifying. Article Seven of the proposed Constitution set the terms by which the new frame of government would be established. The new Constitution would become operational when ratified by at least nine states. Only then would it replace the existing government under the Articles of Confederation and would apply only to those states that ratified it. Following contentious battles in several states, the proposed Constitution reached that nine - state ratification plateau in June 1788. On September 13, 1788, the Articles of Confederation Congress certified that the new Constitution had been ratified by more than enough states for the new system to be implemented and directed the new government to meet in New York City on the first Wednesday in March the following year. On March 4, 1789, the new frame of government came into force with eleven of the thirteen states participating. The 1st United States Congress, which met in New York City 's Federal Hall, was a triumph for the Federalists. The Senate of eleven states contained 20 Federalists with only two Anti-Federalists, both from Virginia. The House included 48 Federalists to 11 Anti-Federalists, the latter of whom were from only four states: Massachusetts, New York, Virginia and South Carolina. Among the Virginia delegation to the House was James Madison, Patrick Henry 's chief opponent in the Virginia ratification battle. In retaliation for Madison 's victory in that battle at Virginia 's ratification convention, Henry and other Anti-Federalists, who controlled the Virginia House of Delegates, had gerrymandered a hostile district for Madison 's planned congressional run and recruited Madison 's future presidential successor, James Monroe, to oppose him. Madison defeated Monroe after offering a campaign pledge that he would introduce constitutional amendments forming a bill of rights at the First Congress. Originally opposed to the inclusion of a bill of rights in the Constitution, Madison had gradually come to understand the importance of doing so during the often contentious ratification debates. By taking the initiative to propose amendments himself through the Congress, he hoped to preempt a second constitutional convention that might, it was feared, undo the difficult compromises of 1787, and open the entire Constitution to reconsideration, thus risking the dissolution of the new federal government. Writing to Jefferson, he stated, "The friends of the Constitution, some from an approbation of particular amendments, others from a spirit of conciliation, are generally agreed that the System should be revised. But they wish the revisal to be carried no farther than to supply additional guards for liberty. '' He also felt that amendments guaranteeing personal liberties would "give to the Government its due popularity and stability ''. Finally, he hoped that the amendments "would acquire by degrees the character of fundamental maxims of free government, and as they become incorporated with the national sentiment, counteract the impulses of interest and passion ''. Historians continue to debate the degree to which Madison considered the amendments of the Bill of Rights necessary, and to what degree he considered them politically expedient; in the outline of his address, he wrote, "Bill of Rights -- useful -- not essential -- ''. On the occasion of his April 30, 1789 inauguration as the nation 's first president, George Washington addressed the subject of amending the Constitution. He urged the legislators, whilst you carefully avoid every alteration which might endanger the benefits of an united and effective government, or which ought to await the future lessons of experience; a reverence for the characteristic rights of freemen, and a regard for public harmony, will sufficiently influence your deliberations on the question, how far the former can be impregnably fortified or the latter be safely and advantageously promoted. James Madison introduced a series of Constitutional amendments in the House of Representatives for consideration. Among his proposals was one that would have added introductory language stressing natural rights to the preamble. Another would apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government. Several sought to protect individual personal rights by limiting various Constitutional powers of Congress. Like Washington, Madison urged Congress to keep the revision to the Constitution "a moderate one '', limited to protecting individual rights. Madison was deeply read in the history of government and used a range of sources in composing the amendments. The English Magna Carta of 1215 inspired the right to petition and to trial by jury, for example, while the English Bill of Rights of 1689 provided an early precedent for the right to keep and bear arms (although this applied only to Protestants) and prohibited cruel and unusual punishment. The greatest influence on Madison 's text, however, was existing state constitutions. Many of his amendments, including his proposed new preamble, were based on the Virginia Declaration of Rights drafted by Anti-Federalist George Mason in 1776. To reduce future opposition to ratification, Madison also looked for recommendations shared by many states. He did provide one, however, that no state had requested: "No state shall violate the equal rights of conscience, or the freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases. '' He did not include an amendment that every state had asked for, one that would have made tax assessments voluntary instead of contributions. Madison 's proposed the following constitutional amendments: First. That there be prefixed to the Constitution a declaration, that all power is originally vested in, and consequently derived from, the people. That Government is instituted and ought to be exercised for the benefit of the people; which consists in the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the right of acquiring and using property, and generally of pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety. That the people have an indubitable, unalienable, and indefeasible right to reform or change their Government, whenever it be found adverse or inadequate to the purposes of its institution. Secondly. That in article 1st, section 2, clause 3, these words be struck out, to wit: "The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative, and until such enumeration shall be made; '' and in place thereof be inserted these words, to wit: "After the first actual enumeration, there shall be one Representative for every thirty thousand, until the number amounts to --, after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that the number shall never be less than --, nor more than --, but each State shall, after the first enumeration, have at least two Representatives; and prior thereto. '' Thirdly. That in article 1st, section 6, clause 1, there be added to the end of the first sentence, these words, to wit: "But no law varying the compensation last ascertained shall operate before the next ensuing election of Representatives. '' Fourthly. That in article 1st, section 9, between clauses 3 and 4, be inserted these clauses, to wit: The civil rights of none shall be abridged on account of religious belief or worship, nor shall any national religion be established, nor shall the full and equal rights of conscience be in any manner, or on any pretext, infringed. The people shall not be deprived or abridged of their right to speak, to write, or to publish their sentiments; and the freedom of the press, as one of the great bulwarks of liberty, shall be inviolable. The people shall not be restrained from peaceably assembling and consulting for their common good; nor from applying to the legislature by petitions, or remonstrances for redress of their grievances. The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed; a well armed and well regulated militia being the best security of a free country: but no person religiously scrupulous of bearing arms shall be compelled to render military service in person. No soldier shall in time of peace be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner; nor at any time, but in a manner warranted by law. No person shall be subject, except in cases of impeachment, to more than one punishment, or one trial for the same offence; nor shall be compelled to be a witness against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor be obliged to relinquish his property, where it may be necessary for public use, without a just compensation. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. The rights of the people to be secured in their persons, their houses, their papers, and their other property, from all unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated by warrants issued without probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, or not particularly describing the places to be searched, or the persons or things to be seized. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, to be informed of the cause and nature of the accusation, to be confronted with his accusers, and the witnesses against him; to have a compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. The exceptions here or elsewhere in the Constitution, made in favor of particular rights, shall not be so construed as to diminish the just importance of other rights retained by the people, or as to enlarge the powers delegated by the Constitution; but either as actual limitations of such powers, or as inserted merely for greater caution. Fifthly. That in article 1st, section 10, between clauses 1 and 2, be inserted this clause, to wit: No State shall violate the equal rights of conscience, or the freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases. Sixthly. That, in article 3d, section 2, be annexed to the end of clause 2d, these words, to wit: But no appeal to such court shall be allowed where the value in controversy shall not amount to -- dollars: nor shall any fact triable by jury, according to the course of common law, be otherwise re-examinable than may consist with the principles of common law. Seventhly. That in article 3d, section 2, the third clause be struck out, and in its place be inserted the clauses following, to wit: The trial of all crimes (except in cases of impeachments, and cases arising in the land or naval forces, or the militia when on actual service, in time of war or public danger) shall be by an impartial jury of freeholders of the vicinage, with the requisite of unanimity for conviction, of the right with the requisite of unanimity for conviction, of the right of challenge, and other accustomed requisites; and in all crimes punishable with loss of life or member, presentment or indictment by a grand jury shall be an essential preliminary, provided that in cases of crimes committed within any county which may be in possession of an enemy, or in which a general insurrection may prevail, the trial may by law be authorized in some other county of the same State, as near as may be to the seat of the offence. In cases of crimes committed not within any county, the trial may by law be in such county as the laws shall have prescribed. In suits at common law, between man and man, the trial by jury, as one of the best securities to the rights of the people, ought to remain inviolate. Eighthly. That immediately after article 6th, be inserted, as article 7th, the clauses following, to wit: The powers delegated by this Constitution are appropriated to the departments to which they are respectively distributed: so that the Legislative Department shall never exercise the powers vested in the Executive or Judicial, nor the Executive exercise the powers vested in the Legislative or Judicial, nor the Judicial exercise the powers vested in the Legislative or Executive Departments. The powers not delegated by this Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the States respectively. Ninthly. That article 7th, be numbered as article 8th. Federalist representatives were quick to attack Madison 's proposal, fearing that any move to amend the new Constitution so soon after its implementation would create an appearance of instability in the government. The House, unlike the Senate, was open to the public, and members such as Fisher Ames warned that a prolonged "dissection of the constitution '' before the galleries could shake public confidence. A procedural battle followed, and after initially forwarding the amendments to a select committee for revision, the House agreed to take Madison 's proposal up as a full body beginning on July 21, 1789. The eleven - member committee made some significant changes to Madison 's nine proposed amendments, including eliminating most of his preamble and adding the phrase "freedom of speech, and of the press ''. The House debated the amendments for eleven days. Roger Sherman of Connecticut persuaded the House to place the amendments at the Constitution 's end so that the document would "remain inviolate '', rather than adding them throughout, as Madison had proposed. The amendments, revised and condensed from twenty to seventeen, were approved and forwarded to the Senate on August 24, 1789. The Senate edited these amendments still further, making 26 changes of its own. Madison 's proposal to apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government was eliminated, and the seventeen amendments were condensed to twelve, which were approved on September 9, 1789. The Senate also eliminated the last of Madison 's proposed changes to the preamble. On September 21, 1789, a House -- Senate Conference Committee convened to resolve the numerous differences between the two Bill of Rights proposals. On September 24, 1789, the committee issued this report, which finalized 12 Constitutional Amendments for House and Senate to consider. This final version was approved by joint resolution of Congress on September 25, 1789, to be forwarded to the states on September 28. By the time the debates and legislative maneuvering that went into crafting the Bill of Rights amendments was done, many personal opinions had shifted. A number of Federalists came out in support, thus silencing the Anti-Federalists ' most effective critique. Many Anti-Federalists, in contrast, were now opposed, realizing that Congressional approval of these amendments would greatly lessen the chances of a second constitutional convention. Anti-Federalists such as Richard Henry Lee also argued that the Bill left the most objectionable portions of the Constitution, such as the federal judiciary and direct taxation, intact. Madison remained active in the progress of the amendments throughout the legislative process. Historian Gordon S. Wood writes that "there is no question that it was Madison 's personal prestige and his dogged persistence that saw the amendments through the Congress. There might have been a federal Constitution without Madison but certainly no Bill of Rights. '' The twelve articles of amendment approved by congress were officially submitted to the Legislatures of the several States for consideration on September 28, 1789. The following states ratified some or all of the amendments: Having been approved by the requisite three - fourths of the several states, there being 14 States in the Union at the time (as Vermont had been admitted into the Union on March 4, 1791), the ratification of Articles Three through Twelve was completed and they became Amendments 1 through 10 of the Constitution. President Washington informed Congress of this on January 18, 1792. As they had not yet been approved by 11 of the 14 states, the ratification of Article One (ratified by 10) and Article Two (ratified by 6) remained incomplete. The ratification plateau they needed to reach soon rose to 12 of 15 states when Kentucky joined the Union (June 1, 1792). On June 27, 1792, the Kentucky General Assembly ratified all 12 amendments, however this action did not come to light until 1996. Article One came within one state of the number needed to become adopted into the Constitution on two occasions between 1789 and 1803. Despite coming close to ratification early on, it has never received the approval of enough states to become part of the Constitution. As Congress did not attach a ratification time limit to the article, it is still technically pending before the states. Since no state has approved it since 1792, ratification by an additional 27 states would now be necessary for the article to be adopted. Article Two, initially ratified by seven states through 1792 (including Kentucky), was not ratified by another state for eighty years. The Ohio General Assembly ratified it on May 6, 1873 in protest of an unpopular Congressional pay raise. A century later, on March 6, 1978, the Wyoming Legislature also ratified the article. Gregory Watson, a University of Texas at Austin undergraduate student, started a new push for the article 's ratification with a letter - writing campaign to state legislatures. As a result, by May 1992, enough states had approved Article Two (38 of the 50 states in the Union) for it to become the Twenty - seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution. The amendment 's adoption was certified by Archivist of the United States Don W. Wilson and subsequently affirmed by a vote of Congress on May 20, 1992. Three states did not complete action on the twelve articles of amendment when they were initially put before the states. Georgia found a Bill of Rights unnecessary and so refused to ratify. Both chambers of the Massachusetts General Court ratified a number of the amendments (the Senate adopted 10 of 12 and the House 9 of 12), but failed to reconcile their two lists or to send official notice to the Secretary of State of the ones they did agree upon. Both houses of the Connecticut General Assembly voted to ratify Articles Three through Twelve but failed to reconcile their bills after disagreeing over whether to ratify Articles One and Two. All three later ratified the Constitutional amendments originally known as Articles Three through Twelve as part of the 1939 commemoration of the Bill of Rights ' sesquicentennial: Massachusetts on March 2, Georgia on March 18, and Connecticut on April 19. Connecticut and Georgia would also later ratify Article Two, on May 13, 1987 and February 2, 1988 respectively. The Bill of Rights had little judicial impact for the first 150 years of its existence; in the words of Gordon S. Wood, "After ratification, most Americans promptly forgot about the first ten amendments to the Constitution. '' The Court made no important decisions protecting free speech rights, for example, until 1931. Historian Richard Labunski attributes the Bill 's long legal dormancy to three factors: first, it took time for a "culture of tolerance '' to develop that would support the Bill 's provisions with judicial and popular will; second, the Supreme Court spent much of the 19th century focused on issues relating to intergovernmental balances of power; and third, the Bill initially only applied to the federal government, a restriction affirmed by Barron v. Baltimore (1833). In the twentieth century, however, most of the Bill 's provisions were applied to the states via the Fourteenth Amendment -- a process known as incorporation -- beginning with the freedom of speech clause, in Gitlow v. New York (1925). In Talton v. Mayes (1896), the Court ruled that Constitutional protections, including the provisions of the Bill of Rights, do not apply to the actions of American Indian tribal governments. Through the incorporation process the United States Supreme Court succeeded in extending to the States almost all of the protections in the Bill of Rights, as well as other, unenumerated rights. The Bill of Rights thus imposes legal limits on the powers of governments and acts as an anti-majoritarian / minoritarian safeguard by providing deeply entrenched legal protection for various civil liberties and fundamental rights. The Supreme Court for example concluded in the West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette (1943) case that the founders intended the Bill of Rights to put some rights out of reach from majorities, ensuring that some liberties would endure beyond political majorities. As the Court noted, the idea of the Bill of Rights "was to withdraw certain subjects from the vicissitudes of political controversy, to place them beyond the reach of majorities and officials and to establish them as legal principles to be applied by the courts. '' This is why "fundamental rights may not be submitted to a vote; they depend on the outcome of no elections. '' Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. The First Amendment prohibits the making of any law respecting an establishment of religion, impeding the free exercise of religion, abridging the freedom of speech, infringing on the freedom of the press, interfering with the right to peaceably assemble or prohibiting the petitioning for a governmental redress of grievances. Initially, the First Amendment applied only to laws enacted by Congress, and many of its provisions were interpreted more narrowly than they are today. In Everson v. Board of Education (1947), the Court drew on Thomas Jefferson 's correspondence to call for "a wall of separation between church and State '', though the precise boundary of this separation remains in dispute. Speech rights were expanded significantly in a series of 20th - and 21st - century court decisions that protected various forms of political speech, anonymous speech, campaign financing, pornography, and school speech; these rulings also defined a series of exceptions to First Amendment protections. The Supreme Court overturned English common law precedent to increase the burden of proof for libel suits, most notably in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964). Commercial speech is less protected by the First Amendment than political speech, and is therefore subject to greater regulation. The Free Press Clause protects publication of information and opinions, and applies to a wide variety of media. In Near v. Minnesota (1931) and New York Times v. United States (1971), the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment protected against prior restraint -- pre-publication censorship -- in almost all cases. The Petition Clause protects the right to petition all branches and agencies of government for action. In addition to the right of assembly guaranteed by this clause, the Court has also ruled that the amendment implicitly protects freedom of association. A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. The Second Amendment protects the individual right to keep and bear arms. The concept of such a right existed within English common law long before the enactment of the Bill of Rights. First codified in the English Bill of Rights of 1689 (but there only applying to Protestants), this right was enshrined in fundamental laws of several American states during the Revolutionary era, including the 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights and the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776. Long a controversial issue in American political, legal, and social discourse, the Second Amendment has been at the heart of several Supreme Court decisions. No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. The Third Amendment restricts the quartering of soldiers in private homes, in response to Quartering Acts passed by the British parliament during the Revolutionary War. The amendment is one of the least controversial of the Constitution, and, as of 2018, has never been the primary basis of a Supreme Court decision. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. The Fourth Amendment guards against unreasonable searches and seizures, along with requiring any warrant to be judicially sanctioned and supported by probable cause. It was adopted as a response to the abuse of the writ of assistance, which is a type of general search warrant, in the American Revolution. Search and seizure (including arrest) must be limited in scope according to specific information supplied to the issuing court, usually by a law enforcement officer who has sworn by it. The amendment is the basis for the exclusionary rule, which mandates that evidence obtained illegally can not be introduced into a criminal trial. The amendment 's interpretation has varied over time; its protections expanded under left - leaning courts such as that headed by Earl Warren and contracted under right - leaning courts such as that of William Rehnquist. No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. The Fifth Amendment protects against double jeopardy and self - incrimination and guarantees the rights to due process, grand jury screening of criminal indictments, and compensation for the seizure of private property under eminent domain. The amendment was the basis for the court 's decision in Miranda v. Arizona (1966), which established that defendants must be informed of their rights to an attorney and against self - incrimination prior to interrogation by police. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. The Sixth Amendment establishes a number of rights of the defendant in a criminal trial: In Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), the Court ruled that the amendment guaranteed the right to legal representation in all felony prosecutions in both state and federal courts. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. The Seventh Amendment guarantees jury trials in federal civil cases that deal with claims of more than twenty dollars. It also prohibits judges from overruling findings of fact by juries in federal civil trials. In Colgrove v. Battin (1973), the Court ruled that the amendment 's requirements could be fulfilled by a jury with a minimum of six members. The Seventh is one of the few parts of the Bill of Rights not to be incorporated (applied to the states). Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. The Eighth Amendment forbids the imposition of excessive bails or fines, though it leaves the term "excessive '' open to interpretation. The most frequently litigated clause of the amendment is the last, which forbids cruel and unusual punishment. This clause was only occasionally applied by the Supreme Court prior to the 1970s, generally in cases dealing with means of execution. In Furman v. Georgia (1972), some members of the Court found capital punishment itself in violation of the amendment, arguing that the clause could reflect "evolving standards of decency '' as public opinion changed; others found certain practices in capital trials to be unacceptably arbitrary, resulting in a majority decision that effectively halted executions in the United States for several years. Executions resumed following Gregg v. Georgia (1976), which found capital punishment to be constitutional if the jury was directed by concrete sentencing guidelines. The Court has also found that some poor prison conditions constitute cruel and unusual punishment, as in Estelle v. Gamble (1976) and Brown v. Plata (2011). The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. The Ninth Amendment declares that there are additional fundamental rights that exist outside the Constitution. The rights enumerated in the Constitution are not an explicit and exhaustive list of individual rights. It was rarely mentioned in Supreme Court decisions before the second half of the 20th century, when it was cited by several of the justices in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965). The Court in that case voided a statute prohibiting use of contraceptives as an infringement of the right of marital privacy. This right was, in turn, the foundation upon which the Supreme Court built decisions in several landmark cases, including, Roe v. Wade (1973), which overturned a Texas law making it a crime to assist a woman to get an abortion, and Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992), which invalidated a Pennsylvania law that required spousal awareness prior to obtaining an abortion. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. The Tenth Amendment reinforces the principles of separation of powers and federalism by providing that powers not granted to the federal government by the Constitution, nor prohibited to the states, are reserved to the states or the people. The amendment provides no new powers or rights to the states, but rather preserves their authority in all matters not specifically granted to the federal government. Congress has sometimes gotten around the Tenth Amendment by invoking the Commerce Clause in Article One or by threatening to withhold funding for a federal program from noncooperative States, as in South Dakota v. Dole (1987). George Washington had fourteen handwritten copies of the Bill of Rights made, one for Congress and one for each of the original thirteen states. The copies for Georgia, Maryland, New York, and Pennsylvania went missing. The New York copy is thought to have been destroyed in a fire. Two unidentified copies of the missing four (thought to be the Georgia and Maryland copies) survive; one is in the National Archives, and the other is in the New York Public Library. North Carolina 's copy was stolen from the State Capitol by a Union soldier following the Civil War. In an FBI sting operation, it was recovered in 2003. The copy retained by the First Congress has been on display (along with the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence) in the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom room at the National Archives Building in Washington, D.C. since December 13, 1952. After fifty years on display, signs of deterioration in the casing were noted, while the documents themselves appeared to be well preserved. Accordingly, the casing was updated and the Rotunda rededicated on September 17, 2003. In his dedicatory remarks, President George W. Bush stated, "The true (American) revolution was not to defy one earthly power, but to declare principles that stand above every earthly power -- the equality of each person before God, and the responsibility of government to secure the rights of all. '' In 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared December 15 to be Bill of Rights Day, commemorating the 150th anniversary of the ratification of the Bill of Rights. In 1991, the Virginia copy of the Bill of Rights toured the country in honor of its bicentennial, visiting the capitals of all fifty states.

the first series of extrasolar planets that were discovered were found by which method

Discoveries of exoplanets - Wikipedia An exoplanet (extrasolar planet) is a planet located outside the Solar System. The first evidence of an exoplanet was noted as early as 1917, but was not recognized as such. However, the first scientific detection of an exoplanet began in 1988. Shortly afterwards, the first confirmed detection came in 1992, with the discovery of several terrestrial - mass planets orbiting the pulsar PSR B1257 + 12. The first confirmation of an exoplanet orbiting a main - sequence star was made in 1995, when a giant planet was found in a four - day orbit around the nearby star 51 Pegasi. Some exoplanets have been imaged directly by telescopes, but the vast majority have been detected through indirect methods, such as the transit method and the radial - velocity method. As of 1 December 2017, there are 3,710 planets in 2,780 systems, with 621 systems having more than one planet. This is a list of the most notable discoveries:

who killed king joffrey on game of thrones

Joffrey Baratheon - wikipedia House Lannister Joffrey Baratheon is a fictional character in the A Song of Ice and Fire series of epic fantasy novels by American author George R.R. Martin, and its television adaptation Game of Thrones. Introduced in 1996 's A Game of Thrones, Joffrey is the eldest son of Cersei Lannister from the kingdom of Westeros. He subsequently appeared in Martin 's A Clash of Kings (1998) and A Storm of Swords (2000). Joffrey is portrayed by Irish actor Jack Gleeson in the HBO television adaptation. Joffrey Baratheon is not a point of view character in the novels, so his actions are witnessed and interpreted through the eyes of other people, such as his mother Cersei Lannister, his uncle Tyrion Lannister and his one - time fiancée Sansa Stark. Joffrey is mostly a background character in the novels. He inherits his mother 's traditional Lannister looks, and has blond hair and green eyes, and is believed by many to be very handsome. In public, Joffrey is allegedly the oldest son and heir of King Robert Baratheon and Queen Cersei Lannister, both of whom entered into a political marriage alliance after Robert took the throne by force from the ' Mad King ' Aerys II Targaryen. In reality, his biological father is his mother 's twin brother, Jaime Lannister. He has a younger sister, Myrcella, and a younger brother, Tommen, both of whom are also products of Jaime and Cersei 's incestuous relationship. Their sole biological grandparents, Tywin and Joanna Lannister, were also first cousins. Joffrey is an amoral sadist who disguises his cruelty with a thin veneer of charm. This is best epitomized by his response when his (then) betrothed offends him: Joffrey pronounces that his mother had taught him never to strike a woman, and so commissions a knight of the Kingsguard to hit her instead. He enjoys forcing people to fight to the death, and enforces cruel punishments for lesser crimes. He has no sense of personal responsibility, blaming failures on others. He lacks self - control and often insults his allies and family members. Joffrey is one of the story 's few characters to display no redeeming qualities whatsoever. Joffrey is 12 years old at the beginning of A Game of Thrones (1996). Prince Joffrey is taken by his parents to Winterfell and is betrothed to Sansa Stark in order to create an alliance between House Baratheon and House Stark. At first, Joffrey is kind and polite to Sansa. However, he refuses to show sympathy with the family when Bran Stark falls from a tower; this makes Joffrey 's uncle Tyrion have to physically punish him until he shows respect. While on the Kingsroad to King 's Landing, Joffrey and Sansa come across Arya Stark practicing swordplay with a commoner Mycah. Joffrey accuses Mycah of assaulting a noble girl and makes a cut on his face with a sword. This causes Arya to hit Joffrey, allowing Mycah to escape. Joffrey then turns on Arya, making her direwolf Nymeria attack Joffrey, injuring him. Later, Joffrey lies about the attack, saying it was unprovoked and demands Nymeria to be killed; however, Sansa 's direwolf Lady is killed instead. He later orders his bodyguard and sworn sword Sandor "The Hound '' Clegane to kill Mycah and bring him back his corpse, which he does. Later, Eddard Stark discovers that Joffrey is not King Robert 's son and rightful heir, by examining the family history and realizing that black hair is a dominant trait in the Baratheon line, hence the blonde hair can be attributed to the incestuous relationship of Queen Cersei and Ser Jaime. This causes Eddard to refuse to acknowledge Joffrey 's claim to the throne when King Robert dies. He is taken into custody and his guards and household are murdered. Sansa kneels and begs for Joffrey to spare her father 's life and give him a chance to confess the treason. Joffrey promises Sansa that if Eddard truly does confess, he would be merciful. Reluctant at first, Eddard begrudgingly accepts Joffrey as the rightful King in order to spare Sansa 's life. However, Joffrey, though pleased by Eddard 's "confession '', says that he has no acceptance for traitors and instead beheads Eddard and later forces Sansa to look upon her father 's head. Joffrey is briefly seen in A Clash of Kings (1998). He rules with whim and caprice, proving difficult for even his mother to control. Sansa becomes imprisoned to his will, and he frequently has his guards beat her when she displeases him. When Stannis Baratheon attacks King 's Landing, Joffrey leaves the battlefield, damaging the morale of his army. The battle is only won by his uncle Tyrion 's use of wildfire and his grandfather Tywin 's last - minute counterattack aided by the forces of House Tyrell. Joffrey sets aside his earlier betrothal to Sansa Stark in favor of Margaery Tyrell, cementing an alliance between the Lannisters and House Tyrell. At Tyrion and Sansa 's wedding, he humiliates his uncle and is outraged when his uncle threatens him after he commands him to consummate their marriage. Tyrion only avoids punishment when his father Tywin assures Joffrey that his uncle was drunk and had no intention of threatening the king. Later after the events of the "Red Wedding '', Joffrey gleefully plans on serving Sansa her recently deceased brother 's head, when Tyrion and Tywin are outraged. Tyrion threatens Joffrey once again, and later Joffrey turns on Tywin, who responds by commanding Joffrey to be sent to his room, much to Joffrey 's chagrin. During his wedding feast in the throne room, he presents an extremely offensive play of "The War of the Five Kings, '' with each of the kings played by dwarves, to humiliate his uncle. He also repeatedly torments Tyrion and Sansa, forcing the former to be his cupbearer. At the conclusion of the dinner, however, Joffrey 's wine is poisoned, and he dies in an event known as "The Purple Wedding, '' in which Tyrion is falsely accused and arrested by Cersei in A Storm of Swords (2000). It is later revealed that Lady Olenna Tyrell and Lord Petyr Baelish were the true perpetrators, with assistance from royal fool Ser Dontos Hollard, who successfully smuggles Tyrion 's wife Sansa out of King 's Landing before either of them can be caught and tried for Joffrey 's murder. Joffrey is mentioned a few times in the later novels. In January 2007 HBO secured the rights to adapt Martin 's series for television. Years later young actor Jack Gleeson was cast as Joffrey Baratheon. Joffrey Baratheon is the Crown Prince of the Seven Kingdoms. He is the eldest of Cersei Lannister 's children and heir to the Iron Throne. Evil, arrogant, vicious, and cruel, he has a short temper and believes he can do anything he wants. He is also a coward when confronted by those who are n't afraid of him. Joffrey is also unaware that King Robert is not his real father -- in reality, he is the son of Jaime Lannister. After Robert 's death, the Lannisters make Joffrey King against his father 's will, and his mother uses him as a puppet. A cruel ruler, Joffrey makes a mistake when, against Cersei 's and Sansa 's wishes, he refuses to honor his promise of sparing Ned; instead, Joffrey has him executed. His act worsens the situation with the Lannisters ' war effort as his uncle Jaime is captured by the Starks and his uncles Renly and Stannis have challenged his claim to the Iron Throne. He frequently orders his Kingsguard to beat Sansa. His cruelty and ignorance of the commoners ' suffering makes him unpopular after he orders the City Watch to kill all of his father 's bastard children in King 's Landing which would later lead to a riot where he is almost killed. When Stannis attacks King 's Landing, Joffrey serves only as a figurehead and avoids the heavy fighting. When the battle eventually turns in Stannis ' favor, Cersei calls her son into the safety of the castle, damaging the morale of his army. The battle is only won by his uncle Tyrion and his grandfather Tywin, aided by the forces of House Tyrell. To cement the alliance between their families, Joffrey 's engagement to Sansa is annulled so he can marry Margaery Tyrell. The marriage is yet to take place, and rifts are growing between Joffrey and his uncle and grandfather, who are (in their respective ways) rebutting his cruelty. He also seems to take little interest in his bride, but is amazed and altered by her ways of winning the people 's favor, in which he takes part. At Tyrion and Sansa 's wedding, he humiliates his uncle and is outraged when his uncle threatens him after he commands him to consummate their marriage. Tyrion only avoids punishment when his father Tywin assures Joffrey that his uncle was drunk and had no intention of threatening the king. Later after the events of the "Red Wedding '', Joffrey gleefully plans on serving Sansa her recently deceased brother 's head, when Tyrion and Tywin are outraged. Tyrion threatens Joffrey once again, and later Joffrey turns on Tywin, who responds by commanding Joffrey to be sent to his room, much to Joffrey 's chagrin. Joffrey finally marries Margaery. During his wedding feast in the gardens of the Red Keep, he presents an extremely offensive play of "The War of the Five Kings, '' with each of the kings played by dwarves, to humiliate his uncle. He also repeatedly torments Tyrion and Sansa, forcing the former to be his cupbearer. At the height of festivities Joffrey is suddenly overcome by poison, and he dies. His uncle Tyrion is accused and arrested. It is confirmed, however, he was poisoned by Olenna Tyrell, with assistance from Petyr Baelish and Dontos Hollard, as she wanted to protect Margaery from the physical and emotional abuse that Joffrey had very clearly inflicted on Sansa. Olenna later confides to Margaery that she would never have let her marry "that monster ''. Following Joffrey 's funeral, his younger brother and heir, Tommen, is crowned King. Jack Gleeson has received positive reviews for his role as Joffrey Baratheon in the television series. In 2016, Rolling Stone ranked the character # 4 in their list of the "40 Greatest TV Villains of All Time ''. Author Martin described Joffrey as similar to "five or six people that I went to school with... a classic bully... incredibly spoiled ''.

show national parks bird sanctuary and biosphere reserves in the map of india

List of National parks of India - Wikipedia National parks in India are IUCN category II protected areas. India 's first national park was established in 1936 as Hailey National Park, now known as Jim Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand. By 1970, India only had five national parks. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger to safeguard the habitats of conservation reliant species. Further federal legislation strengthening protections for wildlife was introduced in the 1980s. As of July 2017, there were 103 national parks encompassing an area of 40,500 km (15,600 sq mi), comprising 1.23 % of India 's total surface area. Plans are underway to establish many more national parks in India. All of India 's national parks are listed below alongside their home state or territory, area and the date that they were established. See Protected areas of India for an overview of all Indian protected areas. According to the Indian Ministry of Environment & Forests, a national park is "(a) n area, whether within a sanctuary or not, (that) can be notified by the state government to be constituted as a National Park, by reason of its ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, or zoological association or importance, needed to for the purpose of protecting & propagating or developing wildlife therein or its environment. No human activity is permitted inside the national park except for the ones permitted by the Chief Wildlife Warden of the state under the conditions given in CHAPTER IV, WPA 1972 ''. List of national parks in India: Tiger, sloth bear, peacock, elephant, sambar deer, mouse deer

what is the average male body fat percentage

Body fat percentage - wikipedia The body fat percentage (BFP) of a human or other living being is the total mass of fat divided by total body mass, times 100; body fat includes essential body fat and storage body fat. Essential body fat is necessary to maintain life and reproductive functions. The percentage of essential body fat for women is greater than that for men, due to the demands of childbearing and other hormonal functions. Storage body fat consists of fat accumulation in adipose tissue, part of which protects internal organs in the chest and abdomen. The minimum recommended total body fat percentage exceeds the essential fat percentage value reported above. A number of methods are available for determining body fat percentage, such as measurement with calipers or through the use of bioelectrical impedance analysis. The body fat percentage is a measure of fitness level, since it is the only body measurement which directly calculates a person 's relative body composition without regard to height or weight. The widely used body mass index (BMI) provides a measure that allows the comparison of the adiposity of individuals of different heights and weights. While BMI largely increases as adiposity increases, due to differences in body composition, other indicators of body fat give more accurate results; for example, individuals with greater muscle mass or larger bones will have higher BMIs. As such, BMI is a useful indicator of overall fitness for a large group of people, but a poor tool for determining the health of an individual. Epidemiologically, the percentage of body fat in an individual varies according to sex and age. Various theoretical approaches exist on the relationships between body fat percentage, health, athletic capacity, etc. Different authorities have consequently developed different recommendations for ideal body fat percentages. This graph from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey in the United States charts the average body fat percentages of Americans from samples from 1999 -- 2004: In males, mean percentage body fat ranged from 22.9 % at age 16 -- 19 years to 30.9 % at age 60 -- 79 years. In females, mean percentage body fat ranged from 32.0 % at age 8 -- 11 years to 42.4 % at age 60 -- 79 years. The table below from the American Council on Exercise shows how average percentages differ according to the specified groups and categories: Essential fat is the level at which physical and physiological health would be negatively affected, and below which death is certain. Controversy exists as to whether a particular body fat percentage is better for one 's health; athletic performance may also be affected. The leanest athletes typically compete at levels of about 7 - 13 % for men or 14 -- 20 % for women; normal people, who do n't have so great a muscular mass, should stay into the fitness range in the table to be healthier. Bodybuilders may compete at essential body fat range, in fact certified personal trainers will suggest them to keep that extremely low level of body fat only for the contest time. However it is unclear that such levels are ever actually attained since (a) the means to measure such levels are, as noted below, lacking in principle and inaccurate, and (b) 4 -- 6 % is generally considered a physiological minimum for human males. Irrespective of the location from which they are obtained, the fat cells in humans are composed almost entirely of pure triglycerides with an average density of about 0.9 kilograms per litre. Most modern body composition laboratories today use the value of 1.1 kilograms per litre for the density of the "fat free mass '', a theoretical tissue composed of 72 % water (density = 0.993), 21 % protein (density = 1.340) and 7 % mineral (density = 3.000) by weight. With a well engineered weighing system, body density can be determined with great accuracy by completely submerging a person in water and calculating the volume of the displaced water from the weight of the displaced water. A correction is made for the buoyancy of air in the lungs and other gases in the body spaces. If there were no errors whatsoever in measuring body density, the uncertainty in fat estimation would be about ± 3.8 % of the body weight, primarily because of normal variability in body constituents. Whole - body air displacement plethysmography (ADP) is a recognised and scientifically validated densitometric method to measure human body fat percentage. ADP uses the same principles as the gold - standard method of underwater weighing, but representing a densitometric method that is based on air displacement rather than on water immersion. Air - displacement plethysmography offers several advantages over established reference methods, including a quick, comfortable, automated, noninvasive, and safe measurement process, and accommodation of various subject types (e.g., children, obese, elderly, and disabled persons). However, its accuracy declines at the extremes of body fat percentages, tending to slightly understate the percent body fat in overweight and obese persons (by 1.68 -- 2.94 % depending on the method of calculation), and to overstate to a much larger degree the percent body fat in very lean subjects (by an average of 6.8 %, with up to a 13 % overstatement of the reported body percentage of one individual -- i.e. 2 % body fat by DXA but 15 % by ADP). A beam of infra - red light is transmitted into a biceps. The light is reflected from the underlying muscle and absorbed by the fatileur. The method is safe, noninvasive, rapid and easy to use. Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry, or DXA (formerly DEXA), is a newer method for estimating body fat percentage, and determining body composition and bone mineral density. X-rays of two different energies are used to scan the body, one of which is absorbed more strongly by fat than the other. A computer can subtract one image from the other, and the difference indicates the amount of fat relative to other tissues at each point. A sum over the entire image enables calculation of the overall body composition. There are several more complicated procedures that more accurately determine body fat percentage. Some, referred to as multicompartment models, can include DXA measurement of bone, plus independent measures of body water (using the dilution principle with isotopically labeled water) and body volume (either by water displacement or air plethysmography). Various other components may be independently measured, such as total body potassium. In - vivo neutron activation can quantify all the elements of the body and use mathematical relations among the measured elements in the different components of the body (fat, water, protein, etc.) to develop simultaneous equations to estimate total body composition, including body fat. Prior to the adoption of DXA, the most accurate method of estimating body fat percentage was to measure that person 's average density (total mass divided by total volume) and apply a formula to convert that to body fat percentage. Since fat tissue has a lower density than muscles and bones, it is possible to estimate the fat content. This estimate is distorted by the fact that muscles and bones have different densities: for a person with a more - than - average amount of bone mass, the estimate will be too low. However, this method gives highly reproducible results for individual persons (± 1 %), unlike the methods discussed below, which can have an uncertainty of 10 %, or more. The body fat percentage is commonly calculated from one of two formulas (ρ represents density in g / cm): The bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) method is a lower - cost (from less than one to several hundred US dollars in 2006) but less accurate way to estimate body fat percentage. The general principle behind BIA: two or more conductors are attached to a person 's body and a small electric current is sent through the body. The resistance between the conductors will provide a measure of body fat between a pair of electrodes, since the resistance to electricity varies between adipose, muscular and skeletal tissue. Fat - free mass (muscle) is a good conductor as it contains a large amount of water (approximately 73 %) and electrolytes, while fat is anhydrous and a poor conductor of electric current. Factors that affect the accuracy and precision of this method include instrumentation, subject factors, technician skill, and the prediction equation formulated to estimate the fat - free mass. Each (bare) foot may be placed on an electrode, with the current sent up one leg, across the abdomen and down the other leg. (For convenience, an instrument which must be stepped on will also measure weight.) Alternatively, an electrode may be held in each hand; calculation of fat percentage uses the weight, so that must be measured with scales and entered by the user. The two methods may give different percentages, without being inconsistent, as they measure fat in different parts of the body. More sophisticated instruments for domestic use are available with electrodes for both feet and hands. There is little scope for technician error as such, but factors such as eating, drinking and exercising must be controlled since hydration level is an important source of error in determining the flow of the electric current to estimate body fat. The instructions for use of instruments typically recommended not making measurements soon after drinking or eating or exercising, or when dehydrated. Instruments require details such as sex and age to be entered, and use formulae taking these into account; for example, men and women store fat differently around the abdomen and thigh region. Different BIA analysers may vary. For instance when comparing outputs from a Tanita scale to an Omron Body Logic handheld device, the Tanita scale estimated a 40 % higher percentage body fat in college - aged men and a 55 % higher percentage in college - aged women when compared to hydrostatic weighing. Population - specific equations are available for some instruments, making them more reliable. There exist various anthropometric methods for estimating body fat. The term anthropometric refers to measurements made of various parameters of the human body, such as circumferences of various body parts or thicknesses of skinfolds. Most of these methods are based on a statistical model. Some measurements are selected, and are applied to a population sample. For each individual in the sample, the method 's measurements are recorded, and that individual 's body density is also recorded, being determined by, for instance, under - water weighing, in combination with a multi-compartment body density model. From this data, a formula relating the body measurements to density is developed. Because most anthropometric formulas such as the Durnin - Womersley skinfold method, the Jackson - Pollock skinfold method, and the US Navy circumference method, actually estimate body density, not body fat percentage, the body fat percentage is obtained by applying a second formula, such as the Siri or Brozek described in the above section on density. Consequently, the body fat percentage calculated from skin folds or other anthropometric methods carries the cumulative error from the application of two separate statistical models. These methods are therefore inferior to a direct measurement of body density and the application of just one formula to estimate body fat percentage. One way to regard these methods is that they trade accuracy for convenience, since it is much more convenient to take a few body measurements than to submerge individuals in water. The chief problem with all statistically derived formulas is that in order to be widely applicable, they must be based on a broad sample of individuals. Yet, that breadth makes them inherently inaccurate. The ideal statistical estimation method for an individual is based on a sample of similar individuals. For instance, a skinfold based body density formula developed from a sample of male collegiate rowers is likely to be much more accurate for estimating the body density of a male collegiate rower than a method developed using a sample of the general population, because the sample is narrowed down by age, sex, physical fitness level, type of sport, and lifestyle factors. On the other hand, such a formula is unsuitable for general use. The skinfold estimation methods are based on a skinfold test, also known as a pinch test, whereby a pinch of skin is precisely measured by calipers, also known as a Plicometer, at several standardized points on the body to determine the subcutaneous fat layer thickness. These measurements are converted to an estimated body fat percentage by an equation. Some formulas require as few as three measurements, others as many as seven. The accuracy of these estimates is more dependent on a person 's unique body fat distribution than on the number of sites measured. As well, it is of utmost importance to test in a precise location with a fixed pressure. Although it may not give an accurate reading of real body fat percentage, it is a reliable measure of body composition change over a period of time, provided the test is carried out by the same person with the same technique. Skinfold - based body fat estimation is sensitive to the type of caliper used, and technique. This method also only measures one type of fat: subcutaneous adipose tissue (fat under the skin). Two individuals might have nearly identical measurements at all of the skin fold sites, yet differ greatly in their body fat levels due to differences in other body fat deposits such as visceral adipose tissue: fat in the abdominal cavity. Some models partially address this problem by including age as a variable in the statistics and the resulting formula. Older individuals are found to have a lower body density for the same skinfold measurements, which is assumed to signify a higher body fat percentage. However, older, highly athletic individuals might not fit this assumption, causing the formulas to underestimate their body density. Ultrasound is used extensively to measure tissue structure and has proven to be an accurate technique to measure subcutaneous fat thickness. A-mode and B - mode ultrasound systems are now used and both rely on using tabulated values of tissue sound speed and automated signal analysis to determine fat thickness. By making thickness measurements at multiple sites on the body you can calculate the estimated body fat percentage. Ultrasound techniques can also be used to directly measure muscle thickness and quantify intramuscular fat. Ultrasound equipment is expensive, and not cost - effective solely for body fat measurement, but where equipment is available, as in hospitals, the extra cost for the capability to measure body fat is minimal. There also exist formulas for estimating body fat percentage from an individual 's weight and girth measurements. For example, the U.S. Navy circumference method compares abdomen or waist and hips measurements to neck measurement and height and other sites claim to estimate one 's body fat percentage by a conversion from the body mass index. In the U.S. Navy the method is known as the "rope and choke. '' There is limited information, however, on the validity of the "rope and choke '' method because of its universal acceptance as inaccurate and easily falsified. The U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps also rely on the height and circumference method. For males, they measure the neck and waist just above the navel. Females are measured around the hips, waist, and neck. These measurements are then looked up in published tables, with the individual 's height as an additional parameter. This method is used because it is a cheap and convenient way to implement a body fat test throughout an entire service. Methods using circumference have little acceptance outside the Department of Defense due to their negative reputation in comparison to other methods. The method 's accuracy becomes an issue when comparing people with different body compositions, those with larger necks artificially generate lower body fat percentage calculations than those with smaller necks. Body fat can be estimated from body mass index (BMI), a person 's mass in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters; if weight is measured in pounds and height in inches, the result can be converted to BMI by multiplying by 703. There are a number of proposed formulae that relate body fat to BMI. These formulae are based on work by researchers published in peer - reviewed journals, but their correlation with body fat are only estimates; body fat can not be deduced accurately from BMI. Body fat may be estimated from the body mass index by formulae derived by Deurenberg and co-workers. When making calculations, the relationship between densitometrically determined body fat percentage (BF %) and BMI must take age and sex into account. Internal and external cross-validation of the prediction formulas showed that they gave valid estimates of body fat in males and females at all ages. In obese subjects, however, the prediction formulas slightly overestimated the BF %. The prediction error is comparable to the prediction error obtained with other methods of estimating BF %, such as skinfold thickness measurements and bioelectrical impedance. The formula for children is different; the relationship between BMI and BF % in children was found to differ from that in adults due to the height - related increase in BMI in children aged 15 years and younger. However -- contrary to the aforementioned internal and external cross-validation --, these formulae definitely proved unusable at least for adults and are presented here illustratively only. Still, the following formula designed for adults proved to be much more accurate at least for adults: Other indices may be used; the body adiposity index was said by its developers to give a direct estimate of body fat percentage, but statistical studies found this not to be so.

what is the most visited site in paris

Tourism in France - wikipedia France was visited by 85.7 million foreign tourists in 2013, making it the most popular tourist destination in the world. France ranks fifth in tourist spending behind the United Kingdom, United States, China and Spain. France has 37 sites inscribed in UNESCO 's World Heritage List and features cities of high cultural interest (Paris being the foremost, but also Toulouse, Strasbourg, Bordeaux, Lyon, and others), beaches and seaside resorts, ski resorts, and rural regions that many enjoy for their beauty and tranquillity (green tourism). Small and picturesque French villages of quality heritage (such as Collonges - la - Rouge or Locronan) are promoted through the association Les Plus Beaux Villages de France (litt. "The Most Beautiful Villages of France ''). The "Remarkable Gardens '' label is a list of the over two hundred gardens classified by the French Ministry of Culture. This label is intended to protect and promote remarkable gardens and parks. In 2012, travel and tourism directly contributed EUR77. 7 billion to French GDP, 30 % of which comes from international visitors and 70 % from domestic tourism spending. The total contribution of travel and tourism represents 9.7 % of GDP and supports 2.9 million jobs (10.9 % of employment) in the country. Tourism contributes significantly to the balance of payments. Most tourists arriving to France in 2014 came from the following countries: Most nights spent in France in 2014 by tourists from following countries: Paris, the capital city, is the third most visited city in the world. Paris has some of the world 's largest and renowned museums, including the Louvre, which is the most visited art museum in the world, but also the Musée d'Orsay, mostly devoted to impressionism, and Beaubourg, dedicated to Contemporary art. Paris hosts some of the world 's most recognizable landmarks such as the Eiffel Tower, which is the most - visited paid monument in the world, the Arc de Triomphe, the cathedral of Notre - Dame or the Sacré - Cœur. The Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrie is the biggest science museum in Europe. Located in Parc de la Villette in Paris, France, it is at the heart of the Cultural Center of Science, Technology and Industry (CCSTI), a center promoting science and science culture. Near Paris is the Palace of Versailles, the former palace of the kings of France, now a museum. With more than 10 million tourists a year, the French Riviera (or Côte d'Azur), in south - eastern France, is the second leading tourist destination in the country, after the Parisian region. According to the Côte d'Azur Economic Development Agency, it benefits from 300 days of sunshine per year, 115 kilometres (71 mi) of coastline and beaches, 18 golf courses, 14 ski resorts and 3,000 restaurants. Each year the Côte d'Azur hosts 50 % of the world 's superyacht fleet, with 90 % of all superyachts visiting the region 's coast at least once in their lifetime. A large part of Provence is designed as the 2013 European Capital of Culture. Numerous famous natural sites can be found in the region, as the Gorges du Verdon, the regional natural park of Camargue, the national park of calanques and the typical landscape of Luberon. Provence hosts dozens of renowned historical sites like the Pont du Gard, the Arles ' Roman Monuments or the Palais des Papes in Avignon. Several cities also attracts a lot of tourists, like Aix - en - Provence, Marseille or Cassis, on the Mediterranean Sea coastline. An other major destination are the Châteaux of the Loire Valley, this World Heritage Site is noteworthy for the quality of its architectural heritage, in its historic towns such as Amboise, Angers, Blois, Chinon, Nantes, Orléans, Saumur, and Tours, but in particular for its castles (châteaux), such as the Châteaux d'Amboise, de Chambord, d'Ussé, de Villandry and Chenonceau, which illustrate to an exceptional degree the ideals of the French Renaissance. France has many cities of cultural interest, some of them are classified as "Town of Art and History '' by the French Ministry of Culture. Les Plus Beaux Villages de France ("The most beautiful villages of France '') is an independent association, created in 1982, that aims to promote small and picturesque French villages of quality heritage. As of 2008, 152 villages in France have been labelled as the "Plus Beaux Villages de France ''. There are a few criteria before entering the association: the population of the village must not exceed 2,000 inhabitants, there must be at least 2 protected areas (picturesque or legendary sites, or sites of scientific, artistic or historic interest), and the decision to apply must be taken by the town council. In the eastern parts of France there are skiing resorts in the Alps. Tourists also travel to see the annual cycle race, the Tour de France. France 's Mediterranean beaches on the French Riviera, in Languedoc - Roussillon, or in Corsica, are famous. Away from the mainland tourists are French Polynesia (especially Tahiti), the Caribbean islands Martinique, Guadeloupe, Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy. The Route Napoléon, the route taken by Napoléon in 1815 upon his return from exile, leads from Golfe - Juan to Grenoble in south - eastern France. It is a scenic byway and a popular destination. Also popular are the memorials to the battles of the First and Second World Wars. Memorials to the former include the Memorial to the Missing of the Somme, while commemorations to the latter include a D - Day museum at Arromanches, one of the landing sites. There are too a lot of great naturals sites, with important flora collections. For example, the federal Arboretum de Pézanin gather one of the richest forest collection in France, or the Regionals natural Park, which are dispersed in all the territories. France attracts many religious pilgrims on their way to St. James, or to Lourdes, a town in the Hautes - Pyrénées that hosts a few million visitors a year. The Taizé Community has become one of the world 's most important sites of Christian pilgrimage. Over 100,000 young people from around the world make pilgrimages to Taizé each year for prayer, Bible study, sharing, and communal work. Disneyland Paris is France 's and indeed Europe 's most popular theme park, with 15,405,000 combined visitors to the resort 's Disneyland Park and Walt Disney Studios Park in 2009. The historical theme park Puy du Fou in Vendée is the second most visited park of France. Other popular theme parks are the Futuroscope of Poitiers and the Parc Astérix. The most popular tourist sites include (visitors per year):

how long is life in prison in south africa

Life imprisonment in South Africa - wikipedia Life imprisonment in South Africa has an indeterminate length and may last for the remainder of the offender 's life. It is a mandatory punishment for premeditated murder, gang rape, serial rape and rape where the rapist knew they were HIV positive or if the victim was under 18 and / or mentally disabled. In certain circumstances, robberies and hijackings (and aircraft hijacking) also carry a mandatory life sentence. Section 51 of South Africa 's Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1997 prescribes the minimum sentences for other types of murders, rapes and robberies to 25, 15 and 10 years respectively, so parole is almost always granted to prisoners serving life sentences after the minimum sentence for the lesser crime has been served. However, a prisoner must be given a parole hearing after having served 25 years. In special cases, life imprisonment without any possibility of parole or pardon for an extensively long period of time (such as 1,000 years) can be imposed, such as in the case of serial killer Moses Sithole.

how long does it take to sing 100 bottles of beer on the wall

99 bottles of beer - wikipedia "99 Bottles of Beer '' is an anonymous folk song dating to the mid-20th century. It is a traditional reverse counting song in both the United States and Canada. It is popular to sing on long trips, as it has a very repetitive format which is easy to memorize and can take a long time to sing. In particular, the song is often sung by children on long bus trips, such as class field trips, or on Scout and / or Girl Guide outings. The song 's lyrics are as follows: 99 bottles of beer on the wall, 99 bottles of beer. Take one down, pass it around, 98 bottles of beer on the wall... The same verse is repeated, each time with one bottle fewer, until there are none left. Variations on the last verse following the last bottle going down include lines such as: No more bottles of beer on the wall, no more bottles of beer. Go to the store and buy some more, 99 bottles of beer on the wall... Or: No more bottles of beer on the wall, no more bottles of beer. We 've taken them down and passed them around; now we 're drunk and passed out! Another alternate line reads: If that one bottle should happen to fall, what a waste of alcohol! The boring and time - consuming nature of the "99 Bottles of Beer '' song means that probably only a minority of renditions are done to the final verse. The American comedian Andy Kaufman exploited this fact in the routine early in his career when he would actually sing all 100 verses. Donald Byrd has collected dozens of variants inspired by mathematical concepts and written by himself and others. (A subset of his collection has been published.) Byrd argues that the collection has pedagogic as well as amusement value. Among his variants are: Other versions in Byrd 's collection involve concepts including geometric progressions, differentials, Euler 's identity, complex numbers, summation notation, the Cantor set, the Fibonacci sequence, and the continuum hypothesis, among others. The computer scientist Donald Knuth proved that the song has a complexity of O (log ⁡ N) (\ displaystyle O (\ log N)) in his in - joke - article "The Complexity of Songs ''. Numerous computer programs exist to output the lyrics to the song. This is analogous to "Hello, World! '' programs, with the addition of a loop. As with "Hello World! '', this can be a practice exercise for those studying computer programming, and a demonstration of different programming paradigms dealing with looping constructs and syntactic differences between programming languages within a paradigm. The program has been written in over 1500 different programming languages. A simple example using classical BASIC syntax:

who initiated the use of binomial nomenclature in classifying organisms

Binomial nomenclature - wikipedia Binomial nomenclature, also called binominal nomenclature or binary nomenclature, is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, both of which use Latin grammatical forms, although they can be based on words from other languages. Such a name is called a binomial name (which may be shortened to just "binomial ''), a binomen, binominal name or a scientific name; more informally it is also called a Latin name. The first part of the name identifies the genus to which the species belongs; the second part -- the specific name or specific epithet -- identifies the species within the genus. For example, humans belong to the genus Homo and within this genus to the species Homo sapiens. Tyrannosaurus rex is probably the most widely known binomial. The formal introduction of this system of naming species is credited to Carl Linnaeus, effectively beginning with his work Species Plantarum in 1753. But Gaspard Bauhin, in as early as 1623, had introduced in his book Pinax theatri botanici (English, Illustrated exposition of plants) many names of genera that were later adopted by Linnaeus. The application of binomial nomenclature is now governed by various internationally agreed codes of rules, of which the two most important are the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) for animals and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN). Although the general principles underlying binomial nomenclature are common to these two codes, there are some differences, both in the terminology they use and in their precise rules. In modern usage, the first letter of the first part of the name, the genus, is always capitalized in writing, while that of the second part is not, even when derived from a proper noun such as the name of a person or place. Similarly, both parts are italicized when a binomial name occurs in normal text (or underlined in handwriting). Thus the binomial name of the annual phlox (named after botanist Thomas Drummond) is now written as Phlox drummondii. In scientific works, the "authority '' for a binomial name is usually given, at least when it is first mentioned, and the date of publication may be specified. The name is composed of two word - forming elements: "bi '', a Latin prefix for two, and "nomial '', which is a noun commonly used in mathematics to define a name or term. Prior to the adoption of the modern binomial system of naming species, a scientific name consisted of a generic name combined with a specific name that was from one to several words long. Together they formed a system of polynomial nomenclature. These names had two separate functions. First, to designate or label the species, and second, to be a diagnosis or description; however these two goals were eventually found to be incompatible. In a simple genus, containing only two species, it was easy to tell them apart with a one - word genus and a one - word specific name; but as more species were discovered the names necessarily became longer and unwieldy, for instance Plantago foliis ovato - lanceolatus pubescentibus, spica cylindrica, scapo tereti ("Plantain with pubescent ovate - lanceolate leaves, a cylindric spike and a terete scape ''), which we know today as Plantago media. Such "polynomial names '' may sometimes look like binomials, but are significantly different. For example, Gerard 's herbal (as amended by Johnson) describes various kinds of spiderwort: "The first is called Phalangium ramosum, Branched Spiderwort; the second, Phalangium non ramosum, Unbranched Spiderwort. The other... is aptly termed Phalangium Ephemerum Virginianum, Soon - Fading Spiderwort of Virginia ''. The Latin phrases are short descriptions, rather than identifying labels. The Bauhins, in particular Caspar Bauhin (1560 -- 1624), took some important steps towards the binomial system, by pruning the Latin descriptions, in many cases to two words. The adoption by biologists of a system of strictly binomial nomenclature is due to Swedish botanist and physician Carl von Linné, more commonly known by his Latinized name Carl Linnaeus (1707 -- 1778). It was in his 1753 Species Plantarum that he first began consistently using a one - word "trivial name '' together with a generic name in a system of binomial nomenclature. This trivial name is what is now known as a specific epithet (ICN) or specific name (ICZN). The Bauhins ' genus names were retained in many of these, but the descriptive part was reduced to a single word. Linnaeus 's trivial names introduced an important new idea, namely that the function of a name could simply be to give a species a unique label. This meant that the name no longer need be descriptive; for example both parts could be derived from the names of people. Thus Gerard 's phalangium ephemerum virginianum became Tradescantia virginiana, where the genus name honoured John Tradescant the younger, an English botanist and gardener. A bird in the parrot family was named Psittacus alexandri, meaning "Alexander 's parrot '', after Alexander the Great whose armies introduced eastern parakeets to Greece. Linnaeus ' trivial names were much easier to remember and use than the parallel polynomial names and eventually replaced them. The value of the binomial nomenclature system derives primarily from its economy, its widespread use, and the uniqueness and stability of names it generally favors: Binomial nomenclature for species has the effect that when a species is moved from one genus to another, sometimes the specific name or epithet must be changed as well. This may happen because the specific name is already used in the new genus, or to agree in gender with the new genus. Some biologists have argued for the combination of the genus name and specific epithet into a single unambiguous name, or for the use of uninomials (as used in nomenclature of ranks above species). Because binomials are unique only within a kingdom, it is possible for two or more species to share the same binomial if they occur in different kingdoms. At least five instances of such binomial duplication occur. Nomenclature (including binomial nomenclature) is not the same as classification, although the two are related. Classification is the ordering of items into groups based on similarities or differences; in biological classification, species are one of the kinds of item to be classified. In principle, the names given to species could be completely independent of their classification. This is not the case for binomial names, since the first part of a binomial is the name of the genus into which the species is placed. Above the rank of genus, binomial nomenclature and classification are partly independent; for example, a species retains its binomial name if it is moved from one family to another or from one order to another, unless it better fits a different genus in the same or different family, or it is split from its old genus and placed in a newly created genus. The independence is only partial since the names of families and other higher taxa are usually based on genera. Taxonomy includes both nomenclature and classification. Its first stages (sometimes called "alpha taxonomy '') are concerned with finding, describing and naming species of living or fossil organisms. Binomial nomenclature is thus an important part of taxonomy as it is the system by which species are named. Taxonomists are also concerned with classification, including its principles, procedures and rules. A complete binomial name is always treated grammatically as if it were a phrase in the Latin language (hence the common use of the term "Latin name '' for a binomial name). However, the two parts of a binomial name can each be derived from a number of sources, of which Latin is only one. These include: The first part of the name, which identifies the genus, must be a word which can be treated as a Latin singular noun in the nominative case. It must be unique within each kingdom, but can be repeated between kingdoms. Thus Huia recurvata is an extinct species of plant, found as fossils in Yunnan, China, whereas Huia masonii is a species of frog found in Java, Indonesia. The second part of the name, which identifies the species within the genus, is also treated grammatically as a Latin word. It can have one of a number of forms. Whereas the first part of a binomial name must be unique within a kingdom, the second part is quite commonly used in two or more genera (as is shown by examples of hodgsonii above). The full binomial name must be unique within a kingdom. From the early 19th century onwards it became ever more apparent that a body of rules was necessary to govern scientific names. In the course of time these became nomenclature codes. The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) governs the naming of animals, the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) that of plants (including cyanobacteria), and the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB) that of bacteria (including Archaea). Virus names are governed by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV), a taxonomic code, which determines taxa as well as names. These codes differ in certain ways, e.g.: Unifying the different codes into a single code, the "BioCode '', has been suggested, although implementation is not in sight. (There is also a code in development for a different system of classification which does not use ranks, but instead names clades. This is called the PhyloCode.) By tradition, the binomial names of species are usually typeset in italics; for example, Homo sapiens. Generally, the binomial should be printed in a font style different from that used in the normal text; for example, "Several more Homo sapiens fossils were discovered. '' When handwritten, a binomial name should be underlined; for example, Homo sapiens. The first part of the binomial, the genus name, is always written with an initial capital letter. In current usage, the second part is never written with an initial capital. Older sources, particularly botanical works published before the 1950s, use a different convention. If the second part of the name is derived from a proper noun, e.g. the name of a person or place, a capital letter was used. Thus the modern form Berberis darwinii was written as Berberis Darwinii. A capital was also used when the name is formed by two nouns in apposition, e.g. Panthera Leo or Centaurea Cyanus. When used with a common name, the scientific name often follows in parentheses, although this varies with publication. For example, "The house sparrow (Passer domesticus) is decreasing in Europe. '' The binomial name should generally be written in full. The exception to this is when several species from the same genus are being listed or discussed in the same paper or report, or the same species is mentioned repeatedly; in which case the genus is written in full when it is first used, but may then be abbreviated to an initial (and a period / full stop). For example, a list of members of the genus Canis might be written as "Canis lupus, C. aureus, C. simensis ''. In rare cases, this abbreviated form has spread to more general use; for example, the bacterium Escherichia coli is often referred to as just E. coli, and Tyrannosaurus rex is perhaps even better known simply as T. rex, these two both often appearing in this form in popular writing even where the full genus name has not already been given. The abbreviation "sp. '' is used when the actual specific name can not or need not be specified. The abbreviation "spp. '' (plural) indicates "several species ''. These abbreviations are not italicised (or underlined). For example: "Canis sp. '' means "an unspecified species of the genus Canis '', while "Canis spp. '' means "two or more species of the genus Canis ''. (The abbreviations "sp. '' and "spp. '' can easily be confused with the abbreviations "ssp. '' (zoology) or "subsp. '' (botany), plurals "sspp. '' or "subspp. '', referring to one or more subspecies. See trinomen (zoology) and infraspecific name.) The abbreviation "cf. '' (i.e. confer in Latin) is used to compare individuals / taxa with known / described species. Conventions for use of the "cf. '' qualifier vary. In paleontology, it is typically used when the identification is not confirmed. For example, "Corvus cf. nasicus '' was used to indicate "a fossil bird similar to the Cuban crow but not certainly identified as this species ''. In molecular systematics papers, "cf. '' may be used to indicate one or more undescribed species assumed related to a described species. For example, in a paper describing the phylogeny of small benthic freshwater fish called darters, five undescribed putative species (Ozark, Sheltowee, Wildcat, Ihiyo, and Mamequit darters), notable for brightly colored nuptial males with distinctive color patterns, were referred to as "Etheostoma cf. spectabile '' because they had been viewed as related to, but distinct from, Etheostoma spectabile (orangethroat darter). This view was supported in varying degrees by DNA analysis. The somewhat informal use of taxa names with qualifying abbreviations is referred to as open nomenclature and it is not subject to strict usage codes. In some contexts the dagger symbol ("† '') may be used before or after the binomial name to indicate that the species is extinct. In scholarly texts, at least the first or main use of the binomial name is usually followed by the "authority '' -- a way of designating the scientist (s) who first published the name. The authority is written in slightly different ways in zoology and botany. For names governed by the ICZN the surname is usually written in full together with the date (normally only the year) of publication. The ICZN recommends that the "original author and date of a name should be cited at least once in each work dealing with the taxon denoted by that name. '' For names governed by the ICN the name is generally reduced to a standard abbreviation and the date omitted. The International Plant Names Index maintains an approved list of botanical author abbreviations. Historically, abbreviations were used in zoology too. When the original name is changed, e.g. the species is moved to a different genus, both Codes use parentheses around the original authority; the ICN also requires the person who made the change to be given. Some examples: Binomial nomenclature, as described here, is a system for naming species. Implicitly it includes a system for naming genera, since the first part of the name of the species is a genus name. In a classification system based on ranks there are also ways of naming ranks above the level of genus and below the level of species. Ranks above genus (e.g., family, order, class) receive one - part names, which are conventionally not written in italics. Thus the house sparrow, Passer domesticus, belongs to the family Passeridae. Family names are normally based on genus names, although the endings used differ between zoology and botany. Ranks below species receive three - part names, conventionally written in italics like the names of species. There are significant differences between the ICZN and the ICN. In zoology, the only rank below species is subspecies and the name is written simply as three parts (a trinomen). Thus one of the subspecies of the olive - backed pipit is Anthus hodgsoni berezowskii. In botany, there are many ranks below species and although the name itself is written in three parts, a "connecting term '' (not part of the name) is needed to show the rank. Thus the American black elder is Sambucus nigra subsp. canadensis; the white - flowered form of the ivy - leaved cyclamen is Cyclamen hederifolium f. albiflorum.

who is the president of india 2018 now

List of Presidents of India - Wikipedia -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Executive: -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Legislature: Judiciary: -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Political parties National coalitions: -- -- -- -- -- -- -- State governments Legislatures: -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Local governments: Rural bodies: Urban bodies: The President of India is the head of state of India and the commander - in - chief of the Indian Armed Forces. The President is referred to as the first citizen of India. Although vested with these powers by the Constitution of India, the position is largely a ceremonial one and executive powers are de facto exercised by the Prime Minister. The President is elected by the Electoral College composed of elected members of the parliament houses, the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha, and also members of the Vidhan Sabha, the state legislative assemblies. Presidents may remain in office for a tenure of five years, as stated by article 56, part V, of the Constitution of India. In the case where a President 's term of office is terminated early or during the absence of the President, the Vice President assumes office. By article 70 of part V, the parliament may decide how to discharge the functions of the President where this is not possible, or in any other unexpected contingency. Representation of Presidents by party of candidacy There have been 14 Presidents of India since the post was established when India was declared as a republic with the adoption of the Indian constitution in 1950. Apart from these fourteen, three Acting Presidents have also been in office for short periods of time. Varahagiri Venkata Giri became the Acting President in 1969 after Zakir Husain, died in office. Giri was elected President a few months later. He remains the only person to have held office both as a President and Acting President. Rajendra Prasad, the first President of India, is the only person to have held office for two terms. Seven Presidents have been members of a political party before being elected. Six of these were active party members of the Indian National Congress. The Janata Party has had one member, Neelam Sanjiva Reddy, who later became President. Two Presidents, Zakir Husain and Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, have died in office. Their Vice-Presidents served as Acting Presidents until a new President was elected. Following Zakir Husain 's death, two acting Presidents held office until the new President, V.V. Giri, was elected. When Giri resigned to take part in the presidential elections, he was succeeded by Mohammad Hidayatullah as acting President. The 12th President, Pratibha Patil, is the first woman to serve as President of India, elected in 2007. On 25 July 2017, Ram Nath Kovind took office as the 14th President of India. This list is numbered based on Presidents elected after winning an Indian Presidential election. The terms of Varahagiri Venkata Giri, Mohammad Hidayatullah, and Basappa Danappa Jatti, who served as Acting President, are therefore not numbered or counted as actual terms in office. The President of India does not represent any political party. The colours used in the table indicate the following: Basappa Danappa Jatti (1974 -- 1977) Mohammad Hidayatullah (1979 -- 1982) Ramaswamy Venkataraman (1984 -- 1987) Bhairon Singh Shekhawat (2002 -- 2007) - Died in office - Did not complete assigned term - Acting President

what is national identity card number in the philippines

List of national identity card policies by country - Wikipedia This is a list of identity document policies by country. A national identity document ("ID '' or "identity card '') is defined as an identity card with photo, usable as an identity card at least inside the country, and which is issued by an official authority. Regional government issued driver 's licenses and other cards indicating certain permissions are not counted here as national identity cards. So for example, by this criterion, the United States drivers license is excluded, as these are local (state) government issued (although these or the state ID are all - but required as nation - wide identification). According to a 1996 publication by Privacy International, around 100 countries had enacted laws making identity cards compulsory. In these countries, the card must be shown on demand by authorised personnel under specified circumstances. In some countries alternative proof of identity, such as a driving licence is acceptable. Privacy International said that "virtually no common law country has a card ''. The term "compulsory '' may have different meanings and implications in different countries. Possession of a card may only become compulsory at a certain age. There may be a penalty for not carrying a card or similar official identification such as a passport). In some cases a person may be detained until identity is proven. This facilitates police identification of fugitives. In some countries, police need a reason, such as suspicion of a crime or security risk. In other countries, police can ask for official identification without stating a reason. Random checks are rare, except in police states. Normally there is an age limit, such as 18, after which possession is mandatory, even if minors aged 15 -- 17 may need a card in order to prove that they are under 18. In the European Union, a citizen 's national identity card -- if it complies with certain technical standards and states citizenship -- can in most cases be used to travel (within the EU) in lieu of a passport. The card 's front has the bearer 's picture (with an electronic stamp on it) and right thumb print. It also includes either the bearer 's signature or -- if the bearer is illiterate -- the phrase "can not sign '' (não assina) The verso has the unique number assigned the bearer (registro geral or RG), the card 's expiration date, the bearer 's full name, parents ' names, birthplace (locality and federation unit), birth date, and CPF number. It may include some additional information. It is officially 102 × 68 mm, but lamination tends to make it slightly larger than the ISO / IEC 7810 ID - 2 standard of 105 × 74 mm, so it is a tight fit in most wallets. A driver 's licence has only recently been given the same legal status as the national identity card. In most situations, only a few other documents can be substituted for a national identity card: for example, identification documents issued by national councils of doctors, accountants, dentists, engineers, lawyers, and other professionals. Guatemalan constitution requires personal identification via documentation, person rooting or the government. If the person can not be identified may be sent to a judge until identification is provided. Police officers have an absolute right to require every person aged 15 or above on public premises to produce their HKID or valid passport for inspection; failure to produce such photo ID constitutes an offence in law. North Korea is probably the country which imposes the strongest fines for citizens not carrying ID cards. To travel North Koreans need not only an identity card, but also a "travel pass '', with specified destination and written permission. Sometimes citizens may be punished with time in a labour camp for not carrying their cards, however this is often only a short sentence and people are usually released upon presentation of the card at a later date. Although much is not known about the properties of the card, it is probably plastic and similar in size to most European ID cards. Between 2004 and 2008, all records were transferred to an electronic Korean - language central database. Obtaining a driving license in North Korea is not usual -- except in the case of professional drivers, mechanics, and assistants -- since few citizens own cars. Only government officials are issued passports because the state restricts citizens travel. North Koreans working abroad are issued contracts between North Korea and the host country to allow for travel, and government officers often accompany and supervise workers. New Sri Lankan Electronic National ID Card (with biometric features) will be issued soon. 國民 身份 證 These are countries where official authorities issue identity cards to those who request them, but where it is not illegal to be without an official identity document. For some services, identification is needed, but documents such as passports or identity cards issued by banks or driving licences can be used. In countries where national identity cards are fully voluntary, they are often not so commonly used, because many already have a passport or driving licence, so a third identity document is often considered superfluous. The country has had a national ID card since 1940, when it helped the Vichy authorities identify 76,000 for deportation as part of the Holocaust. In the past, identity cards were compulsory, had to be updated each year in case of change of residence and were valid for 10 years, and their renewal required paying a fee. In addition to the face photograph, the card included the family name, first names, date and place of birth, and a unique national identity number relating to the national INSEE registry, which is also used as the national service registration number, and as the Social Security account number for health and retirement benefits. Later, the laws were changed so that any official and certified document (even if expired and possibly unusable abroad) with a photograph and a name on it, issued by a public administration or enterprise (such as a rail transport card, student card, driving licence or passport) could be used as proof of identity. Also, law enforcement (gendarmerie) can now accept photocopies of these documents when performing identity checks, provided that the original document is presented within two weeks. For financial transactions, any of these documents must be equally accepted as proof of identity. Identity cards are still issued, but are free of charge, and not compulsory. Legislation has been published for a proposed compulsory biometric card system, which has been widely criticised, among others by the "National commission for computing and liberties '' (Commission nationale de l'informatique et des libertés, CNIL), the national authority and regulator on computing systems and databases. Identity cards issued since 2004 include basic biometric information (a digitized fingerprint record, a printed digital photograph and a scanned signature) and various anti-fraud systems embedded within the laminated card. The French health insurance card, a smart card named "Carte Vitale 2 '', includes a digital photograph and other personal medical information in addition to identity elements. The previous version included a chip and a magnetic stripe, but contained very little information. The British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar has a voluntary ID card system for citizens, valid in the UK and EU member countries. Having an identity card in Sweden is not mandatory, but it is needed in several situations, e.g. for bank services or when picking up a package at a post office. Sweden has since 2005 issued national identity cards, but they are not compulsory and only obtainable by Swedish citizens, mostly intended to use for intra-Schengen area travel. The Swedish tax authority does since 2009 issue official identity cards for anyone resident in Sweden. Driver 's licenses is the most commonly used identity document in Sweden. Between 2005 and 2009 it was almost impossible for immigrants to get a card because of tightened security to get a bank card, since a close family member having a Swedish identity document had to vouch the identity. Not having an ID card in combination with a crime giving a fine (e.g. riding public transport without a ticket), is a suspicion to escape it, which is a reason for detainment in Sweden. In the past, compulsory ID cards or something compulsory resembling ID cards have existed, such as internal passports for freed African Americans before the abolition of slavery, and the draft cards for men (during times when men were conscripted into the army). In some states, there is a Stop and identify statute meaning that an identity card (or driver 's license or other photo id) is mandatory in certain circumstances. These are countries where official authorities do not issue any identity cards. When identification is needed, e.g. passports, identity cards issued by banks etc., or cards that are not mainly identity cards like driver 's licenses can be used. Most countries that are not listed at all in this page have no National ID Card. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.

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Visa requirements for Indian citizens - Wikipedia Visa requirements for Indian citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of India. As of May 2018, Indian citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 59 countries and territories, ranking the Indian passport 76th in terms of travel freedom according to the Henley & Partners Passport Index. Visitors engaging in activities other than tourism, including unpaid work, require a visa or work permit except for Nepal and Bhutan. Requirements for Indian citizens to have visas were recently lifted by Indonesia, Ukraine (July 2017), Qatar (August 2017), Serbia (September 2017), and Tunisia (October 2017). Starting 8 August 2017, Indian citizens get visa - free access to Primorye and rest of Khabarovsk, Sakhalin, Chukotka and Kamchatka regions from 2018 in the Russian Far East for tourism, business and humanitarian purposes. Indian citizens are eligible for the Australia online visitor visa (e600), effective from 1 July 2017. Indian citizens also became eligible for Armenia visa on arrival and eVisa on 22 November 2017. Indian citizens can apply for electronic visa for Kyrgyzstan for tourism and business purposes from September 2017. Gabon introduced visa on arrival to Indian citizens in October 2017. Starting January 2018, Indian nationals coming to Rwanda will be issued 30 day visa on arrival. Vietnam has introduced e-Visa facility for Indian citizens visiting as tourists. The Sultanate of Oman has begun to allow Citizens of India with valid visas from the US, Canada and Schengen zone to receive visa on arrival. In February 2018, Zimbabwe announced visa on arrival for Indian citizens with immediate effect. Eligible Indian travellers can now participate in the Global Entry program for expedited entry into the United States. Angola announced visa on arrival facility for Indian citizens. Jordan announced visa on arrival facility for Indian citizens on 28 February 2018. Uzbekistan announced it would introduce eVisa for Indian citizens from July 2018. Bahamas has announced it will issue Visa on Arrival to Indian citizens who have valid Schengen, UK, US, and Canadian visas as of April 24, 2018. Visa requirements for Indian citizens for visits to various territories, disputed areas, partially recognised countries and restricted zones: Indian Government has not drafted any laws to mandate reciprocity in visa agreements with other countries. While a very small number of bilateral agreements have ended in reciprocity in visa arrangements, a large number of visa relationships continue to be highly skewed on one side or the other. In 2015, Iran revoked visa - on - arrival for Indian citizens after it was included as one of the eight countries in India 's Prior Reference Category, which would be excluded from India 's visa liberalisation plans for foreign tourists. The other countries on the list at the time were Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iraq, Somalia, Nigeria and Sudan. India has by default achieved full reciprocity in Visa free / e-Visa Privileges with following countries: India has achieved partial reciprocity with following countries, where Indian Immigration rules afford the citizens of the following countries slightly lesser visa privileges than what the following countries provide for Indian Citizens: Visa privileges provided by Indian immigration for citizens of these countries are considerably far less than Visa Privileges provided by these countries to the Indian Citizens: Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, Zambia require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination. Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from a vulnerable area. Many countries require passport validity of no less than 6 months and one or two blank pages. Visitors holding Israeli passport or any passports showing evidence of travel to Israel are denied entry to the Arab League countries due to Arab League boycott of Israel. Kuwait allows visitors holding Israeli visa to transit via Kuwait airport provided the passenger is in the transit area and does not cross the immigration check. Malaysia provides visitor visa even if visitors hold Israeli visas. Several countries including Argentina, Cambodia, Japan, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, South Korea and the United States demand all passengers to be fingerprinted on arrival. According to the statistics these are the numbers of Indian visitors to various countries in 2015 (unless otherwise noted): British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized. British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty

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Jodie Sweetin - wikipedia Jodie Lee - Ann Sweetin (born January 19, 1982) is an American actress, dancer, singer, and television personality. She is known for her role as Stephanie Tanner on the sitcom Full House and its sequel series Fuller House. Sweetin was born in Los Angeles, California. Her parents were both in prison at the time, and she was adopted and raised as an only child by her uncle Sam Sweetin and his second wife Janice when she was nine months old. The adoption was not formalized until she was two years old because her birth father was one - fourth Native American. Years later, she said she was told not to talk about her adoption publicly out of fear that people would think she was forced into acting. While in high school, she and actor Matthew Morrison performed in the musical theatre together. Her debut acting role was in the sitcom Valerie in 1987 when she played Pamela, the niece of Mrs. Poole (Edie McClurg). Jeff Franklin cast her as Stephanie Tanner in Full House in 1987 and she played that role until the show ended in 1995. This has become her most famous role to date. After the show 's finale, Sweetin graduated from Los Alamitos High School in Los Alamitos, California in 1999, and attended Chapman University in Orange, California. Sweetin returned to television by hosting the second season of the Fuse TV show Pants - Off Dance - Off. She starred in a TV pilot, Small Bits of Happiness, a dark comedy centered around a suicide prevention specialist; it won Best Comedy at the 3rd Annual Independent Television Festival, in Los Angeles. In 2009, Sweetin focused on independent films and appeared in two films: Port City and Redefining Love. In 2011, she appeared in five webisodes of the internet show Ca n't Get Arrested. In 2012, she appeared as Leia in the television film Singled Out. In 2015, it was announced Sweetin would reprise her role as Stephanie Tanner on the Netflix spin - off series Fuller House. On March 2, 2016, Sweetin was announced as one of the celebrities to compete on Dancing with the Stars -- season 22. Her professional dance partner was Keo Motsepe. Sweetin and Motsepe were eliminated on week eight of competition and finished in sixth place. In 2002, at age 20, Sweetin married her first husband, Los Angeles Police officer Shaun Holguin. Fellow Full House castmate Candace Cameron served as her matron of honor; Cameron 's daughter, Natasha, served as a flower girl. Sweetin and Holguin divorced in 2006. Sweetin met Cody Herpin, a film transportation coordinator, through friends, and they started dating in May 2007. They were married in Las Vegas, Nevada on July 14, 2007. Together they have one daughter, Zoie (born 2008). On November 19, 2008, Sweetin filed for legal separation from Herpin. Their divorce was finalized on April 20, 2010. On April 30, 2010, Sweetin 's representative confirmed that she and her boyfriend of one year, Morty Coyle, were expecting a child. Their daughter Beatrix was born in 2010. Sweetin and Coyle became engaged in January 2011, and married on March 15, 2012, in Beverly Hills. Sweetin filed for legal separation from Coyle in June 2013. The divorce was finalized in September 2016. On January 22, 2016, she announced her engagement to Justin Hodak, who, like Sweetin, is a recovering drug addict. On March 24, 2017, Sweetin announced the couple 's separation. Sweetin is a recovering drug addict. She started drinking alcohol when she was 14, shortly after Full House wrapped. Over parts of the next 15 years, she used ecstasy, methamphetamine, crack, among others, stating that she turned to drugs because she was "bored ''. In 2009, Sweetin wrote a memoir called unSweetined, which chronicles her downward spiral of alcohol and drug abuse that began with the ending of Full House. In one passage of the book, Sweetin discusses breaking into tears while addressing a crowd at Wisconsin 's Marquette University while coming down from a two - day methamphetamine, cocaine, and ecstasy binge. She spoke about growing up on television and about how much her life had improved since getting sober. Wins Nominations

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A Star Is Born (2018 soundtrack) - wikipedia A Star Is Born is the soundtrack album to the 2018 musical film of the same name, performed by its stars Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper. It was released on October 5, 2018, by Interscope Records. Gaga and Cooper collaborated on the soundtrack album with an assortment of country musicians, including Lukas Nelson, who also stars in the film as a member of Cooper 's band. For the more pop - oriented songs on the soundtrack, Gaga teamed up with recurring collaborator DJ White Shadow. The soundtrack also includes contributions from Jason Isbell, Mark Ronson, Diane Warren, and Andrew Wyatt of Miike Snow. Commercially, it has topped the charts in Australia, Canada, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Ireland, New Zealand, Scotland, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In March 2015, Warner Bros. announced that Bradley Cooper was in talks to make his directorial debut with A Star Is Born, the fourth remake of the 1937 film of the same name. Lady Gaga was officially attached to the film in August 2016, with the studio green - lighting the project to begin production in early 2017. Cooper plays Jackson Maine, "a veteran country singer who discovers and eventually falls in love with a struggling singer - songwriter named Ally, played by Gaga. '' Gaga "helped inform Cooper 's performance as a musician ''. Cooper spent two - and - a-half years prepping for the film and determining what kind of musician his character would be. He worked with a number of musicians and vocal coach Roger Love. Cooper said, "by the end he just kind of started developing into his own sort of creation. If I had another year of prep, it would have been complete rock, but now it 's some sort of hybrid. '' Cooper described the soundtrack "an evolution, like the story. '' Gaga and Cooper were writing songs for the soundtrack during filming, leading to "so many different incarnations of each song. '' Cooper added that "the music really became a character in the movie. There is no lyric that 's ever in any point of the movie that does n't have exactly to do with where one of them is or hopes to be or regrets being. That was our launching pad and then it was just about discovering what songs fit in the right places. '' Jason Isbell wrote a song for Cooper 's character, which became "the sword with which a lot of the music spawned from (Cooper) ''. Isbell sent the song through Dave Cobb, a Nashville - based producer with whom Cooper had been collaborating. Cooper approached Lukas Nelson (son of country music singer Willie Nelson) after seeing him perform at Desert Trip in October 2016 and asked him to work on the film as a music consultant. Nelson said he began "writing songs for the movie, just for the heck of it, and sending them over to the producer, and they started liking them. Then Lady Gaga came by and I met her and we clicked. We became good friends, and we started writing together. '' Gaga, in turn, provided backing vocals on two tracks on Nelson 's self - titled album released in 2017. Nelson and his band, Lukas Nelson & Promise of the Real, appear in the film as Cooper 's backing band. Gaga reunited with producer Mark Ronson and songwriter Hillary Lindsey, who had both contributed to her previous studio album Joanne (2016). She worked with recurring collaborator DJ White Shadow on the soundtrack 's more pop - oriented numbers performed by her character Ally. Much of the album was recorded live on set, at Gaga 's insistence. Billboard described the soundtrack as "integral to the plotline '', adding that "many of the lyrics are about wanting and longing for change, but noting the struggle. Some express the great love and beautiful bond the booze - addled rock star (Jackson Maine, played by Cooper) and neophyte singer - songwriter (Ally, played by Lady Gaga) have for each other '', and concluding that "the music stands up, movie or no movie. They are timeless, emotional, gritty and earnest. They sound like songs written by artists who, quite frankly, are supremely messed up but hit to the core of the listener. '' The soundtrack 's track list and release date were announced on August 30, 2018. Interscope Records tweeted that the album "features 19 songs in a wide range of musical styles + 15 dialogue tracks that will take you on a journey that mirrors the experience of seeing the film. '' Its track "Shallow '' was released on September 27 as the album 's lead single. The soundtrack received positive response from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album has an average score of 78, based on 8 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. In a positive review, The Washington Post called the soundtrack a "five - star marvel '' and stated that it is a possible contender to win a Grammy Award. Ben Beaumont - Thomas of The Guardian gave the album a positive review, acknowledging "Bradley Cooper shows he can sing as well as act and direct '', but that "it is Lady Gaga 's pop prowess that lifts each track, be it spectacular piano ballads or heart - rending duets '' In a positive review, Stephen Thomas Erlewine, writing for AllMusic, said "All the songs make sense narratively and on their own, so they hold together well and would amount to a first - rate soundtrack '', but criticized the dialogue included in the album. Rolling Stone 's Brittany Spanos gave the soundtrack four stars out of a possible five, saying "The music Gaga helps write for this stretch in Ally 's career... is gorgeous -- romantic without being trite and powerful. '' Nick Reilly of NME complimented the album 's "emotionally charged songs that feel entirely appropriate for this heartfelt tale of doomed romance '', adding that the album is "one of the best Hollywood soundtracks of recent years. '' Writing for The Daily Telegraph, Neil McCormick gave the album a moderately positive review, saying the soundtrack was enjoyable, but criticized the "slightly awkward journey from rock balladry to slickly superficial pop '' and stated that "there is also a weird disconnect as the soundtrack shifts gear to anodyne modern pop ''. Jeremy Winograd of Slant Magazine, in a mixed review, was critical of the album, saying "There 's undoubtedly a strong 10 - song album lodged at the core of A Star Is Born, but unlike the film, wherein an outsized sense of sentimentality is rendered affecting by the more grounded performances, there 's not nearly enough substance here to justify all the bombast. '' A Star Is Born opened atop the US Billboard 200 with 231,000 album - equivalent units, including 162,000 pure album sales. It had the biggest overall sales week for a soundtrack in over three years, and is Gaga 's fifth US number - one album as well as Cooper 's first. Gaga extended her record as the female artist with the most chart - topping albums during the 2010s, breaking her tie with Taylor Swift. Beside its pure album sales, A Star Is Born earned 37,000 in stream - equivalent units and 32,000 from track - equivalent units. The soundtrack spent a second week at number one there with 143,000 album - equivalent units (86,000 being pure sales), and became Gaga 's second album to top the chart for two consecutive weeks after Born This Way (2011). It then held the country 's summit for a third week in a row with 109,000 equivalent units (61,000 pure sales), becoming the first soundtrack since High School Musical 2 in 2007 to top the chart for its first three weeks. Additionally it became Gaga 's longest running chart - topping album in the country. A Star Is Born entered at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart, selling 18,000 equivalent units, earning the top sales and digital song download honors and the seventh highest on - demand streams for the week. The soundtrack was Gaga 's third album to reach the summit in the nation and her first since Born This Way. The soundtrack held the top position for the next week, with another 12,000 equivalent units and was also the top - selling album. It had an 11 % increase in sales during the third week and remained atop the charts, selling close to 14,000 equivalent units. Like in the United States, the soundtrack became Gaga 's longest running chart - topping album in Canada for Gaga. In the United Kingdom, A Star Is Born faced competition from Twenty One Pilots ' fifth studio album, Trench, with the midweek chart suggesting the latter to emerge as the top album. A Star Is Born pulled ahead at the last moment according to Alan Jones from Music Week, and debuted atop the UK Albums Chart with 31,816 units (including 6,178 from stream - equivalent units). It became Gaga 's fourth album to reach number one in the nation and first since Artpop (2013), as well as Cooper 's first entry on the chart. The soundtrack was then displaced by Jess Glynne 's Always In Between the following week, and it fell to number two, selling 24,732 equivalent units. For the week ending November 1, 2018, the soundtrack moved back atop the chart with 24,982 copies sold (including 6,645 from sales - equivalent streams). "Shallow '' also reached the top of the UK Singles Chart that week, making Gaga and Cooper score an Official UK Chart double, this being Gaga 's third time to do so. A Star Is Born opened at number one in Ireland and Scotland, and was Gaga 's third number one in the former. During its third week atop the Irish chart, the soundtrack attained its highest sales tally. In France, the soundtrack sold 8,700 units and debuted at number seven on the SNEP Albums Chart, and held the same position the next week with another 8,000 units. In Australia, A Star Is Born entered at number three on the ARIA Albums Chart, giving Gaga her seventh top 10 album in the country and her sixth to reach the top three. Two weeks later, the soundtrack reached the top of the charts, becoming Gaga 's third album to reach the Australian charts summit after The Fame Monster and Born This Way. The soundtrack debuted at number six in the New Zealand Albums Chart, and after two weeks reached the top. Notes

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Kati Patang - Wikipedia Kati Patang (The Severed Kite) is a 1971 Indian Hindi - language film produced and directed by Shakti Samanta. It was a box office success. The film stars Asha Parekh as a woman pretending to be a widow, and her ensuing trials and tribulations opposite her charming neighbour played by Rajesh Khanna. The film is among the 17 consecutive hits of Khanna between 1969 and 1971 and is the second of four films in which he was paired with Parekh. According to newspaper The Hindu, ' on screen, Rajesh Khanna never appeared to be lip - syncing. So convincing were his expressions. His presence, backed by the music, remained the main source of strength for a movie 's success '. The movie also stars Nasir Hussain, Bindu, Prem Chopra, Daisy Irani and Sulochana Latkar. The film was the second in a string of nine movies in which Samanta and Khanna collaborated. Music was composed by R.D. Burman and was a huge hit. "Ye shaam masthani '' and "Pyar deewana hota hein '', sung by Kishore Kumar were particularly famous. The performance of Asha Parekh and Rajesh Khanna were praised by the audience and critics alike. The film was remade in Telugu as Punnami Chandrudu (1987). Madhavi "Madhu '' (Asha Parekh) is an orphan living with her maternal uncle, who arranges her marriage with someone she does not know. Blinded in love with Kailash (Prem Chopra), she runs away on the day of the marriage. She discovers Kailash in the arms of Shabnam (Bindu). Heartbroken and dejected, she returns to her uncle, who committed suicide from the humiliation. Realising that she has no one in life, Madhavi decides to leave town and head somewhere. She meets her childhood friend Poonam who tells her about her husband 's untimely demise in an accident and that she is on her way, along with her baby boy Munna, to stay with her in - laws whom she has never met before. Poonam manages to compel Madhu to accompany her as her plight is pitiful. En route, Poonam and Madhu catch up until the train derails and end up in a government hospital. Poonam has lost her limbs. She knows that her end is near, so has Madhu promise that she will assume Poonam 's identity, bring Munna up and continue life in Poonam 's in - law 's house. Madhu has no choice but to give in to a dying mother 's wish. In the downpour on the way, the cabbie attempts to rob her until Kamal (Rajesh Khanna), a forest ranger, rescues her and gives her shelter until the skies are clear the next day. She soon learns that Kamal is the very man with whom her marriage was arranged. Madhu leaves Kamal 's home in shame and reaches Poonam 's in - laws. Her father - in - law, Dinanath (Nazir Hussain) and mother - in - law (Sulochana) accept her and let her stay there. Kamal keeps visiting the house as he was the son of Dinanath 's best friend. Soon, he realises that he is in love with Poonam. Madhu 's ill fate has brought Kailash to Dinanath 's house. He is after their money and is very close to revealing Madhu 's identity. To be successful, he impresses all the members of the house but Poonam takes a resentment to him. Dinanath soon realises Poonam 's true identity and asks for the truth. When he realizes what the matter really is, he accepts Madhavi and makes her the guardian of the Dinanath property which will be inherited by Munna. That night, Dinanath is poisoned by Kailash. Mrs. Dinanath accuses Poonam for what has happened and she is imprisoned. Now Shabnam enters the life of the Dinanaths claiming that she is the real Poonam. Mrs. Dinanath, in rage, sends her away and is ready for no story. Kamal takes a dislike towards Madhu, learning the truth. However, he eventually realises the truth and gets Shabnam and Kailash arrested for their evil intentions and Madhavi is freed. When Kamal searches for Madhu, he realises that she has left without any notice and left a letter for Kamal, stating that she is going out of his life and so, he should not try to find out her. Kamal starts searching for her and finds her trying to jump from a cliff, stops her by singing a song. They hug. Kati Patang was adapted from the novel of the same name by Gulshan Nanda. The film 's story, also written by Nanda, was also based on the novel I Married a Dead Man, by Cornell Woolrich and had been previously made into a picture titled No Man of Her Own (1950) starring Barbara Stanwyck. The novel was also later filmed in Japanese as Shisha to no Kekkon (1960), in Brazilian as the TV miniseries A Intrusa (1962), in French as J'ai épousé une ombre (I Married a Shadow) (1983), and by Hollywood as Mrs. Winterbourne (1996). Shakti Samanta has stated that he cast Asha Parekh, because he was "confident '' that he could extract a "convincing performance from her. '' He had cast her in his earlier film, the underrated Pagla Kahin Ka. The music was composed by Rahul Dev Burman, and the lyrics were penned by Anand Bakshi. Kishore Kumar sang four songs for Rajesh Khanna, while Mukesh got to sing a number for the latter - a rare combination. Asha Bhosle performed "Mera Naam Hai Shabnam '' in the talk - sung style of Rex Harrison in My Fair Lady (and thus often incorrectly dubbed "the first Hindi rap number ''). The film was successful, and it became the sixth highest earning Bollywood film of 1971.

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Vibrator (mechanical) - wikipedia A vibrator is a mechanical device to generate vibrations. The vibration is often generated by an electric motor with an unbalanced mass on its driveshaft. There are many different types of vibrator. Typically, they are components of larger products such as cellphones, pagers, vibrating sex toys, or video game controllers with a "rumble '' feature. When mobile phones and pagers vibrate, the vibrating alert is produced by a small component that is built into the phone or pager. Many older, non-electronic buzzers and doorbells contain a component that vibrates for the purpose of producing a sound. Tattoo machines and some types of electric engraving tools contain a mechanism that vibrates a needle or cutting tool. Vibrators are used in many different industrial applications both as components and as individual pieces of equipment. Vibratory feeders and vibrating hoppers are used extensively in the food, pharmaceutical, and chemical industries to move and position bulk material or small component parts. The application of vibration working with the force of gravity can often move materials through a process more effectively than other methods. Vibration is often used to position small components so that they can be gripped mechanically by automated equipment as required for assembly etc. Vibrating screens are used to separate bulk materials in a mixture of different sized particles. For example, sand, gravel, river rock and crushed rock, and other aggregates are often separated by size using vibrating screens. Vibrating compactors are used for soil compaction especially in foundations for roads, railways, and buildings. Concrete vibrators consolidate freshly poured concrete so that trapped air and excess water are released and the concrete settles firmly in place in the formwork. Improper consolidation of concrete can cause product defects, compromise the concrete strength, and produce surface blemishes such as bug holes and honeycombing. An internal concrete vibrator is a steel cylinder about the size of the handle of a baseball bat, with a hose or electrical cord attached to one end. The vibrator head is immersed in the wet concrete. External concrete vibrators attach, via a bracket or clamp system, to the concrete forms. There are a wide variety of external concrete vibrators available and some vibrator manufacturers have bracket or clamp systems designed to fit the major brands of concrete forms. External concrete vibrators are available in hydraulic, pneumatic or electric power. Vibrating tables or shake tables are sometimes used to test products to determine or demonstrate their ability to withstand vibration. Testing of this type is commonly done in the automotive, aerospace, and defense industries. These machines are capable of producing three different types of vibration profile sine sweep, random vibration, and synthesized shock. In all three of these applications, the part under test will typically be instrumented with one or more accelerometers to measure component response to the vibration input. A sine sweep vibration profile typically starts vibrating at low frequency and increases in frequency at a set rate (measured in hertz per second or hertz per minute). The vibratory amplitude as measured in gs may increase or decrease as well. A sine sweep will find resonant frequencies in the part. A random vibration profile will excite different frequencies along a spectrum at different times. Significant calculation goes into making sure that all frequencies get excited to within an acceptable tolerance band. A random vibration test suite may range anywhere from 30 seconds up to several hours. It is intended to synthesize the effect of, for example, a car driving over rough terrain or a rocket taking off. A synthesized shock pulse is a short duration high level vibration calculated as a sum of many half - sine waves covering a range of frequencies. It is intended to simulate the effects of an impact or explosion. A shock pulse test typically lasts less than a second. Vibrating tables can also be used in the packaging process in material handling industries to shake or settle a container so it can hold more product.

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All I Want for Christmas Is You - wikipedia "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' is a Christmas song performed by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey. She wrote and produced the song alongside Walter Afanasieff. Columbia Records released it on November 1, 1994, as the lead single from her fourth studio album and first holiday album, Merry Christmas (1994). It is an uptempo love song that includes bell chimes, heavy back - up vocals, and synthesizers. Two music videos were commissioned for the song: the song 's primary music video features grainy home - movie - style footage of Carey, her dogs and family during the holiday season, as well as Carey dressed in a Santa suit frolicking on a snowy mountainside. Carey 's then - husband Tommy Mottola makes a cameo appearance as Santa Claus, bringing Carey a gift and leaving on a red sleigh. The second video was filmed in black and white, and features Carey dressed in 1960s style in homage to The Ronettes, alongside back up singers and female dancers. Carey has performed "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' in numerous live television appearances and tours throughout her career. In 2010, Carey re-recorded the song for her second holiday album, Merry Christmas II You, titled "All I Want for Christmas Is You (Extra Festive) ''. Carey also re-recorded the song as a duet with Canadian singer Justin Bieber for his 2011 album Under the Mistletoe, titled "All I Want for Christmas for You (SuperFestive!) ''. The song has also been covered by many artists over the years. In the years since its original release, "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' has been critically lauded; it was once called "one of the few worthy modern additions to the holiday canon '' in The New Yorker. It has become established as a Christmas standard and continues to surge in popularity each holiday season. The song was commercially successful, topping the charts in the Czech Republic, Hungary, the Netherlands, Norway, Slovenia, and Spain while reaching number two in Australia, Japan, and the United Kingdom, and the top 10 in several other countries. With global sales of over 16 million copies, the song remains Carey 's biggest international success and is the 11th best - selling single of all time. As of 2017, the song was reported to have earned $60 million in royalties. Following the success of the singer 's 1993 career best - selling album Music Box, Carey and her management at Columbia Records began devising ideas and strategies for subsequent projects. Carey 's then - husband, Tommy Mottola, head of Columbia 's parent label Sony Music Entertainment, began mapping out possible follow ups for the singer during the pinnacle years of her career. During initial discussions regarding the thought of doing a Christmas - themed album with Carey and her writing partner of over four years, Walter Afanasieff, fear arose that it was not commercially expedient or wise to release holiday music at the peak of one 's career, as it was more often equated with a release towards the end of a musician 's waning career. Afanasieff recalled his sentiments during initial discussions for a holiday record: "Back then, you did n't have a lot of artists with Christmas albums. It was n't a known science at all back then, and there was nobody who did new, big Christmas songs. So we were going to release it as kind of an everyday, ' Hey, you know, we 're putting out a Christmas album. No big deal. ' '' Ultimately, with Mottola 's persistence and Carey 's initiative to be a "risk - taker '' as Afanasieff put it, the song and its parent album, Merry Christmas, began taking form in early - mid 1994. Recording for the album began in June, while the Carey - Afanasieff songwriting duo penned "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' in late August. Often referencing herself a festive person and demonstrating a usual penchant for her love of all things Christmas, Carey began decorating the home she shared with Mottola in upstate New York (which also came equipped with a personal recording studio) with Christmas ornaments and other holiday - inspired trinkets. In doing so, Carey felt she could capture the essence and spirit of what she was singing and make her vocal performance and delivery more emotive and authentic. The songwriting pair carved out the chords, structure and melody for the song in just a quarter of an hour: "It 's definitely not ' Swan Lake, ' ' admits Afanasieff. ' But that 's why it 's so popular -- because it 's so simple and palatable! ''. At first, Afanasieff admitted that he was puzzled and "blanched '' as to where Carey wanted to take the melody and vocal scales, though she was "adamant '' in her direction for the song. In an interview with Billboard, Afanasieff described the type of relationship he and Carey shared in the studio and as songwriters for the song and in general: It was always the same sort of system with us. We would write the nucleus of the song, the melody primary music, and then some of the words were there as we finished writing it. I started playing some rock ' n ' roll piano and started boogie woogie - ing my left hand, and that inspired Mariah to come up with the melodic (Sings.) ' I do n't want a lot for Christmas. ' And then we started singing and playing around with this rock ' n ' roll boogie song, which immediately came out to be the nucleus of what would end up being ' All I Want For Christmas Is You. ' That one went very quickly: It was an easier song to write than some of the other ones. It was very formulaic, not a lot of chord changes. I tried to make it a little more unique, putting in some special chords that you really do n't hear a lot of, which made it unique and special. Then for the next week or two Mariah would call me and say, ' What do you think about this bit? ' We would talk a little bit until she got the lyrics all nicely coordinated and done. And then we just waited until the sessions began, which were in the summer of ' 94 where we got together in New York and started recording. And that 's when we first hear her at the microphone singing, and the rest is history. Afanasieff flew back to California where he finished the song 's programming and production. Originally, he had a live band play the drums and other instruments with the thought of giving it a more raw and affective sound. He was unhappy with the results of the recording and subsequently scrapped the effort and used his original, personal arrangement and programmed all the instruments heard on the song (with the exception of the background vocals) including the piano, effects, drums and triangle. While Carey continued writing material in her rented home in The Hamptons, Afanasieff completed the song 's programming and awaited to rendezvous with her a final time in order to layer and harmonize the background vocals. In touching on several aspects of what excited her to record and release a Christmas album, Carey went into detail on what writing and recording the song and album meant for her: "I 'm a very festive person and I love the holidays. I 've sung Christmas songs since I was a little girl. I used to go Christmas caroling. When it came to the album, we had to have a nice balance between standard Christian hymns and fun songs. It was definitely a priority for me to write at least a few new songs, but for the most part people really want to hear the standards at Christmas time, no matter how good a new song is. '' "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' is an uptempo song, composed with pop, soul, R&B, gospel, dance - pop and rhythmic adult contemporary influences and stylings. By early August, Carey already had two original songs written alongside Afanasieff; the "sad and balld - y '' "Miss You Most (At Christmas Time) '' and the "Gospel - tinged and religious '' "Jesus Born on This Day ''. The third and final original song the pair planned to write was to be centered and inspired and in the vein of a "Phil Spector, old rock ' n roll, sixties - sounding Christmas song ''. The song begins with a "sparking '' bit of percussion "that resembles an antique music box or a whimsical snow globe. '' After Carey 's a cappella style vocal introduction, the song introduces other seasonal percussive signifiers including; celebratory church - like bells, cheerful sleigh bells, and "an underlying rhythmic beat that sounds like the loping pace of a horse or reindeer. These sounds echo religious and secular musical touchstones, without veering blatantly too much in either direction, and give the song an upbeat, joyous tone. '' In an interview in 1994, Carey described the song as "fun '', and continued: "It 's very traditional, old - fashioned Christmas. It 's very retro, kind of ' 60s. '' Afanasieff went further in breaking down the song 's musical elements: "A lush bed of keyboards, reminiscent of a small - scale Wall of Sound, cushions the song 's cheery rhythms, while a soulful vocal chorus adds robust oohs, tension - creating counter-melodies, and festive harmonies. Most notably, however, the song 's jaunty piano chords and melody keep the song merrily bouncing along. '' Lyrically, the describes the yearning desire to be with a loved one for Christmas, regardless of whether they have to forgo the usual commercial aspect of the holiday season such as ornamental lights, trees, snow and presents. The song incorporates various instruments, including piano, drums, violin, oboe, flute, bell chimes, bass effect, and cowbells. The song layers background vocals throughout the chorus and sections of the bridge. "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' is played at an original tempo of 150.162 beats per minute. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing, the song is set in common time and in the key of G major. Carey 's vocal range in the song spans from the note of G to the high note of G. Carey wrote the song 's lyrics and melody, while Afanasieff arranged and produced the piece with synthetically created computerized equipment. Slate 's Ragusea counts "at least 13 distinct chords at work, resulting in a sumptuously chromatic melody. The song also includes what I consider the most Christmassy chord of all -- a minor subdominant, or ' iv, ' chord with an added 6, under the words ' underneath the Christmas tree, ' among other places. (You might also analyze it as a half - diminished ' ii ' 7th chord, but either interpretation seems accurate). '' According to Roch Parisien from AllMusic, the song contains "The Beach Boys - style harmonies, jangling bells, and a sleigh - ride pace, injecting one of the few bits of exuberant fun in this otherwise vanilla set. '' Critics have noted the song 's 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s influences which, in conjunction with Carey 's voice and its simple melody, heralded its recipe for success. In discussing the song 's chord progression and stylistic approaches, Slate 's Adam Ragusea hailed the song as "the only Christmas song written in the last half - century worthy of inclusion in the Great American Songbook. '' The A.V. Club 's Annie Zaleski attributes the song 's enduring appeal to its ambiguity in being able to pin it down as belonging to a specific era. Critics also noted the song a tad reminiscent of the works of Judy Garland and Nat King Cole, while also describing it as hearkening back to "' 60s and ' 70s Motown covers of prewar Christmas classics, such as The Jackson 5 's (and) Stevie Wonder ''. Slate 's Ragusea conceded that "All I Want For Christmas Is You '' "sounds like it could have been written in the ' 40s and locked in a Brill Building safe. '' In a piece on the song in Vogue, a writer felt the song 's lyrics helped solidify its status over two decades later: "those lyrics could have been sung by Frank Sinatra -- well, maybe not Frank, but another singer back then. I think that 's what gives it that timeless, classic quality. '' "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' was lauded by music critics. Parisien called the song "a year - long banger '', complimenting its instrumentation and melody. Steve Morse, editor of The Boston Globe, wrote that Carey sang with a lot of soul. According to Barry Schwartz from Stylus Magazine, "to say this song is an instant classic somehow does n't capture its amazingicity; it 's a modern standard: joyous, exhilarating, loud, with even a hint of longing. '' Schwartz praised the song 's lyrics as well, describing them as "beautifully phrased, '' and calling Carey 's voice "gorgeous '' and "sincere. '' Kyle Anderson from MTV labeled the track "a majestic anthem full of chimes, sleigh bells, doo - wop flourishes, sweeping strings and one of the most dynamic and clean vocal performances of Carey 's career ''. While reviewing the 2009 remix version, Becky Bain from Idolator called the song a "timeless classic '' and wrote, "We love the original song to pieces -- we blast it while decorating our Christmas tree and lighting our Menorah. '' Shona Craven of Scotland 's The Herald, said, "(it 's) a song of optimism and joy that maybe, just maybe, hints at the real meaning of Christmas. '' Additionally, she felt the main reason it was so successful is the subject "you '' in the lyrics, explaining, "Perhaps what makes the song such a huge hit is the fact that it 's for absolutely everyone. '' Craven opened her review with a bold statement: "Bing Crosby may well be turning in his grave, but no child of the 1980s will be surprised to see Mariah Carey 's sublime All I Want For Christmas Is You bounding up the charts after being named the nation 's top festive song. '' In his review for Carey 's Merry Christmas II You, Thomas Connor from the Chicago Sun - Times called the song "a simple, well - crafted chestnut and one of the last great additions to the Christmas pop canon ''. In a 2006 retrospective look at Carey 's career, Sasha Frere - Jones of The New Yorker said, the "charming '' song was one of Carey 's biggest accomplishments, calling it "one of the few worthy modern additions to the holiday canon ''. Dan Hancox, editor of The National, quoted and agreed with Jones ' statement, calling the song "perfection ''. In the United States, in the first week of January 1995, "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' peaked at number six on the Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary and at No. 12 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart. The song placed on these two charts again in December 1995 and in December 1996. The song was ineligible for inclusion on the Billboard Hot 100 during its original release, because it was not released commercially as a single. This rule lapsed in 1998, however, allowing the song to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 (peaking at No. 83 in January 2000). The song topped the Billboard Hot Digital Songs chart in December 2005, but it was unable to attain a new peak on the Billboard Hot 100 chart because it was considered a recurrent single and was thus ineligible for chart re-entry. Every December from 2005 to 2008, the song topped the Billboard Hot 100 Re-currents chart. In 2012, after the recurrent rule was revised to allow all songs in the top 50 onto the Billboard Hot 100 chart, the single re-entered the chart at No. 29 and peaked at number 21 for the week ending January 5, 2013. In December 2017, the song peaked at number nine on the Billboard Hot 100, making it its highest peak since its original release. As of December 16, 2017, "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' topped the Billboard Holiday 100 chart for a record - extending 27th cumulative week. No other song has spent more than two weeks at No. 1 on the Holiday 100 since the chart 's launch in 2011. It has become the first holiday ringtone to be certified double - platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Additionally, of songs recorded before the year 2000, it is the best - selling digital single by a woman, as well as the overall best - selling holiday digital single. As of November 2016, Nielsen SoundScan estimated total sales of the digital track at 3,200,000 downloads. In the United Kingdom, the song entered the UK Singles Chart at number 5 during the week of December 10, 1994. The following week, the song peaked at number 2, staying there for the final three weeks of December (held out of the coveted "Christmas No. 1 '' honor by East 17 's "Stay Another Day ''). As of January 27, 2017, it had spent seventy - eight weeks on the UK Singles Chart. As of December 19, 2013, "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' has sold one million copies in the UK. On December 11, 2015, it was certified double platinum by the British Phonographic Industry for shipment of 1.2 million units (including streams) and remains Carey 's best - selling single in the UK. In 2010, "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' was named the No. 1 holiday song of the decade in the United Kingdom. The song peaked at number 2 in the United Kingdom for a second time in December 2017 due to strong downloads and streaming. The song peaked at No. 2 on the Australian Singles Chart and was certified triple - platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), denoting shipments of over 210,000 units. In Denmark, it peaked at No. 4, staying in the chart for sixteen weeks and being certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI). "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' became Carey 's best - selling single in Japan. It was used as the theme song to the popular drama 29 - sai no Christmas (29 才 の クリスマス, lit. "Christmas in 29 Years, 29th Christmas ''), and was titled Koibito - tachi no Christmas (恋人 たち の クリスマス, lit. "Lovers ' Christmas ''). The single peaked at No. 2 for two weeks, blocked from the top spot by "Tomorrow Never Knows '' and "Everybody Goes '', both released by rock band Mr. Children. It sold in excess of 1.1 million units in Japan. Due to strong sales and airplay, the song re-charted in Japan in 2010, peaking at No. 6 on the Japan Hot 100. The single has been certified the Million award by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ) on two different formats (compact disc and ringtone), in 1994 and 2008, respectively. When the song was first released as a single in 1994, no remixes were commissioned except for the instrumental version; however, this version was not released on the single that year. Carey re-released the song commercially in Japan in 2000, with a new remix known as the So So Def remix. The remix contains new vocals and is played over a harder, more urban beat that contains a sample of Afrika Bambaataa & the Soulsonic Force 's "Planet Rock; '' it features guest vocals by Jermaine Dupri and Bow Wow. The remix appears on Carey 's compilation album Greatest Hits (2001) as a bonus track. In 2009, a remix produced by Carey and Low Sunday, called "Mariah 's New Dance Mix '', was released. The mix laid the original 1994 vocals over new electronic instrumentation. The remix garnered a positive response. MTV 's Kyle Anderson wrote that "it 's difficult to improve perfection, '' but that the remix "does dress up the song in a disco thump that should make your office Christmas party 28 percent funkier than it was last year. '' Idolator 's Becky Bain praised the song 's catchiness. In 2010, Carey re-recorded the song for her thirteenth studio and second holiday album, Merry Christmas II You. Titled "All I Want for Christmas Is You (Extra Festive) '', the new version featured re-recorded vocals, softer bell ringing and stronger drumming, and an orchestral introduction that replaced the slow vocal introduction. Steven J. Horowitz from Rap - Up wrote that the new version "sound (ed) just as enjoyable as it did in 1994. '' While the song was praised, it drew criticism for being too similar to the original. Thomas Connor from the Chicago Sun - Times wrote that the new version "just seems to add a few brassy backup singers to the exact same arrangement. '' Caryn Ganz from Rolling Stone agreed, writing that it was "hard to figure out what 's ' extra festive ' '' about the new version. Dan Hancox, editor of The National, also felt the new version was unnecessary. In 2011, Justin Bieber also recorded a version of the song as a duet with Carey on his holiday album, Under the Mistletoe. Carey has performed the song during concerts as well as live televised performances. There are three music videos for "All I Want for Christmas Is You ''. The first, primary video was shot in the style of a home movie using Super-8mm film; it was directed and filmed by Carey during the Christmas season of 1993. The video begins with Carey placing holiday ornaments on a Christmas tree and frolicking through the snowy mountainside. Outdoor scenes were shot at the Fairy Tale Forest in New Jersey, where Carey 's then - husband Tommy Mottola made a cameo appearance as Santa Claus. It continues with scenes of Carey getting ready for her album cover photo shoot and spending time with her dog Jack. It concludes with Santa Claus leaving Carey with a bag of presents and waving goodbye. It has more than 400 million views on YouTube as of December 27, 2017. In the song 's alternate video, inspired by The Ronettes, Carey dances in a 1960s - influenced studio surrounded by go -- go dancers. For a 1960s look, the video was filmed in black and white, with Carey in white boots and teased up hair. This video was also directed by Carey. There are two edits to this version of the video. Another video was created for the So So Def remix, but it does not feature Carey or the hip - hop musicians that perform in the song. Instead, the video is animated and based on a scene in the video from Carey 's "Heartbreaker '' (1999). It features cartoon cameo appearances by Carey, Jermaine Dupri, Bow Wow, Luis Miguel (Carey 's boyfriend at the time), Carey 's dog Jack, and Santa Claus. Kris Kringle is credited with directing the music video. Since 2009, the song has been included in a music video accompanying ESPN 's (and their sister station, ABC) Christmas Day coverage of the NBA. The music video for the duet featuring Bieber was filmed in Macy 's department store in New York City, and features Bieber shopping with his friends whilst Carey is seen singing in the background. "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' charts every holiday season since its original release. In December 2017, the song peaked at # 9 on the Billboard Hot 100, making it the first holiday song to enter Hot 100 's Top 10 since Kenny G 's cover of "Auld Lang Syne '' in January 2000. It became Carey 's 28th Top 10 Hit in the Hot 100. With global sales of over 16 million copies, the song remains Carey 's biggest international success and the 11th best selling single of all time. As of 2017, the song was reported to have earned $60 million in royalties. The Daily Telegraph hailed "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' as the most popular and most played Christmas song of the decade in the United Kingdom. Rolling Stone ranked it fourth on its Greatest Rock and Roll Christmas Songs list, calling it a "holiday standard. '' Due to the song 's lasting impact, Carey was dubbed the "Queen of Christmas '', a title she 's hesitant to accept. "I do n't accept that name because I feel like it 's (too much), '' she said. "I humbly thank them and I do have an extraordinary love for the holiday season, and it is the best time of the year. '' Carey released a children 's book based on "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' on November 10, 2015, which went on to sell over 750,000 copies. She later released an animated family film based on the book and song on November 14, 2017. sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone Works cited

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Arsenal F.C. -- Manchester United F.C. Rivalry - wikipedia The rivalry between Arsenal and Manchester United is a notable one in English football as both clubs are recognised for having great history and traditions. Although the two clubs have frequently been in the same division as each other since 1919, the rivalry was instigated in 1990, when a brawl resulted in both clubs having points deductions in the Football League First Division. Many of the clashes between the two teams in the late 1990s and early 2000s have been due to the teams being fierce rivals in the Premier League and FA Cup. During this period, there was enmity between the two longest serving managers in Premier League history, Arsenal 's Arsène Wenger (1996 -- present) and United 's Sir Alex Ferguson (1986 -- 2013), and their former club captains Patrick Vieira and Roy Keane. Both managers spurred each other on for greater success, and the contests often involved on - field trouble -- seven red cards were shown in matches from February 1997 to February 2005. The league fixture in September 2003 was marred by a mêlée instigated by Arsenal players, who felt striker Ruud van Nistelrooy had cheated to get Vieira sent off. A season later, Manchester United ended Arsenal 's unbeaten run in controversial circumstances, which led to more disorder, this time in the tunnel. The rivalry under Ferguson and Wenger is considered to have come to an natural end at the 2005 FA Cup Final, given the London club then underwent a period of transitional change. By 2008 former Arsenal player Lee Dixon noted that the rivalry had diminished somewhat, while Ferguson himself stated the two teams have cooled from those previously "heated '' exchanges. Various factors have been suggested for the diminishing importance of the rivalry in the 2010s, such as the ascendancy of other clubs including local rivals of both (Chelsea and Manchester City). Arsenal and Manchester United first played a competitive match in October 1894; as of December 2017, the two clubs have faced each other 227 times in total. United have won 95 to Arsenal 's 82, and 50 matches have ended in a draw. Wayne Rooney has scored the most goals in the fixture with 12, while Ryan Giggs has made the highest number of appearances with 50. Several players have featured for both clubs at different stages of their career, including Brian Kidd, Andy Cole, David Platt, Robin van Persie, Danny Welbeck and former manager George Graham. A particularly memorable match between the two sides came on 1 February 1958, when they met in a league fixture at Highbury. It was the last league game that United played before the Munich air disaster five days later, which claimed the lives of eight of their players and saw two other players injured to such an extent that they never played again. United won the game 5 -- 4, with goals from Tommy Taylor (twice), Duncan Edwards, Bobby Charlton and Dennis Viollet. Five of the United players who would lose their lives as a result of the crash took to the field in the game -- captain and full - back Roger Byrne, right - half Eddie Colman, centre - half Mark Jones, left - half Edwards and centre - forward Taylor. Another high - profile clash came more than 20 years later, in the final of the FA Cup on 12 May 1979. A capacity crowd saw Arsenal take a 2 -- 0 lead in the first half thanks to goals from Brian Talbot and Frank Stapleton, and with just five minutes left on the clock their lead was still intact. Then, in the 86th minute, Gordon McQueen pulled a goal back for United, and two minutes later they equalised with a goal from Sammy McIlroy. However, barely a minute after United equalised, Arsenal 's Alan Sunderland scored an 89th - minute goal to win the cup 3 -- 2 for Arsenal. Although Arsenal and Manchester United had previously contested many significant matches, Sir Alex Ferguson believed the rivalry started in January 1987 when David Rocastle was sent off for retaliating against a foul on Norman Whiteside. It is, however, generally perceived to have begun in October 1990, when a brawl between both sides at Old Trafford resulted in both clubs being docked points in the 1990 -- 91 First Division. The scuffle started when Arsenal 's Anders Limpar, who scored the only goal of the game, contested for the ball with Manchester United defender Denis Irwin. Limpar 's teammate Nigel Winterburn tackled Irwin, which prompted Brian McClair and Irwin to retaliate. Winterburn was pushed onto the advertising hoardings and all the players bar goalkeeper David Seaman partook in a 20 - second mêlée. As well as a points deduction, both clubs fined several of their players, and in Arsenal 's case, their manager too. Arsenal and United next faced each other at Highbury a little over a month later in the Football League Cup fourth round. 19 - year - old winger Lee Sharpe scored a hat - trick as United won the tie 6 -- 2. The rivalry intensified following the arrival of Arsène Wenger in October 1996. A league match between the two sides in February 1997 was marred by an incident between Arsenal 's Ian Wright and United 's Peter Schmeichel; the striker challenged for the ball with both feet and caught the goalkeeper with his studs. A confrontation ensued and police stepped in to keep the players apart after the final whistle. Wright 's behaviour was scrutinised at a hearing, where he complained he was subject to racial abuse by Schmeichel, at which point the FA intervened and met with representatives of both clubs. In April 1997, Wright and Schmeichel settled their differences, but the managers ' animosity towards each other started to become apparent. Wenger had advised against the Premier League extending the season to ease Manchester United 's fixture congestion, to which Ferguson publicly retorted: "Maybe he should concentrate on Ian Wright 's tackles rather than Manchester United. He 's at a big club, well Arsenal used to be a big club, and maybe next year he could be in the same situation. I wonder what (h) is story will be then. '' United had won four of the first five editions of the newly - branded league, and were on course to continue their domination after opening up a sizeable lead in February 1998. Injuries and poor results however destabilised the team, and by the time Arsenal visited Old Trafford in March, a title race was looking probable. Wenger was bullish of his team 's chances: "I told you last week that the race was not over when the bookmakers stopped betting. Surprise, surprise, they have started taking money again. '' A goal from Marc Overmars set Arsenal on the way to victory, which put them six points behind with three games in hand. They eventually won the league, and secured the double by beating Newcastle United in the Cup final. Arsenal began the 1998 -- 99 season with a 3 -- 0 win over United in the Charity Shield; Ferguson was unconcerned by the result, but losing to the champions a month later by the same scoreline was, in his words, "a lot less tolerable. '' Both clubs again vied for domestic honours; United this time pipped Arsenal by a point to regain the title. They also met in the FA Cup semi-final, which was replayed after the original game ended goalless. David Beckham and Dennis Bergkamp scored for their respective clubs either side of half time, Roy Keane was dismissed, and the holders late on were awarded a penalty. Schmeichel saved Bergkamp 's attempt and the tie went into extra time. Ryan Giggs memorably scored the winner, picking up possession on the halfway line and dribbling past the entire Arsenal back line before shooting past David Seaman. "A match that had everything finished with a pitch invasion, sporadic fighting and David Beckham carried shoulder - high from the field '' wrote Matt Dickinson in The Times. United went on to complete the treble, winning the UEFA Champions League. The rivalry continued into the new millennium, though Manchester United 's domestic grip tightened. They finished 18 points clear of Arsenal in 1999 -- 2000 and completed a hat - trick of titles the following season. Any indication United could be caught faded once Ferguson 's team resoundingly beat Arsenal 6 -- 1 in February 2001. Dwight Yorke scored a hat - trick, on a day Wenger fielded a relatively inexperienced centre - back pairing of Gilles Grimandi and Igors Stepanovs. At the end of the campaign, Ferguson announced his decision to retire. He reportedly sanctioned a bid to sign midfielder Patrick Vieira, who was upset at Arsenal 's transfer inactivity. The transfer never came through; Wenger blamed his rivals for "... approach (ing) to Patrick without contacting us, and that does not really respect the rules. '' United made an indifferent start to the league campaign, and by February 2002, Ferguson went back on his retirement plan on the advice of his family. Arsenal hit their stride as the 2001 -- 02 season came to a close, winning the double for the second time in four years. The championship was decided at Old Trafford in the penultimate game of the season; Wenger described his team 's 1 -- 0 win as a "shift of power. '' United again won the title back in 2002 -- 03, when it looked as though Arsenal would retain it. A late - season encounter between the teams ended in controversial circumstances after the match officials allowed Thierry Henry 's second goal to stand despite the player being offside and Sol Campbell was sent off for an elbow on Ole Gunnar Solskjær in a 2 -- 2 draw. Arsenal had beaten United on the way to FA Cup success and both teams contested the 2003 FA Community Shield at the start of the 2003 -- 04 season. In a hotly - contested match, Phil Neville was booked in the first minute for a challenge on Vieira and a minute later, Ashley Cole received a booking for fouling Solskjær. Yellow cards were also given to Quinton Fortune and Paul Scholes for United and Vieira for Arsenal. Substitute Francis Jeffers was shown a straight red for a kick on Phil Neville and, despite originally going unpunished, Campbell was later given a three - match ban by the FA for kicking out at Eric Djemba - Djemba. The game finished 1 -- 1 after 90 minutes and United eventually won the Shield 4 -- 3 on penalties. The rivalry escalated in September 2003, when Arsenal travelled to Old Trafford. In the match Vieira was shown a second yellow card for his part in an altercation with striker Ruud van Nistelrooy, and during stoppage time, defender Martin Keown brought down Diego Forlán in the Arsenal penalty area. United were awarded a penalty and Van Nistelrooy stepped up to take it, but his shot rebounded off the crossbar. This was followed by scenes of jubilation from the Arsenal players, who confronted Van Nistelrooy after his miss and the resulting scuffle led to another fracas after the final whistle. The FA immediately took action, charging six of Arsenal 's players (Jens Lehmann, Ray Parlour, Lauren, Cole, Keown and Vieira) with improper conduct. The club was fined £ 175,000, the largest ever given to a club by the FA at the time. Lauren received a four - game ban, whereas Vieira and Parlour were given one - match suspensions. The next game between these two clubs was held at Highbury in March 2004, again ending in a draw. Ferguson 's side then knocked Arsenal out of the FA Cup semi-final at Villa Park the following weekend; United supporters at the ground led a chorus of "Where 's your Treble gone? '' to their rivals. United went on to win the FA Cup, while Arsenal regained the title without losing a league game. They faced each other in the 2004 FA Community Shield and Arsenal won the match 3 -- 1. By the time Arsenal next played Manchester United, the club had extended its unbeaten league run to 49 games. United stood in sixth place in the table, 11 points behind Arsenal and were intent on ending their rivals ' undefeated streak. Ferguson in his press conference described Arsenal 's conduct in the equivalent fixture a year ago as "... the worst thing I 've seen in this sport. No wonder they were so delighted at the verdicts. '' The October 2004 league match, staged at Old Trafford, was blighted by a number of fouls, overlooked by referee Mike Riley, including striker Van Nistelrooy 's studs - up challenge on Cole. Arsenal dictated much of the play, but as the game headed towards the finish, United threatened. The home side were awarded a penalty when Wayne Rooney was adjudged to have been fouled in the area by Campbell. Van Nistelrooy scored and late in the game Rooney scored to give United a 2 -- 0 win. Tempers flared in the tunnel afterwards; Wenger confronted Van Nistelrooy for his tackle on Cole, but Ferguson intervened and told him to leave his players alone. Pizza was thrown at Ferguson by an Arsenal player, which forced him to change into the club tracksuit in order to carry out his television duties. An investigation into "Pizzagate '' never came around as both clubs kept silent. The clubs met again five weeks later in the League Cup quarter - finals at Old Trafford and despite both sides fielding weakened teams, the match was not short of drama. David Bellion gave United the lead in just 19 seconds, but tempers boiled over in the second half; a late tackle by Robin van Persie on Kieran Richardson resulted in a fracas between both sets of players, which concluded with both protagonists getting booked by referee Mark Halsey. The game finished 1 -- 0. In the reverse league fixture, club captains Keane and Vieira had to be separated in the tunnel before the match by referee Graham Poll. Keane accused the Arsenal midfielder of intimidating his teammate Gary Neville, telling the press afterwards: "I said, ' Come and have a go at me '. Simple as that. If he wants to intimidate some of my team - mates then let 's have a go at some of the other players. I think Gary Neville 's an easy target. I was n't having it. '' Vieira gave Arsenal the lead in the eighth minute of the match but United ran out 4 -- 2 winners. In May 2005, Arsenal and United contested the 124th FA Cup Final. It was the first time in the competition 's history that the final was decided on a penalty shoot - out. Arsenal beat United 5 -- 4, following a goalless draw after extra time. Arsenal forward José Antonio Reyes became the second player in Cup Final history to be sent off, following his second yellow card near the end of extra time. Chelsea 's emergence as title challengers put an end to Arsenal and Manchester United 's domestic duopoly. The West London club won back - to - back league titles in 2004 -- 05 and 2005 -- 06 under José Mourinho, at a time when Arsenal and United underwent a period of transition. Vieira and Keane had left their respective clubs by the end of 2005, while Ferguson came under intense scrutiny over his management. Nevertheless, he guided his team to Premier League success in 2006 -- 07, and won a further four league titles. At Arsenal, Wenger oversaw the club 's relocation to the Emirates Stadium and made the decision to prioritise it over strengthening the squad. The club sold several experienced players, replenishing them with younger talent. The 2005 Cup win was their last piece of silverware until 2014. Though the rivalry cooled, the two clubs were still involved in engrossing battles; The Guardian 's Jamie Jackson wrote after a November 2007 fixture: "For once here was enough spectacle to meet the pre-match hype and convince the millions watching around the world that the Premier League may just have the best footballers who can play the very best stuff. '' In 2009, the teams met in the semi-finals of the 2008 -- 09 UEFA Champions League, which United won 4 -- 1 on aggregate. United defender Patrice Evra was blunt in his post-match assessment: "It was 11 men against 11 children. We never doubted ourselves. We have much more experience and that 's what made the difference. '' In December 2010, Ferguson made a personal plea to the United fans to no longer sing a "sick '' chant at Wenger, as those kind of chants from fans were considered an embarrassment to the club. With both teams going for the Premier League title in May 2011, Arsenal won their first game against Manchester United since November 2008, to leave United just three points ahead of Chelsea and six ahead of Arsenal going into the final three games of the season. Nevertheless, United won the league, nine points ahead of Chelsea and 12 points ahead of Arsenal. In August 2011, Arsenal suffered their heaviest league defeat in 84 years as they lost 8 -- 2 to Manchester United at Old Trafford. Arsenal had not lost a league game by such a margin since 1927 when they lost 7 -- 0 to West Ham United in the old Football League First Division. This was also the first time they had conceded eight goals in a game since 1896, when they lost 8 -- 0 to the now defunct Loughborough in the old Football League Second Division. A year later, striker Robin van Persie joined United, having stated that he would not renew his contract with Arsenal. It was speculated that he would move to a club overseas, but signed for the Manchester club, the first Arsenal player to do so since Viv Anderson in 1987. Ferguson called Wenger to push through a deal when he learnt of the contract situation. Van Persie was instrumental in United 's league win of 2012 -- 13 -- Ferguson 's last, and coincidentally received a guard of honour by his former teammates before United faced Arsenal at the Emirates in April 2013. The appointment of Mourinho as United manager in 2016 added a new twist to the rivalry, given the previous animosity between him and Wenger. Sports writer Daniel Taylor however argued that Wenger 's stagnation hindered any confrontations between the two managers, writing: "Ferguson stopped aiming his barbs at Wenger once it became clear his old enemy was no longer capable of producing title - winning teams and it does n't feel like a coincidence that Mourinho also seems indifferent now that Arsenal have dropped even further back. '' Former midfielder Phil Neville criticised the players for hugging in the tunnel before a league fixture in May 2017, calling the pleasantries a "total nonsense ''. In December 2017 analysts calculated the league fixture between the two sides as the Premier League 's first billion pound game. It was not until Wenger 's arrival in October 1996 that Arsenal reemerged as a serious league competitor. By the end of the 1996 -- 97 season, Manchester United amassed their fourth title in five seasons, whereas Arsenal finished the campaign in third -- their highest position since the formation of the Premier League in 1992. During the season, Wenger commented on rule changes which permitted an extension to the league calendar: "It 's wrong the programme is extended so Manchester United can rest and win everything. '' His observation irked Ferguson, who replied: "He has no experience of English football. He has come here from Japan, and now he is telling everyone how to organise our football. Unless you have been in the situation and had the experience then he should keep his mouth shut, firmly shut. '' The relationship between both managers was evidently hostile to begin with. Ferguson noted that Wenger was the only manager he came across in the league not to share a drink with after matches -- an English football "tradition ''. In a joint interview with The Times and Daily Mail in 2009, Wenger said his discourtesy was mistaken for mistrust and managers "can not be completely friendly and open up. '' When asked if this was the reason he avoided the post-match drink, he replied: "Most of the time, yes. What can you say if you have won? And if you have lost all you want to do is get home and prepare for the next game. '' In January 2005, Ferguson and Wenger were embroiled in a new row over what had happened in the tunnel after Pizzagate. Ferguson alleged that Wenger called his players "cheats '' and never apologised for his team 's behaviour: "It 's a disgrace, but I do n't expect Wenger to ever apologise, he 's that type of person. '' Wenger then claimed Ferguson was guilty of bringing the game into disrepute; he told reporters that he "will never answer any questions any more about this man, '' but went further to question the motive of the press: "What I do n't understand is that he does what he wants and you are all at his feet. '' Both managers came under pressure from the Metropolitan Police Service, then Sports Minister Richard Caborn and Premier League chairman Richard Scudamore to put an end to the bickering. Ferguson and Wenger agreed to tone down their words, in an attempt to defuse the rivalry. In later years, Ferguson said Arsenal 's defeat "scrambled Arsène 's brain '' and caused their relationship to breakdown for almost five years. The two managers have "exchanged some of football 's best and bitterest verbal swipes, '' according to The Daily Telegraph. In 1997, Ferguson called Wenger a "novice '' for complaining about the fixture programme and later said of his linguistic skills: "They say he 's an intelligent man, right? Speaks five languages! I 've got a 15 - year - old boy from the Ivory Coast who speaks five languages! '' After Arsenal 's defeat to Manchester United in February 1997 -- a match marred by a bust up between Wright and Schmeichel, Wenger referred to Ferguson 's interference: "I was surprised to see Ferguson on the pitch because you can only play eleven. '' When Ferguson asserted that his team played the best football in England during the 2001 -- 02 season, Wenger quipped: "Everyone thinks they have the prettiest wife at home, '' a subtle remark that Ferguson initially suspected was a taunt at his own wife Cathy. Such was the media 's fascination of both managers ' insults towards one another, psychologists were brought in to read and contrast their personalities. John Kramer, a sports psychologist suggested in 2004 that Ferguson and Wenger used their rivalry in order to relax before an important match. To him, Ferguson was "... the past master in terms of creating an environment of keeping his players hungry '' by using a persecution complex; Wenger on the other hand diffuses the psychology and would rather "... tell his players they are all superb and will attempt to create an environment where they are able to show off their skills without the rest of it. '' Kramer concluded that both managers ' comments "add (s) to the drama '', but was insignificant in the games between the two clubs. Ferguson in his autobiography said a major turning point in his relationship with Wenger was after the Champions League semi-final of 2009; the Arsenal manager invited his competitor into the dressing room and congratulated him on United 's win. Wenger admitted their relationship had become genial since his team stopped competing with Manchester United for trophies. The move to the Emirates Stadium in 2006 is often cited as the reason why, given it coincided with a transitional phase for the club. Several experienced first teamers were displaced in favour of youth and the style of football became shifted more towards ball retention. Ferguson assessed the change in philosophy proved that Wenger did not "like to blend them too much with older players; '' he also felt the team lacked a much needed balance between attack and defence. The growth of the rivalry during the 1990s attracted the attention of broadcasters and has led to fixtures being rescheduled from the 3pm blackout period to primetime viewing in the United Kingdom. League matches are often broadcast on Sky Sports -- once as early as 11: 15am, while cup games have aired on mainstream channels, BBC One and ITV. At the height of the rivalry, the games on Sky had been billed as title deciders, and play was summarised by Martin Tyler and Andy Gray. The April 2003 match at Highbury, advertised as "Face Off '', was seen by a British audience of 3.4 million, while the 2005 Cup final was watched by more than 480 million viewers worldwide. In August 1999, the two sides participated in the world 's first interactive football match, and 11 years later featured in the world 's first 3D TV sports broadcast -- both events trialled by Sky. To commemorate the 80th anniversary of the first radio football commentary, the BBC reintroduced its "grid system '' to help listeners visualise the action between Arsenal and Manchester United in January 2007. Musician David Gray was enlisted as guest summariser, with John Murray describing the action and James Alexander Gordon calling out the grid numbers to explain where the ball was. The rivalry was explored in an ITV4 special, Keane & Vieira: Best of Enemies, first broadcast in December 2013. The documentary saw the former captains discussing about their relationship, views on their respective managers and what they thought of each other. Arsenal, then Manchester United Manchester United, then Arsenal Note: David Platt never played a senior game for United, Jim Leighton never played a senior game for Arsenal. All figures are correct as of the match played on 3 December 2017. General Specific

john mayall & the bluesbreakers all your love

All Your Love (I Miss Loving) - wikipedia "All Your Love (I Miss Loving) '' or "All Your Love '' is a blues song written and recorded by Chicago blues guitarist Otis Rush in 1958. Of all of his compositions, it is the best - known with versions by several blues and other artists. "All Your Love '' was inspired by an earlier blues song and later influenced other popular songs. "All Your Love '' is a moderate - tempo minor - key twelve - bar blues with Afro - Cuban rhythmic influences. An impromptu song "apparently dashed off... in the car en route to Cobra 's West Roosevelt Road studios '', it borrows guitar lines and the arrangement from "Lucky Lou '', a 1957 instrumental single by blues guitarist Jody Williams (Argo 5274). The song alternates between guitar and vocal sections, with an instrumental bridge performed as a faster - tempo twelve - bar shuffle featuring Rush 's guitar solo. The song was produced by Willie Dixon and features Rush on guitar and vocal, Dixon on bass, Ike Turner on second guitar, Little Brother Montgomery on piano, Harold Ashby and Jackie Brenston on saxophones, and Billy Gayles on drums. When "All Your Love '' was released in 1958 on Cobra Records, it was Rush 's last single for the label. Rush subsequently recorded several studio and live versions of the song, including one released on his Blues Interaction -- Live in Japan 1986 album. In 2010, Otis Rush 's "All Your Love (I Miss Loving) '' was inducted into the Blues Foundation Hall of Fame, which noted that Rush 's song "was the obvious inspiration for Bob Dylan 's recent track "Beyond Here Lies Nothin ' '' ". In various interviews, Peter Green acknowledged being influenced by "All Your Love '' ' when he wrote the rock classic "Black Magic Woman '', which became a major hit for Santana. According to Carlos Santana, "If you take the words from ' Black Magic Woman ' and just leave the rhythm, it 's ' All Your Love ' -- it 's Otis Rush ''. A variety of musical artists have recorded "All Your Love '', including John Mayall and the Bluesbreakers from the album Blues Breakers with Eric Clapton (1966) as well as 70th Birthday Concert (2003), Aerosmith from Pandora 's Box (1977, released 1991), Stevie Ray Vaughan from In the Beginning (1980, released 1992), Buddy Guy from DJ Play My Blues (1982), Gary Moore from Still Got the Blues (1990), Rick Derringer on Jackhammer Blues (2000) and the Steve Miller Band from Bingo! (2010).

plasmodium falciparum is described as the causative agent of malaria

Plasmodium falciparum - wikipedia Oscillaria malariae Laveran, 1881 Plasmodium malariae Marchiafava and Celli, 1885 Laverania malariae Feletti and Grassi, 1890 Ematozoo falciforme Antolisei and Angelini, 1890 Haemamoeba immaculata Grassi, 1891 Haemamoeba laverani Labbe, 1894 Haematozoon falciforme Thayer and Hewetson, 1895 Haematozoon falciparum Welch, 1897 Haemosporidium sedecimanae Lewkowicz, 1897 Haemosporidium undecimanae Lewkowicz, 1897 Haemosporidium vigesimotertianae Lewkowicz, 1897 Plasmodium falciparum is a unicellular protozoan parasite of humans, and the deadliest species of Plasmodium that cause malaria in humans. It is transmitted through the bite of a female Anopheles mosquito. It is responsible for roughly 50 % of all malaria cases. It causes the disease 's most dangerous form called falciparum malaria. It is therefore regarded as the deadliest parasite in humans, causing a conservative estimate of one million deaths every year. It is also associated with the development of blood cancer (Burkitt 's lymphoma) and is classified as Group 2A carcinogen. The species originated from the malarial parasite Laverania found in gorillas, around 10,000 years ago. Alphonse Laveran was the first to identify the parasite in 1880, and named it Oscillaria malariae. Ronald Ross discovered its transmission by mosquito in 1897. Giovanni Battista Grassi elucidated the complete transmission from a female anopheline mosquito to humans in 1898. In 1897, William H. Welch created the name Plasmodium falciparum, which ICZN formally adopted in 1954. P. falciparum assumes several different forms during its life cycle. The human - infective stage are sporozoites from the salivary gland of a mosquito. The sporozoites grow and multiply in the liver to become merozoites. These merozoites invade the erythrocytes (RBCs) to form trophozoites, schizonts and gametocytes, during which the symptoms of malaria are produced. In the mosquito, the gametocytes undergo sexual reproduction to a zygote, which turns into ookinete. Ookinete forms oocyts from which sporozoites are formed. As of the latest World Malaria Report of the World Health Organization, there were 216 million cases of malaria worldwide in 2016, up from 211 million cases in 2015. This resulted in an estimated 445,000 deaths. Almost every malarial death is caused by P. falciparum, and 91 % of death occurs in Africa. Children under five years of age are most affected, accounting for two - third of the total deaths. In Sub-Saharan Africa, over 75 % of cases were due to P. falciparum, whereas in most other malarial countries, other, less virulent plasmodial species predominate. Falciparum malaria was familiar to Ancient Greeks, who gave the general name pyretos (meaning fever). Hippocrates (c. 460 - 370 BCE) gave several descriptions on tertian fever and quartan fever. It was prevalent throughout the ancient Egyptian and Roman civilizations. It the Romans who gave the name of the disease "malaria '' -- mala for bad, and aria for air, as they believed that the disease was spread by contaminated air, or miasma. A German physician Johann Heinrich Meckel must have been the first to see P. falciparum but not knowing what it was. In 1847 he reported the presence of black pigment granules from the blood and spleen of a patient who died of malaria. The French Army physician Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran, while working at the Bône Hospital in Algeria, correctly identified the parasite as a causative pathogen of malaria in 1880. He presented his discovery before the French Academy of Medicine in Paris, and published it in The Lancet, in 1881. He gave the scientific name Oscillaria malariae. But his discovery was received with skepticism mainly because by that time leading physicians such as Theodor Albrecht Edwin Klebs and Corrado Tommasi - Crudeli claimed that they had discovered a bacterium (which they called Bacillus malariae) as the pathogen of malaria. Laveran 's discovery was widely accepted only after five years when Camillo Golgi confirmed the parasite using better microscope and staining technique. Laveran was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1907 for his work. In 1900, the Italian zoologist Giovanni Battista Grassi categorized Plasmodium species based on the timing of fever in the patient; malignant tertian malaria was caused by Laverania malariae (now P. falciparum), benign tertian malaria by Haemamoeba vivax (now P. vivax), and quartan malaria by Haemamoeba malariae (now P. malariae). The British physician Patrick Manson formulated the mosquito - malaria theory in 1894; until that time, malarial parasites were believed to be spread in air as miasma (a Greek word for pollution). His colleague Ronald Ross, a British Army surgeon, traveled to India to prove the theory. Ross discovered in 1897 that malarial parasite lived in certain mosquitoes. The next year, he demonstrated that a malarial parasite of birds could be transmitted by mosquitoes from one bird to another. Around the same time, Grassi demonstrated that P. falciparum was transmitted in humans only by female anopheline mosquito (in his case Anopheles claviger). Ross, Manson and Grassi were nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1902. Under controversial circumstances, only Ronald Ross was selected for the award. There was a long debate on the taxonomy. It was only in 1954 the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature officially approved the binominal Plasmodium falciparum. The valid genus Plasmodium was created by two Italian physicians Ettore Marchiafava and Angelo Celli in 1885. The species name was introduced by an American physician William Henry Welch in 1897. It is derived from the Latin falx, meaning "sickle '' and parum meaning "like or equal to another ''. P. falciparum is now generally accepted to have evolved from Laverania (a subgenus of Plasmodium found in apes) species present in gorilla in Western Africa. Genetic diversity indicates that the human protozoan emerged around 10,000 years ago. The closest relative of P. falciparum is P. praefalciparum, a parasite of gorillas, as supported by mitochondrial, apicoplastic and nuclear DNA sequences. These two species are closely related to the chimpanzee parasite P. reichenowi, which was previously thought to be the closest relative of P. falciparum. P. falciparum was also once thought to originate from a parasite of birds. Levels of genetic polymorphism are extremely low within the P. falciparum genome compared to that of closely related, ape infecting species of Plasmodium (including P. praefalciparum). This suggests that the origin of P. falciparum in humans is recent, as a single P. praefalciparum strain became capable of infecting humans. The genetic information of Plasmodium falciparum has signaled a recent expansion that coincides with the agricultural revolution. It is likely that the development of extensive agriculture increased mosquito population densities by giving rise to more breeding sites, which may have triggered the evolution and expansion of Plasmodium falciparum. P. falciparum does not have a fixed structure but undergoes continuous change during the course of its life cycle. A sporozoite is spindle - shaped and 10 - 15 μm long. In the liver it grows into an ovoid schizont of 30 - 70 μm in diameter. Each schizont produces merozoites, each of which is roughly 1.5 μm in length and 1 μm in diameter. In the erythrocyte the merozoite form a ring - like structure, becoming a trophozoite. A trophozoites feed on the haemoglobin and forms a granular pigment called haemozoin. Unlike those of other Plasmodium species, the gametocytes of P. falciparum are elongated and crescent - shaped, by which they are sometimes identified. A mature gametocyte is 8 - 12 μm long and 3 - 6 μm wide. The ookinete is also elongated measuring about 18 - 24 μm. An oocyst is rounded and can grow up to 80 μm in diameter. Microscopic examination of a blood film reveals only early (ring - form) trophozoites and gametocytes that are in the peripheral blood. Mature trophozoites or schizonts in peripheral blood smears, as these are usually sequestered in the tissues. On occasion, faint, comma - shaped, red dots are seen on the erythrocyte surface. These dots are Maurer 's cleft and are secretory organelles that produce proteins and enzymes essential for nutrient uptake and immune evasion processes. The apical complex, which is actually a combination of organelles, is an important structure. It contains secretory organelles called rhoptries and micronemes, which are vital for mobility, adhesion, host cell invasion, and parasitophorous vacuole formation. As an apicomplexan, it harbours a plastid, an apicoplast, similar to plant chloroplasts, which they probably acquired by engulfing (or being invaded by) a eukaryotic alga and retaining the algal plastid as a distinctive organelle encased within four membranes. The apicoplast is involved in the synthesis of lipids and several other compounds and provides an attractive drug target. During the asexual blood stage of infection, an essential function of the apicoplast is to produce the isoprenoid precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) via the MEP (non-mevalonate) pathway. In 1995 the Malaria Genome Project was set up to sequence the genome of P. falciparum. The genome of its mitochondrion was reported in 1995, that of the nonphotosynthetic plastid known as the apicoplast in 1996, and the sequence of the first nuclear chromosome (chromosome 2) in 1998. The sequence of chromosome 3 was reported in 1999 and the entire genome was reported on 3 October 2002. The roughly 24 - megabase genome is extremely AT - rich (about 80 %) and is organised into 14 chromosomes. Just over 5,300 genes were described. Many genes involved in antigenic variation are located in the subtelomeric regions of the chromosomes. These are divided into the var, rif, and stevor families. Within the genome, there exist 59 var, 149 rif, and 28 stevor genes, along with multiple pseudogenes and truncations. It is estimated that 551, or roughly 10 %, of the predicted nuclear - encoded proteins are targeted to the apicoplast, while 4.7 % of the proteome is targeted to the mitochondria. Humans are the intermediate hosts in which asexual reproduction occurs, and female anopheline mosquitos are the definitive hosts harbouring the sexual reproduction stage. Infection in humans begins with the bite of an infected female Anopheles mosquito. Out of about 460 species of Anopheles mosquito, more than 70 species transmit falciparum malaria. Anopheles gambiae is one of the best known and most prevalent vectors, particularly in Africa. The infective stage called sporozoites released from the salivary glands through the proboscis of the mosquito enter the bloodstream during feeding. The mosquito saliva contains antihemostatic and anti-inflammatory enzymes that disrupt blood clotting and inhibit the pain reaction. Typically, each infected bite contains 20 - 200 sporozoites. The immune system clears the sporozoites from the circulation within 30 minutes. But a few escape and quickly invade liver cells (hepatocytes). The sporozoits move in the blood stream by gliding, which is driven by motor made up of proteins actin and myosin beneath their plasma membrane. Entering the hepatocytes, the parasite loses its apical complex and surface coat, and transforms into a trophozoite. Within the parasitophorous vacuole of the hepatocyte, it undergoes 13 - 14 rounds of mitosis and meiosis which produce a syncytial cell (coenocyte) called a schizont. This process is called schizogony. A schizont contains tens of thousands of nuclei. From the surface of the schizont, tens of thousands of haploid (1n) daughter cells called merozoites emerge. The liver stage can produce up to 90,000 merozoites, which are eventually released into the bloodstream in parasite - filled vesicles called merosomes. Merozoites use the apicomplexan invasion organelles (apical complex, pellicle and surface coat) to recognize and enter the host erythrocyte (red blood cell). The parasite first binds to the erythrocyte in a random orientation. It then reorients such that the apical complex is in proximity to the erythrocyte membrane. The parasite forms a parasitophorous vacuole, to allow for its development inside the erythrocyte. This infection cycle occurs in a highly synchronous fashion, with roughly all of the parasites throughout the blood in the same stage of development. This precise clocking mechanism has been shown to be dependent on the human host 's own circadian rhythm. Within the erythrocyte, the parasite metabolism depends on the digestion of hemoglobin. The clinical symptoms of malaria such as fever, anemia, and neurological disorder are produced during the blood stage. The parasite can also alter the morphology of the erythrocyte, causing knobs on the erythrocyte membrane. Infected erythrocytes are often sequestered in various human tissues or organs, such as the heart, liver and brain. This is caused by parasite - derived cell surface proteins being present on the erythrocyte membrane, and it is these proteins that bind to receptors on human cells. Sequestration in the brain causes cerebral malaria, a very severe form of the disease, which increases the victim 's likelihood of death. After invading the erythrocyte, the parasite loses its specific invasion organelles (apical complex and surface coat) and de-differentiates into a round trophozoite located within a parasitophorous vacuole. The young trophozoite (or "ring '' stage, because of its morphology on stained blood films) grows substantially before undergoing schizogony. At the schizont stage, the parasite replicates its DNA multiple times and multiple mitotic divisions occur asynchronously. Each schizont forms 16 - 18 merozoites. The red blood cells are ruptured by the merozoites. The liberated merozoites invade fresh erythrocytes. A free merozoite is in the bloodstream for roughly 60 seconds before it enters another erythrocyte. The duration of each blood stage is approximately 48 hours. This gives rise to the characteristic clinical manifestations of falciparum malaria, such as fever and chills, corresponding to the synchronous rupture of the infected erythrocytes. Not all of the merozoites divide into schizonts; some get differentiated into sexual forms, male and female gametocytes. These gametocytes take roughly 7 -- 15 days to reach full maturity, through the process called gametocytogenesis. These gametocytes are taken up by a female Anopheles mosquito during a blood meal. The time of appearance of the symptoms from infection (called incubation period) is shortest for P. falciparum among Plasmodium species. An average incubation period is 11 days, but may range from 9 to 30 days. In isolated cases, prolonged incubation period as long as 2, 3 or even 8 years have been recorded. Pregnancy and co-infection with HIV are important conditions for delayed symptoms. Parasites can be detected from blood samples by the 10th day after infection (pre-patent period). Within the mosquito midgut, the female gamete maturation process entails slight morphological changes, becoming more enlarged and spherical. The male gametocyte undergoes a rapid nuclear division within 15 minutes, producing eight flagellated microgametes by a process called exflagellation. The flagellated microgamete fertilizes the female macrogamete to produce a diploid cell called a zygote. The zygote then develops into an ookinete. The ookinete is a motile cell, capable of invading other organs of the mosquito. It traverses the peritrophic membrane of the mosquito midgut and crosses the midgut epithelium. Once through the epithelium, the ookinete enters the basal lamina, and settles to an immotile oocyst. For several days, the oocyst undergoes 10 to 11 rounds of cell division to create a syncytial cell (sporoblast) containing thousands of nuclei. Meiosis takes place inside the sporoblast to produce over 3,000 haploid daughter cells called sporozoites on the surface of the mother cell. Immature sporozoites break through the oocyst wall into the haemolymph. They migrate to the mosquito salivary glands where they undergo further development and become infective to humans. A single anopheline mosquito can transmit hundreds of P. falciparum sporozoites in a single bite under experimental conditions. But in nature the number is generally less than 80. The sporozoites do not enter the blood stream directly and remain in the skin tissue for 2 to 3 hours. About 15 -- 20 % sporozoites enter the lymphatic system where they actiavate dendritic cells, which send them for destruction by T lymphocytes (CD8+ T cells). At 48 hours after infection, Plasmodium - specific CD8+ T cells can be detected in the lymph nodes connected to the skin cells. Most of the sporozites remaining in the skin tissue are subsequently killed by the innate immune system. The sporozoite glycoprotein specifically activates mast cells. The mast cells then produce signalling molecules such as TNFα and MIP - 2, which activate cell eaters (professional phagocytes) such as neutrophils and macrophages. Only small number (0.5 - 5 %) of sporozoites enter the blood stream into the liver. In the liver, the activated CD8+ T cells from the lymph bind the sporozoites through the circumsporozoite protein (CSP). Antigen presentation by dendritic cells in the skin tissue to T cells is also a crucial process. From this stage onward the parasites produce different proteins that help in suppressing communication of the immune cells. Even at the height of the infection when RBCs are ruptured, the immune signals are not strong enough to activate macropages or natural killer cells. Although P. falciparum is easily recognized by human immune system while in the bloodstream, it evades immunity by producing over 2,000 cell membrane antigens The initial infective stage sporozoites produce circumsporozoite protein (CSP), which binds to hepatocytes. Binding to and entry into the hepatocytes is aided by another protein, thrombospondin - related anonymous protein (TRAP). TRAP and other secretory proteins (including sporozoite microneme protein essential for cell traversal 1, SPECT1 and SPECT2) from microneme allow the sporozoite to move through the blood, avoiding immune cells and penetrating hepatocytes. During erythrocyte invasion, merozoites release merozoite cap protein - 1 (MCP1), apical membrane antigen 1 (AMA1), erythrocyte - binding antigens (EBA), myosin A tail domain interacting protein (MTIP), and merozoite surface proteins (MSPs). Of these MSPs, MSP1 and MSP2 are primarily responsible for avoiding immune cells. The virulence of P. falciparum is mediated by erythrocyte membrane proteins, which are produced by the schizonts and trophozoites inside the erythrocytes and are displayed on the erythrocyte membrane. PfEMP1 is the most important, capable of acting as both an antigen and an adhesion molecule. The clinical symptoms of falciparum malaria are produced by the rupture of schizont and destruction of erythrocytes. Most of the patients experience fever (> 92 % of cases), chills (79 %), headaches (70 %), and sweating (64 %). Dizziness, malaise, muscle pain, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, mild diarrhea, and dry cough are also generally associated. High heartrate, jaundice, pallor, orthostatic hypotension, enlarged liver, and enlarged spleen are also diagnosed. P. falciparum works via sequestration, a distinctive property not shared by few other Plasmodiae. The mature schizonts change the surface properties of infected erythrocytes, causing them to stick to blood vessel walls (cytoadherence). This leads to obstruction of the microcirculation and results in dysfunction of multiple organs, such as the brain in cerebral malaria. P. falciparum is responsible for (almost) all severe human illnesses and deaths due to malaria, in a condition called complicated or severe malaria. Complicated malaria occurs more commonly in children under age 5, and sometimes in pregnant women (a condition specifically called pregnancy - associated malaria). Women become susceptible to severe malaria during their first pregnancy. Susceptibility to severe malaria is reduced in subsequent pregnancies due to increased antibody levels against variant surface antigens that appear on infected erythrocytes. But increased immunity in mother increases susceptibility to malaria in newborn babies. P. falciparum is found in all continents except Europe. According to the WHO World Malaria Report 2017, 216 million people suffered from malaria in 2016, which was an increase from 211 million in 2015. 445,000 people died from it. The infection is most prevalent in Africa, and accounts for about 90 % of the total death. Children under five years of age are most affected and 70 % of deaths occurred in this age group. 80 % of the infection is found in Sub-Saharan Africa, 7 % in the South - East Asia, and 2 % in the Eastern Mediterranean. Nigeria has the highest incidence with 27 % of the total global cases. Outside Africa, India has the highest incidence with 4.5 % of the global burden. Europe is regarded as a malaria - free region. Historically, the parasite and its disease had been most well known in Europe. But medical programmes, such as insecticide spraying, drug therapy and environmental engineering since the early 20th century resulted in complete eradication in the 1970s. It is estimated that approximately 2.4 billion people are at constant risk of infection. In 1640, Huan del Vego first employed the tincture of the cinchona bark for treating malaria; the native Indians of Peru and Ecuador had been using it even earlier for treating fevers. Thompson (1650) introduced this "Jesuits ' bark '' to England. Its first recorded use there was by John Metford of Northampton in 1656. Morton (1696) presented the first detailed description of the clinical picture of malaria and of its treatment with cinchona. Gize (1816) studied the extraction of crystalline quinine from the cinchona bark and Pelletier and Caventou (1820) in France extracted pure quinine alkaloids, which they named quinine and cinchonine. The total synthesis of quinine was achieved by American chemists R.B. Woodward and W.E. Doering in 1944. Woodward received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1965. Attempts to make synthetic antimalarials began in 1891. Atabrine, developed in 1933, was used widely throughout the Pacific in World War II, but was unpopular because of its adeverse effects. In the late 1930s, the Germans developed chloroquine, which went into use in the North African campaigns. Creating a secret military project called Project 523, Mao Zedong encouraged Chinese scientists to find new antimalarials after seeing the casualties in the Vietnam War. Tu Youyou discovered artemisinin in the 1970s from sweet wormwood (Artemisia annua). This drug became known to Western scientists in the late 1980s and early 1990s and is now a standard treatment. Tu won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2015. According to WHO guidelines 2010, artemisinin - based combination therapies (ACTs) are the recommended first - line antimalarial treatments for uncomplicated malaria caused by P. falciparum. WHO recommends combinations such as artemether / lumefantrine, artesunate / amodiaquine, artesunate / mefloquine, artesunate / sulfadoxine - pyrimethamine, and dihydroartemisinin / piperaquine. The choice of ACT is based on the level of resistance to the constituents in the combination. Artemisinin and its derivatives are not appropriate for monotherapy. As second - line antimalarial treatment, when initial treatment does not work, an alternative ACT known to be effective in the region is recommended, such as artesunate plus tetracycline or doxycycline or clindamycin, and quinine plus tetracycline or doxycycline or clindamycin. Any of these combinations is to be given for 7 days. For pregnant women, the recommended first - line treatment during the first trimester is quinine plus clindamycin for 7 days. Artesunate plus clindamycin for 7 days is indicated if this treatment fails. For travellers returning to nonendemic countries, atovaquone / proguanil, artemether / lumefantrineany and quinine plus doxycycline or clindamycin are recommended. For adults, intravenous (IV) or intramuscular (IM) artesunate is recommended. Quinine is an acceptable alternative if parenteral artesunate is not available. For children, especially in the malaria - endemic areas of Africa, artesunate IV or IM, quinine (IV infusion or divided IM injection), and artemether IM are recommended. Parenteral antimalarials should be administered for a minimum of 24 hours, irrespective of the patient 's ability to tolerate oral medication earlier. Thereafter, complete treatment is recommended including complete course of ACT or quinine plus clindamycin or doxycycline. RTS, S is the only candidate as malaria vaccine to have gone through clinical trials. Analysis of the results of the phase III trial (conducted between 2011 and 2016) revealed a rather low efficacy (20 - 39 % depending on age, with up to 50 % in 5 -- 17 - month aged babies), indicating that the vaccine will not lead to full protection and eradication. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified malaria due to P. falciparum as Group 2A carcinogen, meaning that the parasite is probably a cancer - causing agent in humans. Its association with a blood cell (lymphocyte) cancer called Burkitt 's lymphoma is established. Burkit 's lymphoma was discovered by Denis Burkitt in 1958 from African children, and he later speculated that the cancer was likely due to certain infectious diseases. In 1964, a virus, later called Eppstein - Barr virus (EBV) after the discoverers, was identified from the cancer cells. The virus was subsequently proved to be the direct cancer agent, and is now classified as Group 1 carcinogen. In 1989, it was realised that EBV requires other infections such as with malaria to cause lymphocyte transformation. It was reported that the incidence of Burkitt 's lymphoma decreased with effective treatment of malaria over several years. The actual role played by P. falciparum remained unclear for the next two - and - half decades. EBV had been known to induce lymphocytes to become cancerous using its viral proteins (antigens such as EBNA - 1, EBNA - 2, LMP - 1, and LMP2A). From 2014, it became clear that P. falciparum contributes to the development of the lymphoma. P. falciparum - infected erythrocytes directly bind to B lymphocytes through the CIDR1α domain of PfEMP1. This binding activates toll - like receptors (TLR7 and TLR10) causing continuous activation of lymphocytes to undergo proliferation and differentiation into plasma cells, thereby increasing the secretion of IgM and cytokines. This in turn activates an enzyme called activation - induced cytidine deaminase (AID), which tends to cause mutation in the DNA (by double - strand break) of an EBV - infected lymphocytes. The damaged DNA undergoes uncontrolled replication, thus making the cell cancerous. The high mortality and morbidity caused by P. falciparum has placed great selective pressure on the human genome. Several genetic factors provide some resistance to Plasmodium infection, including sickle cell trait, thalassaemia traits, glucose - 6 - phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, and the absence of Duffy antigens on red blood cells. The presence of P. falciparum in human populations has exerted selective pressure on the human genome. E.A. Beet, a doctor working in Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) had observed in 1948 that sickle - cell disease was related to lower rate of malaria infection. This suggestion was reiterated by J.B.S. Haldane in 1948, who suggested that thalassaemia could provide similar protection. This hypothesis has since been confirmed and extended to hemoglobin E, hemoglobin C and Hemoglobin S.

which type of triangle must have perpendicular lines

Perpendicular - wikipedia In elementary geometry, the property of being perpendicular (perpendicularity) is the relationship between two lines which meet at a right angle (90 degrees). The property extends to other related geometric objects. A line is said to be perpendicular to another line if the two lines intersect at a right angle. Explicitly, a first line is perpendicular to a second line if (1) the two lines meet; and (2) at the point of intersection the straight angle on one side of the first line is cut by the second line into two congruent angles. Perpendicularity can be shown to be symmetric, meaning if a first line is perpendicular to a second line, then the second line is also perpendicular to the first. For this reason, we may speak of two lines as being perpendicular (to each other) without specifying an order. Perpendicularity easily extends to segments and rays. For example, a line segment A B _̄ (\ displaystyle (\ overline (AB))) is perpendicular to a line segment C D _̄ (\ displaystyle (\ overline (CD))) if, when each is extended in both directions to form an infinite line, these two resulting lines are perpendicular in the sense above. In symbols, A B _̄ ⊥ C D _̄ (\ displaystyle (\ overline (AB)) \ perp (\ overline (CD))) means line segment AB is perpendicular to line segment CD. A line is said to be perpendicular to a plane if it is perpendicular to every line in the plane that it intersects. This definition depends on the definition of perpendicularity between lines. Two planes in space are said to be perpendicular if the dihedral angle at which they meet is a right angle (90 degrees). Perpendicularity is one particular instance of the more general mathematical concept of orthogonality; perpendicularity is the orthogonality of classical geometric objects. Thus, in advanced mathematics, the word "perpendicular '' is sometimes used to describe much more complicated geometric orthogonality conditions, such as that between a surface and its normal. The word foot is frequently used in connection with perpendiculars. This usage is exemplified in the top diagram, above, and its caption. The diagram can be in any orientation. The foot is not necessarily at the bottom. More precisely, let A be a point and m a line. If B is the point of intersection of m and the unique line through A that is perpendicular to m, then B is called the foot of this perpendicular through A. To make the perpendicular to the line AB through the point P using compass and straightedge, proceed as follows (see figure left): To prove that the PQ is perpendicular to AB, use the SSS congruence theorem for ' and QPB ' to conclude that angles OPA ' and OPB ' are equal. Then use the SAS congruence theorem for triangles OPA ' and OPB ' to conclude that angles POA and POB are equal. To make the perpendicular to the line g at or through the point P using Thales ' theorem, see the animation at right. The Pythagorean theorem can be used as the basis of methods of constructing right angles. For example, by counting links, three pieces of chain can be made with lengths in the ratio 3: 4: 5. These can be laid out to form a triangle, which will have a right angle opposite its longest side. This method is useful for laying out gardens and fields, where the dimensions are large, and great accuracy is not needed. The chains can be used repeatedly whenever required. If two lines (a and b) are both perpendicular to a third line (c), all of the angles formed along the third line are right angles. Therefore, in Euclidean geometry, any two lines that are both perpendicular to a third line are parallel to each other, because of the parallel postulate. Conversely, if one line is perpendicular to a second line, it is also perpendicular to any line parallel to that second line. In the figure at the right, all of the orange - shaded angles are congruent to each other and all of the green - shaded angles are congruent to each other, because vertical angles are congruent and alternate interior angles formed by a transversal cutting parallel lines are congruent. Therefore, if lines a and b are parallel, any of the following conclusions leads to all of the others: The distance from a point to a line is the distance to the nearest point on that line. That is the point at which a segment from it to the given point is perpendicular to the line. Likewise, the distance from a point to a curve is measured by a line segment that is perpendicular to a tangent line to the curve at the nearest point on the curve. Perpendicular regression fits a line to data points by minimizing the sum of squared perpendicular distances from the data points to the line. The distance from a point to a plane is measured as the length from the point along a segment that is perpendicular to the plane, meaning that it is perpendicular to all lines in the plane that pass through the nearest point in the plane to the given point. In the two - dimensional plane, right angles can be formed by two intersected lines if the product of their slopes equals − 1. Thus defining two linear functions: y = a x + b and y = a x + b, the graphs of the functions will be perpendicular and will make four right angles where the lines intersect if a a = − 1. However, this method can not be used if the slope is zero or undefined (the line is parallel to an axis). For another method, let the two linear functions be: a x + b y + c = 0 and a x + b y + c = 0. The lines will be perpendicular if and only if a a + b b = 0. This method is simplified from the dot product (or, more generally, the inner product) of vectors. In particular, two vectors are considered orthogonal if their inner product is zero. Each diameter of a circle is perpendicular to the tangent line to that circle at the point where the diameter intersects the circle. A line segment through a circle 's center bisecting a chord is perpendicular to the chord. If the intersection of any two perpendicular chords divides one chord into lengths a and b and divides the other chord into lengths c and d, then a + b + c + d equals the square of the diameter. The sum of the squared lengths of any two perpendicular chords intersecting at a given point is the same as that of any other two perpendicular chords intersecting at the same point, and is given by 8r -- 4p (where r is the circle 's radius and p is the distance from the center point to the point of intersection). Thales ' theorem states that two lines both through the same point on a circle but going through opposite endpoints of a diameter are perpendicular. This is equivalent to saying that any diameter of a circle subtends a right angle at any point on the circle, except the two endpoints of the diameter. The major and minor axes of an ellipse are perpendicular to each other and to the tangent lines to the ellipse at the points where the axes intersect the ellipse. The major axis of an ellipse is perpendicular to the directrix and to each latus rectum. In a parabola, the axis of symmetry is perpendicular to each of the latus rectum, the directrix, and the tangent line at the point where the axis intersects the parabola. From a point on the tangent line to a parabola 's vertex, the other tangent line to the parabola is perpendicular to the line from that point through the parabola 's focus. The orthoptic property of a parabola is that If two tangents to the parabola are perpendicular to each other, then they intersect on the directrix. Conversely, two tangents which intersect on the directrix are perpendicular. This implies that, seen from any point on its directrix, any parabola subtends a right angle. The transverse axis of a hyperbola is perpendicular to the conjugate axis and to each directrix. The product of the perpendicular distances from a point P on a hyperbola or on its conjugate hyperbola to the asymptotes is a constant independent of the location of P. A rectangular hyperbola has asymptotes that are perpendicular to each other. It has an eccentricity equal to 2. (\ displaystyle (\ sqrt (2)).) The legs of a right triangle are perpendicular to each other. The altitudes of a triangle are perpendicular to their respective bases. The perpendicular bisectors of the sides also play a prominent role in triangle geometry. The Euler line of an isosceles triangle is perpendicular to the triangle 's base. The Droz - Farny line theorem concerns a property of two perpendicular lines intersecting at a triangle 's orthocenter. Harcourt 's theorem concerns the relationship of line segments through a vertex and perpendicular to any line tangent to the triangle 's incircle. In a square or other rectangle, all pairs of adjacent sides are perpendicular. A right trapezoid is a trapezoid that has two pairs of adjacent sides that are perpendicular. Each of the four maltitudes of a quadrilateral is a perpendicular to a side through the midpoint of the opposite side. An orthodiagonal quadrilateral is a quadrilateral whose diagonals are perpendicular. These include the square, the rhombus, and the kite. By Brahmagupta 's theorem, in an orthodiagonal quadrilateral that is also cyclic, a line through the midpoint of one side and through the intersection point of the diagonals is perpendicular to the opposite side. By van Aubel 's theorem, if squares are constructed externally on the sides of a quadrilateral, the line segments connecting the centers of opposite squares are perpendicular and equal in length. Up to three lines in three - dimensional space can be pairwise perpendicular, as exemplified by the x, y, and z axes of a three - dimensional Cartesian coordinate system.

what is difference between north america and south america

Americas - Wikipedia Largest metropolitan areas Largest cities The Americas (also collectively called America) comprise the totality of the continents of North and South America. Together, they make up most of the land in Earth 's western hemisphere and comprise the New World. Along with their associated islands, they cover 8 % of Earth 's total surface area and 28.4 % of its land area. The topography is dominated by the American Cordillera, a long chain of mountains that runs the length of the west coast. The flatter eastern side of the Americas is dominated by large river basins, such as the Amazon, St. Lawrence River / Great Lakes basin, Mississippi, and La Plata. Since the Americas extend 14,000 km (8,700 mi) from north to south, the climate and ecology vary widely, from the arctic tundra of Northern Canada, Greenland, and Alaska, to the tropical rain forests in Central America and South America. Humans first settled the Americas from Asia between 42,000 and 17,000 years ago. A second migration of Na - Dene speakers followed later from Asia. The subsequent migration of the Inuit into the neoarctic around 3500 BCE completed what is generally regarded as the settlement by the indigenous peoples of the Americas. The first known European settlement in the Americas was by the Norse explorer Leif Ericson. However, the colonization never became permanent and was later abandoned. The voyages of Christopher Columbus from 1492 to 1502 resulted in permanent contact with European (and subsequently, other Old World) powers, which led to the Columbian exchange. Diseases introduced from Europe and West Africa devastated the indigenous peoples, and the European powers colonized the Americas. Mass emigration from Europe, including large numbers of indentured servants, and importation of African slaves largely replaced the indigenous peoples. Decolonization of the Americas began with the American Revolution in 1776 and Haitian Revolution in 1791. Currently, almost all of the population of the Americas resides in independent countries; however, the legacy of the colonization and settlement by Europeans is that the Americas share many common cultural traits, most notably Christianity and the use of Indo - European languages: primarily Spanish, English, Portuguese, French, and to a lesser extent Dutch. The population is over 1 billion, with over 65 % of them living in one of the three most populous countries (the United States, Brazil, and Mexico). As of the beginning of the 2010s, the most populous urban agglomerations are Mexico City (Mexico), New York (U.S.), Sao Paulo (Brazil), Los Angeles (U.S.), Buenos Aires (Argentina) and Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), all of them megacities (metropolitan areas with ten million inhabitants or more). The name America was first recorded in 1507. Julian Wilson of Christie 's auction house said a two - dimensional globe created by Martin Waldseemueller, the discovery of which was announced on November 7, 2017, was the earliest recorded use of the term. The Library of Congress purchased another version of the map in 2003. The name was also used (together with the related term Amerigen) in the Cosmographiae Introductio, apparently written by Matthias Ringmann, in reference to South America. It was applied to both North and South America by Gerardus Mercator in 1538. America derives from Americus, the Latin version of Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci 's first name. America accorded with the feminine names of Asia, Africa, and Europa. In modern English, North and South America are generally considered separate continents, and taken together are called the Americas in the plural, parallel to similar situations such as the Carolinas. When conceived as a unitary continent, the form is generally the continent of America in the singular. However, without a clarifying context, singular America in English commonly refers to the United States of America. In some countries of the world (including France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Romania, Greece, and the countries of Latin America), America is considered a continent encompassing the North America and South America subcontinents, as well as Central America. The first inhabitants migrated into the Americas from Asia. Habitation sites are known in Alaska and the Yukon from at least 20,000 years ago, with suggested ages of up to 40,000 years. Beyond that, the specifics of the Paleo - Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion. Widespread habitation of the Americas occurred during the late glacial maximum, from 16,000 to 13,000 years ago. The traditional theory has been that these early migrants moved into the Beringia land bridge between eastern Siberia and present - day Alaska around 40,000 -- 17,000 years ago, when sea levels were significantly lowered during the Quaternary glaciation. These people are believed to have followed herds of now - extinct pleistocene megafauna along ice - free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets. Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using primitive boats, they migrated down the Pacific coast to South America. Evidence of the latter would since have been covered by a sea level rise of hundreds of meters following the last ice age. Both routes may have been taken, although the genetic evidences suggests a single founding population. The micro-satellite diversity and distributions specific to South American Indigenous people indicates that certain populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region. A second migration occurred after the initial peopling of the Americas; Na Dene speakers found predominantly in North American groups at varying genetic rates with the highest frequency found among the Athabaskans at 42 % derive from this second wave. Linguists and biologists have reached a similar conclusion based on analysis of Amerindian language groups and ABO blood group system distributions. Then the people of the Arctic small tool tradition a broad cultural entity that developed along the Alaska Peninsula, around Bristol Bay, and on the eastern shores of the Bering Strait around 2,500 BCE (4,500 years ago) moved into North America. The Arctic small tool tradition, a Paleo - Eskimo culture branched off into two cultural variants, including the Pre-Dorset, and the Independence traditions of Greenland. The descendants of the Pre-Dorset cultural group, the Dorset culture was displaced by the final migrants from the Bering sea coast line the ancestors of modern Inuit, the Thule people by 1000 Common Era (CE). Around the same time as the Inuit migrated into Greenland, Viking settlers began arriving in Greenland in 982 and Vinland shortly thereafter, establishing a settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows, near the northernmost tip of Newfoundland. The Viking settlers quickly abandoned Vinland, and disappeared from Greenland by 1500. The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences on the American continents, spanning the time of the original settlement in the Upper Paleolithic to European colonization during the Early Modern period. The term Pre-Columbian is used especially often in the context of the great indigenous civilizations of the Americas, such as those of Mesoamerica (the Olmec, the Toltec, the Teotihuacano, the Zapotec, the Mixtec, the Aztec, and the Maya) and the Andes (Inca, Moche, Muisca, Cañaris). Many pre-Columbian civilizations established characteristics and hallmarks which included permanent or urban settlements, agriculture, civic and monumental architecture, and complex societal hierarchies. Some of these civilizations had long faded by the time of the first permanent European arrivals (c. late 15th -- early 16th centuries), and are known only through archeological investigations. Others were contemporary with this period, and are also known from historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Maya, had their own written records. However, most Europeans of the time viewed such texts as pagan, and much was destroyed in Christian pyres. Only a few hidden documents remain today, leaving modern historians with glimpses of ancient culture and knowledge. Although there had been previous trans - oceanic contact, large - scale European colonization of the Americas began with the first voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1492. The first Spanish settlement in the Americas was La Isabela in northern Hispaniola. This town was abandoned shortly after in favor of Santo Domingo de Guzmán, founded in 1496, the oldest American city of European foundation. This was the base from which the Spanish monarchy administered its new colonies and their expansion. On the continent, Panama City on the Pacific coast of Central America, founded on August 5, 1519, played an important role, being the base for the Spanish conquest of South America. The spread of new diseases brought by Europeans and Africans killed many of the inhabitants of North America and South America, with a general population crash of Native Americans occurring in the mid-16th century, often well ahead of European contact. European immigrants were often part of state - sponsored attempts to found colonies in the Americas. Migration continued as people moved to the Americas fleeing religious persecution or seeking economic opportunities. Millions of individuals were forcibly transported to the Americas as slaves, prisoners or indentured servants. Decolonization of the Americas began with the American Revolution and the Haitian Revolution in the late 1700s. This was followed by numerous Latin American wars of independence in the early 1800s. Between 1811 and 1825, Paraguay, Argentina, Chile, Gran Colombia, the United Provinces of Central America, Mexico, Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia gained independence from Spain and Portugal in armed revolutions. After the Dominican Republic won independence from Haiti, it was re-annexed by Spain in 1861, but reclaimed its independence in 1865 at the conclusion of the Dominican Restoration War. The last violent episode of decolonization was the Cuban War of Independence which became the Spanish -- American War, which resulted in the independence of Cuba in 1898, and the transfer of sovereignty over Puerto Rico from Spain to the United States. Peaceful decolonization began with the purchase by the United States of Louisiana from France in 1803, Florida from Spain in 1819, of Alaska from Russia in 1867, and the Danish West Indies from Denmark in 1916. Canada became independent of the United Kingdom, starting with the Balfour Declaration of 1926, Statute of Westminster 1931, and ending with the patriation of the Canadian Constitution in 1982. The Dominion of Newfoundland similarly achieved partial independence under the Balfour Declaration and Statute of Westminster, but was re-absorbed into the United Kingdom in 1934. It was subsequently confederated with Canada in 1949. The remaining European colonies in the Caribbean began to achieve peaceful independence well after World War II. Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago became independent in 1962, and Guyana and Barbados both achieved independence in 1966. In the 1970s, the Bahamas, Grenada, Dominica, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent and the Grenadines all became independent of the United Kingdom, and Suriname became independent of the Netherlands. Belize, Antigua and Barbuda, and Saint Kitts and Nevis achieved independence from the United Kingdom in the 1980s. The northernmost point of the Americas is Kaffeklubben Island, which is the most northerly point of land on Earth. The southernmost point is the islands of Southern Thule, although they are sometimes considered part of Antarctica. The mainland of the Americas is the world 's longest north - to - south landmass. The distance between its two polar extremities, the Boothia Peninsula in northern Canada and Cape Froward in Chilean Patagonia, is roughly 14,000 km (8,700 mi). The mainland 's most westerly point is the end of the Seward Peninsula in Alaska; Attu Island, further off the Alaskan coast to the west, is considered the westernmost point of the Americas. Ponta do Seixas in northeastern Brazil forms the easternmost extremity of the mainland, while Nordostrundingen, in Greenland, is the most easterly point of the continental shelf. South America broke off from the west of the supercontinent Gondwana around 135 million years ago, forming its own continent. Around 15 million years ago, the collision of the Caribbean Plate and the Pacific Plate resulted in the emergence of a series of volcanoes along the border that created a number of islands. The gaps in the archipelago of Central America filled in with material eroded off North America and South America, plus new land created by continued volcanism. By three million years ago, the continents of North America and South America were linked by the Isthmus of Panama, thereby forming the single landmass of the Americas. The Great American Interchange resulted in many species being spread across the Americas, such as the cougar, porcupine, opossums, armadillos and hummingbirds. The geography of the western Americas is dominated by the American cordillera, with the Andes running along the west coast of South America and the Rocky Mountains and other North American Cordillera ranges running along the western side of North America. The 2,300 - kilometer - long (1,400 mi) Appalachian Mountains run along the east coast of North America from Alabama to Newfoundland. North of the Appalachians, the Arctic Cordillera runs along the eastern coast of Canada. The largest mountain ranges are the Andes and Rocky Mountains. The Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Range reach similar altitudes as the Rocky Mountains, but are significantly smaller. In North America, the greatest number of fourteeners are in the United States, and more specifically in the U.S. state of Colorado. The highest peaks of the Americas are located in the Andes, with Aconcagua of Argentina being the highest; in North America Denali (Mount McKinley) in the U.S. state of Alaska is the tallest. Between its coastal mountain ranges, North America has vast flat areas. The Interior Plains spread over much of the continent, with low relief. The Canadian Shield covers almost 5 million km2 of North America and is generally quite flat. Similarly, the north - east of South America is covered by the flat Amazon Basin. The Brazilian Highlands on the east coast are fairly smooth but show some variations in landform, while farther south the Gran Chaco and Pampas are broad lowlands. The climate of the Americas varies significantly from region to region. Tropical rainforest climate occurs in the latitudes of the Amazon, American cloud forests, Florida and Darien Gap. In the Rocky Mountains and Andes, dry and continental climates are observed. Often the higher altitudes of these mountains are snow - capped. Southeastern North America is well known for its occurrence of tornadoes and hurricanes, of which the vast majority of tornadoes occur in the United States ' Tornado Alley. Often parts of the Caribbean are exposed to the violent effects of hurricanes. These weather systems are formed by the collision of dry, cool air from Canada and wet, warm air from the Atlantic. With coastal mountains and interior plains, the Americas have several large river basins that drain the continents. The largest river basin in North America is that of the Mississippi, covering the second largest watershed on the planet. The Mississippi - Missouri river system drains most of 31 states of the U.S., most of the Great Plains, and large areas between the Rocky and Appalachian mountains. This river is the fourth longest in the world and tenth most powerful in the world. In North America, to the east of the Appalachian Mountains, there are no major rivers but rather a series of rivers and streams that flow east with their terminus in the Atlantic Ocean, such as the Hudson River, Saint John River, and Savannah River. A similar instance arises with central Canadian rivers that drain into Hudson Bay; the largest being the Churchill River. On the west coast of North America, the main rivers are the Colorado River, Columbia River, Yukon River, Fraser River, and Sacramento River. The Colorado River drains much of the Southern Rockies and parts of the Great Basin and Range Province. The river flows approximately 1,450 miles (2,330 km) into the Gulf of California, during which over time it has carved out natural phenomena such as the Grand Canyon and created phenomena such as the Salton Sea. The Columbia is a large river, 1,243 miles (2,000 km) long, in central western North America and is the most powerful river on the West Coast of the Americas. In the far northwest of North America, the Yukon drains much of the Alaskan peninsula and flows 1,980 miles (3,190 km) from parts of Yukon and the Northwest Territory to the Pacific. Draining to the Arctic Ocean of Canada, the Mackenzie River drains waters from the Arctic Great Lakes of Arctic Canada, as opposed to the Saint - Lawrence River that drains the Great Lakes of Southern Canada into the Atlantic Ocean. The Mackenzie River is the largest in Canada and drains 1,805,200 square kilometers (697,000 sq mi). The largest river basin in South America is that of the Amazon, which has the highest volume flow of any river on Earth. The second largest watershed of South America is that of the Paraná River, which covers about 2.5 million km2. North America and South America began to develop a shared population of flora and fauna around 2.5 million years ago, when continental drift brought the two continents into contact via the Isthmus of Panama. Initially, the exchange of biota was roughly equal, with North American genera migrating into South America in about the same proportions as South American genera migrated into North America. This exchange is known as the Great American Interchange. The exchange became lopsided after roughly a million years, with the total spread of South American genera into North America far more limited in scope than the spread on North American genera into South America. There are 35 sovereign states in the Americas, as well as an autonomous country of Denmark, three overseas departments of France, three overseas collectivities of France, and one uninhabited territory of France, eight overseas territories of the United Kingdom, three constituent countries of the Netherlands, three public bodies of the Netherlands, two unincorporated territories of the United States, and one uninhabited territory of the United States. The total population of the Americas is about 951 million people and is divided as follows: There are three urban centers that each hold titles for being the largest population area based on the three main demographic concepts: In accordance with these definitions, the three largest population centers in the Americas are: Mexico City, anchor to the largest metropolitan area in the Americas; New York City, anchor to the largest urban area in the Americas; and São Paulo, the largest city proper in the Americas. All three cities maintain Alpha classification and large scale influence. Mexico City is the largest city in the Americas and the Western Hemisphere and Northern Hemisphere. Mexico City -- The largest metropolitan area in the Americas, with a population of 22,300,000 in 2017. São Paulo -- Largest city with a population of 12,038,175 (city) in 2016. New York City -- Largest urban area in the Americas, with a population of 18,351,295 in 2010. The population of the Americas is made up of the descendants of four large ethnic groups and their combinations. The majority of the population live in Latin America, named for its predominant cultures, rooted in Latin Europe (including the two dominant languages, Spanish and Portuguese, both Romance languages), more specifically in the Iberian nations of Portugal and Spain (hence the use of the term Ibero - America as a synonym). Latin America is typically contrasted with Anglo - America, where English, a Germanic language, is prevalent, and which comprises Canada (with the exception of francophone Canada rooted in Latin Europe (France) -- see Québec and Acadia) and the United States. Both countries are located in North America, with cultures deriving predominantly from Anglo - Saxon and other Germanic roots. The most prevalent faiths in the Americas are as follows: Other faiths include Buddhism; Hinduism; Sikhism; Bahá'í Faith; a wide variety of indigenous religions, many of which can be categorized as animistic; new age religions and many African and African - derived religions. Syncretic faiths can also be found throughout the Americas. Various languages are spoken in the Americas. Some are of European origin, others are spoken by indigenous peoples or are the mixture of various idioms like the different creoles. The most widely spoken language in the Americas is Spanish. The dominant language of Latin America is Spanish, though the most populous nation in Latin America, Brazil, speaks Portuguese. Small enclaves of French -, Dutch - and English - speaking regions also exist in Latin America, notably in French Guiana, Suriname, and Belize and Guyana respectively. Haitian Creole is dominant in the nation of Haiti, where French is also spoken. Native languages are more prominent in Latin America than in Anglo - America, with Nahuatl, Quechua, Aymara and Guaraní as the most common. Various other native languages are spoken with less frequency across both Anglo - America and Latin America. Creole languages other than Haitian Creole are also spoken in parts of Latin America. The dominant language of Anglo - America is English. French is also official in Canada, where it is the predominant language in Quebec and an official language in New Brunswick along with English. It is also an important language in Louisiana, and in parts of New Hampshire, Maine, and Vermont. Spanish has kept an ongoing presence in the Southwestern United States, which formed part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, especially in California and New Mexico, where a distinct variety of Spanish spoken since the 17th century has survived. It has more recently become widely spoken in other parts of the United States because of heavy immigration from Latin America. High levels of immigration in general have brought great linguistic diversity to Anglo - America, with over 300 languages known to be spoken in the United States alone, but most languages are spoken only in small enclaves and by relatively small immigrant groups. The nations of Guyana, Suriname, and Belize are generally considered not to fall into either Anglo - America or Latin America because of their language differences from Latin America, geographic differences from Anglo - America, and cultural and historical differences from both regions; English is the primary language of Guyana and Belize, and Dutch is the primary language of Suriname. Most of the non-native languages have, to different degrees, evolved differently from the mother country, but are usually still mutually intelligible. Some have combined, however, which has even resulted in completely new languages, such as Papiamento, which is a combination of Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch (representing the respective colonizers), native Arawak, various African languages, and, more recently English. The lingua franca Portuñol, a mixture of Portuguese and Spanish, is spoken in the border regions of Brazil and neighboring Spanish - speaking countries. More specifically, Riverense Portuñol is spoken by around 100,000 people in the border regions of Brazil and Uruguay. Because of immigration, there are many communities where other languages are spoken from all parts of the world, especially in the United States, Brazil, Argentina, Canada, Chile, Costa Rica and Uruguay -- very important destinations for immigrants. Northern America Speakers of English generally refer to the landmasses of North America and South America as the Americas, the Western Hemisphere, or the New World. The adjective American may be used to indicate something pertains to the Americas, but this term is primarily used in English to indicate something pertaining to the United States. Some non-ambiguous alternatives exist, such as the adjective Pan-American, or New Worlder as a demonym for a resident of the closely related New World. Use of America in the hemispherical sense is sometimes retained, or can occur when translated from other languages. For example, the Association of National Olympic Committees (ANOC) in Paris maintains a single continental association for "America '', represented by one of the five Olympic rings. American linguist H.L. Mencken said, "The Latin - Americans use Norteamericano in formal writing, but, save in Panama, prefer nicknames in colloquial speech. '' To avoid "American '' one can use constructed terms in their languages derived from "United States '' or even "North America ''. In Canada, its southern neighbor is often referred to as "the United States '', "the U.S.A. '', or (informally) "the States '', while U.S. citizens are generally referred to as "Americans ''. Most Canadians resent being referred to as "Americans ''. In Spanish, América is a single continent composed of the subcontinents of América del Sur and América del Norte, the land bridge of América Central, and the islands of the Antillas. Americano or americana in Spanish refers to a person from América in a similar way that europeo or europea refers to a person from Europa. The terms sudamericano / a, centroamericano / a, antillano / a and norteamericano / a can be used to more specifically refer to the location where a person may live. Citizens of the United States of America are normally referred to by the term estadounidense (rough literal translation: "United Statesian '') instead of americano or americana which is discouraged, and the country 's name itself is officially translated as Estados Unidos de América (United States of America), commonly abbreviated as Estados Unidos (EEUU). Also, the term norteamericano (North American) may refer to a citizen of the United States. This term is primarily used to refer to citizens of the United States, and less commonly to those of other North American countries. In Portuguese, América is a single continent composed of América do Sul (South America), América Central (Central America) and América do Norte (North America). It can be ambiguous, as América can be used to refer to the United States of America, but is avoided in print and formal environments. In French the word américain may be used for things relating to the Americas; however, similar to English, it is most often used for things relating to the United States. Panaméricain may be used as an adjective to refer to the Americas without ambiguity. French speakers may use the noun Amérique to refer to the whole landmass as one continent, or two continents, Amérique du Nord and Amérique du Sud. In French, Amérique is also used to refer to the United States, making the term ambiguous. Similar to English usage, les Amériques or des Amériques is used to refer unambiguously to the Americas. In Dutch, the word Amerika mostly refers to the United States. Although the United States is equally often referred to as de Verenigde Staten ("the United States '') or de VS ("the US ''), Amerika relatively rarely refers to the Americas, but it is the only commonly used Dutch word for the Americas. This often leads to ambiguity; and to stress that something concerns the Americas as a whole, Dutch uses a combination, namely Noord - en Zuid - Amerika (North and South America). Latin America is generally referred to as Latijns Amerika or Midden - Amerika for Central America. The adjective Amerikaans is most often used for things or people relating to the United States. There are no alternative words to distinguish between things relating to the United States or to the Americas. Dutch uses the local alternative for things relating to elsewhere in the Americas, such as Argentijns for Argentine, etc. The following is a list of multinational organizations in the Americas. The U.S. has the fastest - growing economy in the Americas according to a 2016 study conducted by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and has the highest GDP per capita in the Americas as well. Countries in the northern part of the Americas tend to have healthier and stronger economies than countries in the southern part of the Americas. In 2016, five to seven countries in the southern part of the Americas had weakening economies in decline, compared to only three countries in the northern part of the Americas. Haiti has the lowest GDP per capita in the Americas, although its economy was growing slightly as of 2016. Coordinates: 19 ° N 96 ° W  /  19 ° N 96 ° W  / 19; - 96 Africa Antarctica Asia Australia Europe North America South America Afro - Eurasia America Eurasia Oceania

harry belafonte if you want to be happy

If You Wanna Be Happy - wikipedia "If You Wanna Be Happy '' is a 1963 song recorded by Jimmy Soul, written by Joseph Royster, Carmella Guida and Frank Guida. "If You Wanna Be Happy '' is based on the song "Ugly Woman '' by the Trinidadian calypsonian Roaring Lion recorded in 1934. It hit number one on the Billboard Hot 100 on May 18, 1963, as well as the R&B singles chart. It was issued on Guida 's S.P.Q.R. label and distributed by London Records, and in the United Kingdom on EMI 's Stateside label. The original single lists a running time of 2: 14; some later releases are slightly longer due to a longer fade - out. The song was banned on many radio stations, due to the use of the words "Ugly Girl / Woman. '' Towards the end of the song, a brief dialogue takes place between Soul and a backup singer, based on Bo Diddley 's song "Say Man '': "Say Man!! '' / "Hey baby '' / "I saw your wife the other day. '' / "Yeah?? '' / "Yeah, and she 's ugly - y-y-y-y!!! '' / "Yeah, she 's ugly, but she sure can cook, baby ''. / "Yeah, alright. '' / Soul 's counterpoint melody in a falsetto is heard as the song fades out. The song is featured in the films Clean and Sober (1988), Chances Are (1989), Mermaids (1990) Rocky and Bullwinkle (2014) and on the soundtrack of My Best Friend 's Wedding (1997). The song, or possibly Roaring Lion 's version, can also be heard in Tiger Bay (1959) sung by a group of street musicians at a wedding.

7. which economic activity did relations between europe and ming china most likely encourage

Africa -- China economic relations - wikipedia Economic relations between China and Africa, one part of more general Africa -- China relations, began centuries ago and continue through the present day. Nowadays, China seeks resources for its growing consumption, and African countries seek funds to develop their infrastructures. Large - scale structural projects, often accompanied by a soft loan, are proposed to African countries rich in natural resources. China commonly funds the construction of infrastructure such as roads and railroads, dams, ports, and airports. While relations are mainly conducted through diplomacy and trade, military support via the provision of arms and other equipment is also a major component. In the diplomatic and economic rush into Africa, Taiwan, the United States, France, and the UK are China 's main competitors. China surpassed the US in 2009 to became the largest trading partner of Africa. Bilateral trade agreements have been signed between China and 40 countries of the continent. In 2000, China Africa Trade amounted to $10 billion and by 2014, it had grown to $220 billion. The People 's Republic of China began to pursue market socialism in the 1970s under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping. This marked the change to capitalist practices as the foundation of the PRC 's socioeconomic development, a process initiated several decades earlier following the aftermath of the Great Leap Forward. Beginning in 1980, the PRC initiated a policy of rapid modernization and industrialization, resulting in reduced poverty and developing the base of a powerful industrial economy. As of 2011, the PRC had the second largest nominal GDP in the world, at $6.5 trillion, and the second largest GDP by purchasing power parity at $11.1 trillion. Today, the PRC faces a growing shortage of raw materials such as oil, wood, copper, and aluminum, all of which are needed to support its economic expansion and the production of manufactured goods. Africa has a population of roughly 1.02 billion and a surface of 30,221,532 km2. Industrialization started marginally in the early 20th century in the colonies of the European nations, namely Portugal, Belgium, Spain, the Netherlands, Germany, France, Italy, and the United Kingdom. The continent 's various wars for independence brought on the violent and disruptive division of Africa. Africa, being a major source of raw materials, saw the colonial powers vie for influence among the newly independent nations, with former colonial powers establishing special relations with their former colonies, often by offering economic aid and alliances for access to the vast resources of their former territories. Today, the presence of diamonds, gold, silver, uranium, cobalt and large oil reserves have brought Africa to the forefront of industrial development, with many of the world 's economic powers building relations with Africa 's resource rich nations. As of 2008, the entire GDP of Africa is about $1.2 trillion. Both China and Africa proclaim a new, mutually beneficial economic, political, and regional alliance. China sees a source for raw materials and energy, desperately needed to support its feverish industrial and economic growth. Success in this quest means high employment and a higher quality of life for Chinese citizens, as well as increasing social stability and political security for Chinese elites. Chinese oil companies are gaining the invaluable experience of working in African nations which will prepare them for larger projects on the far more competitive world market. The efficiency of Chinese assistance, loans, and proposals generally been praised. Finally, Chinese industry has found in Africa a budding market for its low - cost manufactured goods. Chinese diaspora in Africa have been actively supported by Chinese embassies, continuously building the ' Blood Brother ' relation between China and Africa as perceived victims of Western imperialism. African leaders earn legitimacy through Chinese partnerships. They work together with the Chinese to provide Africa with key structural infrastructure -- roads, railways, ports, hydroelectric dams, and refineries -- fundamentals which will help Africa avoid the "resource curse ''. Success in this endeavor means avoiding the exploitation of their natural wealth and the beginning of fundamental social and economic transformations on the continent. African countries partnering with China today are signing with a future world superpower. In Africa, this Chinese alliance provides strong psychological consequences. It provides economic hope and shows African elites an example of success which they may take as exemplars of their own future. Writer Harry Broadman commented that if Chinese investments in key sectors of infrastructure, telecommunication, manufacturing, foods, and textiles radically alter the African continent, the main change will have taken place in African minds. With the recent growth and economic improvement, more Africans students are returning to Africa after studies abroad in order to bring their skills and industry home. There are traces of Chinese activity in Africa dating back as far back as the Tang dynasty. Chinese porcelain has been found along the coasts of Egypt in North Africa. Chinese coins, dated 9th century, have been discovered in Kenya, Zanzibar, and Somalia. The Song dynasty established maritime trade with the Ajuran Empire in the mid-12th century. The Yuan dynasty 's Zhu Siben made the first known Chinese voyage to the Atlantic Ocean, while the Ming dynasty 's admiral Zheng He and his fleet of more than 300 ships made seven separate voyages to areas around the Indian Ocean, and landed on the coast of Eastern Africa. Ancient Sino - African official contacts were not widespread. Most Chinese emissaries are believed to have stopped before ever reaching Europe or Africa, probably travelling as far as the far eastern provinces of the Roman and later Byzantine empires. However, some did reach Africa. Yuan dynasty ambassadors, which was one of only two times when China was ruled by a foreign dynasty, this one the Mongols, traveled to Madagascar. Zhu Siben traveled along Africa 's western coasts, drawing a more precise map of Africa 's triangular shape. Between 1405 and 1433, the Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty sponsored a series of naval expeditions, with Zheng He as the leader. He was placed in control of a massive fleet of ships, which numbered as much as 300 treasure ships with at least 28,000 men. Among the many places traveled, which included Arabia, Somalia, India, Indonesia and Thailand, His fleet traveled to East Africa. On their return, the fleet brought back African leaders, as well as lions, rhinoceros ', ostriches, giraffes, etc., to the great joy of the court. Following the Yongle Emperor 's death, and the resurgence of Confucianism, which opposed frivolous external adventures, such expensive foreign policies were abandoned, and the costly fleet was destroyed. Confucian officials preferred agriculture and authority over innovation, exploration, and trade. Their opinion was that Ming China had nothing to learn from overseas barbarians. The modern Chinese version is that the European mercantilism in the Age of Discovery aggressively ended Sino - African relations. This point of view enforces the rhetoric of the blood brother relations of China and Africa. A new era of Chinese trade began in the industrial era. European colonization of Africa and the abolition of slavery in France caused major workforce shortages in European colonies. Europe looked for a way to fill the gap with low - cost workers from abroad, namely India and China. Beginning in the 1880s, tens of thousands of Chinese Coolies were sent overseas to work in the mines, railroads, and plantations of the colonial powers. The exploitation of inland resources, such as copper mines, also led to the presence of relatively large, isolated Chinese populations in landlocked countries such as Zambia. Jean Ping, the minister of Foreign Affairs of Gabon, who presided the UN Assembly, was born from an African mother and a Chinese father in Gabon, a country where almost no Chinese were present. After the formation of the People 's Republic of China following the Communist party victory in 1949, some Chinese fled, eventually landing in Africa. By the 1950s, Chinese communities in excess of 100,000 existed in South Africa, Madagascar, and Mauritius. Small Chinese communities in other parts of Africa later became the cornerstone of the post-1980 growth in dealings between China and Africa. However, at the time, many lived lives centered on local agriculture and probably had little or no contact with China. Precise statistics of the Chinese presence in Africa are difficult to obtain, since both Chinese and African offices have remained discreet about this issue. The newly formed People 's Republic of China actively began supporting the decolonization movements in Africa and the Pacific. This era is especially important in the "Sino - African friendship '' movement, as both the PRC and many of the decolonized African nations shared a "victim background '', the perception that they were both taken advantage of by imperialistic nations such as Japan and European states. The growing Sino - Soviet split of the 1950s and 1960s allowed the PRC to get US support, and to return to the international scene in 1971. China (Taiwan) 's seat on the Security Council was expelled by General Assembly Resolution 2758, and replaced in all UN organs with the People 's Republic of China. With growing opposition between the USSR and the PRC in the 1960s, China expanded its own program of diplomacy, sometimes supporting capitalist factions against USSR backed ones (e.g. Angola (UNITA) and South Africa (Apartheid). At the 1955 Bandung conference, China showed an interest in becoming the leader of the "third world ''. Zhou Enlai made an extensive African tour between 1963 and 1964, to strengthen Sino - African friendship. Hundreds of Chinese medics were sent to Africa and infrastructural projects were planned. The iconic 1860 km Tanzam railroad, built by 50.000 Chinese workers, was completed in 1976. Ex-diplomat and now professor of Foreign Relations in Beijing, M. Xinghua, referred to this era as the "golden age '' of Sino - African relations. Growing numbers of African countries switched their recognition from the ROC (Taiwan) to the PRC. 1976 marked the death of Zhou Enlai and Mao Zedong, bringing the era of ideology symbolically to a close and leaving power in the pragmatic hands of Deng Xiaoping. The shift to a less ideological approach was not without difficultly, and it involved considerable political effort to maintain the perception of a coherent national direction. Writer Philip Snow describes it thus: "a continual attempt to sustain a rhetorical unity which has sometimes disguised the pursuit of profoundly different goals ''. As China awakened from its decades - old period of semi-isolation, the country was boosted by internal reforms, growing Taiwanese and foreign investments, and the dramatic expansion of its workforce. China once more turned toward Africa, now looking to the continent both a source of key resources and as a market for its low - cost consumer goods. Writer R. Marchal identifies two key events in Sino - African relations. First, the Tian'anmen protests in 1989; the spectacle consolidated opposition to what was perceived as the PRC 's violent oppression of demonstrators. Economically developed nations threatened to enforce economic sanctions, while African countries kept silent, either to conceal their own harsh policies or to further their ties with China. Indeed, that was the results as China 's strengthened its cooperation with African states. The growing alliance between China and Africa was more and more needed for both sides. China 's growing industry resulted in a rapidly expanding and seemingly inexhaustible demand for resources. Meanwhile, in the relative calm ushered in by the end of the cold war, concerns about human rights issues in China, furthered isolated the mix of rogue and pariah states. In 1995, Jiang Zemin pushed the pace of economic growth even faster. Under his leadership, China pursued broad reforms with confidence. Zemin declared to Chinese entrepreneurs, "Go out '' (走 出去 Zǒu chūqū), encouraging businessmen to conquer world markets In the late 1990s, Chinese bids were heavily supported by the government and local embassies, with government - owned Exim Bank of China providing needed finances at low rates. The advantages provided by the PRC allowed Chinese enterprises to win many bids on the world market. PRC officials described the period as a "sane adjustment '' and the "sane development of economic and commercial Sino - African relations ''. Still, Chinese and African diplomacy continued to invoke the imagery of the past ideological period: the shared history of victimization at the hands of 19th - century Westerners and the common fight for autonomy and independence. To those, China added the fight toward progress in a world unfairly dominated by western powers. It is worth noting that in Africa today, strongly government - backed Chinese companies are equally or more successful than many western companies. International relations analyst Parag Khanna states that by making massive trade and investment deals with Latin America and Africa, China established its presence as a superpower along with the European Union and the United States. China 's rise is demonstrated by its ballooning share of trade in its gross domestic product. Khanna believes that China 's consultative style has allowed it to develop political and economic ties with many countries including those viewed as rogue states by western diplomacies. China 's rise in the world market led the Chinese diaspora in Africa to make contact with relatives in their homeland. Renewed relations created a portal through which African demand for low - price consumers goods could flow. Chinese businessmen in Africa, with contacts in China, brought in skilled industrial engineers and technicians such as mechanics, electricians, carpenters, to build African industry from the ground up. The 1995 official Go Global declaration and the 2001 Chinese entry into the WTO paved the way for private citizens in China to increasingly connect with, import from, and export to the budding Sino - African markets. Africa does not stand at the center of China 's security strategies, yet the continent has been and remains a major source for China 's commodity stocks. Africa was also seen as an important bid for international legitimacy against the eastern and western blocks. In the 1960s, China contributed to Africa 's military power by assisting and training liberation groups, such as Mugabe 's ZANU. In 1958, China quickly recognized Algeria 's National Liberation Front and provided the new government with small weapons. In 1960, it provided training to the rebels in Guinea - Bissau. In Mozambique, the FRELIMO received guerilla training and weapons from China. During the 1960 - 1970s, China provided military training and weapons to any African country that was not already supported by the Soviet Union. Some military assistance turned out to be failures: After supporting Angola 's MPLA, the Chinese authorities switched sides and began supporting UNITA, which never managed to fully grasp power in the country. From 1967 to 1976, China transferred $142 million in arms to Africa (Congo - Brazzaville, Tanzania and Zaire being the major recipients). During the 1980s, China 's sales of arms to African countries dropped significantly. The Chinese military presence in Africa has increased since 1990 when China agreed to join in UN peace - keeping responsibilities. In January 2005, 598 Chinese peace keepers were sent to Liberia. Others were sent to Western Sahara as part of Operation MINURSO, Sierra Leone, the Ivory Coast and the DRC. This was a carefully handled and largely symbolic move, as China did not want to appear as a new colonialist power overly interfering in internal affairs. China has put its weight behind the conflict in Chad. The FUC rebellion, based in Sudan and aiming to overthrow the pro-Taiwan ruler of Chad, Idriss Déby, has received Chinese diplomatic support as well as light weapons and Sudanese oil. With Sudan maintaining a pro-Chinese stance, and Chad being pro-Taiwan (and since 2003, an oil producer), China has pursued their interests in replacing Deby with a more pro-China leader. The 2006 Chadian coup d'état attempt failed after French intervention, but Deby then switched his support to Beijing, with the apparent defeat becoming a strategic victory for China. China currently has military alliances with 6 African states, 4 of which are major oil suppliers: Sudan, Algeria, Nigeria and Egypt. On the whole, however, China 's influence remains limited, especially when compared with Western powers such as France, whose military involvement in the 2004 Ivory Coast conflict and the 2006 Chad conflict was significant. China is particularly unable to compete with the ex-colonial powers in providing military training and educational programs, given the latter 's continuing ties via military academies like Sandhurst in the UK and Saint Cyr in France. In 2015, despite growing economic interests in Africa, China has not yet settled any military base on the continent. However, with a naval logistics center is planned to be built in Djibouti raises questions about China 's need to set military bases in Africa. China 's increasing reliance on Africa 's resources warrants it to hold a stronger military position. The Chinese have changed their strategy Since 2009, a switch has been noticed in China 's approach to Africa. The new tack has been to underline long - term stability in light of the worldwide economic crisis. Some major projects get stopped, such as in Angola, where 2 / 3 of a US $4 billion CIF fund disappeared, it is unclear where this money went. Following this, a major Chinese - backed oil refinery project was scrapped by Angolan officials, with unclear reasons, causing problems for Sino - Angolan relations. As raw material prices fall through the global recession, the negotiating position of African countries is sharply weakened, while expected profits intended to repay Chinese loans are collapsing. As a consequence, tensions have increased: China is more worried about the risk of default, while African countries fear servicing their debt over the long term of their loans. At the dawn of the twenty - first century, while Africa suffered from China 's withdrawal, it is less dependent of external powers to build a self - reliable economy. Chinese world trade has grown rapidly over the last decades. Total trade was roughly $100 US billion in 1990, 500 billion in 2000, 850 billion in 2004, 1400 billion in 2005, and 2200 billion in 2007. That computes to an over 20-fold increase in under 20 years and an annualized growth rate of nearly 18 %. More remarkably, the vast majority of China 's growth has taken place in the past decade; in other words, not only is the size of China 's trade growing, the rate of the growth is accelerating. Thanks to the decades - old Chinese diaspora, the economic dynamism of PRC embassies, China 's low - cost manufacturing industry, an efficient export engine, and an exchange rate that until 2010 has been held deliberately low, China 's global trade has thrived. In context of China 's total trade, Africa actually comprises only a small part. In 2007, Sino - African trade rose $73 b, 3.4 % of China 's $2173 b total, far lower than the EU ($356 b, 16.4 %), the USA ($302 b, 13.9 %), and Japan ($236 b, 10.9 %). China is Africa 's first trading partner since it surpassed the United States in 2009. The Chinese diaspora first reactivated its familial links in order to import low - priced goods such cups, forks, cellular phone, radio, television sets and umbrellas to Africa Indeed, African society has a screaming need for cheap goods in large quantities. China 's manufacturing industry is truly complementary to African markets, often producing more cheaply than most African manufacturers can, and with better quality. Cheap Chinese clothes, and cheap Chinese cars at half the price of western ones allow African customers to suddenly raise up the purchasing power. In Africa, China may sell its own low quality or overproduced goods and inventory, a key outlet which helps maintain China 's economic and social stability. Chinese shop - owners in Africa are able to sell Chinese - built, Chinese - shipped goods for a profit. A negative consequence of China 's low - cost consumer goods trade is that it only goes one way. China does not purchase manufactured products from Africa, while cheap Chinese imports flood the local marketplace, making it difficult for local industries to compete. A noticeable case is the Chinese textile industry, which has hit Africa like a tsunami. In many countries, textiles are one of the first manufacturing industries to develop, but the African textile industry has been crippled by competition The negative consequences are not easily resolved: African consumers give praise to Chinese textiles, and they are often the first clothes they can afford to buy new; yet local manufactures are badly wounded, raising opposition and concern over the loss of local jobs. Africa is seen by Chinese businessmen as 900 million potential customers in a fast - growing market,. Perhaps more importantly, African societies are far from market saturation, like their Western counterparts. Thus, in Africa, China finds not only an ample supply of potential new customers but far less competition from other nations. A few examples of the products imported by China in African countries in 2014: Benin bought $411 m worth of wigs and fake bears from China, 88 % of South Africa 's imported male underpants werefrom China, Mauritius spent $438,929 on Chinese soy sauce, Kenya spent $8,197,499 on plastic toilet seats, Nigeria spent $9,372,920 on Chinese toothbrushes, Togo bought $193,818,756 worth of Chinese motorbikes and Nigeria $450,012,993. In the other direction, China 's growing thirst for raw materials led Chinese state - owned enterprises to the country with natural resources, such as wood and minerals (like those from the Gabonese forests). By the end of the 1990s, China had become interested in African oil, too. Over time, African laws adapted to China 's demand, laws intended to force the local transformation of raw materials for export. This led to a new kind of manufacturing in Africa, managed by the Chinese, with African workers producing exports for Chinese, as well as European, American and Japanese customers. African leaders have pursued an increase of the share of raw material transformation both to add value to their exports and to provide manufacturing jobs for local Africans. China 's oil purchases have raised oil prices, boosting the government revenues of oil exporters like Angola, Gabon and Nigeria, while hurting the other oil - importing African countries. At the same time, China 's raw materials purchases have increased prices for copper, timber, and nickel, which benefits many African countries as well. While African growth from 2000 to 2005 averaged 4.7 % per year, almost twice the growth has come from petroleum - exporting countries (2005: 7.4 %; 2006: 6.7 %; 2007: 9.1 %) than from petroleum - importing countries (2005: 4.5 %; 2006: 4.8 %; 2007: 4.5 %). During the year 2011, trade between Africa and China increased a staggering 33 % from the previous year to US $166 billion. This included Chinese imports from Africa equalling US $93 billion, consisting largely of mineral ores, petroleum, and agricultural products and Chinese exports to Africa totalling $93 billion, consisting largely of manufactured goods. Outlining the rapidly expanding trade between the African continent and China, trade between these two areas of the world increased further by over 22 % year - over-year to US $80.5 billion during the first five months of the year 2012. Imports from Africa were up 25.5 % to $49.6 billion during these first five months of 2012 and exports of Chinese - made products, such as machinery, electrical and consumer goods and clothing / footwear increased 17.5 % to reach $30.9 billion. China remained Africa 's largest trading partner during 2011 for the fourth consecutive year (starting in 2008). To put the entire trade between China and Africa into perspective, during the early 1960s trade between these two large parts of the world were in the mere hundreds of millions of dollars back then. Europe dominated African trade during these formative years of European decolonization process in the African continent. Even as early as the 1980s, trade between China and Africa was minuscule. Trade between China and Africa largely grew exponentially following China 's joining of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the opening up of China to emigration (of Chinese people to Africa) and the free movement of companies, peoples, and products both to and from the African continent starting from the early 2000 onwards. For years, business in Africa was hampered by poor transportation between countries and regions. Chinese - African associations have worked towards ending this unproductive situation. China provides infrastructure funding and workforce in exchange for immediate preferential relations including lower resource prices or shares of African resources. As a secondary effect, this infrastructure allows Africa to increase its production and exports, improve the quality of life and increase the condition of millions of Africans, who will one day become as many millions of potential buyers of Chinese goods. The recent Sino - Angolan association is illustrative. When a petroleum - rich area called for investment and rebuilding, China advanced a $5 billion loan to be repaid in oil. They sent Chinese technicians, fixing a large part of the electrical system, and leading a part of the reconstruction. In the short term Angola benefits from Chinese - built roads, hospitals, schools, hotels, football stadiums, shopping centers and telecommunications projects. In turn, Angola mortgaged future oil production of a valuable, non-renewable resource. It may turn out to be a costly trade for Angola, but their needs for infrastructure is immediate and that is precisely what China provideds when no one else is willing to do so. And thusly, Angola has become China 's leading energy supplier. China also plan to establish five special economic zones in Africa, zones where "the Chinese government will create the enabling environment into which Chinese companies can follow ''. The Exim Bank of China (Eximbank) is a government bank under direct leadership of the State Council, acting both in China and overseas. For its oversea actions, EximBank has hundreds of offices across the world, with three key representatives in Paris, St. Petersburg, and Johannesburg. The bank is a major force in Chinese foreign trade, aiming to catalyze import - export initiatives. Eximbank offers enterprises and allies a complete set of financial products. Low - rate loans and associations with skilled Chinese building companies are guided towards building or rebuilding local infrastructure, equipment, and offshore stations which meet a dual Chinese and African interest. EximBank can provide loans for roads, railroads, electric and telecommunication systems, pipelines, hospitals and various other needed facilities. It is the sole lending bank for Chinese Government Concessional Loans entrusted by the Chinese Government. The bank officially aims to promote the development of Chinese export - oriented economy, to help provide China with raw materials, and facilitate the selling of Chinese goods abroad. EximBank helps to invest in underdeveloped African countries, allowing them to both produce and export more raw materials to Chinese industries, and to allowing African societies to expand their own markets. In 2006, EximBank alone pledged $20 billion in development funds for 2007 through 2010, more than all western funding. Several other Chinese bank also provide African governments and enterprises with similar agreements. China has shown itself to be more competitive, less bureaucratic, and better adapted to doing business in Africa. Between 2009 and 2010 China Development Bank (CDB) and Eximbank publicly offered around US $110 bn worth of loans to emerging markets. Beating the World Bank 's record of offering just over US $100 bn between 2008 and 2010. The Chinese government helps, "by all possible means '', providing information, legal counsel, low - rate loans, and upon return to China, cheaper land in return for all the services provided to the Chinese nation in Africa. '' PRC embassies are full - time supporters of Chinese economic progress in Africa, widely using the numerous and well - organized pioneer Chinese businessmen of the diaspora. The Chinese government, well informed by these local businessmen about regional conditions, is equipped with thousands of skilled engineers and workers ready to leave China, as well as by experienced banks (i.e. EximBank) and large reserves of US dollars (as of 2008: approximately 1.4 trillion). The Chinese government is thus ready for taking on large - scale investments and projects, and if approved, to lead them to completion. In pursuing economic progress in Africa, the Chinese diaspora and Chinese producers have been actively assisted by PRC embassies. Michel and Beuret note that PRC embassies and local Chinese businessmen have frequent meetings and actively provide mutual assistances and information. For Africans requesting PRC Visas for China, the embassy may request further information about the local businessmen often about his wealth. When confirmed, the African businessmen or consumer quickly gets a Visa agreement. Chinese arms show up across the African continent from Liberia to Somalia. The People 's Liberation Army (PLA) was allowed to sell weapons in the 1980s and created several export enterprises, most notably, Norinco, Xingxing, and Poly Group, which have sold weapons to rogue states such as Sudan and Zimbabwe, while Chinese weapons were used in Congo, Tanzania, Rwanda, Chad, and Liberia. These trades appear to be mostly small arms sales to middlemen arms dealers who in turn sell to both governments and rebels in Africa. The available evidence suggests these amounts are not major, especially compared to the U.S. supply of nearly 50 % of the world 's weapons, and that the direct leverage of the Peoples Liberation Army or the civilian ministries is modest in most African conflicts. The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute estimates China 's 2000 -- 2004 unpublished arms exports at about $1.4 b, and US exports at about $25.9 b. A 2005 UN arms destruction operation in Congo reported that 17 % of them were Chinese made, while the remaining 83 % came from other manufacturers. China also disagrees to sell weapons to unrecognized countries. According to Dr. Wilson, on the whole, arms sales have been the least significant factor relative to other instruments of China 's statecraft. On the other hand, Chinese arms supplies may be underestimated, both because part of these weapons come to Africa via indirect ways, or through uncounted exchanges of arms for raw materials, or because Chinese sales numbers are biased downwards. In Liberia, from 2001 to 2003, against a UN weapon embargo, Chinese weapons were purchased by Van Kouwenhoven, from the Netherlands, to supply Charles Taylor 's army in exchange for lumber. In Zimbabwe, Mugabe bought $240 m of weapons, while Sudan received civil helicopters and planes which were later militarized on site. Further, Chinese arms are basically low cost items, sold in large quantities for relatively low costs: machetes, low - priced assault rifles like the Type 56, or the QLZ87 grenade launcher. These items have a far lower value than a single jetfighter or attack helicopter sold by the US but can kill far more people. That is what happened during the 1994 Rwanda genocide, with large quantities of "Made in China '' machetes. Those "light weapons '', when supplied in large quantities, become a tool of mass destruction. As a result of Soviet technology - sharing through the mid-1960s and internal reserves such the Daqing oil field, the PRC became oil sufficient in 1963. Chinese ideology and the US - led embargo, however, isolated the Chinese oil industry from 1950 to 1970 preventing their evolution into powerful multinational companies. Chinese oil exports peaked in 1985, but rapid post-Communist economic reforms and an internal increase in oil demand brought China into an oil deficit, becoming a net oil importer in 1993, and a net crude importer in 1996, a trend which is accelerating. Indeed, Chinese reserves, such as the Tarim basin, have proven both difficult to extract and difficult to transport toward Chinese coastal provinces where energy demand is centered. Pipeline construction, as well as processing facilities, lag behind demand. Through the end of the 20th century, China has been working to establish long - term energy security. Achieving this goal has required investment in oil and gas fields abroad, diversifying energy resource providers, and incorporating non-traditional energy sources like nuclear, solar and other renewables. The rapid expansion of overseas activities by China 's energy companies has been driven by the needs of both government and the PRC 's National Oil Companies (NOC), which have worked in an uncommonly close partnership to increase overseas production of oil and gas. Together, they gained access to projects of strategic importance in African nations like Sudan and Nigeria in the 1990s, while leaving smaller opportunities to the companies alone. Chinese actions in these areas have not always been successful: The 2006 agreement in Rwanda proved unproductive, while Guinean oil technologies were not familiar to Chinese companies. The expansion has also been limited: all together, Chinese oil companies produced 257,000 bd in Africa in 2005 -- just one third of the leader ExxonMobil alone -- and just 2 % of Africa 's total oil reserves. Moreover, China 's arrival on the world oil scene has been perturbing for established players. China has been attacked for its increasingly close relationship with rogue states, such as Sudan and Angola, countries known for their human rights abuses, political censorship, and widespread corruption. China 's world image has suffered from the critiques, leading the nation to move to a more diplomatic approach, avoiding crisis areas, such the Niger Delta. Nevertheless, as a consumer country and budding powerhouse, China has little choice in choosing its source of supply. Chinese access to international oil markets has satisfied the country 's immediate thirst. But despite its large coal - based energy system, China is a key part of the vicious cycle which had led to increasing oil prices worldwide -- to the disadvantage of all industrialized and oil importing countries, including China itself. In 2006, China imported 47 % of its total oil consumption (145 Mt of crude oil). With such high demand, Chinese companies such as Sinopec, CNPC, and CNOOC, have looked to Africa for oil. Africa is the 2nd largest continent in the world, with 30 million square kilometers of land, and contains a vast quantity of natural resources. This trait, together with the continent 's relatively low population density and small manufacturing sector has made Africa a key target for Chinese imports. Africa ranks first or second in abundance globally for the following minerals: bauxite, cobalt, diamonds, phosphate rocks, platinum group metals, vermiculite, and zirconium. Many other minerals are also present in high quantities. Many African countries are highly dependent on such exports. Mineral fuels (coal, petroleum) account for more than 90 % of the export earnings for: Algeria, Equatorial Guinea, Libya, and Nigeria. Various Minerals account for 80 % for Botswana (led by, in order of value, diamond, copper, nickel, soda ash, and gold), Congo (petroleum), Congo (diamond, petroleum, cobalt, and copper), Gabon (petroleum and manganese), Guinea (bauxite, alumina, gold, and diamond), Sierra Leone (diamond), and Sudan (petroleum and gold). Minerals and mineral fuels accounted for more than 50 % of the export earnings of Mali (gold), Mauritania (iron ore), Mozambique (aluminum), Namibia (diamond, uranium, gold, and zinc), and Zambia (copper and cobalt). Ongoing mining projects of more than $1 billion are taking place in South Africa (platinum, gold), Guinea (bauxite, aluminum), Madagascar (nickel), Mozambique (coal), Congo and Zambia (cobalt, copper), Nigeria and Sudan (crude petroleum), and Senegal (iron). Africa produced about 10.7 Mbpd of oil in 2005, 12 % of the 84 Mbpd produced worldwide. Around one half of that is produced in north Africa, which has preferential trade agreements with Europe. The sub-Saharan oil producers include by global rank and Mbpd: Nigeria (13th; 2.35 Mbpd), Angola (16th; 1.91 Mbpd), Sudan (31st;. 47Mbpd). Guinea (33rd), Congo (38th), and Chad (45th) also have notable oil output. In 2005, 35 % of exported African oil went to the EU, 32 % to the US, 10 % to China, while 1 % of African gas goes to other parts of Asia. North African preferentially exporting its oil to western countries: EU 64 %; US 18 %; all others 18 %. 60 % of African wood goes to China, where it is manufactured, and then sell across the world. As of 2007, thanks to good diplomatic relations and recent growth, Africa provides 30 % of China 's oil needs, with Sudanese 's oil account for 10 of these 30 points. Chinese companies have recently increased their activity worldwide. Specifically in Africa, notable cases are: Similar or greater projects are taking place in Middle East and Latin America, one Sino - Iranian deal having an estimate value of US $70 billions. China, once in need of international recognition and now in need of raw materials, has walked carefully and humbly towards Africa. The dynamic evolved into what is now called the "Beijing Consensus '', China 's "soft '' diplomatic policy, entailing a strict respect for African sovereignty and a hands - off approach to internal issues. In short: loans and infrastructure without any political strings about democracy, transparency, or human rights attached. China 's ' non-interference ' model gives African leaders more freedom and the opportunity to work for immediate economic development. With China, controversial African leaders face a second or third chance to join in international partnerships this time with a successful third world nation; many of the excuses about Western domination which had previously been used to justify Africa 's lack of growth can no longer be made. To the West, China 's approach threatens the promotion of democracy, transparency, liberalism and free trade, engaging instead with authoritarianism, economic development at the expense of civil progress, and strengthened ties between political and economic elites over of broad social change. To China, who regards the West 's ' human rights discourse ' as blatantly hypocritical, their involvement with so - called rogue states increases long term stability and much needed "win - win '' social and economic development. The arrival of a new actor in Africa has led Westerners to review their own strategies as they analyze Chinese actions in Africa. The Western responses may ultimately aid Africa, as think tanks provide strategic analysis on how African elites can get squeeze more out of Chinese investments. Indeed, it 's clearly in the interest of Africa to play one side against the other, and to avoid alliances between China and the West, which might work to decrease raw material prices. Legal power remains in the hands of local African elites, who may or may not decide to enforce laws which would tighten control of resources, or further exploit them. Pursuing democracy and transparency is no longer the sole model; development is, for sure, and as long as African leaders can provide it, their power will be that much assured. The Republic of China (ROC), commonly known as Taiwan, is a fierce diplomatic rival of the People 's Republic of China. Following the Chinese Civil War, both claimed to be the legitimate representative of ' China ' on the world scene. At that time, the USSR supported the PRC, while the United States backed ROC, which thus held the Chinese UN security council 's seat along with its high visibility and veto power. In 1971, after a complex struggle, the Sino - Soviet split of the 1960s led the United States to offer the UN security council seat to the PRC, thus excluding ROC - Taiwan from the diplomatic scene. Many countries followed the US move. Yet Taiwan 's strengthening economy in the 1970s and 1980s allowed the country to keep some strongholds across the world, which supported ROC 's diplomatic claim to the UN. As the PRC grew in power, Taiwan was only able to keep smaller supporters, mainly in the Pacific islands, Latin America, and Africa. In the 1990s, the political power - play between Taiwan and China often spurred investment in Africa, with a number of large - scale projects seeking to garner influence and recognition. Nowadays, the balance of power in terms of African friendship seems to be in favour of the PRC. Taiwanese investments in Africa are about $500 million a year, while Chinese Eximbank alone is approaching $20 billion over 3 years. Several Senegalese projects were funded by Taiwan in May 2005, as part of a 5 - year plan including $120 million. But soon after the bank transfer was completed, Senegal moved to support the PRC, and a "development based on free market and fair bids ''. Abdoulaye Wade, the president of Senegal also wrote to the ROC 's president, saying, "Between countries, there is not friendship, just interests. '' The last oil producer allied to Taiwan was Chad. But in April 2006, a PRC - Sudan backed coup d'état attempt came close to overthrowing the pro-Taiwanese leader, Idriss Deby. The effort was eventually stopped by French military intervention. Deby first looked for Taiwanese loans to enhance its military strength. Taiwan was unable to provide the $2 billion which had been requested, and Deby switched to recognising the PRC, thus weakening the coup and strengthening himself. Today, four countries in Africa recognize ROC - Taiwan. Efforts have been made toward stronger economic integration in Africa. In 2002, the African Union was formally launched to accelerate socio - economic integration and promote peace, security, and stability on the continent. The New Partnership for Africa 's Development (NEPAD) was also created by pro-democracy African states, headed by South Africa. Ian Taylor, an expert of Sino - African relations, wrote, "NEPAD has succeeded in placing the question of Africa 's development on the international table and claims to be a political and economic program aimed at promoting democracy, stability, good governance, human rights and economic development on the continent. Despite its faults, NEPAD is at least Africa - owned and has a certain degree of buy - in. '' Taylor concludes: "China 's oil diplomacy threatens to reintroduce practices (such as corruption, human rights abuses) that NEPAD (and the African Union for that matter) are ostensibly seeking to move away from -- even though China protests that it fully supports NEPAD '' A Chinese - lead Forum on China - Africa Cooperation has been created, where Chinese and African partners meet every 3 years, both to strengthen alliances, sign contracts, and to make important announcements. The forum also helps African leaders to gain legitimacy in their own countries. Key reasons of China 's interest on Africa are to be found in China itself. Chinese economy, industry, energy and society have a special shape. Chinese economy and industry turn toward export markets. These industries and associated works and investment provide the Chinese society the recent two - digit yearly economic growth, job chances, and life standard improvement, but dramatically rely on coal (70 %) and oil (25 %) sources (for 2003), as well as raw materials. Notable are the frequent electric shortages. A US Congress hearing noticed that energy shortages have already led to rationing of the electric supply, slowing down manufacturing sector and consequently overall economic growth. On other raw materials side, China simply does not have enough natural resources of its own to meet its growing industrial need. Within the China economic success story, western scholars noticed that China 's quest of wealth has once more led coastal provinces to quickly enrich, while inland provinces or rural areas stay relatively poor, an inequality which thus leads to internal social tensions and instability. Recent economic growth helped to stabilize the Chinese society: in times of economic growth, individuals look simply for personal life improvement. Millions of poor farmers and workers work hard and silently in hope of a better lives tomorrow; they want to buy TVs, computers, cellphones, cars, fridges. To keep them happy and stable, China have to stay largely supplied in raw materials - oil, copper, zinc, cobalt - from abroad. Also, driven by this politico - economic desire to obtain sources of raw materials and energy for China 's continuing economic growth and open up new export markets, China is actively looking for African resources of every kind: oil, cobalt, copper, bauxite, uranium, aluminium, manganese, iron ore etc. African resources feed Chinese industries ' hunger for minerals and electricity, fuel its economic boom, and thus keep the country 's consumers happy and quiet. For the Communist Party, enough supply of minerals means social stability. Like other power, China needs to supply its industry with raw materials, and its citizen in goods to keep them happy. Out of energy and raw materials shortage, analysts also notice that long - term factors threatening China 's growth questions over its innovation capability, corruption and inefficiency, and environmental risks. According to the 2nd session of the 2011 China Africa Industrial Forum hosted in Beijing, China - Africa trade volume is expected to exceed 150 billion US dollars by year 2011. As with previous Western involvement in Africa, forging close ties with local elites has been a key strategy for Chinese diplomats and businessmen. It has been noted that when new leaders come to power in Africa, they will "quickly launch a maximum of new projects (with state 's money) to get personal commissions immediately, all this is decided in a short time, and we are ready ''. In Angola, a country weakened by years of conflict, and now notable for its institutional corruption, China has proposed low - cost loans (1.5 %), to be paid back in oil. For the elite of Angola, unlike other investors, China does not insist on transparent accounting or the assurance good governance. The long - term consequences for African democracy may be serious. As noted in a South African newspaper, "China 's no - strings - attached buy - in to major oil producers, such as Angola, will undermine efforts by Western governments to pressure them to open their oil books to public scrutiny. '' Cases of human rights abuses have arisen from Chinese - African co-operation. African workers have protested against ill - treatment and poor pay by Chinese companies, as well as the influx of Chinese workers who take away local jobs. In July 2010, hundreds of African workers at a Chinese - owned Zambian mine rioted over low wages. In the Republic of Congo, Chinese contracts are said to be 30 % cheaper than Western ones. African workers, however complain of worsening conditions: Chinese firms hire them on a day - to - day basis, with lower wages than they received from Westerner firms, are insulting or even racist, and enforce strict working conditions. African businessmen have long complained of an increase in Chinese businesses, especially in Senegal. Some Angolans had complained that along with the shipment of machinery and cement, China also imports many of its own nationals to work on these reconstruction projects, leaving little employment for locals, and not allowing for cooperative working relations or the transfer of knowledge and skills. In the factories of Congo, the Chinese work 12 hours a day, six days a week, maintaining machinery on Sundays. Such high activity is also expected from African workers, sometimes creating tensions between groups. There are typically two kinds of Chinese organizations operating in Africa: firms transforming African resources in which the bosses, managers, and technicians are Chinese, the workers are African, and the customers are Europeans, Americans, and Japanese; and firms selling to African markets in which the bosses and managers are Chinese, the sellers are Chinese, and the customers are African. Both types create social tensions, economic conflict with local enterprises, lower short - term employment prospects for Africans, and an apparent ethnic hierarchy within the firms. In Angola, like elsewhere in Africa, Chinese workers live separately from native Africans, especially in large - scale work led by Chinese enterprises, where ' Chinese camps ' are specially built, exaggerating linguistic and cultural difficulties between workers. One contentious issue is the effect which large amounts of Chinese goods are having on local light manufacturing. While the dominant resource extraction industries are largely benefiting from Chinese capital investment, growing imports from China to many African nations underprice and crowd out local suppliers. Though Chinese imports allow poorer consumers to buy their first refrigerator, T - shirt, suitcases, or microwave ovens, they also hurt nascent local industries in countries trying to end reliance on resource commodities. By one interpretation, Chinese textile imports have caused 80 % of Nigerian factories to shut down, resulting in 250,000 workers losing their jobs. In Zambia, trade minister M. Patel complains: "we (Zambian industries) are simply not competitive in the way we produce goods ''. In a post Cold War, WTO - oriented Africa, consumer goods manufacturers never recovered from the first wave of Chinese products. Basic African factories can not compete with the Chinese in terms of productivity or quality. In recent decades researchers have considered a link between the natural resource abundance of a country and adverse consequences for economic growth and government functioning. This trend seems especially common for countries with ' point source ' minerals such as mines and oil fields, which create large profits for few people. Compared to agricultural resources, which offer diffuse development requiring large quantities of workers and distributing the benefits more widely, point source minerals have the potential to stifle the socioeconomic development of a nation. Evidence has been provided by Sachs & Warner, 2001 that establishes: ... an inverse statistical relationship between natural resource based exports (agriculture, minerals and fuels) and growth rates during the period 1970 -- 1990. Almost without exception, the resource - abundant countries have stagnated in economic growth since the early 1970s, inspiring the term ' curse of natural resources '. Empirical studies have shown that this curse is a reasonably solid fact. Taylor notes that China 's blind support of the African elite in a resource - abundant country may worsen the ' resource curses ', by encouraging elites to tighten their control resources and damage other economic sectors. Such arrangements may be in the short - term interest of Beijing, who often want to keep importing low cost raw materials from abroad, and manufacture them in China. The notion of a "curse '' may be misleading, as countries do have choice, and the development of natural resources sector is shaped by a host of government policies. Wright & Czelusta note 6 relevant policy issues: Chinese investments focus on infrastructure, the 5th point. The remaining five, however, are largely in the hands of African elites. African fishermen complain of Chinese industrialised fishing, coming as close as one nautical miles off the coast, depleting fish stocks, and interfering with villagers ' fishing nets for whom fishing is the main income source. Western pro-Forest NGO complains of Chinese specific disdain for environment. Given current global growth, African leaders are looking to first build up infrastructure, but are also increasingly aware of the need to strengthen native industries and economies. Following their experience with western involvement and the current world dynamic of growing demand for raw materials, African states are attempting to mitigate a possible repeat of exploitation under the Chinese with efforts to encourage local, long - term development. Examples are: ^ Not used but may be interesting to check: Ian Taylor (April 5, 2007). China 's Arms Sales in Africa: Beijing Reputation at Risk. China in brief, The Jamestown foundation. VII, issue 7.; Transarms.org; Amnesty international, Report (June 2006). People 's Republic of China: Sustaining conflict and human rights abuses, the flow of arms accelerates.

difference between vector processing and array processing in computer architecture

Vector processor - wikipedia In computing, a vector processor or array processor is a central processing unit (CPU) that implements an instruction set containing instructions that operate on one - dimensional arrays of data called vectors, compared to scalar processors, whose instructions operate on single data items. Vector processors can greatly improve performance on certain workloads, notably numerical simulation and similar tasks. Vector machines appeared in the early 1970s and dominated supercomputer design through the 1970s into the 1990s, notably the various Cray platforms. The rapid fall in the price - to - performance ratio of conventional microprocessor designs led to the vector supercomputer 's demise in the later 1990s. As of 2015 most commodity CPUs implement architectures that feature instructions for a form of vector processing on multiple (vectorized) data sets, typically known as SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data). Common examples include Intel x86 's MMX, SSE and AVX instructions, Sparc 's VIS extension, PowerPC 's AltiVec and MIPS ' MSA. Vector processing techniques also operate in video - game console hardware and in graphics accelerators. In 2000, IBM, Toshiba and Sony collaborated to create the Cell processor, consisting of one scalar processor and eight SIMD processors, which found use in the Sony PlayStation 3 among other applications. Other CPU designs may include some multiple instructions for vector processing on multiple (vectorised) data sets, typically known as MIMD (Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data) and realized with VLIW (Very Long Instruction Word). Such designs are usually dedicated to a particular application and not commonly marketed for general - purpose computing. The Fujitsu FR - V VLIW / vector processor combines both technologies. Vector processing development began in the early 1960s at Westinghouse in their "Solomon '' project. Solomon 's goal was to dramatically increase math performance by using a large number of simple math co-processors under the control of a single master CPU. The CPU fed a single common instruction to all of the arithmetic logic units (ALUs), one per cycle, but with a different data point for each one to work on. This allowed the Solomon machine to apply a single algorithm to a large data set, fed in the form of an array. In 1962, Westinghouse cancelled the project, but the effort was restarted at the University of Illinois as the ILLIAC IV. Their version of the design originally called for a 1 GFLOPS machine with 256 ALUs, but, when it was finally delivered in 1972, it had only 64 ALUs and could reach only 100 to 150 MFLOPS. Nevertheless, it showed that the basic concept was sound, and, when used on data - intensive applications, such as computational fluid dynamics, the ILLIAC was the fastest machine in the world. The ILLIAC approach of using separate ALUs for each data element is not common to later designs, and is often referred to under a separate category, massively parallel computing. A computer for operations with functions was presented and developed by Kartsev in 1967. The first successful implementation of vector processing appears to be the Control Data Corporation STAR - 100 and the Texas Instruments Advanced Scientific Computer (ASC). The basic ASC (i.e., "one pipe '') ALU used a pipeline architecture that supported both scalar and vector computations, with peak performance reaching approximately 20 MFLOPS, readily achieved when processing long vectors. Expanded ALU configurations supported "two pipes '' or "four pipes '' with a corresponding 2X or 4X performance gain. Memory bandwidth was sufficient to support these expanded modes. The STAR was otherwise slower than CDC 's own supercomputers like the CDC 7600, but at data related tasks they could keep up while being much smaller and less expensive. However the machine also took considerable time decoding the vector instructions and getting ready to run the process, so it required very specific data sets to work on before it actually sped anything up. The vector technique was first fully exploited in 1976 by the famous Cray - 1. Instead of leaving the data in memory like the STAR and ASC, the Cray design had eight vector registers, which held sixty - four 64 - bit words each. The vector instructions were applied between registers, which is much faster than talking to main memory. The Cray design used pipeline parallelism to implement vector instructions rather than multiple ALUs. In addition the design had completely separate pipelines for different instructions, for example, addition / subtraction was implemented in different hardware than multiplication. This allowed a batch of vector instructions themselves to be pipelined, a technique they called vector chaining. The Cray - 1 normally had a performance of about 80 MFLOPS, but with up to three chains running it could peak at 240 MFLOPS -- far faster than any machine of the era. Other examples followed. Control Data Corporation tried to re-enter the high - end market again with its ETA - 10 machine, but it sold poorly and they took that as an opportunity to leave the supercomputing field entirely. In the early and mid-1980s Japanese companies (Fujitsu, Hitachi and Nippon Electric Corporation (NEC) introduced register - based vector machines similar to the Cray - 1, typically being slightly faster and much smaller. Oregon - based Floating Point Systems (FPS) built add - on array processors for minicomputers, later building their own minisupercomputers. Throughout, Cray continued to be the performance leader, continually beating the competition with a series of machines that led to the Cray - 2, Cray X-MP and Cray Y - MP. Since then, the supercomputer market has focused much more on massively parallel processing rather than better implementations of vector processors. However, recognising the benefits of vector processing IBM developed Virtual Vector Architecture for use in supercomputers coupling several scalar processors to act as a vector processor. Vector processing techniques have since been added to almost all modern CPU designs, although they are typically referred to as SIMD (differing in that a single instruction always drives a single operation across a vector register, as opposed to the more flexible latency hiding approach in true vector processors). In these implementations, the vector unit runs beside the main scalar CPU, providing a separate set of vector registers, and is fed data from vector instruction aware programs. Modern GPUs include an array of shader pipelines which may be driven by compute kernels, which can be considered vector processors (using a similar strategy for hiding memory latencies). In general terms, CPUs are able to manipulate one or two pieces of data at a time. For instance, most CPUs have an instruction that essentially says "add A to B and put the result in C ''. The data for A, B and C could be -- in theory at least -- encoded directly into the instruction. However, in efficient implementation things are rarely that simple. The data is rarely sent in raw form, and is instead "pointed to '' by passing in an address to a memory location that holds the data. Decoding this address and getting the data out of the memory takes some time, during which the CPU traditionally would sit idle waiting for the requested data to show up. As CPU speeds have increased, this memory latency has historically become a large impediment to performance; see Memory wall. In order to reduce the amount of time consumed by these steps, most modern CPUs use a technique known as instruction pipelining in which the instructions pass through several sub-units in turn. The first sub-unit reads the address and decodes it, the next "fetches '' the values at those addresses, and the next does the math itself. With pipelining the "trick '' is to start decoding the next instruction even before the first has left the CPU, in the fashion of an assembly line, so the address decoder is constantly in use. Any particular instruction takes the same amount of time to complete, a time known as the latency, but the CPU can process an entire batch of operations much faster and more efficiently than if it did so one at a time. Vector processors take this concept one step further. Instead of pipelining just the instructions, they also pipeline the data itself. The processor is fed instructions that say not just to add A to B, but to add all of the numbers "from here to here '' to all of the numbers "from there to there ''. Instead of constantly having to decode instructions and then fetch the data needed to complete them, the processor reads a single instruction from memory, and it is simply implied in the definition of the instruction itself that the instruction will operate again on another item of data, at an address one increment larger than the last. This allows for significant savings in decoding time. To illustrate what a difference this can make, consider the simple task of adding two groups of 10 numbers together. In a normal programming language one would write a "loop '' that picked up each of the pairs of numbers in turn, and then added them. To the CPU, this would look something like this: But to a vector processor, this task looks considerably different: There are several savings inherent in this approach. For one, only two address translations are needed. Depending on the architecture, this can represent a significant savings by itself. Another saving is fetching and decoding the instruction itself, which has to be done only one time instead of ten. The code itself is also smaller, which can lead to more efficient memory use. But more than that, a vector processor may have multiple functional units adding those numbers in parallel. The checking of dependencies between those numbers is not required as a vector instruction specifies multiple independent operations. This simplifies the control logic required, and can improve performance by avoiding stalls. As mentioned earlier, the Cray implementations took this a step further, allowing several different types of operations to be carried out at the same time. Consider code that adds two numbers and then multiplies by a third; in the Cray, these would all be fetched at once, and both added and multiplied in a single operation. Using the pseudocode above, the Cray did: The math operations thus completed far faster overall, the limiting factor being the time required to fetch the data from memory. Not all problems can be attacked with this sort of solution. Including these types of instructions necessarily adds complexity to the core CPU. That complexity typically makes other instructions run slower -- i.e., whenever it is not adding up many numbers in a row. The more complex instructions also add to the complexity of the decoders, which might slow down the decoding of the more common instructions such as normal adding. In fact, vector processors work best only when there are large amounts of data to be worked on. For this reason, these sorts of CPUs were found primarily in supercomputers, as the supercomputers themselves were, in general, found in places such as weather prediction centers and physics labs, where huge amounts of data are "crunched ''. Let r be the vector speed ratio and f be the vectorization ratio. If the time taken for the vector unit to add an array of 64 numbers is 10 times faster than its equivalent scalar counterpart, r = 10. Also, if the total number of operations in a program is 100, out of which only 10 are scalar (after vectorization), then f = 0.9, i.e., 90 % of the work is done by the vector unit. It follows the achievable speed up of: r / ((1 − f) ∗ r + f) (\ displaystyle r / ((1 - f) * r + f)) So, even if the performance of the vector unit is very high (r = ∞ (\ displaystyle r = \ infty)) we get a speedup less than 1 / (1 − f) (\ displaystyle 1 / (1 - f)), which suggests that the ratio f is crucial to the performance. This ratio depends on the efficiency of the compilation like adjacency of the elements in memory. Shown below is an actual x86 architecture example for vector instruction usage with the SSE instruction set. The example multiplies two arrays of single precision floating point numbers. It 's written in the C language with inline assembly code parts for compilation with GCC (32bit). Various machines were designed to include both traditional processors and vector processors, such as the Fujitsu AP1000 and AP3000. Programming such heterogeneous machines can be difficult since developing programs that make best use of characteristics of different processors increases the programmer 's burden. It increases code complexity and decreases portability of the code by requiring hardware specific code to be interleaved throughout application code. Balancing the application workload across processors can be problematic, especially given that they typically have different performance characteristics. There are different conceptual models to deal with the problem, for example using a coordination language and program building blocks (programming libraries or higher order functions). Each block can have a different native implementation for each processor type. Users simply program using these abstractions and an intelligent compiler chooses the best implementation based on the context.

how many episodes of hooten and the lady

Hooten & the Lady - wikipedia Hooten & the Lady is a British television series that follows the story of two treasure hunter partners, British Museum curator Lady Alexandra (Ophelia Lovibond) who teams up with hugely charismatic, roguish American adventurer Hooten (Michael Landes) in a series of global treasure - hunting escapades. It premiered on Sky 1 on 16 September 2016, and aired through 4 November 2016. The series premiered on The CW in the United States on 13 July 2017. It was cancelled by Sky 1 after one season in August 2017. Travelling across the world together, these two initially unwilling partners search for the world 's greatest mysteries. From the Amazon rainforest for Percy Fawcett 's long - lost camp, to hunting across Siberia for the 51st Faberge egg, the two explore the world of the mythical and legendary. They travel from the snowy Himalayan Mountains in an attempt to track down the only scroll written by Buddha, to the catacombs of Rome to find the Libri Sibyllini, and to Alexandria on the hunt for Alexander the Great 's lost tomb. A continuing storyline is of Alex 's mother, also Lady Lindo - Parker, attempts to organise her daughter 's wedding to her fiancé Edward. Hooten and the Lady was well received by critics. Sam Wollaston of The Guardian compared the show to Indiana Jones. Louisa Mellor described the show as being "a great deal of fun '' and "enjoyably retro ''. The CW aired the series in summer 2017. Season 1

who commanded the army invasion of africa and italy

Allied invasion of Italy - wikipedia Invasion of Italy Winter Line Mediterranean Gothic Line 1945 Spring Offensive The Allied invasion of Italy was the Allied amphibious landing on mainland Italy that took place on 3 September 1943 during the early stages of the Italian Campaign of World War II. The operation was undertaken by General Sir Harold Alexander 's 15th Army Group (comprising General Mark W. Clark 's Fifth Army and General Bernard Montgomery 's British Eighth Army) and followed the successful invasion of Sicily. The main invasion force landed around Salerno on 9 September on the western coast in Operation Avalanche, while two supporting operations took place in Calabria (Operation Baytown) and Taranto (Operation Slapstick). Following the defeat of the Axis Powers in North Africa in May 1943, there was disagreement between the Allies as to what the next step should be. The British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, in particular wanted to invade Italy, which in November 1942 he called "the soft underbelly of the axis '' (and General Mark W. Clark, in contrast, later called "one tough gut ''). Popular support in Italy for the war was declining, and he believed an invasion would remove Italy, and thus the influence of Axis forces in the Mediterranean Sea, opening it to Allied traffic. This would reduce the amount of shipping capacity needed to supply Allied forces in the Middle East and Far East at a time when the disposal of Allied shipping capacity was in crisis and increase British and American supplies to the Soviet Union. In addition, it would tie down German forces. Joseph Stalin, the Premier of the Soviet Union, had been pressing Churchill and Roosevelt to open a "second front '' in Europe, which would lessen the German Army 's focus on the Eastern Front, where the bulk of its forces were fighting in the largest armed conflict in history against the Soviet Red Army. However the U.S. Army Chief of Staff, General George Marshall, and much of the American staff wanted to avoid operations that might delay an invasion of Europe, discussed and planned as early as 1942, which finally materialized as Operation Overlord in 1944. When it became clear that no cross-channel invasion of occupied France could be undertaken in 1943, it was agreed to invade Sicily, with no commitment made to any follow - up operations. However, both Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt, the U.S. President, accepted the necessity of Allied armies continuing to engage the Axis in the period after a successful campaign in Sicily and before the start of one in northwest Europe. The discussion continued through the Trident Conference in Washington in May but it was not until late July, after the course of the Sicilian campaign had become clear and with the fall of Benito Mussolini, the Italian Prime Minister and fascist leader, that the Joint Chiefs of Staff instructed General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations (MTO), to go ahead at the earliest possible date. Joint Allied Forces Headquarters (AFHQ) were operationally responsible for all Allied land forces in the Mediterranean theatre, and it was they who planned and commanded the invasion of Sicily and the Italian mainland. The Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943, codenamed Operation Husky, was highly successful, although many of the Axis forces managed to avoid capture and escape to the mainland. The Axis viewed this as a success. More importantly, in late July, a coup deposed Mussolini as head of the Italian government, which then began approaching the Allies to make peace. It was believed a quick invasion of Italy might hasten an Italian surrender and produce quick military victories over the German troops that could be trapped fighting in a hostile country. However, Italian (and more so German) resistance proved relatively strong, and fighting in Italy continued even after the fall of Berlin in April 1945. In addition, the invasion left the Allies in a position of supplying food and supplies to conquered territory, a burden which would otherwise have fallen on Germany. As well, Italy occupied by a hostile German army would have created additional problems for the German Commander - in - Chief (C - in - C), Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring. Prior to Sicily, Allied plans envisioned crossing the Strait of Messina, a limited invasion in the "instep '' area (Taranto), and advancing up the toe of Italy, anticipating a defense by both German and Italian forces. The overthrowing of Mussolini and the Fascisti made a more ambitious plan feasible, and the Allies decided to supplement the crossing of the British Eighth Army, under General Bernard Montgomery, with a seizure of the port of Naples. Although the Americans favored Napoleon 's maxim that Italy, like a boot, should be entered from the top, the range limits of Allied fighter planes based in Sicily reduced Allied choices to two landing areas: one at the Volturno River basin and the other at Salerno. Salerno was chosen because it was closer to air bases, experienced better surf conditions for landing, allowed transport ships to anchor closer to the beaches, had narrower beaches for the rapid construction of exit roads, and had an excellent pre-existing road network behind the beaches. Operation Baytown was the preliminary step in the plan in which the British Eighth Army would depart from the port of Messina on Sicily, to cross the Straits of Messina and land near the tip of Calabria (the "toe '' of Italy), on 3 September 1943. The short distance from Sicily meant landing craft could launch from there directly, rather than be carried by ship. The British 5th Infantry Division (Major - General Gerard Bucknall) of XIII Corps, under Lieutenant - General Miles Dempsey, would land on the north side of the "toe '' while its 1st Canadian Infantry Division (Major - General Guy Simonds) would land at Cape Spartivento on the south side. Montgomery was strongly opposed to Operation Baytown. He predicted it would be a waste of effort since it assumed the Germans would give battle in Calabria; if they failed to do so, the diversion would not work, and the only effect of the operation would be to place the Eighth Army 300 miles (480 km) south of the main landing at Salerno. He was proved correct; after Operation Baytown the British Eighth Army marched 300 miles north to the Salerno area against no opposition other than engineering obstacles. Plans for the use of Allied airborne forces took several forms, all of which were cancelled. The initial plan to land glider - borne troops in the mountain passes of the Sorrento Peninsula above Salerno was abandoned 12 August. Six days later it was replaced by Operation Giant, in which two regiments of the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division (Matthew Ridgway) would seize and hold crossings over the Volturno River. This was at first expanded to include the entire division, including an amphibious landing by the 325th Glider Infantry Regiment, then deemed logistically unsupportable and reduced to a two - battalion drop at Capua to block the highway there. The Italian surrender on 3 September cancelled Operation Giant I and replaced it with Operation Giant II, a drop of the 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment on Stazione di Furbara and Cerveteri airfields, 25 miles (40 km) northwest of Rome, to aid Italian forces in saving Rome, possibly the most historically important city in the world, from German razing, a condition of the Italian armistice. Because the distance from the Allied beachheads precluded any substantial Allied support of the airborne troops, Brigadier General Maxwell D. Taylor, the acting assistant division commander (ADC) of the 82nd Airborne Division, was spirited into Rome to assess the willingness of Italian troops to cooperate with the Americans. Taylor 's judgment was that the operation would be a trap and he advised cancellation, which occurred late on the afternoon of 8 September after pathfinders had already taken off aboard their troop carrier aircraft. The main landings (Operation Avalanche) were scheduled to take place on 9 September, during which the main force would land around Salerno on the western coast. It would consist of the U.S. Fifth Army, under Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, comprising the U.S. VI Corps under Major General Ernest J. Dawley, the British X Corps under Lieutenant - General Richard McCreery, with the 82nd Airborne Division in reserve, a total of eight divisions and two brigade - sized units. Its primary objectives were to seize the port of Naples to ensure resupply, and to cut across to the east coast, trapping Axis troops further south. The naval task force of warships, merchant ships and landing craft totaling 627 vessels came under the command of Vice Admiral Henry K. Hewitt. Following the disappointing air cover from land - based aircraft during the Sicily landings, Force V of HMS Unicorn and four escort carriers augmented the cruisers USS Philadelphia, Savannah, Boise, and fourteen destroyers of Hewitt 's command. Cover for the task force was provided by Force H, a group of four British battleships and two fleet carriers with destroyers in support, which was directly subordinate to the C -- in -- C Mediterranean Admiral of the Fleet Sir Andrew Cunningham. In the original planning, the great attraction of capturing the important port of Taranto in the "heel '' of Italy had been evident and an assault had been considered but rejected because of the very strong defenses there. However, with the signing of the armistice with the Italians on 3 September the picture changed. It was decided to carry the British 1st Airborne Division (Major - General George F. Hopkinson) to Taranto using British warships, seize the port and several nearby airfields and follow up by shipping in Lieutenant - General Charles Allfrey 's British V Corps and a number of fighter squadrons. The airborne division, which was undergoing training exercises in two locations 640 kilometres (400 mi) apart, was ordered on 4 September to embark on 8 September. With such short notice to create plans, Operation Slapstick was soon nicknamed Operation Bedlam. The Avalanche plan using less than half the troops landed during Operation Husky was daring, considering possible resistance by six German divisions. The Fifth Army would be landing on a very broad 56 km (35 mi) front, using only three assault divisions (one American, the 36th, under Major General Fred L. Walker, in VI Corps, and two British, the 46th, under Major - General John Hawkesworth, and 56th, under Major - General Douglas Graham, in X Corps), and the two corps were widely separated, both in distance (19 km (12 mi)) and by the Sele River. Clark initially provided no troops to cover the river, offering the Germans an easy route to attack, and only belatedly landed two battalions to protect it. Furthermore, the terrain was highly favorable to the defender. Planning for the Salerno phase was accomplished in only forty - five days, rather than the months that might be expected. A U.S. Army Ranger force, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel William O. Darby, consisting of three U.S. Ranger battalions (the 1st, 3rd and 4th) and two British Commando units, under Brigadier Robert Laycock (consisting of No. 2 (Army) Commando and No. 41 (Royal Marine) Commando) was tasked with holding the mountain passes leading to Naples, but no plan existed for linking the Ranger force up with X Corps ' follow - up units. Finally, although tactical surprise was unlikely, Clark ordered no naval preparatory bombardment or naval gunfire support take place, despite experience in the Pacific Theater demonstrating it was necessary. (Major General Walker, commanding the U.S. 36th "Arrowhead '' Division, believed the defenders, from Traugott Herr 's LXXVI Panzer Corps, were too scattered for it to be effective.) The element of surprise was further limited by belated discovery of naval minefields off Salerno requiring landing craft to spend two hours traveling 19 km (12 mi) from the transports to the landing beaches. On the German side, Albrecht von Kesselring lacked the strength to push the Salerno landing back, and was refused two panzer divisions from northern Italy to assist him. Operation Avalanche was planned under the name Top Hat and supported by a deception plan, Operation Boardman, a false threat of an Allied invasion of the Balkans. In mid-August, the Germans had activated Army Group B (Heeresgruppe B) under Erwin Rommel with responsibility for German troops in Italy as far south as Pisa. Army Command South (OB Süd) under Albert Kesselring continued to be responsible for southern Italy and the German High Command formed a new army headquarters to be Army Command South 's main field formation. The new German 10th Army (10. Armee) headquarters, commanded by Heinrich von Vietinghoff, was activated on 22 August. The German 10th Army had two subordinate corps with a total of six divisions which were positioned to cover possible landing sites. Under Hermann Balck 's XIV Panzer Corps (XIV Panzerkorps) was the Hermann Göring Panzer Division (Fallschirm - Panzer Division 1 Hermann Göring, under Wilhelm Schmalz), 15th Panzergrenadier Division (15. Panzergrenadier - Division, Eberhard Rodt) and 16th Panzer Division (16. Panzer - Division, Rudolf Sieckenius); and under Traugott Herr 's LXXVI Panzer Corps (LXXVI Panzerkorps) was 26th Panzer Division (26. Panzer - Division, Heinrich Freiherr von Luttwitz), 29th Panzergrenadier Division (29. Panzergrenadier - Division, Walter Fries) and 1st Parachute Division (1. Fallschirmjäger - Division, Fritz - Hubert Graser). Von Vietinghoff specifically positioned the 16th Panzer Division in the hills above the Salerno plain. On 3 September 1943, the British Eighth Army 's XIII Corps, commanded by Lieutenant - General Miles Dempsey and composed of the 1st Canadian and British 5th Infantry Divisions, launched Operation Baytown under General Bernard Montgomery 's direction. Opposition to the landings was light and the Italian units surrendered almost immediately. Albert Kesselring and his staff did not believe the Calabria landings would be the main Allied point of attack, the Salerno region or possibly even north of Rome being more logical. He had already therefore ordered General Traugott Herr 's LXXVI Panzer Corps to pull back from engagement with the Eighth Army, leaving only 29th Panzergrenadier Division 's 15th Panzergrenadier Regiment in the ' toe ' of Italy. By 3 September, most of this unit was in prepared positions at Bagnara, some 40 km (25 mi) from the landings which it had orders to hold until 6 September. After this they were to withdraw to join the rest of 29th Panzergrenadier Division which was concentrating at Castrovillari, some 130 km (80 mi) to the rear. The Krüger Battle Group (two battalions of 71st Panzergrenadier Regiment, 129th Reconnaissance Battalion and detachments of artillery and engineers) under 26th Panzer Division, would then stand at Nicotera, roughly 24 km (15 mi) up the coast from Bagnara. On 4 September, the British 5th Infantry Division reached Bagnara Calabra, linked up with 1st Special Reconnaissance Squadron (which arrived by sea) and drove the 3rd Battalion, 15th Panzergrenadier Regiment from its position. On 7 September, contact was made with the Krüger Battle Group. On 8 September, the 231st Independent Brigade Group, under Brigadier Robert "Roy '' Urquhart, was landed by sea at Pizzo Calabro, some 24 km (15 mi) behind the Nicotera defenses. They found themselves attacked from the north by a mobile force from 26th Panzer Division and from the south by the Krüger Battle Group which was withdrawing from the Nicotera position. After an initial attack which made no headway, the Krüger Battle Group veered away but the northern attack continued throughout the day before the whole German force withdrew at dusk. Progress was slow as demolished bridges, roadblocks and mines delayed the Eighth Army. The nature of the countryside in the toe of Italy made it impossible to by - pass obstacles and so the Allies ' speed of advance was entirely dependent on the rate at which their engineers could clear obstructions. Thus, Montgomery 's objections to the operation were proved correct: the Eighth Army could not tie down German units that refused battle and the main obstacle to their advance was the terrain and German demolitions of roads and bridges. By 8 September, Kesselring had concentrated Heinrich von Vietinghoff 's 10th Army, ready to make a rapid response to any Allied landing. In Calabria, Herr 's LXXVI Panzer Corps had two divisions concentrated in the Castrovillari area. Its third division, 1st Parachute Division (1. Fallschirmjäger - Division), was deployed toward Taranto. The rearguard in the toe was BattleGroup von Usedom, comprising a single battalion (1 / 67th Panzergrenadier Regiment) with detachments of artillery and engineers. Meanwhile, Hube 's XIV Panzer Corps was positioned to face possible landings from the sea with 16th Panzer Division in the Gulf of Salerno, the Hermann Göring Division near Naples and the 15th Panzergrenadier Division to the north in the Gulf of Gaeta. On 8 September (before the main invasion), the surrender of Italy to the Allies was announced, first by General Eisenhower, then in the Badoglio Proclamation by the Italian government. Italian units ceased combat and the Navy sailed to Allied ports to surrender. The German forces in Italy were prepared for this and implemented Operation Achse to disarm Italian units and occupy important defensive positions. Operation Slapstick commenced on 9 September. The first echelon of the British 1st Airborne Division arrived on four British cruisers, a U.S. cruiser, and the British fast minelayer HMS Abdiel. The Italian battleships Andrea Doria and Caio Duilio with two cruisers passed by, en route to surrender in Malta. There were no Germans in Taranto and so disembarkation was unopposed. The only casualties occurred when Abdiel, at anchor, struck a mine and sank in minutes, with 168 killed and 126 injured. On 11 September, as patrols were sent further afield, there were some sharp encounters with elements of the German 1st Parachute Division. But 1st Parachute could do little but skirmish and fall back because most of its strength was attached to the 26th Panzer and Herman Göring Divisions at Salerno. Major - General George Frederick Hopkinson, General Officer Commanding (GOC) of the British 1st Airborne Division, was mortally wounded in one of these actions. By 11 September the ports of Bari and Brindisi, still under Italian control, were occupied. Operation Avalanche -- the main invasion at Salerno by the American Fifth Army under Lieutenant General Mark Clark -- began on 9 September 1943, and in order to secure surprise, it was decided to assault without preliminary naval or aerial bombardment. However, as Admiral Henry Hewitt, the amphibious force commander, had predicted, tactical surprise was not achieved. As the first wave of Major General Fred Walker 's U.S. 36th Infantry Division approached the Paestum shore at 03: 30 a loudspeaker from the landing area proclaimed in English: "Come on in and give up. We have you covered. '' The Allied troops attacked nonetheless. Major General Rudolf Sieckenius, commander of the 16th Panzer Division had organised his forces into four mixed arms battle groups which he had placed roughly 10 km (6 mi) apart and between 5 and 10 km (3 and 6 mi) back from the beaches. The Dőrnemann group was just east of Salerno (and therefore were opposite Major General John Hawkesworth 's British 46th Infantry Division when it landed), the Stempel battle group was between Pontecagnano and Battipaglia (and so faced Major General Douglas Graham 's British 56th Infantry Division), the Holtey battle group was in a reserve role at Persano on the Sele river which formed the corps boundary between Lieutenant General Richard McCreery 's British X Corps and Major General Ernest Dawley 's U.S. VI Corps, while the von Doering battle group responsible for the Albanella to Rutino sector was 6 km (4 mi) south - east of Ogliastro, somewhat south of the U.S. 36th Division 's beaches. The British X Corps, composed of the British 46th and 56th Infantry Divisions and a light infantry force of U.S. Army Rangers and British Commandos of Brigadier Robert "Lucky '' Laycock 's 2nd Special Service Brigade, experienced mixed reactions to its landings. The U.S. Rangers met no opposition and with support from the guns of HMS Ledbury seized their mountain pass objectives while the Commandos, from No. 2 (Army) Commando and No. 41 (Royal Marine) Commando, were also unopposed and secured the high ground on each side of the road through Molina Pass on the main route from Salerno to Naples. At first light units of No. 2 Commando moved towards Salerno and pushed back a small force of tanks and armoured cars from the 16th Panzer Reconnaissance Battalion. The British Commandos captured the town of Salerno after some serious fighting that cost 40 (Royal Marine) Commando and 41 Commando nine killed and thirty - seven wounded. The two British infantry divisions, however, met determined resistance and had to fight their way ashore with the help of naval bombardments. The depth and intensity of German resistance forced British commanders to concentrate their forces, rather than driving for a linkup with the Americans to the south. At Paestum, the two lead battalions of the 36th (Texas) Division (from the 141st and 142nd Infantry Regiments) received stiff resistance from two companies of the von Doering group. German observers on Monte Soprano directed fire onto the landing craft. LST 336 took 18 hits, and some LCTs and DUKWs sheered away to avoid German shellfire. The division had not been in combat before and as a result of the Italian surrender, there was a general belief amongst the soldiers that the landings would be routine. The 141st Infantry lost cohesion and failed to gain any depth during the day which made the landing of supporting arms and stores impossible, leaving them without artillery and anti-tank guns. However, the 142nd Infantry fared better and with the support of the 143rd Infantry, the reserve formation which had landed by 08: 00, were able to push forward. Minesweepers cleared an inshore channel shortly after 09: 00; so by late morning destroyers could steam within 91 m (100 yd) of the shoreline to shell German positions on Monte Soprano. USS Philadelphia and Savannah focused their 15 cm (6 in) guns on concentrations of German tanks, beginning a barrage of naval shells which would total eleven - thousand tons before the Salerno beachhead was secured. By the end of the first day the Fifth Army, although it had not gained all its objectives, had made a promising start: the British X Corps ' two assault divisions had pushed between 8 and 11 km (5 and 7 mi) inland and the special forces had advanced north across the Sorrento Peninsula and were looking down on the Plain of Naples. To the south, the U.S. 36th Division had established itself in the plain to the right of the Sele river and the higher ground to a depth of 8 km (5 mi), although the 141st Infantry was still stuck near the beach. However, the XIV Panzer Corps commander, Hermann Balck, had seen the 16th Panzer Division 's battle groups perform as intended and he had ordered both the Hermann Göring Division south to the battle and later in the day had been able to order 15th Panzergrenadier likewise. Meanwhile, to the south, the 29th Panzergrenadier Division from LXXVI Panzer Corps had also been directed to Salerno. Neither side had gained the initiative. Luftwaffe planes began strafing and bombing the invasion beaches shortly after 04: 00 on the morning of 9 September before X Corps seized the Montecorvino airfield 5 km (3 mi) inland later that day destroying three dozen German planes; but failure to capture the high ground inland left the airfield within easy range of German artillery and therefore unusable by Allied aircraft. On 10 September German bombers began targeting Admiral Hewitt 's flagship USS Ancon while the ship was serving as General Clark 's headquarters. The flagship called thirty "red alerts '' over a period of 36 hours in response to 450 Luftwaffe sorties. Admiral Hewitt reported: "Air situation here critical. '' The aircraft carriers had intended to withdraw on 10 September, but remained with the invasion shipping so their Supermarine Seafires could provide the air cover invasion planners had expected to operate from Montecorvino. Eighty - five Allied vessels were hit by German bombs off Salerno. Fritz X glide bombs dropped by Dornier Do 217s disabled USS Savannah and narrowly missed USS Philadelphia on the morning of 11 September. The following morning Clark moved his headquarters ashore, and Hewitt transferred with his staff to the small amphibious force flagship USS Biscayne so the large Ancon with its conspicuous antenna array could retire to North Africa. The Allies fought to expand their beachhead for three days while the Germans defended stubbornly to mask the build - up of their reinforcements for a counter-offensive. On 10 September, Clark visited the battlefield and judged that it was unlikely that X Corps would be able to push quickly east past Battipaglia to link with VI Corps. Since X Corps ' main line of thrust was to be north towards Naples, he decided to move the VI Corps left hand boundary north of the Sele river and move the bulk of Major General Troy Middleton 's U.S. 45th Division into the gap. In view of the enemy reinforcements approaching from the north he also ordered a battalion - sized mixed arms group to reinforce the Rangers the next day. Over the same period, German reinforcements filtered into the battlefield. Units, short of transport and subjected to other delays, arrived piecemeal and were formed into ad - hoc battle groups for immediate action. By 13 September, all the immediately available reinforcements had arrived including additional elements from the 3rd Panzergrenadier Division which had been released by Generalfeldmarschall Kesselring from further north near Rome. By contrast, the Allied build - up was constrained by the limited transport available for the operation and the pre-determined schedule of the build - up based on how, during the planning phase, it had been anticipated the battle would develop. By 12 September, it had become clear that the Fifth Army had an acute shortage of infantry on the ground. On 12 September, General Sir Harold Alexander, the 15th Army Group commander, reported to General Sir Alan Brooke, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS), in London: "I am not satisfied with the situation at Avalanche. The build - up is slow and they are pinned down to a bridgehead which has not enough depth. Everything is being done to push follow - up units and material to them. I expect heavy German counter-attack to be imminent. '' By 12 September, X Corps had taken a defensive posture because every battalion was committed and there were no reserves available to form an attack. In the south, the 36th Division made some progress but towards midday a counterattack by elements of the 29th Panzergrenadier Division overran the 1st Battalion, 142nd Infantry Regiment. On 13 September, the Germans launched their counteroffensive. While the Herman Göring battle groups attacked the northern flank of the beachhead, the main attack was on the boundary between the two Allied Corps which ran roughly from Battipaglia to the sea, with the greatest weight due to fall on the VI Corps side On the morning of 13 September elements of Major General Walker 's 36th Division attacked and captured Altavilla in the high ground some 14 km (9 mi) behind Paestum but a counterattack forced them to withdraw as darkness fell. During the afternoon, two German battlegroups, the Kleine Limburg and the Krüger had attacked Persano and overrun the 1st Battalion, 157th Infantry before crossing the Sele to engage the 2nd Battalion of the 143rd Infantry and virtually wipe it out. The battle groups continued their strike south and south - west until reaching the confluence of the Sele and its large tributary the Calore, where it was stopped by artillery firing over open sights, naval gunfire and a makeshift infantry position manned by artillerymen, drivers, cooks and clerks and anyone else that Major General Walker could scrape together. Clark 's staff formulated various evacuation plans: Operation Brass Rail envisioned Clark and his 5th Army headquarters staff leaving the beachhead to establish headquarters afloat aboard HMS Hilary. Operation Sealion envisioned shifting British X Corps to Paestum with VI Corps, while the alternative Operation Seatrain envisioned shifting VI Corps to the X Corps sector. The navy protested that reversing the landing process would be impossible, since loading beached landing craft would make them heavier and unable to withdraw from the beach. Advice from superiors and subordinates convinced Clark to continue fighting, and he later denied seriously considering evacuation. The U.S. VI Corps had by this time lost the best part of three battalions and so the forward units of both its divisions were withdrawn to reduce the length of the defensive line. The 45th Division consolidated at the Sele - Calore position while the 36th Division was on the high ground on the seaward side of the La Caso stream (which flowed into the Calore). The new perimeter was held with the assistance of Major General Matthew Ridgway 's 82nd Airborne Division. Two battalions (roughly 1,300 paratroopers) of Colonel Reuben Tucker 's 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment (PIR), after the cancellation of Giant II, had been assigned to execute the final version of Operation Giant I at Capua on the evening of 13 September. Instead they jumped inside the beachhead, guided by Rebecca / Eureka beacons and moved immediately into the line on the right of VI Corps. The next night, with the crisis passed, 2,100 paratroops of Colonel James Gavin 's 505th PIR also parachuted into the beachhead and reinforced the two battalions of the 504th. A clear sign of the crisis passing was that when, on the afternoon of 14 September, the final unit of 45th Division, the 180th Infantry Regiment, landed and Clark was able to place it in reserve rather than in the line. The 325th Glider Infantry Regiment, reinforced by the 3rd Battalion, 504th PIR, landed by sea on 15 September. A night drop of 600 paratroops of the 509th Parachute Infantry Battalion to disrupt German movements behind the lines in the vicinity of Avellino was widely dispersed and failed, incurring significant casualties. In the X Corps sector the lead elements of Major General George Erskine 's British 7th Armoured Division began to land, along with the 23rd Armoured Brigade. With strong naval gunfire support from the Royal Navy and well - served by Fifth Army 's artillery, the reinforced and reorganized infantry units defeated all German attempts on 14 September to find a weak spot in the lines. German losses, particularly in tanks, were severe. In addition, on 14 September and the following night Tedder ordered every available aircraft to support the Fifth Army, including the strategic bomber force. Over 1,000 tons of bombs were dropped during the daylight hours of that day. On 15 September both the 16th Panzer and 29th Panzergrenadier Divisions went on the defensive, thus marking the end to the thrust towards Paestum. Further north the Schmalz group of the Hermann Göering Division achieved surprise, attacking the 128th (Hampshire) Brigade (comprising three battalions, the 2nd, 1 / 4th and 5th, of the Hampshire Regiment), of the British 46th Division, on the high ground east of Salerno. The armoured column following up was intercepted and driven back leaving the German infantry exposed. The Allied bomber effort continued on 15 September, although slightly less intense than the previous day, as did the naval bombardment. The arrival of the British battleships HMS Warspite and Valiant, with 38 cm (15 in) guns off the beaches provided the Allied troops with a morale boost, although Valiant was not required to shoot and Warspite 's 29 rounds fired were awe - inspiring but a minor contribution to the 2,592 naval rounds fired in total that day. On 15 September, Kesselring reported to the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht that the Allied air and naval superiority had forced LXXVI Panzer Corps onto the defensive and that a decisive success would depend on the current attack by XIV Panzer Corps. If this failed, the 10th Army must break off the battle to avoid being ' mangled '. On 16 September, the Schmalz group renewed its efforts on the X Corps front but with no more success, although No. 2 Commando suffered casualties, including 31 - year - old Captain Henry Wellesley, the then - Duke of Wellington, who was killed. The air force and navy continued to batter enemy targets, although during an air raid by Dornier Do 217 K - 2 bombers armed with Fritz X radio - controlled glide bombs, Warspite was hit and disabled which required her to be towed to Malta for repair. On 9 September, Montgomery 's formations had been strung out along the coastal roads in the ' toe ' of Italy. The build - up across the Straits of Messina had proved slow and he was therefore short of transport. On 9 September, he decided to halt his formations in order to reorganise before pushing on but General Alexander replied on 10 September that "It is of the utmost importance that you maintain pressure upon the Germans so that they can not remove forces from your front and concentrate them against Avalanche ''. This message was further reinforced on 12 September by a personal visit from Alexander 's Chief of Staff, Brigadier A.A. Richardson. Montgomery had no choice and while reorganising the main body of his troops sent light forces up the coast which reached Castrovillari and Belvedere on 12 September, still some 130 km (80 mi) from the Salerno battlefield. On 14 September, he was in a position to start a more general advance, and by 16 September the British 5th Infantry Division had reached Sapri, 40 km (25 mi) beyond Belvedere, where forward patrols made contact with patrols from VI Corps ' 36th Division. On 16 September, von Vietinghoff reported to Kesselring that the Allied air and naval superiority were decisive and that he had not the power to neutralize this. 10th Army had succeeded in preventing troops being cut off, and continuing the battle would just invite heavy losses. The approach of the Eighth Army was also now posing a threat. He recommended to break off the battle, pivoting on Salerno to form a defensive line, preparatory to commencing withdrawal on 18 / 19 September. Kesselring 's agreement reached von Vietinghoff early on 17 September. The Salerno battle was also the site of the Salerno Mutiny instigated by about 500 men of the British X Corps, which had by this time suffered over 6,000 casualties, who, on 16 September, refused assignment to new units as battle casualty replacements. They had previously understood that they would be returning to their own units from which they had been separated during the fighting in the North African Campaign, mainly because they had been wounded. Eventually the corps commander, Lieutenant - General Richard McCreery, persuaded about half of the men to follow their orders. The remainder were court - martialled. Three NCOs who led the mutiny were sentenced to death but the sentence was not carried out and they were eventually allowed to rejoin units. With the Salerno beachhead secure, the Fifth Army began its attack northwest towards Naples on 19 September. The day afterwards, Major General Ernest J. Dawley, the U.S. VI Corps commander, was relieved of his command by Clark and replaced by Major General John P. Lucas. The U.S. 82nd Airborne Division, after suffering serious casualties near Altavilla, was shifted to British X Corps, joining the U.S. Army Rangers and the British 23rd Armoured Brigade on the Sorrento Peninsula to flank the German defenses at Nocera Inferiore, Sant'Antonio Abate, and Angri, which the British 46th Infantry Division attacked. The British 7th Armoured Division, passing through the 46th Division, was assigned the task of taking Naples, while the newly landed U.S. 3rd Infantry Division took Acerno on 22 September and Avellino on 28 September. The Eighth Army made good progress from the "toe '' in spite of German demolitions and linked with the British 1st Airborne Division at Taranto. Its left linked up with the Fifth Army 's right on 16 September. The Eighth Army now concentrated its forces east of the Apennine Mountains and pushed north along the Adriatic coast through Bari. On 27 September, the Eighth Army captured the large airfield complex near Foggia, a major Allied objective. German troops occupying Naples provoked a rebellion by the population, starting on 27 September, and had to evacuate. On 1 October, "A '' Squadron of the 1st King 's Dragoon Guards, the armoured car regiment of X Corps, entered the city, the first Allied unit to do so. The entire Fifth Army, now consisting of five American and three British divisions, reached the line of the Volturno River on 6 October. This provided a natural defensive barrier, securing Naples, the Campanian plain and the vital airfields on it from German counterattack. Meanwhile, on the Adriatic Coast, the Eighth Army advanced to a line from Campobasso to Larino and Termoli on the Biferno river. The 10th Army had come close to defeating the Salerno beachhead. The stubborn initial resistance by 16th Panzer Division 's battlegroups and the Germans ' ability to reinforce them by land more quickly than the Allies could land follow - up forces by sea or air had almost tipped the battle. The Fifth Army planners had concentrated the main weight of its forces in X Corps on its left wing, in line with its major objective of advancing on Naples. This had left its right wing too thinly manned to defend X Corps ' right flank and left a particular weakness at the corps boundary. In the end, the Germans, aware of the limited time available to deal with the Salerno landings because of the inevitable arrival in due course of the Eighth Army, were obliged to make hurried and uncoordinated attempts to force a quick decision and had failed to break through Allied lines and exploit the gains in the face of total Allied air superiority and artillery and naval gunfire support. The Allies had been fortunate that at this time Adolf Hitler had sided with the view of his Army Group commander in Northern Italy, Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel, and decided that defending Italy south of Rome was not a strategic priority. As a result, Kesselring had been forbidden to call upon reserves from the northern Army Group. The success of the 10th Army in inflicting heavy casualties, and Kesselring 's strategic arguments, led Hitler to agree that the Allies should be kept away from German borders and prevented from gaining the oil resources of the Balkans. On 6 November, Hitler withdrew Rommel to oversee the build - up of defenses in northern France and gave Kesselring command of the whole of Italy with a remit to keep Rome in German hands for as long as possible. By early October 1943, the whole of southern Italy was in Allied hands, and the Allied armies stood facing the Volturno Line, the first of a series of prepared defensive lines running across Italy from which the Germans chose to fight delaying actions, giving ground slowly and buying time to complete their preparation of the Winter Line, their strongest defensive line south of Rome. The next stage of the Italian Campaign became for the Allied armies a grinding and attritional slog against skillful, determined and well - prepared defenses in terrain and weather conditions which favoured defense and hampered the Allied advantages in mechanised equipment and air superiority. It took until mid-January 1944 to fight through the Volturno, Barbara and Bernhardt lines to reach the Gustav Line, the backbone of the Winter Line defenses, setting the scene for the four battles of Monte Cassino which took place between January and May 1944. Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, the U.S. Fifth Army commander, was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross, the second - highest U.S. award for valor in combat, for his front - line leadership during this crisis. He was frequently seen in the most forward positions encouraging the troops. However, in the opinion of historian Carlo D'Este, Clark "mistakenly believed he had saved the Allied invasion by his leadership, when in fact it was precisely his inexperience that precipitated most of the problems the invasion force faced. ''

who has won 3 of 4 golf majors

List of men 's major championships winning golfers - wikipedia The men 's major golf championships, also known simply as the majors, are the four most prestigious events in professional golf. The competitions are the Masters Tournament, the U.S. Open, The Open Championship and the PGA Championship, contested annually in that order. Should the same golfer win all four majors in one year, this would be recognized as a grand slam; no one has completed this feat, although Tiger Woods has held all four majors at once, a feat dubbed the Tiger slam. Jack Nicklaus has won the most majors; he won 18 during his career. Second on the list is Tiger Woods, who has won 14 majors to date; his most recent major victory was at the 2008 U.S. Open. Walter Hagen is third with 11 majors; he and Nicklaus have both won the most PGA Championships with five. Nicklaus also holds the record for the most victories in the Masters, winning the competition six times. Nicklaus also shares the record for the most U.S. Open victories with Willie Anderson, Bobby Jones and Ben Hogan, each winning this competition four times. Harry Vardon holds the record for the most Open Championship victories, winning six times during his career. Nicklaus, Woods, Hogan, Gary Player and Gene Sarazen are the only golfers to have won all four of the majors during their career, thus achieving the so - called career slam. Although the U.S. Amateur and The Amateur Championship were once considered to be majors, they are no longer recognized as such, and victories in these competitions are not included in the list. To date, a total of 219 different men have won majors. Of these, 81 have won at least two. Tiger Woods, who has won 14 majors Walter Hagen, who won 11 majors during his career Ben Hogan, who won 9 majors during his career Gary Player, who won 9 majors during his career Tom Watson, who has won 8 majors during his career Bobby Jones, who won four U.S. Opens and three Open Championships, but won a total of 13 Major Championships if you consider the old Majors Arnold Palmer, who won 7 majors during his career Gene Sarazen, who won 7 majors during his career Sam Snead, who won 7 majors during his career Harry Vardon, who won The Open Championship a record six times, and won one U.S. Open, for a total of seven majors Nick Faldo, who won six majors during his career Seve Ballesteros, who won five majors during his career James Braid, who won five majors during his career Phil Mickelson, who has won five majors John Henry Taylor, who won five Open Championships Willie Anderson, who won four U.S. Opens Tom Morris, Sr. and Tom Morris, Jr., who both won four Open Championships Willie Park, Sr., who won four Open Championships General Specific

where is the house from wedding crashers located

Wedding Crashers - wikipedia Wedding Crashers is a 2005 American comedy film directed by David Dobkin and written by Steve Faber and Bob Fisher. Starring an ensemble cast led by Owen Wilson, Vince Vaughn, and Christopher Walken, and featuring Rachel McAdams, Isla Fisher, Bradley Cooper, and Jane Seymour, the film has a cameo appearance by Will Ferrell. The film opened on July 15, 2005 through New Line Cinema to critical and massive commercial success, grossing $285 million worldwide on a $40 million budget, and is credited with helping to revive the popularity of adult - oriented, R - rated comedies. John Beckwith (Owen Wilson) and Jeremy Grey (Vince Vaughn) are divorce mediators in Washington D.C. who "crash '' wedding parties to meet and bed women. At the end of a season of successful crashes, Jeremy takes John to a wedding for a daughter of the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury, William Cleary (Christopher Walken). Once inside, the pair set their sights on Cleary 's other daughters, Gloria (Isla Fisher) and Claire (Rachel McAdams). Jeremy ends up having sex with Gloria on a nearby beach during the reception. Gloria is possessive and quickly becomes obsessed with Jeremy, and Jeremy urges John to escape the reception with him. Meanwhile, John attempts to court Claire, the maid of honor, but is interrupted by her hotheaded boyfriend, Sack Lodge (Bradley Cooper), who is unfaithful and disrespectful behind her back. When Gloria invites Jeremy and John to an extended weekend party at their family compound, Jeremy tries to refuse due to him being extremely uncomfortable with Gloria. John overrules Jeremy to accept as it would be great to get to know the family. Jeremy reluctantly accepts, although he is suspicious that John only wanted to go just to get closer to Claire. John and Jeremy become acquainted with the Clearys at their home: the Secretary 's wife (Jane Seymour) sexually harasses John; Gloria 's brother Todd (Keir O'Donnell) tries to seduce Jeremy during the night; Gloria continues to lavish unwanted sexual attention on Jeremy; and Sack repeatedly injures Jeremy during a game of touch football. During dinner, as a means to get even with Sack for injuring Jeremy along with more time to connect with Claire, John spikes Sack 's wine with eye - drops to make him sick and he spends the rest of his night throwing up in the toilet. John and Claire continue to bond the next day on a sailing trip. The suspicious Sack calls his friend, Trapster, to privately investigate John and Jeremy. He then takes Jeremy hunting, where he is shot in the buttocks. While he recovers, John and Claire go on a bike ride to a secluded beach. Claire finally admits she is unsure how she feels about Sack and ends up kissing John passionately. Meanwhile, Gloria tends to Jeremy 's wounds and reveals to him that she is not as innocent or inexperienced as she initially let on. Jeremy realizes that he himself has been played and that he may be in love with Gloria. When Sack falsely claims that he and Claire are engaged, John is n't fooled by this attempt knowing how unhappy she is with the former. Ready to confess everything to Claire about his feelings for her and convince her not to marry Sack, John is interrupted by Jeremy being chased out of the house: Sack has investigated and revealed John and Jeremy 's identities to the family. Betrayed, Claire turns away from John and the Secretary tells them to leave. Before leaving, Gloria and Jeremy briefly professes their love for each other. Over the following months, Jeremy manages to keep his relationship with Gloria a secret. Meanwhile, John attempts to reach Claire but she refuses to see him. He comes up with a plan to see her by disguising himself as a waiter at her and Sack 's engagement party. Concerned about John 's behavior, Jeremy tries to talk some sense into him by reminding him that his last attempts to speak to her has failed and that he needs to accept the fact that it 's over. He also warns John against attempting to crash Claire and Sack 's engagement party because of the high security Secretary Cleary has put on to ensure no crashers. Jeremy mentions that their only chance of avoiding jail time is to keep a low profile and stay away. John ignores the warning and attempts to crash Claire and Sack 's engagement party by disguising himself as a waiter. He is caught by Sack who was alerted by his friends and beats John up. He then warns John to stay away from Claire forever or else he will press charges against John. John visits Jeremy at his house to confront him for his absence and catches him having sex with Gloria. Betrayed, John walks out of the house and Jeremy follows trying to explain himself, while Gloria leaves to go to the engagement party. Outside, John demanded why he did n't appear to stop Sack and learns that Jeremy had continued his secret relationship with Gloria. John spirals into depression, crashing weddings alone and becoming nihilistic and suicidal. Meanwhile, as Claire and Sack plan their wedding, Claire 's doubts grow. Jeremy proposes to Gloria and tries to ask John to be his best man, but a depressed John refuses. John visits Jeremy 's former wedding crashing mentor, Chazz Reinhold (an uncredited Will Ferrell), who convinces him to crash a funeral. While there, he reconsiders his belief in love and marriage after witnessing a grieving widow. He rushes to Jeremy 's wedding and joins the wedding mid-ceremony to Jeremy 's delight. Claire is upset by his appearance, prompting John to profess his love to her and his regret for his past behavior in front of the congregation. Sack interrupts, but Claire finally tells him that she can not marry him. Senator Cleary supports Claire 's decision and even admits his disgust over Sack 's recent behavior. He also comes to the realization that unlike Sack, John actually cared for Claire and made her happy. Sack tries to attack John, but Jeremy intervenes to knock him out, and John and Claire kiss. After the wedding, the two couples drive away from the ceremony together, discussing crashing another wedding together. Arizona Senator and 2008 Republican presidential nominee John McCain and Democratic strategist and CNN contributor James Carville both have a brief cameo appearance in the film towards the beginning, where both are seen congratulating the secretary and his wife on their daughter 's wedding. The film was written by Steve Faber and Bob Fisher and produced through New Line Cinema, with shooting taking place on location in Washington, D.C. and Maryland 's Eastern Shore. Principal photography began on March 22, 2004 and the movie had a 52 - day shooting schedule. The main Cleary wedding reception scene was filmed at the Inn at Perry Cabin in Saint Michaels, Maryland. Dobkin has said that the script originally set the film around Cape Cod, but a need to film in spring made this impractical. He suggested moving the shoot to Washington, his home town, feeling that his knowledge of the area would make choosing locations easier, and that using the city as the setting for a comedy would be an unexpected choice. Wedding Crashers received generally positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 75 %, based on 182 reviews, with an average rating of 7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Wedding Crashers is both raunchy and sweet, and features top - notch comic performances from Vince Vaughn and Owen Wilson. '' On Metacritic the film has a score of 64 out of 100, based on 39 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Carina Chocano of the Los Angeles Times wrote a favorable review and said "underneath the diarrhea gags, the long lens at close range of Vaughn 's pants and the handcuffs, it 's really just a love story about a couple of buddies who live happily ever after. And it could n't have happened to a nicer, more charming couple ''. Manohla Dargis of the New York Times said "It 's crude, yes, but also funny; too bad these lost boys ca n't stay lost. Like clockwork, the film soon mutates from a guy - oriented sex comedy into a wish - fulfillment chick flick ''. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film two stars out of four; although he wrote that "there are individual moments that are very funny '' he added that the director, David Dobkin, "has too much else on his mind ''. British Movie magazine Empire awarded it three out of five stars and were complimentary to Vaughn and Wilson, saying "Sharing an easy chemistry and free of the usual joker / straight - guy dynamic, Wilson and Vaughn quip, riff and banter to hilarious effect. And both get their fair share of money moments, the latter 's muggings are particularly hysterical in a raunchy dinner - party sequence. The laidback stars are funny and sweet, but they 're let down by a patchy script which squanders some potentially priceless set - ups. '' The film was released in North America on July 15, 2005, and became an immediate hit, grossing $33,900,720 in its first weekend, hitting # 2 in the box office, behind Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. Fairly well received by critics, the film eventually grossed over $209,255,921 domestically, narrowly outgrossing Charlie. Considering its modest budget ($40 million) and competition with heavily advertised blockbusters during the summer season, the studio did not expect the movie 's astounding level of success. It grossed $75,920,820 overseas, totaling $285,176,741 worldwide. On April 24, 2006, Wedding Crashers topped the nominations for the year 's MTV Movie Awards with five including Best Movie. It won Best Movie, On - Screen Team (Vaughn and Wilson), and Breakthrough Performance (Isla Fisher). The financial success of the film has been credited along with The 40 - Year - Old Virgin for reviving the popularity of adult - aimed R - rated comedies. Bradley Cooper was mentioned in the August 2006 issue of GQ as one of "The Top Twelve Movie Dicks ''. The film was criticized for depicting the forcible rape of Vince Vaughn 's character in a humorous light. The film has been accused of "turn (ing) graphic sexual assault into a punchline. '' The DVD was released in the United States on January 3, 2006, and a Blu - ray was released on December 30, 2008. It is available in an unrated version ("Uncorked Edition '') and in an R - rated version (the Blu - ray has both versions on one disc). It features eight new minutes integrated into the film and DVD - ROM bonuses. Also included are two audio commentaries (one by the stars, one by the director), four deleted scenes, two featurettes, a "Rules of Wedding Crashing '' text gallery, trailers, Budweiser Wedding Crashers commercials, a track listing for the official soundtrack on 20th Century Fox Records, a music video by The Sights, and a jump - to - a-song sample feature. The creators of the film made a reality TV version, called The Real Wedding Crashers and shown on NBC in April and May 2007. NBC only showed four episodes. In a 2014 post on the website Quora, Wedding Crashers director David Dobkin said that he, Vaughn and Wilson once came up with an idea for a sequel in which John and Jeremy find themselves competing with a superior wedding crasher, played by Daniel Craig; but that this idea never went beyond the discussion phase. The 2013 film The Internship, which also starred Vaughn and Wilson, was sometimes described by critics as an unofficial sequel to Wedding Crashers. In November 2016, Fisher was a guest on The Today Show and while talking about Nocturnal Animals, she revealed from her Wedding Crashers co-star Vaughn that a sequel is in the works.

ll cool j momma said knock u out

Mama Said Knock You Out - wikipedia Mama Said Knock You Out is the fourth studio album by American rapper LL Cool J. It was produced mostly by Marley Marl and recorded at his "House of Hits '' home studio in Chestnut Ridge and at Chung King House of Metal in New York City. After the disappointing reception of LL Cool 's 1989 album Walking with a Panther, Mama Said Knock You Out was released by Def Jam Recordings in 1990 to commercial and critical success. Mama Said Knock You Out was released on August 27, 1990, by Def Jam Recordings. It was promoted with five singles, four of which became hits: "The Boomin ' System, '' "Around the Way Girl, '' the title track, and "6 Minutes of Pleasure. '' The album was certified double platinum in the United States, having shipped two million copies. According to Yahoo! Music 's Frank Meyer, Mama Said Knock You Out "seemed to set the world on fire in 1990 '', helped by its hit title track and LL Cool J 's "sweaty performance '' on MTV Unplugged. The title song reached number 17 on the Billboard Hot 100 and was certified gold by the RIAA. LL Cool J won Best Rap Solo Performance at the Grammy Awards of 1992. In The New York Times, Jon Pareles wrote that Mama Said Knock You Out reestablished LL Cool J as "the most articulate of the homeboys '', sounding "tougher and funnier '' rapping about "crass materialism '' and "simple pleasures ''. In Mark Cooper 's review for Q, he wrote, "This 22 - year - old veteran has lost neither his eye for everyday detail nor his sheer relish for words. '' Select magazine 's Richard Cook said, "LL 's stack of samples add the icing to a cake that is all dark, remorseless rhythm, a lo - fi drum beat shadowed by a crude bass rumble. It could be Jamaican dub they 're making here, if it were n't for LL 's slipper lip. '' Mama Said Knock You Out was voted the ninth best record of 1990 in the Pazz & Jop, an annual poll of American critics published by The Village Voice. The album was included in Hip Hop Connection 's The phat forty, a rundown of rap 's greatest albums. "The LP 's title track proved to be the single of the year and probably LL 's best record since ' I 'm Bad ', '' HHC said, "while ' Eat ' Em Up L Chill ' and ' To Da Break Of Dawn ' was (sic) the sound of Cool J getting his own back -- and in style. '' In 1998, it was listed in The Source 's 100 Best Rap Albums. In 2005, comedian Chris Rock listed it as the sixth greatest hip - hop album ever in a guest article for Rolling Stone. The single version of the track "Jingling Baby (Remixed but Still Jingling) '' was remixed by Marley Marl. Credits are adapted from AllMusic. sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone

where is the electron transport chain found in plant cells

Electron transport chain - wikipedia An electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of complexes that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox (both reduction and oxidation occurring simultaneously) reactions, and couples this electron transfer with the transfer of protons (H ions) across a membrane. This creates an electrochemical proton gradient that drives the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a molecule that stores energy chemically in the form of highly strained bonds. The molecules of the chain include peptides, enzymes (which are proteins or protein complexes), and others. The final acceptor of electrons in the electron transport chain during aerobic respiration is molecular oxygen although a variety of acceptors other than oxygen such as sulfate exist in anaerobic respiration. Electron transport chains are used for extracting energy via redox reactions from sunlight in photosynthesis or, such as in the case of the oxidation of sugars, cellular respiration. In eukaryotes, an important electron transport chain is found in the inner mitochondrial membrane where it serves as the site of oxidative phosphorylation through the action of ATP synthase. It is also found in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast in photosynthetic eukaryotes. In bacteria, the electron transport chain is located in their cell membrane. In chloroplasts, light drives the conversion of water to oxygen and NADP to NADPH with transfer of H ions across chloroplast membranes. In mitochondria, it is the conversion of oxygen to water, NADH to NAD and succinate to fumarate that are required to generate the proton gradient. Electron transport chains are major sites of premature electron leakage to oxygen, generating superoxide and potentially resulting in increased oxidative stress. The electron transport chain consists of a spatially separated series of redox reactions in which electrons are transferred from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule. The underlying force driving these reactions is the Gibbs free energy of the reactants and products. The Gibbs free energy is the energy available ("free '') to do work. Any reaction that decreases the overall Gibbs free energy of a system is thermodynamically spontaneous. The function of the electron transport chain is to produce a transmembrane proton electrochemical gradient as a result of the redox reactions. If protons flow back through the membrane, they enable mechanical work, such as rotating bacterial flagella. ATP synthase, an enzyme highly conserved among all domains of life, converts this mechanical work into chemical energy by producing ATP, which powers most cellular reactions. A small amount of ATP is available from substrate - level phosphorylation, for example, in glycolysis. In most organisms the majority of ATP is generated in electron transport chains, while only some obtain ATP by fermentation. Most eukaryotic cells have mitochondria, which produce ATP from products of the citric acid cycle, fatty acid oxidation, and amino acid oxidation. At the mitochondrial inner membrane, electrons from NADH and FADH2 pass through the electron transport chain to oxygen, which is reduced to water. The electron transport chain comprises an enzymatic series of electron donors and acceptors. Each electron donor will pass electrons to a more electronegative acceptor, which in turn donates these electrons to another acceptor, a process that continues down the series until electrons are passed to oxygen, the most electronegative and terminal electron acceptor in the chain. Passage of electrons between donor and acceptor releases energy, which is used to generate a proton gradient across the mitochondrial membrane by actively "pumping '' protons into the intermembrane space, producing a thermodynamic state that has the potential to do work. The entire process is called oxidative phosphorylation, since ADP is phosphorylated to ATP using the energy of hydrogen oxidation in many steps. A small percentage of electrons do not complete the whole series and instead directly leak to oxygen, resulting in the formation of the free - radical superoxide, a highly reactive molecule that contributes to oxidative stress and has been implicated in a number of diseases and aging. Energy obtained through the transfer of electrons down the ETC is used to pump protons from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical proton gradient (ΔpH) across the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM). This proton gradient is largely but not exclusively responsible for the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨ). It allows ATP synthase to use the flow of H through the enzyme back into the matrix to generate ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate. Complex I (NADH coenzyme Q reductase; labeled I) accepts electrons from the Krebs cycle electron carrier nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), and passes them to coenzyme Q (ubiquinone; labeled Q), which also receives electrons from complex II (succinate dehydrogenase; labeled II). Q passes electrons to complex III (cytochrome bc complex; labeled III), which passes them to cytochrome c (cyt c). Cyt c passes electrons to Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase; labeled IV), which uses the electrons and hydrogen ions to reduce molecular oxygen to water. Four membrane - bound complexes have been identified in mitochondria. Each is an extremely complex transmembrane structure that is embedded in the inner membrane. Three of them are proton pumps. The structures are electrically connected by lipid - soluble electron carriers and water - soluble electron carriers. The overall electron transport chain: In Complex I (NADH: ubiquinone oxidoreductase, NADH - CoQ reductase, or NADH dehydrogenase; EC 1.6. 5.3), two electrons are removed from NADH and ultimately transferred to a lipid - soluble carrier, ubiquinone (UQ). The reduced product, ubiquinol (UQH), freely diffuses within the membrane, and Complex I translocates four protons (H) across the membrane, thus producing a proton gradient. Complex I is one of the main sites at which premature electron leakage to oxygen occurs, thus being one of the main sites of production of superoxide. The pathway of electrons is as follows: NADH is oxidized to NAD, by reducing Flavin mononucleotide to FMNH in one two - electron step. FMNH is then oxidized in two one - electron steps, through a semiquinone intermediate. Each electron thus transfers from the FMNH to an Fe - S cluster, from the Fe - S cluster to ubiquinone (Q). Transfer of the first electron results in the free - radical (semiquinone) form of Q, and transfer of the second electron reduces the semiquinone form to the ubiquinol form, QH. During this process, four protons are translocated from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space. As the electrons become continuously oxidized and reduced throughout the complex an electron current is produced along the 180 Angstrom width of the complex within the membrane. This current powers the active transport of four protons to the intermembrane space per two electrons from NADH. This complex is inhibited by Alkylguanides (Example: Guanethidine), Rotenone, Barbiturates, Chlorpromazine, Piericidin. In Complex II (succinate dehydrogenase or succinate - CoQ reductase; EC 1.3. 5.1) additional electrons are delivered into the quinone pool (Q) originating from succinate and transferred (via flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)) to Q. Complex II consists of four protein subunits: succinate dehydrogenase, (SDHA); succinate dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) iron - sulfur subunit, mitochondrial, (SDHB); succinate dehydrogenase complex subunit C, (SDHC) and succinate dehydrogenase complex, subunit D, (SDHD). Other electron donors (e.g., fatty acids and glycerol 3 - phosphate) also direct electrons into Q (via FAD). Complex 2 is a parallel electron transport pathway to complex 1, but unlike complex 1, no protons are transported to the intermembrane space in this pathway. Therefore, the pathway through complex 2 contributes less energy to the overall electron transport chain process. This complex is inhibited by Carboxin. In Complex III (cytochrome bc complex or CoQH - cytochrome c reductase; EC 1.10. 2.2), the Q - cycle contributes to the proton gradient by an asymmetric absorption / release of protons. Two electrons are removed from QH at the Q site and sequentially transferred to two molecules of cytochrome c, a water - soluble electron carrier located within the intermembrane space. The two other electrons sequentially pass across the protein to the Q site where the quinone part of ubiquinone is reduced to quinol. A proton gradient is formed by one quinol (2 H 2 + e − (\ displaystyle (\ ce (2H + 2e -)))) oxidations at the Q site to form one quinone (2 H 2 + e − (\ displaystyle (\ ce (2H + 2e -)))) at the Q site. (in total four protons are translocated: two protons reduce quinone to quinol and two protons are released from two ubiquinol molecules). When electron transfer is reduced (by a high membrane potential or respiratory inhibitors such as antimycin A), Complex III may leak electrons to molecular oxygen, resulting in superoxide formation. This complex is inhibited by British Antilewisite (BAL), Napthoquinone and Antimycin. In Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase; EC 1.9. 3.1), sometimes called cytochrome AA3, four electrons are removed from four molecules of cytochrome c and transferred to molecular oxygen (O), producing two molecules of water. At the same time, eight protons are removed from the mitochondrial matrix (although only four are translocated across the membrane), contributing to the proton gradient. The activity of cytochrome c oxidase is inhibited by cyanide, carbon monoxide, azide, hydrogen sulphide (H S). According to the chemiosmotic coupling hypothesis, proposed by Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Peter D. Mitchell, the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation are coupled by a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The efflux of protons from the mitochondrial matrix creates an electrochemical gradient (proton gradient). This gradient is used by the F F ATP synthase complex to make ATP via oxidative phosphorylation. ATP synthase is sometimes described as Complex V of the electron transport chain. The F component of ATP synthase acts as an ion channel that provides for a proton flux back into the mitochondrial matrix. It is composed of a, b and c subunits. Protons in the inter-membranous space of mitochondria first enters the ATP synthase complex through a subunit channel. Then protons move to the c subunits. The number of c subunits it has determines how many protons it will require to make the F turn one full revolution. For example, in humans, there are 8 c subunits, thus 8 protons are required. After c subunits, protons finally enters matrix using a subunit channel that opens into the mitochondrial matrix. This reflux releases free energy produced during the generation of the oxidized forms of the electron carriers (NAD and Q). The free energy is used to drive ATP synthesis, catalyzed by the F component of the complex. Coupling with oxidative phosphorylation is a key step for ATP production. However, in specific cases, uncoupling the two processes may be biologically useful. The uncoupling protein, thermogenin -- present in the inner mitochondrial membrane of brown adipose tissue -- provides for an alternative flow of protons back to the inner mitochondrial matrix. Thyroxine is also a natural uncoupler. This alternative flow results in thermogenesis rather than ATP production. Synthetic uncouplers (e.g., 2, 4 - dinitrophenol, 2, 4 - dinitrocresol, CCCP) also exist, and can be lethal at high doses. In the mitochondrial electron transport chain electrons move from an electron donor (NADH or QH) to a terminal electron acceptor (O) via a series of redox reactions. These reactions are coupled to the creation of a proton gradient across the mitochondrial inner membrane. There are three proton pumps: I, III, and IV. The resulting transmembrane proton gradient is used to make ATP via ATP synthase. The reactions catalyzed by Complex I and Complex III work roughly at equilibrium. This means that these reactions are readily reversible, by increasing the concentration of the products relative to the concentration of the reactants (for example, by increasing the proton gradient). ATP synthase is also readily reversible. Thus ATP can be used to build a proton gradient, which in turn can be used to make NADH. This process of reverse electron transport is important in many prokaryotic electron transport chains. In eukaryotes, NADH is the most important electron donor. The associated electron transport chain is NADH → Complex I → Q → Complex III → cytochrome c → Complex IV → O where Complexes I, III and IV are proton pumps, while Q and cytochrome c are mobile electron carriers. The electron acceptor is molecular oxygen. In prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) the situation is more complicated, because there are several different electron donors and several different electron acceptors. The generalized electron transport chain in bacteria is: Note that electrons can enter the chain at three levels: at the level of a dehydrogenase, at the level of the quinone pool, or at the level of a mobile cytochrome electron carrier. These levels correspond to successively more positive redox potentials, or to successively decreased potential differences relative to the terminal electron acceptor. In other words, they correspond to successively smaller Gibbs free energy changes for the overall redox reaction Donor → Acceptor. Individual bacteria use multiple electron transport chains, often simultaneously. Bacteria can use a number of different electron donors, a number of different dehydrogenases, a number of different oxidases and reductases, and a number of different electron acceptors. For example, E. coli (when growing aerobically using glucose as an energy source) uses two different NADH dehydrogenases and two different quinol oxidases, for a total of four different electron transport chains operating simultaneously. A common feature of all electron transport chains is the presence of a proton pump to create a transmembrane proton gradient. Bacterial electron transport chains may contain as many as three proton pumps, like mitochondria, or they may contain only one or two. They always contain at least one proton pump. In the present day biosphere, the most common electron donors are organic molecules. Organisms that use organic molecules as an energy source are called organotrophs. Organotrophs (animals, fungi, protists) and phototrophs (plants and algae) constitute the vast majority of all familiar life forms. Some prokaryotes can use inorganic matter as an energy source. Such an organism is called a lithotroph ("rock - eater ''). Inorganic electron donors include hydrogen, carbon monoxide, ammonia, nitrite, sulfur, sulfide, manganese oxide, and ferrous iron. Lithotrophs have been found growing in rock formations thousands of meters below the surface of Earth. Because of their volume of distribution, lithotrophs may actually outnumber organotrophs and phototrophs in our biosphere. The use of inorganic electron donors as an energy source is of particular interest in the study of evolution. This type of metabolism must logically have preceded the use of organic molecules as an energy source. Bacteria can use a number of different electron donors. When organic matter is the energy source, the donor may be NADH or succinate, in which case electrons enter the electron transport chain via NADH dehydrogenase (similar to Complex I in mitochondria) or succinate dehydrogenase (similar to Complex II). Other dehydrogenases may be used to process different energy sources: formate dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate dehydrogenase, H dehydrogenase (hydrogenase), etc. Some dehydrogenases are also proton pumps; others funnel electrons into the quinone pool. Most dehydrogenases show induced expression in the bacterial cell in response to metabolic needs triggered by the environment in which the cells grow. Quinones are mobile, lipid - soluble carriers that shuttle electrons (and protons) between large, relatively immobile macromolecular complexes embedded in the membrane. Bacteria use ubiquinone (the same quinone that mitochondria use) and related quinones such as menaquinone. Another name for ubiquinone is Coenzyme Q10. A proton pump is any process that creates a proton gradient across a membrane. Protons can be physically moved across a membrane; this is seen in mitochondrial Complexes I and IV. The same effect can be produced by moving electrons in the opposite direction. The result is the disappearance of a proton from the cytoplasm and the appearance of a proton in the periplasm. Mitochondrial Complex III uses this second type of proton pump, which is mediated by a quinone (the Q cycle). Some dehydrogenases are proton pumps; others are not. Most oxidases and reductases are proton pumps, but some are not. Cytochrome bc is a proton pump found in many, but not all, bacteria (it is not found in E. coli). As the name implies, bacterial bc is similar to mitochondrial bc (Complex III). Proton pumps are the heart of the electron transport process. They produce the transmembrane electrochemical gradient that enables ATP Synthase to synthesize ATP. Cytochromes are pigments that contain iron. They are found in two very different environments. Some cytochromes are water - soluble carriers that shuttle electrons to and from large, immobile macromolecular structures imbedded in the membrane. The mobile cytochrome electron carrier in mitochondria is cytochrome c. Bacteria use a number of different mobile cytochrome electron carriers. Other cytochromes are found within macromolecules such as Complex III and Complex IV. They also function as electron carriers, but in a very different, intramolecular, solid - state environment. Electrons may enter an electron transport chain at the level of a mobile cytochrome or quinone carrier. For example, electrons from inorganic electron donors (nitrite, ferrous iron, etc.) enter the electron transport chain at the cytochrome level. When electrons enter at a redox level greater than NADH, the electron transport chain must operate in reverse to produce this necessary, higher - energy molecule. When bacteria grow in aerobic environments, the terminal electron acceptor (O) is reduced to water by an enzyme called an oxidase. When bacteria grow in anaerobic environments, the terminal electron acceptor is reduced by an enzyme called a reductase. In mitochondria the terminal membrane complex (Complex IV) is cytochrome oxidase. Aerobic bacteria use a number of different terminal oxidases. For example, E. coli does not have a cytochrome oxidase or a bc complex. Under aerobic conditions, it uses two different terminal quinol oxidases (both proton pumps) to reduce oxygen to water. Anaerobic bacteria, which do not use oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor, have terminal reductases individualized to their terminal acceptor. For example, E. coli can use fumarate reductase, nitrate reductase, nitrite reductase, DMSO reductase, or trimethylamine - N - oxide reductase, depending on the availability of these acceptors in the environment. Most terminal oxidases and reductases are inducible. They are synthesized by the organism as needed, in response to specific environmental conditions. Just as there are a number of different electron donors (organic matter in organotrophs, inorganic matter in lithotrophs), there are a number of different electron acceptors, both organic and inorganic. If oxygen is available, it is invariably used as the terminal electron acceptor, because it generates the greatest Gibbs free energy change and produces the most energy. In anaerobic environments, different electron acceptors are used, including nitrate, nitrite, ferric iron, sulfate, carbon dioxide, and small organic molecules such as fumarate. Since electron transport chains are redox processes, they can be described as the sum of two redox pairs. For example, the mitochondrial electron transport chain can be described as the sum of the NAD / NADH redox pair and the O / H O redox pair. NADH is the electron donor and O is the electron acceptor. Not every donor - acceptor combination is thermodynamically possible. The redox potential of the acceptor must be more positive than the redox potential of the donor. Furthermore, actual environmental conditions may be far different from standard conditions (1 molar concentrations, 1 atm partial pressures, pH = 7), which apply to standard redox potentials. For example, hydrogen - evolving bacteria grow at an ambient partial pressure of hydrogen gas of 10 atm. The associated redox reaction, which is thermodynamically favorable in nature, is thermodynamic impossible under "standard '' conditions. Bacterial electron transport pathways are, in general, inducible. Depending on their environment, bacteria can synthesize different transmembrane complexes and produce different electron transport chains in their cell membranes. Bacteria select their electron transport chains from a DNA library containing multiple possible dehydrogenases, terminal oxidases and terminal reductases. The situation is often summarized by saying that electron transport chains in bacteria are branched, modular, and inducible. In oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are transferred from a low - energy electron donor (e.g., NADH) to an acceptor (e.g., O) through an electron transport chain. In photophosphorylation, the energy of sunlight is used to create a high - energy electron donor and an electron acceptor. Electrons are then transferred from the donor to the acceptor through another electron transport chain. Photosynthetic electron transport chains have many similarities to the oxidative chains discussed above. They use mobile, lipid - soluble carriers (quinones) and mobile, water - soluble carriers (cytochromes, etc.). They also contain a proton pump. It is remarkable that the proton pump in all photosynthetic chains resembles mitochondrial Complex III. Photosynthetic electron transport chains are discussed in greater detail in the articles Photophosphorylation, Photosynthesis, Photosynthetic reaction center and Light - dependent reaction. Electron transport chains are redox reactions that transfer electrons from an electron donor to an electron acceptor. The transfer of electrons is coupled to the translocation of protons across a membrane, producing a proton gradient. The proton gradient is used to produce useful work. About 30 work units are produced per electron transport.

who played carol's husband on the walking dead

Carol Peletier - wikipedia Carol Peletier (/ ˈpɛl. ti. eɪ /) is a fictional character from the comic book series The Walking Dead and is portrayed by Melissa McBride in the American television series of the same name. Carol is introduced in the comics in the third issue of the first volume, "Days Gone Bye, '' in 2003, and the third episode of the first season of the television series in 2010, as a meek housewife and mother of Sophia at the survival camp in Atlanta, Georgia. Initially a recurring cast member, McBride was upgraded to a series regular position at the onset of the second season, and the character 's role has predominantly increased since the fourth season. The character 's arc has been described as a "hero 's journey '' by executive producer Scott M. Gimple, having made many difficult decisions in order to survive. The direction of her character is contrasted between the two mediums. In the comic series, Carol is a 25 - year - old housewife who exhibits a neurotic, self - centered, and naive demeanor. Throughout her time in the comics, she grows increasingly unstable, to the extent of self - destruction and ultimately commits suicide. The television show differs in these regards, as she is shown to be a stern, ruthlessly pragmatic, but compassionate individual who has been gradually building inner strength. She is shown to be much more capable and emotionally stable than her comic book counterpart. The abuse she suffered from her husband was explicitly shown in the series whereas it was merely hinted at in the comics. In addition, Carol and Tyreese have a brief romantic relationship before they break up while in the television series it is a close but complex bond. In the television series, Carol evacuated her home with her abusive husband Ed and her daughter Sophia in hopes of a safe haven in Atlanta, Georgia. Nearing their destination, she came into the company of Lori Grimes (Sarah Wayne Callies) and Shane Walsh (Jon Bernthal), who had evacuated the city. The Peletiers then joined a camp of survivors. Following the deaths of her husband and daughter, Carol formed a close bond with fellow Atlanta camp survivors Lori and Daryl Dixon (Norman Reedus), and she became the adoptive mother to Lizzie and Mika Samuels (Brighton Sharbino and Kyla Kenedy) after the death of their father, Ryan, and formed a close, but complex bond with Tyreese (Chad Coleman) during the fall of the prison. After arriving at the Alexandria Safe - Zone Carol becomes one of its key defenders and attempts a relationship with a resident named Tobin, but quickly realizes Tobin is really no more than a bandaid on her pain, a try at normalcy in her life and that she really has no feelings for him. She begins to feel the guilt of those she 's killed and becomes suicidal, until saved by Morgan (Lennie James) and brought to the Kingdom led by King Ezekiel. As of the end of the show 's third season, she is the last remaining female survivor from the original Atlanta group, and one of the last original survivors overall, preceded by Rick (Andrew Lincoln), Carl (Chandler Riggs), and followed by Daryl in order of appearance. Carol is also the series ' longest - living female character as of season seven, and the only female character to have appeared in every season. She has appeared in the most episodes of any female character in the series to date. McBride 's performance as Carol has received critical acclaim from television commentators, and some critics have referred to Carol as the series ' best character. Carol is described in the comics as being a housewife who occasionally helps pay the family 's bills by selling kitchen appliances online. She endured a rather unsatisfactory marriage, and it is implied that she only married (and continued to stay with) her husband because of her frequent need for attention and comfort. During the initial stages of the outbreak, her husband commits suicide after losing his parents to walkers, leaving Carol and their daughter Sophia to fend for themselves. Carol is in the process of moving herself and Sophia to her sister 's in Atlanta when they meet and eventually join Shane 's settlement of survivors on the outskirts of the city. While in the camp, she usually assists the other mothers in domestic duties such as washing clothes and looking after the children. She and Lori quickly become best friends, the two of them often conversing about the current happenings around them. Carol is often Lori 's shoulder to cry on, as well as the one person to whom she can vent about her various frustrations. After leaving their first campsite, they meet Tyreese, whom Carol grows to like. Eventually, the two became romantically attached to one another, and they stay close throughout their stay at Hershel 's farm and their arrival at the abandoned prison. Tension begins between Tyreese and Carol, however, when Michonne is introduced, and Carol later witnesses Michonne performing oral sex on Tyreese inside of the prison gymnasium. This initially leads her to try to compete, albeit degradingly, for his affection but she ultimately breaks off the relationship and tries avoiding further confrontations. Soon after the break - up, her mental health comes into question, and, after nights of crying, results in an attempt to commit suicide. Soon after cutting herself, Carol becomes desperate for companionship and wants to have a polyamorous relationship with Rick and Lori, only to be turned down. As she plans to commit suicide, she makes sure Lori promises to take care of Sophia. She then initiates sex with Hershel 's son, Billy. After wandering through the prison courtyard and talking to a zombie, she allows it to tear at her jugular. She refuses for anyone to try to help her, saying that they should let her die in peace. She is killed by a merciful Andrea during her reanimation process before she can bite a saddened Tyreese. Carol 's death leaves a significant mark on the group in the days leading up to the ultimate assault on the prison. Many look down upon her manner of death and are disgusted by the fact that she abandoned her only living family. Sophia is left in a catatonic state as the news reaches her, and has since attempted to repress all memories of Carol by pretending that Maggie and Glenn are her biological parents. Maggie is relieved when Sophia begins to speak openly about recognizing Carol 's previous existence. At the Hilltop Colony with Carl Grimes, Sophia reminisces on life at the prison with her mother, reminding him that she remembers everything that has happened to them, especially the death of her mother. Before the apocalypse began, Carol was a meek and battered housewife. She frequently avoided confrontation with her husband Ed in attempt to stifle his anger, though she secretly prayed to God that he be punished for abusing her and for his sexual interest in their young daughter Sophia (Madison Lintz). The Peletiers first met up with Shane (Jon Bernthal), Lori (Sarah Wayne Callies) and her son Carl (Chandler Riggs) while traveling toward a supposed ' safe zone ' in Atlanta, and they all eventually settled near a quarry on the outskirts of Atlanta with a handful of other survivors. Within her time at the camp, she regularly performed domestic duties such as washing and ironing clothes for her and her fellow survivors, usually with help from some of the other women in the group. Carol debuts in the episode "Tell It to the Frogs '', where she is shown washing clothes in the stream with the other women in the group. When Carol 's husband, Ed, hears the women talking and laughing, he tells his wife to focus on her work. When Andrea (Laurie Holden) tells him off, Ed quickly becomes threatening as the women confront him about Carol 's bruises. Ed then strikes Carol, causing a feud which is ended when Shane furiously beats him as Carol pleads for him to stop. In the episode "Vatos '', after Ed 's violent abuse has been exposed to the camp, Carol begins to stand up for herself regarding Sophia, as she dismisses the idea of Sophia staying with her father in his tent, insisting that she wants to join in with the rest of the camp. Ed is killed during a walker attack as Sophia and Carol are left fearing for their lives. In the episode "Wildfire '', as the group cleans up the camp in preparation to leave, Carol destroys Ed 's corpse with a pickaxe, venting the inner rage she had toward him and his years of violent abuse. In the season finale "TS - 19 '', the group takes shelter at the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), but they soon discover the facility is set to explode after the power runs out. Carol hands Rick a grenade (which Rick had picked up in the tank he was trapped in), to blow out one of the front windows in order to escape, and in success, Carol and Sophia run to the vehicles in the street with the others, while Jacqui and Dr. Jenner choose to remain at the CDC to die. In the season premiere "What Lies Ahead '', walkers swarm the highway, and Sophia is lost in the woods after being chased by them. Carol casts the blame upon Rick for not staying with her as he finds her in the woods, chasing off the walkers who follow her but ultimately blames herself. In the episode "Cherokee Rose '', Daryl Dixon (Norman Reedus) gives her a flower later on which inspires hope in her to keep strong and to believe in Sophia 's survival. In the episode "Chupacabra '', having been staying at the farm owned by Hershel Greene (Scott Wilson), she decides to cook dinner for Hershel and the rest of the group with Lori as a token of gratitude. During the dinner, she brings up a plate to Daryl and kisses him on the cheek, acknowledging how noble and caring he is (compared to her deceased husband). In the mid-season finale "Pretty Much Dead Already '', Carol and Daryl begin to form a deeper bond, with her being concerned for his well - being. Glenn reveals to the group that Hershel 's barn is full of walkers, and Sophia appears as one of the walkers in the barn. In the mid-season premiere "Nebraska '', Carol refuses to attend Sophia 's memorial service, saying that her daughter died a long time ago and the corpse at the farm was not Sophia. In the episode "Triggerfinger '', Carol shows a conscious concern for Daryl 's detachment from the group. She later lets him vent his frustration at her, as he mocks her for losing her family but soon apologizes and returns to the fold. Over time, Carol 's meekness diminishes as she gains the self - confidence to stand up for herself. She grows tired of the arguments of the group, and refuses to choose the fate of their prisoner, Randall in the episode "Judge, Jury, Executioner. '' In the finale "Beside the Dying Fire '', the group are chased off the farm by walkers. Carol convinces the women to evacuate the farmhouse but is herself abandoned by Lori. Daryl rescues Carol on his motorcycle, and they eventually meet up with the remaining survivors. The slight blame she has cast upon Rick accumulates into outright questioning of his leadership. In the season premiere, "Seed '', eight months pass and Carol has built self - confidence and has developed a proficiency with weapons. Carol has gotten closer to Lori since her pregnancy, and her trust in Rick has been regained. In the episode "Killer Within '', T - Dog sacrifices himself to save Carol after they are separated when walkers get into the prison. The group believe her to be dead. In the episode "Hounded '', Daryl rediscovers her in a solitary confinement cell, malnourished and weak but alive. He carries her off in his arms and in the next episode, "When the Dead Come Knocking '', the group happily reunites with her; however, things once again take a sad turn when she realizes that Lori has died in childbirth. She and Rick tearfully mourn Lori 's loss and Carol is seen taking care of Lori 's child, Judith, while Daryl leaves for Woodbury. As Daryl tells Carol to keep safe, she responds saying, "Nine lives, remember? ''. In the episode "The Suicide King '', Carol is sad about that Daryl leaving with his brother but understands his decision. In the episode "Home '', Axel is shot in front of Carol 's face by The Governor 's men as they bond, causing her to use his body as a shield. In the episode "I Ai n't a Judas '', Daryl returns, pleasing Carol. Andrea also visits, and Carol instructs Andrea to stab The Governor in his sleep to end the conflict. In the episode "This Sorrowful Life '', Merle has a brief conversation with Carol wherein he remarks that she has transformed from a "scared little mouse afraid of her own shadow '' into a stronger person. She replies that she was not scared of her own shadow but that of her husband and further states that she is no longer afraid of anything. To prove the latter, she sternly admonishes Merle to "pick a side, '' regarding his previous loyalty to The Governor. In the season finale "Welcome to the Tombs '', following Merle 's death at the hands of The Governor, Carol praises him for his sacrifice, that he gave them a chance though Daryl remarked that Merle had never performed an altruistic deed in his life. Carol then helps defend the gate against walkers as Rick, Daryl, and Michonne drive out to carry the fight to Woodbury. She is seen beginning to cry upon realizing that Andrea has died at the end of the episode, and watches the remaining Woodbury residents enter their new home in the prison. In the season premiere, "30 Days Without an Accident '', six months after the conflict with the Governor has ended, Carol begins secretly teaching the children of the prison how to use knives to defend themselves and not to have any sympathy for the walkers. Carl Grimes discovers the lessons are taking place, and she asks him not to tell his father. In the episode, "Infected '', Carol begins caring for two girls, Lizzie (Brighton Sharbino) and Mika (Kyla Kenedy), after killing their father Ryan who was bitten by a walker. This makes Carol even more determined to keep those she cares about safe. In the episode "Isolation '', when a new disease starts spreading in the prison, two people who are infected are killed -- Karen (Melissa Ponzio) the Woodbury survivor and girlfriend of Tyreese (Chad L. Coleman), and prison newcomer David. Unknown to the other survivors, Carol killed them in their sleep and burned their bodies in the belief it would stop the infection from spreading. An enraged Tyreese finds the burned bodies and attacks Rick while Carol watches, and later demands that Rick find the killer. Despite the deaths of Karen and David, the infection continues to spread. Carol discovers Lizzie is ill, but reassures her that she will be fine. Tyreese asks Carol to look after his sister, Sasha (Sonequa Martin - Green), who is also ill, believing Carol is a very caring person, which upsets Carol even more. Later, she is shown recklessly pumping up water despite knowing walkers are nearby, and is forced to flee as Rick shoots them down to save her. Rick soon uncovers the truth and confronts Carol over the murders. In the episode, "Indifference '', Rick and Carol go on a supply run together to gather medical supplies to help Hershel. Carol talks more about her past, revealing her late husband pushed her down the stairs on at least three occasions and she learned how to fix a dislocated arm because she was too afraid to go to the hospital. They discuss the murders of Karen and David and Carol explains that, at the time, she believed killing them would stop the spread of the infection, therefore saving the lives of everyone else in the prison. During the supply run, Rick sees how different Carol has become and ultimately decides that she can not return to the prison. He sees her as a threat, but is also concerned that Tyreese will kill her when he finds out that she murdered Karen. Carol is forced to accept banishment, leaving everyone she cares about behind. In the episode "Inmates '', Carol reappears unexpectedly, saving Lizzie, Mika, and Judith from a pair of Walkers in a forest. She returns the children to Tyreese and tells him that she saw the prison fall, and, after losing sight of him and the children, managed to catch up with them. Sensing that Tyreese does not know of her involvement in Karen 's death, Carol makes up a story about how she did not return with Rick because she wanted to find more supplies for the group. Later, after taking the advice of a man who had been bitten on the side of the road, she follows Tyreese and the children as they to travel to a sanctuary named "Terminus. '' In the episode "The Grove '', Carol and her group take a break from following the train tracks to Terminus, and find a house in the middle of a pecan grove. Carol is concerned that Mika is too gentle to survive, and that Lizzie is confused about the nature of walkers, thinking that they are still people. She continues to teach Lizzie and Mika lessons of survival, despite the girls remaining adamant to surviving in their own methods. Carol and Tyreese later return from a hunting trip to find that Lizzie has killed Mika and was about to kill Judith, thinking that everyone would understand that Mika was just a changed person after reanimating as a walker. Viewing Lizzie as too dangerous to be around other people, Carol and Tyreese discuss Lizzie 's fate, and Carol executes Lizzie by shooting her in the head. Afterward, Carol confesses to Tyreese her role in killing Karen and David. Tyreese is furious, but he forgives Carol for what she did, although he says he will not forget. After burying the two girls ' bodies, Tyreese, Carol, and baby Judith restart their trek toward Terminus. In the season premiere, "No Sanctuary '', Carol and Tyreese witness a herd drawn to gunfire at Terminus and capture Martin, stopping him from setting up fireworks to divert them. Carol blows up a propane tank and infiltrates Terminus amongst the herd, enabling the imprisoned group to escape while the compound is overrun. After killing many residents, she escapes and has an emotional reunion with Daryl, Rick and the others. Rick is overwhelmed with gratitude. Rick, Carl, and Sasha are further overjoyed when she leads the group back to the cabin where Tyreese is with Judith. In the episode "Strangers '', Tyreese tells Carol that the others accept Carol 's killing of Karen and David. Both remained scarred over the deaths of Mika and Lizzie. Rick says that he owes her everything and is apologetic about banishing her and Carol tells him, "You said I could survive. You were right. '' Daryl respects Carol 's wishes not to speak about what happened to her in the events of her exile and the prison downfall. Daryl tries to reassure Carol that they can start over. Carol and Daryl later follow the car that took Beth Greene (Emily Kinney) and drives off in pursuit of it. In the episode "Slabtown '', Carol appears at the end of the episode when Beth watches her get wheeled into Grady Memorial Hospital from an unknown accident. The episode "Consumed '' focuses on Carol 's struggle and guilt over her past demons, saying she ca n't stand to watch the people she loves die. They stay at an abandoned woman 's shelter where they find a reanimated mother and daughter, and Carol moves to kill them but Daryl insists it is unnecessary. In the morning, Carol wakes up to find Daryl outside cremating the mother and child, and she goes out to thank him. A car marked with a white cross approaches them and as they flee, Carol is hit by one, knocking her unconscious. She is lifted in a stretcher by two officers. In the episode "Crossed '', Carol remains unconscious as Beth completes her plan to give Carol epinephrine after the officers agree to turn the machines off, declaring that the resources would be wasted. Rick continues on with a rescue mission, saying he owes Carol everything. In the mid-season finale "Coda '', after receiving medication, Carol is seen starting to wake up as Beth and Dawn are talking. Later, when the hostage exchange is about to take place, Carol is seen being wheeled by Beth and they hold hands as they see their group. After the exchange takes place, Beth is shot in the head by Dawn. Carol tries to comfort a distraught Daryl, telling him to put his gun down as they cry, and is helped by Tyreese to walk as they leave the hospital. The group journey to Washington, D.C. in hopes of a safe haven in "Them '', set several weeks after Beth has died and several days after Tyreese 's death. Carol tries to comfort a severely depressed Daryl and reassures Maggie of never giving up. In the episode "Remember '', in spite of some mistrust before, the stranger Aaron (Ross Marquand) recruits Carol and the others, bringing them to his community, the Alexandria Safe - Zone. Interviewed by congresswoman and town leader Deanna Monroe (Tovah Feldshuh), Carol crafts a facade of being an inexperienced apocalyptic survivor who acted as the "den mother '' to the group. She states she did laundry and gardening pre-apocalypse, and cooked for her "stupid, wonderful '' husband. She expresses that she is a people person and wants to join a junior league to help others. After everyone is interviewed, she is the last to hand over her weapons to Olivia, awkwardly removing her rifle and placing it in the bin, further displaying her "weakness. '' The next day, Carol receives her assignment as a caretaker to cook for senior citizens and busy mothers. The night after the confrontation at the town gates, Carol discusses with Daryl and Rick that they can get comfortable but not weak. In the episode "Forget '', Carol is seen outside the walls, plotting with Rick and Daryl to steal guns. When a walker comes along, she empties her clip into it to give the illusion they had gone shooting. She later steals three guns before Jessie Anderson (Alexandra Breckenridge) 's son Sam (Major Dodson) spots her. She tells him that if he mentions it to his mother, "the monsters '' will come and eat him alive as he is tied to a tree outside the walls, but if he is silent, she will give him cookies. The next day she gives a gun to Rick, but Daryl refuses to take one. In the episode "Spend '', Carol is visited by Sam several times, who continues to ask her for more cookies. Unable to turn away, Carol starts questioning Sam and learns his father, Pete (Corey Brill) 's abusive nature. Deeply concerned for his well being, she goes to the Anderson home to try and talk to Sam or Jessie, but is coldly turned away by Pete, arousing her suspicion. When Rick returns home, Carol tells him she believes that Pete is abusing Jessie and maybe Sam, and that the only way to stop it is to kill Pete. In the season finale "Conquer '', Carol pays a visit to Pete with a tuna pasta bake and asks him to check on Tara, who is still wounded. When he refuses, Carol pulls a knife on him and threatens him, saying that she can get away with claiming self - defense. Later at the town meeting, Carol is one of the people who speaks in Rick 's defense. She witnesses Rick directly address the Alexandrians when he shows up with a dead walker that he had killed inside the walls earlier that night, and how they need to change or they will die. That this point be demonstrated and their agenda advanced, Carol discreetly tells Rick not to intervene when a drunken Pete shows up with Michonne 's katana, resulting in a fatal attack on Reg. Carol witnesses Rick 's execution of Pete under Deanna 's orders and is present for Daryl and Morgan (Lennie James) 's arrival. In the episode "JSS '', Carol is forced to drop her act as a meek housewife to defend the Alexandrians against the Wolves. She disguises herself as one of them, successfully killing many of them, but comes into conflict with Morgan 's pacifist ideology. In the episode "Heads Up '', Carol, Michonne and Rick dispute with Morgan over his beliefs. Later, Carol becomes suspicious of Morgan and follows him into the townhouse, leaving Judith at Jessie 's house, and confronts him about who he is hiding inside it. In the mid-season finale "Start to Finish '', Carol fakes her injury during the herd and goes to kill the Wolf locked up with Denise. Morgan intervenes and he bodyslams her, knocking her out. The Wolf, however, escapes. In the mid-season premiere, "No Way Out '', Carol shoots the Wolf with Denise, but is shocked when she hears the Wolf, even as he is swarmed and eaten by walkers, echoing her calls for Denise to go and save herself. They fight off the remaining herd. In "Not Tomorrow Yet '', Carol counts up her total killings, over 18 people, and it heavily weighs in on her. Carol later kisses Tobin, but their connection is merely Carol 's attempt at a normal life. Later, she follows Rick 's mission to infiltrate the Saviors ' outpost, but is concerned for a pregnant Maggie, who wants to go in and fight after the alarms go off, but they are soon captured by Saviors on the outside. In "The Same Boat '', Carol and Maggie surrender to Paula 's group and become hostages. Carol retreats back to her meek facade to trick her captors, and is able to free herself and Maggie, who convinces Carol that instead of escaping they have to finish their captors. Though Carol has no hesitation killing to defend Maggie, she begs Paula -- a formerly submissive woman who became an unrepentant killer after losing her family -- to run, but is forced to impale her on a walker trap where she is killed. Carol then traps the reinforcements Paula had requested in a burning room. Daryl and the others arrive, having tracked them, and Carol has an emotional breakdown, embracing Daryl and admitting that she 's not okay. In "Twice as Far '', Carol is shown praying and smoking and attempting a relationship with Tobin, but it is useless. She has no feelings for him and sneaks out of Alexandria at night leaving Tobin a note explaining that she has to be alone, that she can no longer kill and she ca n't bear to love someone if she ca n't protect them. In "Last Day on Earth '', Morgan follows Carol 's trail, who is mentally damaged and weak. She is later found by a Savior who shoots her, and she begs him to kill her, but Morgan intervenes and kills the Savior, and they are escorted away by another soldier from a different community. In "The Well '', Carol is brought to The Kingdom for medical treatment. She meets the leader of the community, King Ezekiel, a man who proclaims himself a true king whilst keeping a pet Bengal tiger named Shiva. Carol feigns amazement and surprise at her circumstances, but later admits that she thinks Ezekiel is crazy and plans to leave. She adapts to her mild - mannered innocent act, which Ezekiel catches onto, saying he is playing the same role himself as king, as he is actually a former zookeeper who saved and tamed Shiva. Morgan escorts Carol to an abandoned house outside the Kingdom where the two part amicably. In "Hearts Still Beating '', Richard urges Carol to fight against the Saviors, but she declines. In "Rock in the Road '', Carol bumps into Kingdom survivor Ben in the woods and gives him advice on how to sneak better. In "'' New Best Friends ", she is found by Daryl, who had been staying at the Kingdom, and the two spend the evening catching up. When Daryl asks Carol why she left, she responds by saying that if she stayed and the Saviors hurt more people, she would have killed them and she did n't want that. When Carol asks about everyone back home, Daryl tells her that everyone is fine before giving a heartfelt goodbye. In "'' Bury Me Here ", Carol feels that there is more to the story and asks Morgan why Jesus brought Daryl and the others to the Kingdom. He claims that they were seeking to build a relationship with the Kingdom. When she doubts his sincerity, he tells her she 'll have to talk to Daryl (even offering to take her to Alexandria). She is let met by Morgan, Ezekiel and others who bring a wounded Benjamin to her cabin. They attempt to treat him, but Benjamin dies and Morgan storms out, despite Carol 's attempts to call him back. Morgan later reappears, revealing Richard caused Benjamin 's death so he killed him. He also reveals to Carol that Negan killed Glenn, Abraham and several others and Rick was seeking the Kingdom 's aid to fight. He claims he 's going to kill them all, but Carol stops him. She then goes to Ezekiel, apologizing for his loss before claiming that it 's time to fight. He agrees. In "The First Day of the Rest of Your Life '', Carol and older soldiers arrive at Alexandria to fight off the Saviors after Sasha 's death. In the television series, Carol Peletier has been described as taking on a "hero 's journey. '' Executive Producer Scott Gimple said that "(Carol) was strong all along. The apocalypse did n't make her strong. The apocalypse made her show herself that she 's strong. '' He then said, "When we got to Season 4, she had become pro-active. She becomes the one who 's doing things. There was dialogue to that. Now, realizing the cost of that, she 's still willing to pay the price and she 's rewarded by gaining those skills and that strength to save the people she loves. '' Created by Robert Kirkman, the writer and creator of The Walking Dead comic book series and franchise, Carol first appeared in the third issue of the comic book series, in December 2003. Despite initially appearing to have similar personality qualities such as being dependent and dominated by others, as well as coming from a background of domestic abuse, Carol in the television series is shown to be more stern and pragmatic, making questionable and difficult decisions other characters could not deal with. Robert Kirkman felt that having Carol outlive her daughter would add more dimension to the show, as well as add more flexibility to its storyline progression. "When a good idea comes up, you have to go with it, '' he articulated. "Sophia is a character who is still alive in the comic book series and who has contributed quite a bit to the overall narrative and informed a lot of story lines for a lot of different characters. Having Carol (...) survive her daughter as opposed to the other way around as it is in the comics is going to lead to interesting but different stories. '' Over the course of the series, Carol gradually builds inner strength and turns from a meek and battered housewife to a resourceful and hardened warrior. Robert Kirkman explained in an interview with The Hollywood Reporter that "Carol is her own unique character; it would be a disservice to Melissa McBride to say she 's evolved into the Carol from comics. The Carol in the TV show is a wholly original creation that we 'll continue to explore on the show to great effect. Everyone in the writers ' room loves that character, and we 're thrilled with what Melissa has brought to the table. She has definitely become a character that is one to watch, and there 's some really exciting stuff ahead for her. '' On Carol 's reasons for having to kill Lizzie and Carol 's mindset in the episode "The Grove, '' Melissa McBride explained: No, I do n't think there was really any other option. There 's a lot of nature versus nurture going on in this episode to look at. As much as it broke Carol 's heart to have to do this and to realize this had to be done. They were walking toward the flowers in that scene and Lizzie says, "You 're mad at me and I 'm sorry. '' You 'd think she 'd be sorry for stabbing her sister to death, but instead she 's sorry for pointing gun at her, so she just does n't get it. It 's not a world that 's safe for anyone. The ability to fight is n't a one - size fits all; everybody is different. Thematically, there 's a lot said about change. Something I got out of this episode for Carol, too, is that you have to change. The world will change you -- you have to adapt or die. It 's about hanging on to that part of yourself: You can change but do n't lose yourself. That 's what was happening to Carol -- her mindset -- she was so hell - bent on protecting these children that she lost a bit of something, and that was her nurturing aspect. She was missing a lot of stuff because her eyes were so set on survival. Carol is portrayed by Melissa McBride, who was announced as part of the ensemble cast of the show in late 2010. McBride did not audition for the role of Carol and was simply given the part, believing it was a short - term gig. On an interview with Conan O'Brien, she said that she believed she would be dead "within a few episodes, if not, by the end of the week. '' McBride has stated that, after receiving the part, she read the comic book up until the point where Carol dies, but was unsure if the producers would go in the direction of her comic series counterpart. She then asserted that she was glad they did not. Carol had a minimal role in the first season, as McBride was hired on the show as a co-star. She was then upgraded to a series regular position starting with the second season and became a part of the main cast in season 4, taking on a more prominent role in later seasons. Andrew Lincoln, who plays Rick Grimes, said of Carol 's development: "Melissa McBride (Carol) said maybe five sentences in the first season and now look at what she 's done. It 's wonderful when you see talent, pure talent, being recognized in this way, and even more thrilling when critically it 's recognized as well. The fans knew it quite some time ago, I think, but it 's wonderful that she had the opportunity and had that incredible episode to show what she is more than capable of doing. She 's a rare talent. '' Alongside Laurie Holden, Jeffrey DeMunn and Juan Gabriel Pareja, McBride was among the cast members of Frank Darabont 's production of The Mist to be hired for the television series. McBride felt that this was her "audition '' for The Walking Dead. Originally, Carol was supposed to be killed in the episode "Killer Within '', but the producers eventually decided against it. Melissa McBride explained in an interview with Rolling Stone: "(Producer) Glen Mazzara called to tell me that he was planning on killing Carol last season. I said, ' It 's really a shame, because there 's a lot to her. ' He had the writers all on speakerphone. He was interested in knowing what I thought. I went into saying, ' Carol is probably this woman that 's got the Avon starter kits and Tupperware starter kits in that back bedroom. She took that course with Tony Robbins. She knows she 's capable of so much more, but she 's just in that cycle. So, it 's a shame, but you 've got to do what you 've got to do. I understand '. '' Likewise, former showrunner Glen Mazzara said, "I told her that and then we came up with a better plan that was that if T - Dog had saved her, if T - Dog sacrificed his life we felt that that sacrifice was only worthwhile if Carol lived. But we did n't want to reveal that Carol was alive at the end of that episode because we were really going with the devastation of Lori 's death. And we were just embracing the mournful aspect of that last scene where Rick breaks down and we did not want to undercut it with the positive of ' oh, here is Carol '. '' He then expressed praise over Carol 's survival saying, "I will say that I think (McBride) has done a great job with Carol this season, the character has become a fan favorite, the character has really come along, she takes a lot of risks and Carol 's work when she sees the baby and then realizes that Lori has n't made it is one of the best scenes we have done all year and I give credit for that to Melissa and she is just a fantastic actress. '' McBride has received critical acclaim for her performance as Carol and won positive reviews from critics from the third season onwards. Many critics praised McBride 's performance in her character 's centered episode "The Grove '' of the fourth season. In March 2014, McBride 's performance in "The Grove '' made her TVLine 's Performer of the Week, as it concluded, saying, "Now it 's our turn to do what we must -- applaud McBride for a performance that could stand as a master class in the merits of restraint. '' Others singled out the actions of Carol in the season 5 premiere "No Sanctuary '', which earned critical praise and extremely positive fan reception. In 2014, McBride was a promising contender for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, though she did not receive a nomination. Writing for Vox, Todd VanDerWerff lauded Melissa McBride 's performance in the season five premiere "No Sanctuary, '' saying: Say what you will about The Walking Dead 's slapdash approach to character development, but McBride 's ferocious, frequently Emmy - nomination - worthy performance has made sense of a woman whom the show seemed to actively be avoiding understanding for a good long while. It began in the first half of season two, when Carol 's daughter, Sophia, disappeared and was eventually revealed to have become a zombie. In the wake of that loss, Carol began to harden herself, and McBride started giving a flinty, unapproachable performance that gained strength from moments when the old, vulnerable Carol peeked through. In "No Sanctuary, '' Carol strides around in a poncho that makes one wonder if Hollywood should n't remake Clint Eastwood 's "Man with No Name '' trilogy of Westerns starring McBride instead. She discerns that her friends are in danger thanks to some gunshots and quickly reads the situation in a remote cabin. She decides to turn a herd of zombies toward Terminus, then blows up a propane tank with a couple of well - placed shots and some fireworks. She is completely and totally dominant -- not just over her enemies (and the undead monsters who surround her) but over every other character as well. It 's impossible to watch her and not think, "Hey, let 's have some more of that. '' IndieWire singled out McBride 's performance in the entire explosive premiere, saying, "But the stand - out was McBride, whose Carol became the most interesting character on the show, simply because she was willing and able to do things other characters would n't. '' Writing about the episode "Consumed '', The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen praised McBride 's performance and characterisation as Carol, saying, "McBride is especially great; while her character 's evolution came in fits and starts, the actress manages to pull all of that together into a consistent, and endlessly fascinating, persona. '' Similarly, Rebecca Hawkes of The Daily Telegraph praised Melissa McBride, saying she was "... in a league of her own, capable of quietly dominating every scene she 's in. '' Many critics praised the character in the second half of the fifth season and onwards into season six where Carol stages herself as a meek housewife in the community of Alexandria in order to be assured that they are trustworthy, which includes stealing back the group 's guns in the process for safety precaution and protection. Tim Surette of TV.com said that "(Carol) continues to be the absolute best. '' He noted that "(Her) reaction was the most interesting one, as she seemingly went all - in on participating in the Junior League, downplaying the kind of badass she became in the woods, and fondly remembering her abusive husband (yeah right) to Alexandria leader Deanna, while also warning Rick in private that the longer the group stayed in Alexandria, the weaker they would become. I love you, Carol, and I love your huge - ass guns. '' Surette, Mark Perigald of The Boston Herald, and Amanda Michelle Steiner for People found Carol to be humorous in her lies in the episode "Remember. '' Rebecca Hawkes of The Daily Telegraph praised the character in her review for "Forget, '' saying, "Carol is proving to be one of the most complex, interesting female characters on TV right now. '' Tim Surette for TV.com reviewing "Forget '' jokingly stated: "Carol, you continue to amaze me and I am really close to asking you to prom. '' For the sixth season, Melissa McBride continued to receive praise. In particular, her work in "JSS '', "Not Tomorrow Yet '' and "The Same Boat '' were noted as standouts. Zack Handlen for The A.V. Club declared Carol "the best character '' in his review for "Not Tomorrow Yet. '' He called her "someone special, '' and said while Rick had a transformation from "idealistic lawman to ruthless killer, '' the transition was "dictated more by his position as nominal protagonist -- he swung back and forth simply because the writers needed to give him something to do. '' On the other hand, he noted Carol 's transition as unintentional and unplanned. He elaborated further saying, "She 's suffered, she 's endured, she 's lost people, and her gradual transformation seems more like a happy accident than an intentional philosophy. It 's one of the few reasons I can think of to rewatch the series; even with the mess of the second season, even with the stalling and the failure of the Governor to provide a convincing threat, even with the writers ' struggle to create engaging longform narrative in a serialized context that really only ever provided a handful of convincing individual moments, Carol more or less makes sense. '' Overall, he adulated it as a testament to Melissa McBride and her work on the show. In 2012, McBride and her fellow cast members won the Satellite Award for Best Cast -- Television Series for the third season. For her performance in season four, McBride won the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress on Television, and earned a nomination for the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Series. She was also nominated for Best TV Hero by IGN. In 2015, for her performance in the fifth season of the series, McBride won another Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress on Television, becoming the first actress to win the award multiple times and back - to - back years. She received her third nomination in 2016, becoming the first actress in the show to be nominated more than twice. She was also nominated for a Fangoria Chainsaw Award for Best Leading Actress in a Television Series. In 2017, for her performance in the seventh season, McBride received her fourth consecutive nomination for the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress on Television, the most nominations of any actress on the show. Despite constant praise from critics and heavy fan campaigning, McBride has yet to receive a nomination for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series since her breakout year in 2014 (particularly with "The Grove ''). She did however, receive nominations each year since 2014 for the EWwy Awards for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama, (later changed to "Poppy Awards '') which recognizes Emmy - snubbed favorites. She did not win her first the award in 2014, but was announced as the winner in 2015 and was nominated for the third time in a row a year later in 2016.

what is the meaning of cherubim in the bible

Cherub - wikipedia A cherub (/ ˈtʃɛrəb /; also pl. cherubim; Hebrew: כְּרוּב ‎ kərūv, pl. כְּרוּבִים ‬, kərūvîm; Latin cherub, pl. cherubin, cherubim; Syriac ܟܪܘܒܐ; Arabic قروبيين) is one of the unearthly beings who directly attend to God according to Abrahamic religions. The numerous depictions of cherubim assign to them many different roles; their original duty having been the protection of the Garden of Eden. Angelic status is not attributed to cherubim in the Old Testament (at least not explicitly); only in later sources such as De Coelesti Hierarchia are they identified as a hierarchical rank of angels. Different sources give conflicting information as to the physical appearance of cherubim. An early, traditional Jewish notion supposes that cherubim had youthful, human features (although some early midrashic literature conceives of the cherubim as non-corporeal). In the Book of Ezekiel and (at least some) Christian icons, the cherub is depicted as having a number of wing pairs, and four faces: that of a lion (representative of all wild animals), an ox (domestic animals), a human (humanity), and an eagle (birds). Their legs were straight, the soles of their feet like the hooves of a bull, gleaming like polished brass. In Western Christian tradition, cherubim have become associated with the putto and the Greco - Roman deity Cupid / Eros, resulting in depictions of cherubim as small, plump, winged boys. The origin of the symbolic cherub predates history, and points to the time when humanity began to shape its ideas of supernatural powers by mystic forms, especially the combination of parts of the strongest animals of land and air (the lion and the eagle), which resulted in numerous hybrid figures in Middle Eastern lore and architecture. One of these is the Babylonian lamassu, a protective spirit with a sphinx - like form, possessing the wings of an eagle, the body of a lion, and the head of a king. This was adopted largely in Phoenicia. The wings, because of their artistic beauty, soon became the most prominent part, and animals of various kinds were adorned with wings; consequently, wings were bestowed also upon man, thus forming the stereotypical image of an angel. Another probable source is the human - bodied Hittite griffin, which, unlike other griffins, appear almost always not as a fierce bird of prey, but seated in calm dignity, like an irresistible guardian of holy things; some have proposed that the Hittite word for "griffin '' may be cognate with cherubim. The traditional Hebrew conception of cherubim as guardians of the Garden of Eden is backed by the Semitic belief of beings of superhuman power and devoid of human feelings, whose duty it was to represent the gods, and as guardians of their sanctuaries to repel intruders; these conceptions in turn are similar to an account found on Tablet 9 of the inscriptions found at Nimrud. It has been suggested that the image of cherubim as storm winds explains why they are described as being the chariot of Yahweh in Ezekiel 's visions, the Books of Samuel, the parallel passages in the later Books of Chronicles, and passages in the early Psalms: for example "and he rode upon a cherub and did fly: and he was seen upon the wings of the wind. '' Dhorme argued in 1926 that cognates of the Hebrew noun could be found in the Akkadian words kāribu and the diminutive kurību; these terms are used to refer to intercessory beings (and statues of such beings) that plead with the gods on behalf of humanity. He thus concludes that cherubim had an intercessory role. This conclusion, based on extra-biblical sources, is still drawn upon in relatively recent commentaries and articles. Friedrich Delitzch connected the Hebrew word cherubim with the Assyrian terms kirubu (shedu - a being who is very similar to the lamassu in both appearance and role, but has the body of a bull) and karabu (' great, mighty '). Karppe states that the name Cherubim is Babylonian, and that it does not mean ' powerful ', but, however, ' propitious '. However, while the shedu were popular in Mesopotamia, archaeological remains from the Levant suggest that they were quite rare in the immediate vicinity of the Israelites. In particular, in a scene reminiscent of Ezekiel 's dream, the Megiddo Ivories depict an unknown king being carried on his throne by hybrid winged - creatures. The cherubim are the most frequently occurring heavenly creature in the Hebrew Bible, with the Hebrew word appearing 91 times. Despite these many references, the role of the cherubim is never explicitly elucidated. While Hebrew tradition must have conceived of the cherubim as guardians of the Garden of Eden (in which they guard the way to the Tree of life), they are often depicted as performing other roles; for example in the Book of Ezekiel, they transport Yahweh 's throne. The cherub who appears in the "Song of David '', a poem which occurs twice in the Hebrew Bible, in 2 Samuel 22 and Psalm 18, participates in Yahweh 's theophany and is imagined as a vehicle upon which the deity descends to earth from heaven in order to rescue the speaker (see 2 Samuel 22: 11, Psalm 18: 10). Other than in the book of Ezekiel, the Bible describes cherubim with one face, one pair of wings, and four feet. In Exodus 25: 18 - 22, Yahweh tells Moses to make multiple images of cherubim at specific points around the Ark of the Covenant. Many appearances of the words cherub and cherubim in the Bible refer to the gold cherubim images on the mercy seat of the Ark, as well as images on the curtains of the Tabernacle and in Solomon 's Temple, including two measuring ten cubits high. In Isaiah 37: 16, Hezekiah prays, addressing Yahweh as "enthroned above the cherubim '' (referring to the mercy seat). Cherubim feature at some length in the Book of Ezekiel. While they first appear in chapter one, in which they are transporting the throne of Yahweh by the river Chebar, they are not called cherubim until chapter 10. In Ezekiel 1: 5 - 11 they are described as having the likeness of a man, and having four faces: that of a man, a lion (on the right side), and ox (on the left side), and an eagle. The four faces represent the four domains of God 's rule: the man represents humanity; the lion, wild animals; the ox, domestic animals; and the eagle, birds. These faces peer out from the center of an array of four wings; these wings are joined to each other, two of these are stretched upward, and the other two cover their bodies. Under their wings are human hands; their legs are described as straight, and their feet like those of a calf, shining like polished brass. Between the creatures glowing coals that moved between them could be seen, their fire "went up and down '', and lightning burst forth from it. The cherubs also moved like flashes of lightning. In Ezekiel chapter ten, another full description of the cherubim appears with slight differences in details. Three of the four faces are the same -- man, lion and eagle -- but where chapter one has the face of an ox, Ezekiel 10: 14 says "face of a cherub. '' Ezekiel equates the cherubim of chapter ten with the living creatures of chapter one: "They were the same creatures (חיה) I had seen by the river Chebar '' (Ezekiel 10: 15) and "These were the living creatures I had seen under the God of Israel on the banks of the river Chebar '' (Ezekiel 10: 20). In Ezekiel 41: 18 - 20, they are portrayed as having two faces, although this is probably because they are depicted in profile. In the Hebrew Bible the cherubim do not have the status of angels. It is only in later sources like the De Coelesti Hierarchia (see below) that they are considered to be a division of the divine messengers. The figures painted on the walls of the Herodian reconstruction of the Temple are called "cherubim '' in the Babylonian Talmud. Many forms of Judaism include a belief in the existence of angels, including cherubim within the Jewish angelic hierarchy. The existence of angels is generally accepted within traditional rabbinic Judaism. There is, however, a wide range of beliefs within Judaism about what angels actually are and how literally one should interpret biblical passages associated with them. In Kabbalah there has long been a strong belief in cherubim, with the cherubim and other angels regarded as having mystical roles. The Zohar, a highly significant collection of books in Jewish mysticism, states that the cherubim were led by one of their number named Kerubiel. On the other end of the philosophical spectrum is Maimonides, who had a neo-Aristotelian interpretation of the Bible. Maimonides writes that to the wise man, one sees that what the Bible and Talmud refer to as "angels '' are actually allusions to the various laws of nature; they are the principles by which the physical universe operates. For all forces are angels! How blind, how perniciously blind are the naive?! If you told someone who purports to be a sage of Israel that the Deity sends an angel who enters a woman 's womb and there forms an embryo, he would think this a miracle and accept it as a mark of the majesty and power of the Deity, despite the fact that he believes an angel to be a body of fire one third the size of the entire world. All this, he thinks, is possible for God. But if you tell him that God placed in the sperm the power of forming and demarcating these organs, and that this is the angel, or that all forms are produced by the Active Intellect; that here is the angel, the "vice-regent of the world '' constantly mentioned by the sages, then he will recoil. -- The Guide for the Perplexed II: 4 For he (the naive person) does not understand that the true majesty and power are in the bringing into being of forces which are active in a thing although they can not be perceived by the senses... Thus the Sages reveal to the aware that the imaginative faculty is also called an angel; and the mind is called a cherub. How beautiful this will appear to the sophisticated mind, and how disturbing to the primitive. '' -- The Guide for the Perplexed II: 6. Maimonides says that the figures of the cherubim were placed in the sanctuary only to preserve among the people the belief in angels, there being two in order that the people might not be led to believe that they were the image of God. Cherubim are discussed within the midrash literature. The two cherubim placed by God at the entrance of paradise (Gen. iii. 24) were angels created on the third day, and therefore they had no definite shape; appearing either as men or women, or as spirits or angelic beings (Genesis Rabbah xxi., end). The cherubim were the first objects created in the universe (Tanna debe Eliyahu R., i. beginning). The following sentence of the Midrash is characteristic: "When a man sleeps, the body tells to the neshamah (soul) what it has done during the day; the neshamah then reports it to the nefesh (spirit), the nefesh to the angel, the angel to the cherub, and the cherub to the seraph, who then brings it before God '' (Leviticus Rabbah xxii.; Eccl. Rabbah x. 20). In early Jewish tradition there existed the notion that cherubim had youthful, human features. Despite this tradition, some early midrashic literature conceives of the cherubim as non-corporeal. In the first century AD, Josephus claimed: "No one can tell, or even conjecture, what was the shape of these Cherubim. '' (Antiquities: 8: 73). A midrash states that when Pharaoh pursued Israel at the Red Sea, God took a cherub from the wheels of His throne and flew to the spot, for God inspects the heavenly worlds while sitting on a cherub. The cherub, however, is "something not material, '' and is carried by God, not vice versa (Midr. Teh. xviii. 15; Canticles Rabbah i. 9). In the passages of the Talmud that describe the heavens and their inhabitants, the seraphim, ofannim, and living creatures are mentioned, but not the cherubim (Ḥag. 12b); and the ancient liturgy also mentions only these three classes. In the Talmud, Jose the Galilean holds that when the Birkat Hamazon (grace after meals) is recited by at least ten thousand seated at one meal, a special blessing, "Blessed is Ha - Shem our God, the God of Israel, who dwells between the Cherubim, '' is added to the regular liturgy. In Medieval theology, following the writings of Pseudo-Dionysius, the cherubim are the second highest rank in the angelic hierarchy, following the seraphim. Cherubim are regarded in traditional Christian angelology as angels of the second highest order of the ninefold celestial hierarchy. In Western art, cherubim became associated with the putto and the Greco - Roman god Cupid / Eros, with depictions as small, plump, winged boys. Artistic representations of cherubim in Early Christian and Byzantine art sometimes diverged from scriptural descriptions. The earliest known depiction of the tetramorph cherubim is the 5th - 6th century apse mosaic found in the Thessalonian Church of Hosios David. This mosaic is an amalgamation of Ezekiel 's visions in Ezekiel 1: 4 -- 28, Ezekiel 10: 12, Isaiah 's seraphim in Isaiah 6: 13 and the six - winged creatures of Revelation from Revelation 4: 2 -- 10. Cherubs (al - Karubiyyin), are not mentioned by name in either the Quran or canonical Sunni Hadith, but many traditions based on these sources have developed about them. In Islamic tradition, cherubs are angels who hold God 's throne. They ask God to forgive, bless and protect the righteous. In 40: 8, the Quran says: Those (angels) who carry the Throne and those around it exalt (Allah) with praise of their Lord and believe in Him and ask forgiveness for those who have believed, (saying), "Our Lord, You have encompassed all things in mercy and knowledge, so forgive those who have repented and followed Your way and protect them from the punishment of Hellfire. Also in 69: 17 - 18: And the heaven will split (open), for that Day (Judgement Day) it is infirm. And the angels are at its edges. And there will bear the Throne of your Lord above them, that Day, eight (of them). Having noticed the resemblance between those angels and the Judeo - Christian depiction of cherubs, some Muslim scholars came to the conclusion that the angelic rank responsible for holding God 's throne and praising him according to the previous verses is the cherubim. Some Hadith, considered inauthentic owing to their weak chains of narration, mention cherubs by name. Fakhr Al - Din Al - Turaihi, a Muslim scholar who lived in the 17th Century C.E, believed that the archangel Gabriel is the head of the cherubim. In Shiite tradition, a hadith tells that Muhammad heard cherubs wailing and crying with sympathy for sinners in Heaven during his night journey, known as Isra and Mi'raj. In other traditions, the cherubs are described as being so bright that the light of one of them could suffice the whole world. When Moses asked God to show him his face, he made one of his cherubs shine upon the mountain, shattering it to pieces. According to this tradition, God was showing Moses that since he could not bear to look at a cherub, he would not be able to bear looking at God.

what does the e stand for in 4l60e

Gm 4L60 - e Transmission - wikipedia The 4L60E (and similar 4L65E) is a series of automatic transmissions from General Motors. Designed for longitudinal engine configurations, the series includes 4 forward gears and 1 reverse gear. It is an evolution of the Turbo - Hydramatic 700R4, originally produced in 1982. The 4L60E and 4L65E are built at Toledo Transmission in Toledo, Ohio and have also been built at Romulus Transmission in Romulus, Michigan and Ramos Arizpe, Mexico. The two transmissions are differentiated quickly by the 6 or 7 bolt bell housings. 4L60 uses a 6.5 '' depth bell with 6 bolts and 4L65 / 70 uses a 7 '' depth bell and 7 bolts. They also have different input shafts and torque converters. 4L60s uses a 298mm input shaft. 4L65 / 4L70 uses a 300mm input shaft and converter designed for LS applications only. Only corvettes and HD vehicles came equipped with 5 pins. Gear ratios: The TH700R4 was renamed "4L60 '' (RPO MD8) following the new General Motors naming convention, when the electronic version, 4L60E (RPO M30), was phased in. This happened in 1993 for trucks, vans, and SUVs, and 1994 for rear wheel drive passenger cars. In 1996, a bolt - on bell housing was phased in (along with a six - bolt tailhousing) for S - 10 Trucks and S - 10 Blazers and beginning in 1998 for all other applications. Beginning in 1998 a new 300mm torque converter with improved higher - capacity internals, 300mm style input shaft, and 300mm style pump was also introduced on models coupled to a Gen III Small Block. The 4L60E is rated to handle up to 360 ft lbf (488 N m) of torque. It weighs 133 pounds without transmission fluid. The 4L60E family of transmissions use 2 shift solenoids, initially called Shift Solenoid A & Shift Solenoid B, later changed to comply with OBD II (On Board Diagnostics revision 2) regulations to 1 - 2 Shift Solenoid & 2 - 3 Shift solenoid. By activating and deactivating the solenoids in a predetermined pattern by the PCM, 4 distinct gear ratios can be achieved. The shift solenoid pattern, also sometimes referred to as solenoid firing order, is as follows; Applications: An updated 4L60E, the 4L65E (RPO M32), was phased in the 2001 model year when coupled behind the 6.0 Vortec. Five - pinion front and rear planetaries, along with an additional 3 / 4 clutch allowing 7 clutches in the input housing and induction hardened input shaft assembly, were improved to withstand up to 380 ft lbs (515 N m) of torque. Applications:

explain the significance of k+ in establishing resting membrane potential

Resting potential - wikipedia The relatively static membrane potential of quiescent cells is called the resting membrane potential (or resting voltage), as opposed to the specific dynamic electrochemical phenomena called action potential and graded membrane potential. Apart from the latter two, which occur in excitable cells (neurons, muscles, and some secretory cells in glands), membrane voltage in the majority of non-excitable cells can also undergo changes in response to environmental or intracellular stimuli. In principle, there is no difference between resting membrane potential and dynamic voltage changes like action potential from a biophysical point of view: all these phenomena are caused by specific changes in membrane permeabilities for potassium, sodium, calcium, and chloride ions, which in turn result from concerted changes in functional activity of various ion channels, ion transporters, and exchangers. Conventionally, resting membrane potential can be defined as a relatively stable, ground value of transmembrane voltage in animal and plant cells. Any voltage is a difference in electric potential between two points -- for example, the separation of positive and negative electric charges on opposite sides of a resistive barrier. The typical resting membrane potential of a cell arises from the separation of potassium ions from intracellular, relatively immobile anions across the membrane of the cell. Because the membrane permeability for potassium is much higher than that for other ions (disregarding voltage - gated channels at this stage), and because of the strong chemical gradient for potassium, potassium ions flow from the cytosol into the extracellular space carrying out positive charge, until their movement is balanced by build - up of negative charge on the inner surface of the membrane. Again, because of the high relative permeability for potassium, the resulting membrane potential is almost always close to the potassium reversal potential. But in order for this process to occur, a concentration gradient of potassium ions must first be set up. This work is done by the ion pumps / transporters and / or exchangers and generally is powered by ATP. In the case of the resting membrane potential across an animal cell 's plasma membrane, potassium (and sodium) gradients are established by the Na / K - ATPase (sodium - potassium pump) which transports 2 potassium ions inside and 3 sodium ions outside at the cost of 1 ATP molecule. In other cases, for example, a membrane potential may be established by acidification of the inside of a membranous compartment (such as the proton pump that generates membrane potential across synaptic vesicle membranes). In most quantitative treatments of membrane potential, such as the derivation of Goldman equation, electroneutrality is assumed; that is, that there is no measurable charge excess in any side of the membrane. So, although there is an electric potential across the membrane due to charge separation, there is no actual measurable difference in the global concentration of positive and negative ions across the membrane (as it is estimated below), that is, there is no actual measurable charge excess on either side. That occurs because the effect of charge on electrochemical potential is hugely greater than the effect of concentration so an undetectable change in concentration creates a great change in electric potential. Cell membranes are typically permeable to only a subset of ions. These usually include potassium ions, chloride ions, bicarbonate ions, and others. To simplify the description of the ionic basis of the resting membrane potential, it is most useful to consider only one ionic species at first, and consider the others later. Since trans - plasma - membrane potentials are almost always determined primarily by potassium permeability, that is where to start. The resting voltage is the result of several ion - translocating enzymes (uniporters, cotransporters, and pumps) in the plasma membrane, steadily operating in parallel, whereby each ion - translocator has its characteristic electromotive force (= reversal potential = ' equilibrium voltage '), depending on the particular substrate concentrations inside and outside (internal ATP included in case of some pumps). H exporting ATPase render the membrane voltage in plants and fungi much more negative than in the more extensively investigated animal cells, where the resting voltage is mainly determined by selective ion channels. In most neurons the resting potential has a value of approximately − 70 mV. The resting potential is mostly determined by the concentrations of the ions in the fluids on both sides of the cell membrane and the ion transport proteins that are in the cell membrane. How the concentrations of ions and the membrane transport proteins influence the value of the resting potential is outlined below. The resting potential of a cell can be most thoroughly understood by thinking of it in terms of equilibrium potentials. In the example diagram here, the model cell was given only one permeant ion (potassium). In this case, the resting potential of this cell would be the same as the equilibrium potential for potassium. However, a real cell is more complicated, having permeabilities to many ions, each of which contributes to the resting potential. To understand better, consider a cell with only two permeant ions, potassium, and sodium. Consider a case where these two ions have equal concentration gradients directed in opposite directions, and that the membrane permeabilities to both ions are equal. K leaving the cell will tend to drag the membrane potential toward E. Na entering the cell will tend to drag the membrane potential toward the reversal potential for sodium E. Since the permeabilities to both ions were set to be equal, the membrane potential will, at the end of the Na / K tug - of - war, end up halfway between E and E. As E and E were equal but of opposite signs, halfway in between is zero, meaning that the membrane will rest at 0 mV. Note that even though the membrane potential at 0 mV is stable, it is not an equilibrium condition because neither of the contributing ions is in equilibrium. Ions diffuse down their electrochemical gradients through ion channels, but the membrane potential is upheld by continual K influx and Na efflux via ion transporters. Such situation with similar permeabilities for counter-acting ions, like potassium and sodium in animal cells, can be extremely costly for the cell if these permeabilities are relatively large, as it takes a lot of ATP energy to pump the ions back. Because no real cell can afford such equal and large ionic permeabilities at rest, resting potential of animal cells is determined by predominant high permeability to potassium and adjusted to the required value by modulating sodium and chloride permeabilities and gradients. In a healthy animal cell Na permeability is about 5 % of the K permeability or even less, whereas the respective reversal potentials are + 60 mV for sodium (E) and − 80 mV for potassium (E). Thus the membrane potential will not be right at E, but rather depolarized from E by an amount of approximately 5 % of the 140 mV difference between E and E. Thus, the cell 's resting potential will be about − 73 mV. In a more formal notation, the membrane potential is the weighted average of each contributing ion 's equilibrium potential. The size of each weight is the relative conductance of each ion. In the normal case, where three ions contribute to the membrane potential: where For determination of membrane potentials, the two most important types of membrane ion transport proteins are ion channels and ion transporters. Ion channel proteins create paths across cell membranes through which ions can passively diffuse without direct expenditure of metabolic energy. They have selectivity for certain ions, thus, there are potassium -, chloride -, and sodium - selective ion channels. Different cells and even different parts of one cell (dendrites, cell bodies, nodes of Ranvier) will have different amounts of various ion transport proteins. Typically, the amount of certain potassium channels is most important for control of the resting potential (see below). Some ion pumps such as the Na+ / K+ - ATPase are electrogenic, that is, they produce charge imbalance across the cell membrane and can also contribute directly to the membrane potential. Most pumps use metabolic energy (ATP) to function. For most animal cells potassium ions (K) are the most important for the resting potential. Due to the active transport of potassium ions, the concentration of potassium is higher inside cells than outside. Most cells have potassium - selective ion channel proteins that remain open all the time. There will be net movement of positively charged potassium ions through these potassium channels with a resulting accumulation of excess negative charge inside of the cell. The outward movement of positively charged potassium ions is due to random molecular motion (diffusion) and continues until enough excess negative charge accumulates inside the cell to form a membrane potential which can balance the difference in concentration of potassium between inside and outside the cell. "Balance '' means that the electrical force (potential) that results from the build - up of ionic charge, and which impedes outward diffusion, increases until it is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the tendency for outward diffusive movement of potassium. This balance point is an equilibrium potential as the net transmembrane flux (or current) of K is zero. A good approximation for the equilibrium potential of a given ion only needs the concentrations on either side of the membrane and the temperature. It can be calculated using the Nernst equation: where Potassium equilibrium potentials of around − 80 millivolts (inside negative) are common. Differences are observed in different species, different tissues within the same animal, and the same tissues under different environmental conditions. Applying the Nernst Equation above, one may account for these differences by changes in relative K concentration or differences in temperature. For common usage the Nernst equation is often given in a simplified form by assuming typical human body temperature (37 ° C), reducing the constants and switching to Log base 10. (The units used for concentration are unimportant as they will cancel out into a ratio). For Potassium at normal body temperature one may calculate the equilibrium potential in millivolts as: Likewise the equilibrium potential for sodium (Na) at normal human body temperature is calculated using the same simplified constant. You can calculate E assuming an outside concentration, (K), of 10mM and an inside concentration, (K), of 100mM. For chloride ions (Cl) the sign of the constant must be reversed (− 61.54 mV). If calculating the equilibrium potential for calcium (Ca) the 2 + charge halves the simplified constant to 30.77 mV. If working at room temperature, about 21 ° C, the calculated constants are approximately 58 mV for K and Na, − 58 mV for Cl and 29 mV for Ca. At physiological temperature, about 29.5 ° C, and physiological concentrations (which vary for each ion), the calculated potentials are approximately 67 mV for Na, − 90 mV for K, − 86 mV for Cl and 123 mV for Ca. The resting membrane potential is not an equilibrium potential as it relies on the constant expenditure of energy (for ionic pumps as mentioned above) for its maintenance. It is a dynamic diffusion potential that takes this mechanism into account -- wholly unlike the equilibrium potential, which is true no matter the nature of the system under consideration. The resting membrane potential is dominated by the ionic species in the system that has the greatest conductance across the membrane. For most cells this is potassium. As potassium is also the ion with the most negative equilibrium potential, usually the resting potential can be no more negative than the potassium equilibrium potential. The resting potential can be calculated with the Goldman - Hodgkin - Katz voltage equation using the concentrations of ions as for the equilibrium potential while also including the relative permeabilities of each ionic species. Under normal conditions, it is safe to assume that only potassium, sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl) ions play large roles for the resting potential: This equation resembles the Nernst equation, but has a term for each permeant ion. Also, z has been inserted into the equation, causing the intracellular and extracellular concentrations of Cl to be reversed relative to K and Na, as chloride 's negative charge is handled by inverting the fraction inside the logarithmic term. * E is the membrane potential, measured in volts * R, T, and F are as above * P is the relative permeability of ion s * (s) is the concentration of ion s in compartment Y as above. Another way to view the membrane potential, considering instead the conductance of the ion channels rather than the permeability of the membrane, is using the Millman equation (also called the Chord Conductance Equation): or reformulated where g is the combined conductance of all ionic species, again in arbitrary units. The latter equation portrays the resting membrane potential as a weighted average of the reversal potentials of the system, where the weights are the relative conductances of each ion species (g / g). During the action potential, these weights change. If the conductances of Na and Cl are zero, the membrane potential reduces to the Nernst potential for K (as g = g). Normally, under resting conditions g and g are not zero, but they are much smaller than g, which renders E close to E. Medical conditions such as hyperkalemia in which blood serum potassium (which governs (K)) is changed are very dangerous since they offset E, thus affecting E. This may cause arrhythmias and cardiac arrest. The use of a bolus injection of potassium chloride in executions by lethal injection stops the heart by shifting the resting potential to a more positive value, which depolarizes and contracts the cardiac cells permanently, not allowing the heart to repolarize and thus enter diastole to be refilled with blood. Although the GHK voltage equation and Millman 's equation are related, they are not equivalent. The critical difference is that Millman 's equation assumes the current - voltage relationship to be ohmic, whereas the GHK voltage equation takes into consideration the small, instantaneous rectifications predicted by the GHK flux equation caused by the concentration gradient of ions. Thus, a more accurate estimate of membrane potential can be calculated using the GHK equation than with Millman 's equation. In some cells, the membrane potential is always changing (such as cardiac pacemaker cells). For such cells there is never any "rest '' and the "resting potential '' is a theoretical concept. Other cells with little in the way of membrane transport functions that change with time have a resting membrane potential that can be measured by inserting an electrode into the cell. Transmembrane potentials can also be measured optically with dyes that change their optical properties according to the membrane potential. Resting currents in nerves were measured and described by Julius Bernstein in 1902 where he proposed a "Membrane Theory '' that explained the resting potential of nerve and muscle as a diffusion potential.

the rise of afrikaner nationalism in south africa

Afrikaner nationalism - Wikipedia Afrikaner nationalism is a political ideology that was born in the late nineteenth century among Afrikaners in South Africa; it was strongly influenced by anti-British sentiments that grew strong among the Afrikaners, especially because of the Boer Wars. According to historian T. Dunbar Moodie, Afrikaner nationalism could be described as a kind of civil religion that combined the history of the Afrikaners, the formalised language (Afrikaans) and Afrikaner Calvinism as key symbols. A major proponent of the ideology was the secret Broederbond organisation and the National Party that ruled the country from 1948 to 1994. Other organisations aligned with Afrikaner nationalist ideology were the Federation of Afrikaans Cultural Organisations (Federasie van Afrikaanse Kultuurvereniginge, FAK), the Institute for Christian National Education and the White Workers ' Protection Association. One of the first champions of Afrikaner nationalism was ordained minister Stephen Du Toit of the Dutch Reformed Church, who was also one of the founding members of the Broederbond as well as the publisher of Die Afrikaanse Patriot newspaper. In his writings, Du Toit put forward the notion that Afrikaners were a distinct nationality with a fatherland (South Africa) and their own language (Afrikaans) and that the volk 's destiny was to rule South Africa. Religion, especially Afrikaner Calvinism, played an instrumental role in the development of Afrikaner nationalism and consequently the apartheid ideology. The Dutch Reformed Churches of South Africa were involved throughout the 18th century in a constant battle against modernism and modernity. They aligned with the conservative views of Abraham Kuyper, who emphasised God 's authority over separate spheres of creation. These spheres, for example historical nations, had to be preserved and protected from liberalism and revolutionary ideologies. Kuyper also rejected the Enlightenment with its emphasis on human rationality and individuality and thought that it had led to the ideals of equality, fraternity and freedom of the French Revolution. In his view, all these ideas challenged God 's authority. Afrikaner theologians worked from this foundation and defined a number of political, economic and cultural spheres that had their separate, independent destinies. The Afrikaner history was also reinterpreted through a Christian - nationalistic ideology. Already Paul Kruger, president of Transvaal and a founding member of the Gereformeerde Kerke van Zuid - Afrika or ' Dopper Church ', referred to it as "sacred history '' with volk as the chosen people, where the Great Trek was seen as the Exodus from the British rule in Cape to the Promised Land of the Boer Republics. During the 1930s and 1940s many intellectuals partook in the theoretical formulation of Afrikaner nationalism. Nicolaas Johannes Diederichs, who later became South Africa 's president, formulated Afrikaner nationalistic ideology in his book "Nationalism as a Worldview and Its Relationship to Internationalism '' through Kuyperian theology. According to Diederichs, God created nations and these nations had a God - ordained right to exist as separate entities. Therefore, Afrikaners could refuse a "British - designed '' South Africa in which they would co-exist with other ethnic groups as a minority. Geoffrey Cronje developed these ideas further and argued, that as long as the Afrikaner existed as a minority in a racially and culturally different environment, they could not allow the black majority to develop economically or politically, since this would lead to black domination. He acknowledged this as unjust and unchristian, and as a solution offered total segregation, that is apartheid, between the blacks and the whites. The Afrikaner nationalist intelligentsia, along with the National Party and the Broederbond, ended up formulating a radical nationalistic policy which rejected British hegemony in economics and politics as well as ethnic mengelmoes ("mess '') induced by the transportation of black migrant workers around the country. Their solution was a drastic reordering of the South African demographic map with a dominant Afrikaner Republic not influenced by British imperialism. However, because of the opposition of the urban middle class they did not propose a return to conservative, pre-modern Boer pastoralism. Initially during the 19th century, the position of the Dutch Reformed Church on the nationalist issue was more pragmatic than ideological and, for example, in South Africa, racial segregation was accepted as a harmonious way of administering heterogeneous community. The economic depression in 1905 -- 09 changed this attitude when a new group of "poor whites '', mostly Afrikaners, emerged. By 1939 the racial segregation had been made into a church dogma: The Afrikaner state as a Christian civilisation thus had a divine right to stay separate and rule the surrounding "heathen '' nations. Afrikaner nationalism and Nazism had common roots in religio - nationalism and Pan Germanism and therefore the racist elements of the former were easily assimilated into the earlier. For example, Afrikaner criticism of the capitalistic system inter-war period was quite anti-Semitic. Many Afrikaner nationalists also viewed a Nazi German style strong government as necessary to protect the volk. Just before, and during World War II, these sentiments led to the appearance of a number of pro-Nazi Afrikaner nationalistic organisations, such as the Ossewabrandwag and its paramilitary wing Stormjaers. J.B.M. Hertzog led the National Party to the 1915 and 1920 elections under the slogan "South Africa first '' to create a South Africa independent from the British influence. In the 1924 elections he defeated the South African Party led by Jan Smuts, after Smuts had used force to end the Rand Revolt of white miners in 1922, and stayed in power for 15 years in a coalition government with the Labour Party. During his reign, he steadily promoted Afrikaner nationalism while deepening the racial segregation in the country. During the 1930s a group of Broederbond members shaped the Afrikaner nationalistic ideology, by trying to create a common "Christian - nationalistic '' identity for all white, Afrikaans speaking South Africans as well as introducing the idea of Volkskapitalisme (people 's capitalism) that tried to take control from the "British '' or "Jewish '' foreign economic system and to adapt it to Afrikaner 's national character. Volkskapitalisme strived to improve the economic conditions of the Afrikaners who in general at the time were less well - off than the English - speaking whites in South Africa. In practice the program consisted of utilising the Afrikaner capital into new and existing Afrikaner businesses. Although volkskapitalisme managed to develop some Afrikaner businesses, such as Sanlam and Volkskas into corporate giants that still have a central role in South African economy, in the end the economic benefits for the majority of the poor Afrikaners were slim. Despite the efforts of the Broederbond activists to "Afrikanerise '' South Africa, the uptake of this new Christian - nationalistic Afrikaner identity was slow and unenthusiastic. According to electoral studies, the majority of the target group (white, Afrikaans speaking South Africans) did not vote for the Afrikaner nationalistic National Party until the early 1960s. During the 1930s and 1940s Afrikaner nationalists constructed an "imagined community '' of the Afrikaner with maps and narratives of its heroic past, moral purpose and a place among other nations. These ideas were spread through new emerging Afrikaner print media, such as the Christian - nationalistic journal Koers (Direction) and a more popularised Inspan, magazines such as Huisgenoot, books published by the Burger Boekhandel publishing house and the newspapers Die Burger, Transvaler and Volksblad. The usage of Afrikaans instead of Dutch was aggressively promoted throughout the 1920s especially in white schools. The Bible was translated into Afrikaans by J. D. du Toit, E. E. van Rooyen, J. D. Kestell, H. C. M. Fourie, and BB Keet in 1933. The South African opposition during the World War II of the country 's involvement in the war against Nazi Germany led to the National Party 's rise to power in the 1948 elections, to the implementation of the apartheid politics in the country and finally to the culmination of Afrikaner nationalistic mobilisation in 1961 when the country resigned from the British Commonwealth and became a republic. The National Party government implemented, alongside apartheid, a program of social conservatism. Pornography, gambling, and other such vices were banned because they were thought to be elements contrary to the "Afrikaner way of life ''. Even adultery and attempted adultery were banned (by the Immorality Amendment Act, Act No 23 of 1957). During the 1960s a split emerged in the Afrikaner electorate over the issue of how to preserve a distinct identity in a multi-ethnic society: one faction insisted on preserving the national identity through strict isolation, while others thought that such barriers needed to be relaxed. As a sign of this, in the 1970 election a radical splinter group from the National Party, Herstigte Nasionale Party, got 3.59 % of the vote compared to the National Party 's 54.86 %. The gulf widened further during the 1980s partly because of the international pressure against apartheid. One notable Afrikaner nationalist organisation was the Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB), a political and former paramilitary group. The group had the support of an estimated 5 -- 7 percent of white South Africans in 1988. The organisation was beset by personal and militant scandals in the late 1980s and early 1990s that led to diminished support. This organisation was however never able to garner substantial Afrikaner support, which was held by the National Party until its dissolution. In the 1990s the National Party acknowledged the failure of its ethnic project and under the leadership of F. W. De Klerk dismantled the political system set up from 1948. After apartheid, Afrikaner nationalism has lost most of its support. Although it has mostly disappeared from publicity, Afrikaner nationalism is kept alive through such political initiatives as the Cyber Republic of the Boer Nation, which claims to be "the only white indigenous tribe in Southern Africa '' and has tried to appeal to the UN Working Group on Indigenous Populations for the protection of cultural, linguistic and religious rights of people around the world. Also some marginal right wing political parties, such as the Herstigte Nasionale Party, still declare their goal to be the "unashamed promotion of Afrikaner nationalism ''. Front National (South Africa); a political party in South Africa has also emerged in the post-apartheid years harbouring Afrikaner Nationalism. the party is linked to South Africa Today a media outlet that reports about South African farm attacks and other things that affect white South Africans. The tradition of Christian - national education is continued by the Movement for Christian - National Education (Afrikaans: Beweging vir Christelik - Volkseie Onderwys) which educates the youth of the Boere - Afrikaner volk in the Afrikaner Calvinist tradition, Boer culture and history as well as in Afrikaans language. The Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging had been largely inactive in South Africa since the demise of apartheid, although in 2008, the organisation was reactivated and is actively seeking an Afrikaner secessionist state within South Africa. On 3 April 2010, Eugene Terre'Blanche, leader of the AWB, was murdered on his farm.

where did the big five personality traits come from

Big Five personality traits - wikipedia The Big Five personality traits, also known as the five factor model (FFM), is a model based on common language descriptors of personality. When factor analysis (a statistical technique) is applied to personality survey data, some words used to describe aspects of personality are often applied to the same person. For example, someone described as "conscientious '' is more likely to be described as "always prepared '' rather than "messy ''. This theory is based therefore on the association between words but not on neuropsychological experiments. This theory uses descriptors of common language and therefore suggests five broad dimensions commonly used to describe the human personality and psyche. The five factors have been defined as openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism, often represented by the acronyms OCEAN or CANOE. Beneath each proposed global factor, a number of correlated and more specific primary factors are claimed. For example, extraversion is said to include such related qualities as gregariousness, assertiveness, excitement seeking, warmth, activity, and positive emotions. That these factors can be found is consistent with the lexical hypothesis: firstly that those personality characteristics that are most important in peoples ' lives will eventually become a part of their language; secondly that more important personality characteristics are more likely to be encoded into language as a single word. Five factors People who do n't exhibit a clear tendency towards specific characteristics chosen from the above - mentioned related pairs in all five dimensions are (considered) adaptable, moderate and reasonable personalities, but can be perceived as unprincipled, inscrutable and calculating. The Big five personality traits was the model to comprehend the relationship between personality and academic behaviors. This model was defined by several independent sets of researchers. These researchers began by studying relationships between a large number of known personality traits. They reduced the lists of these traits (arbitrarily) by 5 -- 10 fold and then used factor analysis to group the remaining traits (using data mostly based upon people 's estimations, in self - report questionnaire and peer ratings) in order to find the underlying factors of personality. The initial model was advanced by Ernest Tupes and Raymond Christal in 1961, but failed to reach an academic audience until the 1980s. In 1990, J.M. Digman advanced his five - factor model of personality, which Lewis Goldberg extended to the highest level of organization. These five overarching domains have been found to contain and subsume most known personality traits and are assumed to represent the basic structure behind all personality traits. At least four sets of researchers have worked independently for decades on this problem and have identified generally the same five factors: Tupes and Cristal were first, followed by Goldberg at the Oregon Research Institute, Cattell at the University of Illinois, and Costa and McCrae at the National Institutes of Health. These four sets of researchers used somewhat different methods in finding the five traits, and thus each set of five factors has somewhat different names and definitions. However, all have been found to be highly inter-correlated and factor - analytically aligned. Studies indicate that the Big Five traits are not nearly as powerful in predicting and explaining actual behavior as are the more numerous facets or primary traits. Each of the Big Five personality traits contains two separate, but correlated, aspects reflecting a level of personality below the broad domains but above the many facet scales that are also part of the Big Five. The aspects are labeled as follows: Volatility and Withdrawal for Neuroticism; Enthusiasm and Assertiveness for Extraversion; Intellect and Openness for Openness / Intellect; Industriousness and Orderliness for Conscientiousness; and Compassion and Politeness for Agreeableness. Openness is a general appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, imagination, curiosity, and variety of experience. People who are open to experience are intellectually curious, open to emotion, sensitive to beauty and willing to try new things. They tend to be, when compared to closed people, more creative and more aware of their feelings. They are also more likely to hold unconventional beliefs. A particular individual, however, may have a high overall openness score and be interested in learning and exploring new cultures but have no great interest in art or poetry. Conscientiousness is a tendency to display self - discipline, act dutifully, and strive for achievement against measures or outside expectations. It is related to the way in which people control, regulate, and direct their impulses. High scores on conscientiousness indicate a preference for planned rather than spontaneous behavior. The average level of conscientiousness rises among young adults and then declines among older adults. Extraversion is characterized by breadth of activities (as opposed to depth), surgency from external activity / situations, and energy creation from external means. The trait is marked by pronounced engagement with the external world. Extraverts enjoy interacting with people, and are often perceived as full of energy. They tend to be enthusiastic, action - oriented individuals. They possess high group visibility, like to talk, and assert themselves. Introverts have lower social engagement and energy levels than extraverts. They tend to seem quiet, low - key, deliberate, and less involved in the social world. Their lack of social involvement should not be interpreted as shyness or depression; instead they are more independent of their social world than extraverts. Introverts need less stimulation than extraverts and more time alone. This does not mean that they are unfriendly or antisocial; rather, they are reserved in social situations. The agreeableness trait reflects individual differences in general concern for social harmony. Agreeable individuals value getting along with others. They are generally considerate, kind, generous, trusting and trustworthy, helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with others. Agreeable people also have an optimistic view of human nature. Disagreeable individuals place self - interest above getting along with others. They are generally unconcerned with others ' well - being, and are less likely to extend themselves for other people. Sometimes their skepticism about others ' motives causes them to be suspicious, unfriendly, and uncooperative. Because agreeableness is a social trait, research has shown that one 's agreeableness positively correlates with the quality of relationships with one 's team members. Agreeableness also positively predicts transformational leadership skills. In a study conducted among 169 participants in leadership positions in a variety of professions, individuals were asked to take a personality test and have two evaluations completed by directly supervised subordinates. Leaders with high levels of agreeableness were more likely to be considered transformational rather than transactional. Although the relationship was not strong, (r = 0.32, β = 0.28, p < 0.01) it was the strongest of the Big Five traits. However, the same study showed no predictive power of leadership effectiveness as evaluated by the leader 's direct supervisor. Agreeableness, however, has been found to be negatively related to transactional leadership in the military. A study of Asian military units showed leaders with a high level of agreeableness to be more likely to receive a low rating for transformational leadership skills. Therefore, with further research organizations may be able to determine an individual 's potential for performance based on their personality traits. Neuroticism is the tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, or depression. It is sometimes called emotional instability, or is reversed and referred to as emotional stability. According to Eysenck 's (1967) theory of personality, neuroticism is interlinked with low tolerance for stress or aversive stimuli. Those who score high in neuroticism are emotionally reactive and vulnerable to stress. They are more likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult. Their negative emotional reactions tend to persist for unusually long periods of time, which means they are often in a bad mood. For instance, neuroticism is connected to a pessimistic approach toward work, confidence that work impedes personal relationships, and apparent anxiety linked with work. Furthermore, those who score high on neuroticism may display more skin - conductance reactivity than those who score low on neuroticism. These problems in emotional regulation can diminish the ability of a person scoring high on neuroticism to think clearly, make decisions, and cope effectively with stress. Lacking contentment in one 's life achievements can correlate with high neuroticism scores and increase one 's likelihood of falling into clinical depression. Moreover, individuals high in neuroticism tend to experience more negative life events, but neuroticism also changes in response to positive and negative life experiences. At the other end of the scale, individuals who score low in neuroticism are less easily upset and are less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm, emotionally stable, and free from persistent negative feelings. Freedom from negative feelings does not mean that low - scorers experience a lot of positive feelings. Neuroticism is similar but not identical to being neurotic in the Freudian sense (i.e., neurosis.) Some psychologists prefer to call neuroticism by the term emotional instability to differentiate it from the term neurotic in a career test. In 1884, Sir Francis Galton was the first person who is known to have investigated the hypothesis that it is possible to derive a comprehensive taxonomy of human personality traits by sampling language: the lexical hypothesis. In 1936, Gordon Allport and S. Odbert put Sir Francis Galton 's hypothesis into practice by extracting 4,504 adjectives which they believed were descriptive of observable and relatively permanent traits from the dictionaries at that time. In 1940, Raymond Cattell retained the adjectives, and eliminated synonyms to reduce the total to 171. He constructed a self - report instrument for the clusters of personality traits he found from the adjectives, which he called the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire. Based on a subset of only 20 of the 36 dimensions that Cattell had originally discovered, Ernest Tupes and Raymond Christal claimed to have found just five broad factors which they labeled: "surgency '', "agreeableness '', "dependability '', "emotional stability '', and "culture ''. Warren Norman subsequently relabeled "dependability '' as "conscientiousness ''. For the next two decades, the changing zeitgeist made publication of personality research difficult. In his 1968 book Personality and Assessment, Walter Mischel asserted that personality instruments could not predict behavior with a correlation of more than 0.3. Social psychologists like Mischel argued that attitudes and behavior were not stable, but varied with the situation. Predicting behavior from personality instruments was claimed to be impossible. However, it has subsequently been demonstrated empirically that the magnitude of the predictive correlations with real - life criteria can increase significantly under stressful emotional conditions (as opposed to the typical administration of personality measures under neutral emotional conditions), thereby accounting for a significantly greater proportion of the predictive variance. In addition, emerging methodologies challenged this point of view during the 1980s. Instead of trying to predict single instances of behavior, which was unreliable, researchers found that they could predict patterns of behavior by aggregating large numbers of observations. As a result, correlations between personality and behavior increased substantially, and it was clear that "personality '' did in fact exist. Personality and social psychologists now generally agree that both personal and situational variables are needed to account for human behavior. Trait theories became justified, and there was a resurgence of interest in this area. In the 1980s, Lewis Goldberg started his own lexical project, emphasizing five broad factors once again. He later coined the term "Big Five '' as a label for the factors. In a 1980 symposium in Honolulu, four prominent researchers, Lewis Goldberg, Naomi Takemoto - Chock, Andrew Comrey, and John M. Digman, reviewed the available personality instruments of the day. This event was followed by widespread acceptance of the five - factor model among personality researchers during the 1980s. Peter Saville and his team included the five - factor "Pentagon '' model with the original OPQ in 1984. Pentagon was closely followed by the NEO five - factor personality inventory, published by Costa and McCrae in 1985. However, the methodology employed in constructing the NEO instrument has been subjected to critical scrutiny (see section below). There are debates between researchers of temperament and researchers of personality as to whether or not biologically - based differences define a concept of temperament or a part of personality. The presence of such differences in pre-cultural individuals (such as animals or young infants) suggests that they belong to temperament since personality is a socio - cultural concept. For this reason developmental psychologists generally interpret individual differences in children as an expression of temperament rather than personality. Some researchers argue that temperaments and personality traits are age - specific manifestations of virtually the same latent qualities. Some believe that early childhood temperaments may become adolescent and adult personality traits as individuals ' basic genetic characteristics actively, reactively, and passively interact with their changing environments. Researchers of adult temperament point out that, similarly to sex, age and mental illness, temperament is based on biochemical systems whereas personality is a product of socialization of an individual possessing these four types of features. Temperament interacts with social - cultural factors, but still can not be controlled or easily changed by these factors. Therefore, it is suggested that temperament should be kept as an independent concept for further studies and not be conflated with personality. Moreover, temperament refers to dynamical features of behaviour (energetic, tempo, sensitivity and emotionality - related), whereas personality is to be considered a psycho - social construct comprising the content characteristics of human behavior (such as values, attitudes, habits, preferences, personal history, self - image). Temperament researchers point out that the lack of attention to extant temperament research by the developers of the Big Five model lead to an overlap between its dimensions and dimensions described in multiple temperament models much earlier. For example, neuroticism reflects the traditional temperament dimension of emotionality, extraversion the temperament dimension of "energy '' or "activity '', and openness to experience the temperament dimension of sensation - seeking. Genetically informative research, including twin studies, suggest that heritability and environmental factors both influence all five factors to the same degree. Among four recent twin studies, the mean percentage for heritability was calculated for each personality and it was concluded that heritability influenced the five factors broadly. The self - report measures were as follows: openness to experience was estimated to have a 57 % genetic influence, extraversion 54 %, conscientiousness 49 %, neuroticism 48 %, and agreeableness 42 %. The Big Five personality traits have been assessed in some non-human species but methodology is debatable. In one series of studies, human ratings of chimpanzees using the Hominoid Personality Questionnaire, revealed factors of extraversion, conscientiousness and agreeableness -- as well as an additional factor of dominance -- across hundreds of chimpanzees in zoological parks, a large naturalistic sanctuary, and a research laboratory. Neuroticism and openness factors were found in an original zoo sample, but were not replicated in a new zoo sample or in other settings (perhaps reflecting the design of the CPQ). A study review found that markers for the three dimensions extraversion, neuroticism, and agreeableness were found most consistently across different species, followed by openness; only chimpanzees showed markers for conscientious behavior. Research on the Big Five, and personality in general, has focused primarily on individual differences in adulthood, rather than in childhood and adolescence. Yet, recent studies have begun to explore the developmental origins and trajectories of the Big Five among children and adolescents. Contrary to some researchers who question whether children have stable personality traits, Big Five or otherwise, most researchers contend that there are significant psychological differences between children that are associated with relatively stable, distinct, and salient behavior patterns. Some of these differences are evident at, if not before, birth. For example, both parents and researchers recognize that some newborn infants are peaceful and easily soothed while others are comparatively fussy and hard to calm. The structure, manifestations, and development of the Big Five in childhood and adolescence has been studied using a variety of methods, including parent - and teacher - ratings, preadolescent and adolescent self - and peer - ratings, and observations of parent - child interactions. Results from these studies support the relative stability of personality traits across the human lifespan, at least from preschool age through adulthood. More specifically, research suggests that four of the Big Five -- namely Extraversion, Neuroticism, Conscientiousness, and Agreeableness - reliably describe personality differences in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. However, some evidence suggests that Openness may not be a fundamental, stable part of childhood personality. Although some researchers have found that Openness in children and adolescents relates to attributes such as creativity, curiosity, imagination, and intellect, many researchers have failed to find distinct individual differences in Openness in childhood and early adolescence. Potentially, Openness may (a) manifest in unique, currently unknown ways in childhood or (b) may only manifest as children develop socially and cognitively. Other studies have found evidence for all of the Big Five traits in childhood and adolescence as well as two other child - specific traits: Irritability and Activity. Despite these specific differences, the majority of findings suggest that personality traits -- particularly Extraversion, Neuroticism, Conscientiousness, and Agreeableness - are evident in childhood and adolescence and are associated with distinct social - emotional patterns of behavior that are largely consistent with adult manifestations of those same personality traits. In Big Five studies, extraversion has been associated with surgency. Children with high Extraversion are energetic, talkative, social, and dominant with children and adults; whereas, children with low Extraversion tend to be quiet, calm, inhibited, and submissive to other children and adults. Individual differences in Extraversion first manifest in infancy as varying levels of positive emotionality. These differences in turn predict social and physical activity during later childhood and may represent, or be associated with, the behavioral activation system. In children, Extraversion / Positive Emotionality includes four sub-traits: three traits that are similar to the previously described traits of temperament -- activity, sociability, shyness, and the trait of dominance. Many studies of longitudinal data, which correlate people 's test scores over time, and cross-sectional data, which compare personality levels across different age groups, show a high degree of stability in personality traits during adulthood, similarly to longitudinal research in temperament for the same traits. It is shown that the personality stabilizes for working - age individuals within about four years after starting working. There is also little evidence that adverse life events can have any significant impact on the personality of individuals. More recent research and meta - analyses of previous studies, however, indicate that change occurs in all five traits at various points in the lifespan. The new research shows evidence for a maturation effect. On average, levels of agreeableness and conscientiousness typically increase with time, whereas extraversion, neuroticism, and openness tend to decrease. Research has also demonstrated that changes in Big Five personality traits depend on the individual 's current stage of development. For example, levels of agreeableness and conscientiousness demonstrate a negative trend during childhood and early adolescence before trending upwards during late adolescence and into adulthood. In addition to these group effects, there are individual differences: different people demonstrate unique patterns of change at all stages of life. In addition, some research (Fleeson, 2001) suggests that the Big Five should not be conceived of as dichotomies (such as extraversion vs. introversion) but as continua. Each individual has the capacity to move along each dimension as circumstances (social or temporal) change. He is or she is therefore not simply on one end of each trait dichotomy but is a blend of both, exhibiting some characteristics more often than others: Research regarding personality with growing age has suggested that as individuals enter their elder years (79 -- 86), those with lower IQ see a raise in extraversion, but a decline in conscientiousness and physical well being. Research by Cobb - Clark and Schurer indicates that personality traits are generally stable among adult workers. The research done on personality also mirrors previous results on locus of control. Cross-cultural research has shown some patterns of gender differences on responses to the NEO-PI - R and the Big Five Inventory. For example, women consistently report higher Neuroticism, Agreeableness, warmth (an extraversion facet) and openness to feelings, and men often report higher assertiveness (a facet of extraversion) and openness to ideas as assessed by the NEO-PI - R. A study of gender differences in 55 nations using the Big Five Inventory found that women tended to be somewhat higher than men in neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. The difference in neuroticism was the most prominent and consistent, with significant differences found in 49 of the 55 nations surveyed. Gender differences in personality traits are largest in prosperous, healthy, and more gender - egalitarian cultures. A plausible explanation for this is that acts by women in individualistic, egalitarian countries are more likely to be attributed to their personality, rather than being attributed to ascribed gender roles within collectivist, traditional countries. Differences in the magnitude of sex differences between more or less developed world regions were due to differences between men, not women, in these respective regions. That is, men in highly developed world regions were less neurotic, extraverted, conscientious and agreeable compared to men in less developed world regions. Women, on the other hand tended not to differ in personality traits across regions. The authors of this study speculated that resource - poor environments (that is, countries with low levels of development) may inhibit the development of gender differences, whereas resource - rich environments facilitate them. This may be because males require more resources than females in order to reach their full developmental potential. The authors also argued that due to different evolutionary pressures, men may have evolved to be more risk taking and socially dominant, whereas women evolved to be more cautious and nurturing. Ancient hunter - gatherer societies may have been more egalitarian than later agriculturally oriented societies. Hence, the development of gender inequalities may have acted to constrain the development of gender differences in personality that originally evolved in hunter - gatherer societies. As modern societies have become more egalitarian, again, it may be that innate sex differences are no longer constrained and hence manifest more fully than in less - developed cultures. Currently, this hypothesis remains untested, as gender differences in modern societies have not been compared with those in hunter - gatherer societies. Frank Sulloway argues that firstborns are more conscientious, more socially dominant, less agreeable, and less open to new ideas compared to laterborns. Large - scale studies using random samples and self - report personality tests, however, have found milder effects than Sulloway claimed, or no significant effects of birth order on personality. The Big Five have been pursued in a variety of languages and cultures, such as German, Chinese, Indian, etc. For example, Thompson has claimed to find the Big Five structure across several cultures using an international English language scale. Cheung, van de Vijver, and Leong (2011) suggest, however, that the Openness factor is particularly unsupported in Asian countries and that a different fifth factor is identified. Recent work has found relationships between Geert Hofstede 's cultural factors, Individualism, Power Distance, Masculinity, and Uncertainty Avoidance, with the average Big Five scores in a country. For instance, the degree to which a country values individualism correlates with its average extraversion, whereas people living in cultures which are accepting of large inequalities in their power structures tend to score somewhat higher on conscientiousness. Attempts to replicate the Big Five in other countries with local dictionaries have succeeded in some countries but not in others. Apparently, for instance, Hungarians do not appear to have a single agreeableness factor. Other researchers have found evidence for agreeableness but not for other factors. As of 2002, there were over fifty published studies relating the FFM to personality disorders. Since that time, quite a number of additional studies have expanded on this research base and provided further empirical support for understanding the DSM personality disorders in terms of the FFM domains. In her review of the personality disorder literature published in 2007, Lee Anna Clark asserted that "the five - factor model of personality is widely accepted as representing the higher - order structure of both normal and abnormal personality traits ''. However, other researches disagree that this model is widely accepted (see the section Critique below) and suggest that it simply replicates early temperament research. Noticeably, FFM publications never compare their findings to temperament models even though temperament and mental disorders (especially personality disorders) are thought to be based on the same neurotransmitter imbalances, just to varying degrees. The five - factor model was claimed to significantly predict all ten personality disorder symptoms and outperform the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) in the prediction of borderline, avoidant, and dependent personality disorder symptoms. However, most predictions related to an increase in Neuroticism and a decrease in Agreeableness, and therefore did not differentiate between the disorders very well. Converging evidence from several nationally representative studies has established three classes of mental disorders which are especially common in the general population: Depressive disorders (e.g., major depressive disorder (MDD), dysthymic disorder), anxiety disorders (e.g., generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), panic disorder, agoraphobia, specific phobia, and social phobia), and substance use disorders (SUDs). These common mental disorders (CMDs) have been empirically linked to the Big Five personality traits, neuroticism in particular. Numerous studies have found that having high scores of neuroticism significantly increases one 's risk for developing a CMD. A large - scale meta - analysis (n > 75,000) examining the relationship between all of the Big Five personality traits and CMDs found that low conscientiousness yielded consistently strong effects for each CMD examined (i.e., MDD, dysthymic disorder, GAD, PTSD, panic disorder, agoraphobia, social phobia, specific phobia, and SUD). This finding parallels research on physical health, which has established that conscientiousness is the strongest personality predictor of mortality and is highly correlated with making poor health choices. In regards to the other personality domains, the meta - analysis found that all CMDs examined were defined by high neuroticism, most exhibited low extraversion, only SUD was linked to agreeableness (negatively), and no disorders were associated with Openness. A meta - analysis of 59 longitudinal studies showed that high neuroticism predicted the development of anxiety, depression, substance abuse, psychosis, schizophrenia, and non-specific mental distress, also after adjustment for baseline symptoms and psychiatric history. Five major models have been posed to explain the nature of the relationship between personality and mental illness. There is currently no single "best model '', as each of them has received at least some empirical support. It is also important to note that these models are not mutually exclusive -- more than one may be operating for a particular individual and various mental disorders may be explained by different models. Being highly conscientious may add as much as five years to one 's life. The Big Five personality traits also predict positive health outcomes. In an elderly Japanese sample, conscientiousness, extraversion, and openness were related to lower risk of mortality. Personality plays an important role that affects academic achievement. A study conducted with 308 undergraduates who completed the Five Factor Inventory Processes and offered their GPA suggested that conscientiousness and agreeableness have a positive relationship with all types of learning styles (synthesis analysis, methodical study, fact retention, and elaborative processing), whereas neuroticism has an inverse relationship with them all. Moreover, extraversion and openness were proportional to elaborative processing. The Big Five personality traits accounted for 14 % of the variance in GPA, suggesting that personality traits make some contributions to academic performance. Furthermore, reflective learning styles (synthesis - analysis and elaborative processing) were able to mediate the relationship between openness and GPA. These results indicate that intellectual curiousness has significant enhancement in academic performance if students can combine their scholarly interest with thoughtful information processing. A recent study of Israeli high - school students found that those in the gifted program systematically scored higher on openness and lower on neuroticism than those not in the gifted program. While not a measure of the Big Five, gifted students also reported less state anxiety than students not in the gifted program. Specific Big Five personality traits predict learning styles in addition to academic success. Studies conducted on college students have concluded that hope, which is linked to agreeableness, has a positive effect on psychological well being. Individuals high in neurotic tendencies are less likely to display hopeful tendencies and are negatively associated with well - being. Personality can sometimes be flexible and measuring the big five personality for individuals as they enter certain stages of life may predict their educational identity. Recent studies have suggested the likelihood of an individual 's personality affecting their educational identity. Learning styles have been described as "enduring ways of thinking and processing information ''. Although there is no evidence that personality determines thinking styles, they may be intertwined in ways that link thinking styles to the Big Five personality traits. There is no general consensus on the number or specifications of particular learning styles, but there have been many different proposals. Smeck, Ribicj, and Ramanaih (1997) defined four types of learning styles: When all four facets are implicated within the classroom, they will each likely improve academic achievement. This model asserts that students develop either agentic / shallow processing or reflective / deep processing. Deep processors are more often than not found to be more conscientious, intellectually open, and extraverted when compared to shallow processors. Deep processing is associated with appropriate study methods (methodical study) and a stronger ability to analyze information (synthesis analysis), whereas shallow processors prefer structured fact retention learning styles and are better suited for elaborative processing. The main functions of these four specific learning styles are as follows: Openness has been linked to learning styles that often lead to academic success and higher grades like synthesis analysis and methodical study. Because conscientiousness and openness have been shown to predict all four learning styles, it suggests that individuals who possess characteristics like discipline, determination, and curiosity are more likely to engage in all of the above learning styles. According to the research carried out by Komarraju, Karau, Schmeck & Avdic (2011), conscientiousness and agreeableness are positively related with all four learning styles, whereas neuroticism was negatively related with those four. Furthermore, extraversion and openness were only positively related to elaborative processing, and openness itself correlated with higher academic achievement. Besides openness, all Big Five personality traits helped predict the educational identity of students. Based on these findings, scientists are beginning to see that there might be a large influence of the Big Five traits on academic motivation that then leads to predicting a student 's academic performance. Recent studies suggest that Big Five personality traits combined with learning styles can help predict some variations in the academic performance and the academic motivation of an individual which can then influence their academic achievements. This may be seen because individual differences in personality represent stable approaches to information processing. For instance, conscientiousness has consistently emerged as a stable predictor of success in exam performance, largely because conscientious students experiences fewer study delays. The reason conscientiousness shows a positive association with the four learning styles is because students with high levels of conscientiousness develop focused learning strategies and appear to be more disciplined and achievement - oriented. The Association for Psychological Science (APS), however, recently commissioned a report whose conclusion indicates that no significant evidence exists to make the conclusion that learning - style assessments should be included in the education system. The APS also suggested in their report that all existing learning styles have not been exhausted and that there could exist learning styles that have the potential to be worthy of being included in educational practices. Thus it is premature, at best, to conclude that the evidence linking the Big Five to "learning styles '', or "learning styles '' to learning itself, is valid. It is believed that the Big Five traits are predictors of future performance outcomes. Job outcome measures include job and training proficiency and personnel data. However, research demonstrating such prediction has been criticized, in part because of the apparently low correlation coefficients characterizing the relationship between personality and job performance. In a 2007 article co-authored by six current or former editors of psychological journals, Dr. Kevin Murphy, Professor of Psychology at Pennsylvania State University and Editor of the Journal of Applied Psychology (1996 -- 2002), states: Such criticisms were put forward by Walter Mischel, whose publication caused a two - decades ' long crisis in personality psychometrics. However, later work demonstrated (1) that the correlations obtained by psychometric personality researchers were actually very respectable by comparative standards, and (2) that the economic value of even incremental increases in prediction accuracy was exceptionally large, given the vast difference in performance by those who occupy complex job positions. There have been studies that link national innovation to openness to experience and conscientiousness. Those who express these traits have showed leadership and beneficial ideas towards the country of origin. Some businesses, organizations, and interviewers assess individuals based on the Big Five personality traits. Research has suggested that individuals who are considered leaders typically exhibit lower amounts of neurotic traits, maintain higher levels of openness (envisioning success), balanced levels of conscientiousness (well - organized), and balanced levels of extraversion (outgoing, but not excessive). Further studies have linked professional burnout to neuroticism, and extraversion to enduring positive work experience. When it comes to making money, research has suggested that those who are high in agreeableness (especially men) are not as successful in accumulating income. Some research suggests that vocational outcomes are correlated to Big Five personality traits. Conscientiousness predicts job performance in general. In addition, research has demonstrated that Agreeableness is negatively related to salary. Those high in Agreeableness make less, on average, than those low in the same trait. Neuroticism is also negatively related to salary while Conscientiousness and Extraversion are positive predictors of salary. Occupational self - efficacy has also been shown to be positively correlated with conscientiousness and negatively correlated with neuroticism. Significant predictors of career - advancement goals are: extraversion, conscientiousness, and agreeableness. Research designed to investigate the individual effects of Big Five personality traits on work performance via worker completed surveys and supervisor ratings of work performance has implicated individual traits in several different work roles performances. A "work role '' is defined as the responsibilities an individual has while they are working. Nine work roles have been identified, which can be classified in three broader categories: proficiency (the ability of a worker to effectively perform their work duties), adaptivity (a workers ability to change working strategies in response to changing work environments), and proactivity (extent to which a worker will spontaneously put forth effort to change the work environment). These three categories of behavior can then be directed towards three different levels: either the individual, team, or organizational level leading to the nine different work role performance possibilities. Two theories have been integrated in an attempt to account for these differences in work role performance. Trait activation theory posits that within a person trait levels predict future behavior, that trait levels differ between people, and that work - related cues activate traits which leads to work relevant behaviors. Role theory suggests that role senders provide cues to elicit desired behaviors. In this context, role senders (i.e.: supervisors, managers, et cetera) provide workers with cues for expected behaviors, which in turn activates personality traits and work relevant behaviors. In essence, expectations of the role sender lead to different behavioral outcomes depending on the trait levels of individual workers and because people differ in trait levels, responses to these cues will not be universal. The predictive power of the Big Five personality traits extends to satisfaction in romantic relationships. Recent research demonstrates that personality trait levels may predict relationship quality in dating, engaged, and married couples via measures of the Big Five, self - reported measures of personality traits and relationship quality by participants in romantic relationships, partner - reported measures of participating partner 's personality traits and relationship quality, physiological measures, and ratings of relationship quality by a qualified observer. Dating couples Engaged couples Married couples The predictive power of the Big Five personality traits is robust across life domains: personal, interpersonal, and social or institutional. Recent research indicated that personality traits may be equally strong predictors of mortality (adding as much as five years to one 's life), divorce, and job performance as socioeconomic status and cognitive ability. High neuroticism precedes the development of all common mental disorders. However, research in support of this finding is limited and further evidence is required to fully uncover the strength of the predictive power of personality traits on life outcomes. Social and contextual parameters also play a role in outcomes and the interaction between the two is not yet fully understood. Several measures of the Big Five exist: The most frequently used measures of the Big Five comprise either items that are self - descriptive sentences or, in the case of lexical measures, items that are single adjectives. Due to the length of sentence - based and some lexical measures, short forms have been developed and validated for use in applied research settings where questionnaire space and respondent time are limited, such as the 40 - item balanced International English Big - Five Mini-Markers or a very brief (10 item) measure of the Big Five domains. Research has suggested that some methodologies in administering personality tests are inadequate in length and provide insufficient detail to truly evaluate personality. Usually, longer, more detailed questions will give a more accurate portrayal of personality. The five factor structure has been replicated in peer reports. However, many of the substantive findings rely on self - reports. Much of the evidence on the measures of the Big 5 relies on self - report questionnaires, which makes self - report bias and falsification of responses difficult to deal with and account for. It has been argued that the Big Five tests do not create an accurate personality profile because the responses given on these tests are not true in all cases. For example, questionnaires are answered by potential employees who might choose answers that paint them in the best light. Research suggests that a relative - scored Big Five measure in which respondents had to make repeated choices between equally desirable personality descriptors may be a potential alternative to traditional Big Five measures in accurately assessing personality traits, especially when lying or biased responding is present. When compared with a traditional Big Five measure for its ability to predict GPA and creative achievement under both normal and "fake good '' - bias response conditions, the relative - scored measure significantly and consistently predicted these outcomes under both conditions; however, the Likert questionnaire lost its predictive ability in the faking condition. Thus, the relative - scored measure proved to be less affected by biased responding than the Likert measure of the Big Five. Andrew H. Schwartz analyzed 700 million words, phrases, and topic instances collected from the Facebook messages of 75,000 volunteers, who also took standard personality tests, and found striking variations in language with personality, gender, and age. The proposed Big Five model has been subjected to considerable critical scrutiny and defense for the model. Subsequent critical replies by Jack Block at the University of California Berkeley followed. It has been argued that there are limitations to the scope of the Big Five model as an explanatory or predictive theory. It has also been argued that measures of the Big Five account for only 56 % of the normal personality trait sphere alone (not even considering the abnormal personality trait sphere). Also, the static Big Five is not theory - driven, it is merely a data - driven investigation of certain descriptors that tend to cluster together often based on less than optimal factor analytic procedures. Measures of the Big Five constructs appear to show some consistency in interviews, self - descriptions and observations, and this static five - factor structure seems to be found across a wide range of participants of different ages and cultures. However, while genotypic temperament trait dimensions might appear across different cultures, the phenotypic expression of personality traits differs profoundly across different cultures as a function of the different socio - cultural conditioning and experiential learning that takes place within different cultural settings. Moreover, the fact that the Big Five model was based on lexical hypothesis, (i.e. on the verbal descriptors of individual differences) indicated strong methodological flaws in this model, especially related to its main factors, Extraversion and Neuroticism. First, there is a natural pro-social bias of language in people 's verbal evaluations. After all, language is an invention of group dynamics that was developed to facilitate socialization, the exchange of information and to synchronize group activity. This social function of language therefore creates a sociability bias in verbal descriptors of human behaviour: there are more words related to social than physical or even mental aspects of behavior. The sheer number of such descriptors will cause them to group into a largest factor in any language, and such grouping has nothing to do with the way that core systems of individual differences are set up. Second, there is also a negativity bias in emotionality (i.e. most emotions have negative affectivity), and there are more words in language to describe negative rather than positive emotions. Such asymmetry in emotional valence creates another bias in language. Experiments using the lexical hypothesis approach indeed demonstrated that the use of lexical material skews the resulting dimensionality according to a sociability bias of language and a negativity bias of emotionality, grouping all evaluations around these two dimensions. This means that the two largest dimensions in the Big Five model might be just an artifact of the lexical approach that this model employed. One common criticism is that the Big Five does not explain all of human personality. Some psychologists have dissented from the model precisely because they feel it neglects other domains of personality, such as religiosity, manipulativeness / machiavellianism, honesty, sexiness / seductiveness, thriftiness, conservativeness, masculinity / femininity, snobbishness / egotism, sense of humour, and risk - taking / thrill - seeking. Dan P. McAdams has called the Big Five a "psychology of the stranger '', because they refer to traits that are relatively easy to observe in a stranger; other aspects of personality that are more privately held or more context - dependent are excluded from the Big Five. In many studies, the five factors are not fully orthogonal to one another; that is, the five factors are not independent. Orthogonality is viewed as desirable by some researchers because it minimizes redundancy between the dimensions. This is particularly important when the goal of a study is to provide a comprehensive description of personality with as few variables as possible. Factor analysis, the statistical method used to identify the dimensional structure of observed variables, lacks a universally recognized basis for choosing among solutions with different numbers of factors. A five factor solution depends on some degree of interpretation by the analyst. A larger number of factors may underlie these five factors. This has led to disputes about the "true '' number of factors. Big Five proponents have responded that although other solutions may be viable in a single dataset, only the five factor structure consistently replicates across different studies. Moreover, the factor analysis that this model is based on is a linear method incapable of capturing nonlinear, feedback and contingent relationships between core systems of individual differences. A frequent criticism is that the Big Five is not based on any underlying theory; it is merely an empirical finding that certain descriptors cluster together under factor analysis. Although this does not mean that these five factors do not exist, the underlying causes behind them are unknown. Jack Block 's final published work before his death in January 2010 drew together his lifetime perspective on the five - factor model. He summarized his critique of the model in terms of: He went on to suggest that repeatedly observed higher order factors hierarchically above the proclaimed Big Five personality traits may promise deeper biological understanding of the origins and implications of these superfactors. It has been noted that even though early lexical studies in the English language indicated five large groups of personality traits, more recent, and more comprehensive, cross-language studies have provided evidence for six large groups rather than five. These six groups forms the basis of the HEXACO model of personality structure. Based on these findings it has been suggested that the Big Five system should be replaced by HEXACO, or revised to better align with lexical evidence.

the most important dynastic state in the southern indian subcontinent between 900 and 1300 was

Middle kingdoms of India - Wikipedia The Middle kingdoms of India were the political entities in India from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE. The period begins after the decline of the Maurya Empire, and the corresponding rise of the Satavahana dynasty, beginning with Simuka, from 230 BCE. The "Middle '' period lasted for about 1500 years and ended in the 13th century, with the rise of the Delhi Sultanate, founded in 1206, and the end of the Later Cholas (Rajendra Chola III, who died in 1279 CE). This period encompasses two eras: Classical India, from the Maurya Empire up until the end of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE, and early Medieval India from the 6th century onwards. It also encompasses the era of classical Hinduism, which is dated from 200 BCE to 1100 CE. From 1 CE until 1000 CE, India 's economy is estimated to have been the largest in the world, having between one - third and one - quarter of the world 's wealth. It is followed by the late Medieval period in the 13th century. During the 2nd century BCE, the Maurya Empire became a collage of regional powers with overlapping boundaries. The whole northwest attracted a series of invaders between 200 BCE and 300 CE. The Puranas speak of many of these tribes as foreigners and impure barbarians (Mlecchas). First the Satavahana dynasty and then the Gupta Empire, both successor states to the Maurya Empire, attempt to contain the expansions of the successive before eventually crumbling internally due pressure exerted by these wars. The invading tribes were influenced by Buddhism which continued to flourish under the patronage of both invaders and the Satavahanas and Guptas and provides a cultural bridge between the two cultures. Over time, the invaders became "Indianized '' as they influenced society and philosophy across the Gangetic plains and were conversely influenced by it. This period is marked by both intellectual and artistic achievements inspired by cultural diffusion and syncretism as the new kingdoms straddle the Silk Road. The Indo - Scythians are a branch of the Sakas who migrated from southern Siberia into Bactria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Gandhara, Kashmir, Punjab, and into parts of Western and Central India, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan, from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE. The first Saka king in India was Maues or Moga who established Saka power in Gandhara and gradually extended supremacy over north - western India. Indo - Scythian rule in India ended with the last of the Western Satraps, Rudrasimha III, in 395 CE. The invasion of India by Scythian tribes from Central Asia, often referred to as the "Indo - Scythian invasion '', played a significant part in the history of India as well as nearby countries. In fact, the Indo - Scythian war is just one chapter in the events triggered by the nomadic flight of Central Asians from conflict with Chinese tribes which had lasting effects on Bactria, Kabul, Parthia and India as well as far off Rome in the west. The Scythian groups that invaded India and set up various kingdoms, included besides the Sakas other allied tribes, such as the Medes, Scythians, Massagetae, Getae, Parama Kamboja Kingdom, Avars, Bahlikas, Rishikas and Parada Kingdom. The Indo - Greek Kingdom covered various parts of the Northwestern South Asia during the last two centuries BCE, and was ruled by more than 30 Hellenistic kings, often in conflict with each other. The kingdom was founded when Demetrius I of Bactria invaded the Hindu Kush early in the 2nd century BCE. The Greeks in India were eventually divided from the Greco - Bactrian Kingdom centered in Bactria (now the border between Afghanistan and Uzbekistan). The expression "Indo - Greek Kingdom '' loosely describes a number of various dynastic polities. There were numerous cities, such as Taxila Pakistan 's Punjab, or Pushkalavati and Sagala. These cities would house a number of dynasties in their times, and based on Ptolemy 's Geography and the nomenclature of later kings, a certain Theophila in the south was also probably a satrapal or royal seat at some point. Euthydemus I was, according to Polybius a Magnesian Greek. His son, Demetrius, founder of the Indo - Greek kingdom, was therefore of Greek descent from his father at minimum. A marriage treaty was arranged for Demetrius with a daughter of Antiochus III the Great, who had partial Persian descent. The ethnicity of later Indo - Greek rulers is less clear. For example, Artemidoros Aniketos (80 BCE) may have been of Indo - Scythian descent. Intermarriage also occurred, as exemplified by Alexander the Great, who married Roxana of Bactria, or Seleucus I Nicator, who married Apama of Sogdia. During the two centuries of their rule, the Indo - Greek kings combined the Greek and Indian languages and symbols, as seen on their coins, and blended Greek, Hindu and Buddhist religious practices, as seen in the archaeological remains of their cities and in the indications of their support of Buddhism, pointing to a rich fusion of Indian and Hellenistic influences. The diffusion of Indo - Greek culture had consequences which are still felt today, particularly through the influence of Greco - Buddhist art. The Indo - Greeks ultimately disappeared as a political entity around 10 CE following the invasions of the Indo - Scythians, although pockets of Greek populations probably remained for several centuries longer under the subsequent rule of the Indo - Parthians and Kushan Empire. The Yavana or Yona people, literally "Ionian '' and meaning "Western foreigner '', were described as living beyond Gandhara. Yavanas, Sakas, the Pahlavas and Hunas were sometimes described as mlecchas, "barbarians ''. Kambojas and the inhabitants of Madra, the Kekeya Kingdom, the Indus River region and Gandhara were sometimes also classified as mlecchas. This name was used to indicate their cultural differences with the culture of the Kuru Kingdom and Panchala. The Indo - Parthian Kingdom was founded by Gondophares around 20 BCE. The kingdom lasted only briefly until its conquest by the Kushan Empire in the late 1st century CE and was a loose framework where many smaller dynasts maintained their independence. The Pahlavas are a people mentioned in ancient Indian texts like the Manusmṛti, various Puranas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Brhatsamhita. In some texts the Pahlavas are synonymous with the Pallava dynasty of South India. While the Vayu Purana distinguishes between Pahlava and Pahnava, the Vamana Purana and Matsya Purana refer to both as Pallava. The Brahmanda Purana and Markendeya Purana refer to both as Pahlava or Pallava. The Bhishama Parava of the Mahabharata does not distinguish between the Pahlavas and Pallavas. The Pahlavas are said to be same as the Parasikas, a Saka group. According to P. Carnegy, the Pahlava are probably those people who spoke Paluvi or Pehlvi, the Parthian language. Buhler similarly suggests Pahlava is an Indic form of Parthava meaning "Parthian ''. In a 4th - century BCE, the Vartika of Kātyāyana mentions the Sakah - Parthavah, demonstrating an awareness of these Saka - Parthians, probably by way of commerce. The Western Satraps (35 - 405 CE) were Saka rulers of the western and central part of India (Saurashtra and Malwa: modern Gujarat, southern Sindh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh states). Their state, or at least part of it, was called "Ariaca '' according to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. They were successors to the Indo - Scythians and were contemporaneous with the Kushan Empire, which ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent and were possibly their overlords, and the Satavahana dynasty of Andhra who ruled in Central India. They are called "Western '' in contrast to the "Northern '' Indo - Scythian satraps who ruled in the area of Mathura, such as Rajuvula, and his successors under the Kushans, the "Great Satrap '' Kharapallana and the "Satrap '' Vanaspara. Although they called themselves "Satraps '' on their coins, leading to their modern designation of "Western Satraps '', Ptolemy 's Geography still called them "Indo - Scythians ''. Altogether, there were 27 independent Western Satrap rulers during a period of about 350 years. The Kushan Empire (c. 1st -- 3rd centuries) originally formed in Bactria on either side of the middle course of the Amu Darya in what is now northern Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan; during the 1st century CE, they expanded their territory to include the Punjab and much of the Ganges basin, conquering a number of kingdoms across the northern part of the Indian subcontinent in the process. The Kushans conquered the central section of the main Silk Road and, therefore, had control of the overland trade between India, and China to the east, and the Roman Empire and Persia to the west. Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism; however, as Kushans expanded southward toward the Indian subcontinent the deities of their later coinage came to reflect its new Hindu majority. The rise of new Persian power, the Sasanian Empire, saw them exert their influence into the Indus region and conquer lands from the Kushan Empire, setting up the Indo - Sasanians around 240 CE. They were to maintain their influence in the region until they were overthrown by the Rashidun Caliphate. Afterwards, they were displaced in 410 CE by the invasions of the Hephthalite Empire. The Hephthalite Empire was another Central Asian nomadic group to invade. They are also linked to the Yuezhi who had founded the Kushan Empire. From their capital in Bamyan (present - day Afghanistan) they extended their rule across the Indus and North India, thereby causing the collapse of the Gupta Empire. They were eventually defeated by the Sasanian Empire allied with Turkic peoples. The Rai dynasty of Sindh were patrons of Buddhism even though they also established a huge temple of Shiva in Sukkur close to their capital, Aror. The Gandhara Satrapy became an independent kingdom based from Afghanistan and vied with the Tang dynasty, Tibetan Empire, the Islamic Caliphate and Turkic tribes for domination in the region. The Karkota Empire was established around 625 CE. During the eighth century they consolidated their rule over Kashmir. The most illustrious ruler of the dynasty was Lalitaditya Muktapida. According to Kalhana 's Rajatarangini, he defeated the Tibetans and Yashovarman of Kanyakubja, and subsequently conquered eastern kingdoms of Magadha, Kamarupa, Gauda, and Kalinga. Kalhana also states that he extended his influence of Malwa and Gujarat and defeated Arabs at Sindh. According to historians, Kalhana highly exaggerated the conquests of Lalitaditya. The Kabul Shahi dynasties ruled portions of the Kabul valley and Gandhara from the decline of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd century to the early 9th century. The kingdom was known as the Kabul Shahan or Ratbelshahan from 565 CE - 670 CE, when the capitals were located in Kapisa and Kabul, and later Udabhandapura, also known as Hund for its new capital. In ancient time, the title Shahi appears to be a quite popular royal title in Afghanistan and the northwestern areas of the Indian subcontinent. Variants were used much more priorly in the Near East, but as well later on by the Sakas, Kushans Hunas, Bactrians, by the rulers of Kapisa / Kabul and Gilgit. In Persian form, the title appears as Kshathiya, Kshathiya Kshathiyanam, Shao of the Kushanas and the Ssaha of Mihirakula (Huna chief). The Kushanas are stated to have adopted the title Shah - in - shahi ("Shaonano shao '') in imitation of Achaemenid practice. The Shahis are generally split up into two eras -- the Buddhist Shahis and the Hindu Shahis, with the change - over thought to have occurred sometime around 870 CE. Following the demise of the Mauryan Empires the Satavahanas rose as the successor state to check and contend with the influx of the Central Asian tribes from the Northwest. The Satavahanas straddling the Deccan plateau also provided a link for transmission of Buddhism and contact between the Northern Gangetic plains and the Southern regions even as the Upanishads were gaining ground. Eventually weakened both by contention with the northwestern invaders and internal strife they broke up and gave rise to several nations around Deccan and central India regions even as the Gupta Empire arose in the Indo - Gangetic Plain and ushered in a "Golden Age '' and rebirth of empire as decentralized local administrative model and the spread of Indian culture until collapse under the Huna invasions. After the fall of Gupta Empire the Gangetic region broke up into several states temporarily reunited under Harsha then giving rise to the Rajput dynasties. In the Deccan, the Chalukyas arose forming a formidable nation marking the migration of the centers of cultural and military power long held in the Indo - Gangetic Plain to the new nations forming in the southern regions of India. The Sātavāhana dynasty began as feudatories to the Maurya Empire but declared independence with its decline. They were the first Indic rulers to issue coins struck with their rulers embossed and are known for their patronage of Buddhism, resulting in Buddhist monuments from the Ellora Caves to Amaravathi village, Guntur district. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade and the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Gangetic plains to the southern tip of India. The Sātavāhanas had to compete with the Shunga Empire and then the Kanva dynastys of Magadha to establish their rule. Later they had to contend in protecting their domain from the incursions of Sakas, Yonas and the Pahlavas. In particular their struggles with the Western Satraps weakened them and the empire split into smaller states. The Mahameghavahana dynasty (c. 250s BCE - 400s CE) was an ancient ruling dynasty of Kalinga after the decline of the Mauryan Empire. The third ruler of the dynasty, Khārabēḷa, conquered much of India in a series of campaigns at the beginning of the common era. Kaḷingan military might was reinstated by Khārabēḷa: under Khārabēḷa 's generalship, the Kaḷinga state had a formidable maritime reach with trade routes linking it to the then - Simhala (Sri Lanka), Burma (Myanmar), Siam (Thailand), Vietnam, Kamboja (Cambodia), Borneo, Bali, Samudra (Sumatra) and Jabadwipa (Java). Khārabēḷa led many successful campaigns against the states of Magadha, Anga, the Satavahanas and the South Indian regions ruled by the Pandyan dynasty (modern Andhra Pradesh) and expanded Kaḷinga as far as the Ganges and the Kaveri. The Kharavelan state had a formidable maritime empire with trading routes linking it to Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Borneo, Bali, Sumatra and Java. Colonists from Kalinga settled in Sri Lanka, Burma, as well as the Maldives and Maritime Southeast Asia. Even today Indians are referred to as Keling in Malaysia because of this. Although religiously tolerant, Khārabēḷa patronised Jainism, and was responsible for the propagation of Jainism in the Indian subcontinent but his importance is neglected in many accounts of Indian history. The main source of information about Khārabeḷa is his famous seventeen line rock - cut Hātigumphā inscription in the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves near Bhubaneswar, Odisha. According to the Hathigumpha inscription, he attacked Rajagriha in Magadha, thus inducing the Indo - Greek king Demetrius I of Bactria to retreat to Mathura. Before the rise of the Guptas, Bharshiva Kings ruled most of the Indo - Gangetic plains. They perform ten Ashvamedha sacrifices on the banks of Ganga River. Samudragupta mention Naga rulers in his Allahabad pillar. The Classical Age refers to the period when much of the Indian Subcontinent was reunited under the Gupta Empire (ca. 320 CE -- 550 CE). This period is called the Golden Age of India and was marked by extensive achievements in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture. The decimal numeral system, including the concept of zero, was invented in India during this period. The peace and prosperity created under Guptas leadership enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors in India. The high points of this cultural creativity is seen in Gupta architecture, sculpture and painting. The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana who made advances in a variety of academic fields. Science and political administration advanced during the Gupta era. Trade ties made the region an important cultural center and set the region up as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, and both maritime and mainland Southeast Asia. The Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule, but they also patronized Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulers - Chandragupta I (ca. 319 -- 335), Samudragupta (ca. 335 -- 376), and Chandragupta II (ca. 376 -- 415) -- brought much of India under their leadership. They successfully resisted the North - Western Kingdoms until the arrival of the Hunas who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century, with their capital at Bamiyan. Nevertheless, much of the Deccan and southern India were largely unaffected by this state of flux in the north. The Vakataka Empire was the contemporaries of the Gupta Empire and the successor state of the Satavahanas they formed the southern boundaries of the north and ruled over today 's modern - day states of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra during the 3rd and 5th centuries. The rock - cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of Ajanta Caves (a UNESCO World Heritage Site), built under the patronage of the Vakataka rulers. They were eventually overrun by the Chalukyas. After the collapse of the Gupta Empire, the gangetic plains fractured into numerous small nations. Harsha of Kannauj was able to briefly bind them together under his rulership as the Empire of Harsha. Only a defeat at the hands of the Chalukyas (Pulakeshin II) prevented him from expanding his reign south of the Narmada River. This unity did not last long beyond his reign and his empire fractured soon after his death in 647 AD. From 550 to 1018 AD, the Gurjars played a great part in history of Northern India nearly for 500 years. Present day Rajasthan was under the rule of Gurjars for centuries with capital at Bhilmal (Bhinmal or Srimal), situated nearly 50 miles to the north west of Mount Abu. The Gurjars of Bhilmal conquered Kannuaj on the Ganges at the beginning of the 9th century and transferred their capital to Kannuaj and founded an empire which at its peak was bounded on the east by Bihar, on the west by the lost river, the Hakra, and the Arabian Sea, on the North By the Himalaya and Sutlaj, and on the South by the Jumna and Narmada. The region round Broach, which was offshoot of this kingdom, was also ruled by the Gurjaras of Nandipuri (or Nadol). The Vishnukundina Empire was an Indian dynasty that ruled over the Deccan, Odisha and parts of South India during the 5th and 6th centuries carving land out from the Vakataka Empire. The Vishnukundin reign came to an end with the conquest of the eastern Deccan by the Chalukya, Pulakeshin II. Pulakeshin appointed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as Viceroy to rule over the conquered lands. Eventually Vishnuvardhana declared his independence and started the Eastern Chalukya dynasty. The Maitraka Empire ruled Gujarat in western India from the c. 475 to 767 CE. The founder of the dynasty, Senapati (general) Bhatarka, was a military governor of Saurashtra peninsula under Gupta Empire, who had established himself as the independent ruler of Gujarat approximately in the last quarter of the 5th century. The first two Maitraka rulers Bhatarka and Dharasena I used only the title of Senapati (general). The third ruler Dronasimha declared himself as the Maharaja. King Guhasena stopped using the term Paramabhattaraka Padanudhyata along his name like his predecessors, which denotes the cessation of displaying of the nominal allegiance to the Gupta overlords. He was succeeded by his son Dharasena II, who used the title of Mahadhiraja. His son, the next ruler Siladitya I, Dharmaditya was described by Hiuen Tsang as a "monarch of great administrative ability and of rare kindness and compassion ''. Siladitya I was succeeded by his younger brother Kharagraha I. Virdi copperplate grant (616 CE) of Kharagraha I proves that his territories included Ujjain. The Gurjara Pratihara Empire (Hindi: गुर्जर प्रतिहार) formed an Indian dynasty that ruled much of Northern India from the 6th to the 11th centuries. At its peak of prosperity and power (c. 836 -- 910 CE), it rivaled the Gupta Empire in the extent of its territory. Pointing out the importance of the Gurjara Pratihara empire in the history of India Dr. R.C. Majumdar has observed, "the Gurjara Pratihara Empire which continued in full glory for nearly a century, was the last great empire in Northern India before the Muslim conquest. '' This honour is accorded to the empire of Harsha by many historians of repute but without any real justification, for the Pratihara empire was probably larger, certainly not less in extent rivalled the Gupta Empire and brought political unity and its attendant blessings upon a large part of Northern India. But its chief credit lies in its succecessful resistance to the foreign invasions from the west, from the days of Junaid. This was frankly recognised by the Arab writers themselves. Historians of India, since the days of Eliphinstone, has wondered at slow progress of Muslim invaders in India compared to their rapid advance in other parts of the world. Arguments of doubtful validity have often been put forward to explain this unique phenomenon. Now there can be little doubt that it was the power of the Gurjara Pratihara army that effectively barred the progress of the Muslims beyond the confines of Sindh, their first conquest for nearly three hundred years. In the light of later events this might be regarded as the "chief contribution of the Gurjara Pratiharas to the history of India ''. The Rajput were a Hindu clan who rose to power across a region stretching from the gangaetic plains to the Afghan mountains, and refer to the various dynasties of the many kingdoms in the region in the wake of the collapse of the Sassanid Empire and Gupta Empire and marks the transition of Buddhist ruling dynasties to Hindu ruling dynasties. The Katoch were a Hindu Rajput clan of the Chandravanshi lineage; with recent research suggests that Katoch may be one of the oldest royal dynasty in the world. The Chauhan dynasty flourished from the 8th to 12th centuries CE. It was one of the three main Rajput dynasties of that era, the others being Pratiharas and Paramaras. Chauhan dynasties established themselves in several places in North India and in the state of Gujarat in Western India. They were also prominent at Sirohi in the southwest of Rajputana, and at Bundi and Kota in the east. Inscriptions also associate them with Sambhar, the salt lake area in the Amber (later Jaipur) district (the Sakhambari branch remained near lake Sambhar and married into the ruling Gurjara -- Pratihara, who then ruled an empire in Northern India). Chauhans adopted a political policy that saw them indulge largely in campaigns against the Chalukyas and the invading Muslim hordes. In the 11th century, they founded the city of Ajayameru (Ajmer) in the southern part of their kingdom, and in the 12th century, the Chauhans captured Dhilika (the ancient name of Delhi) from the Tomaras and annexed some of their territory along the Yamuna River. The Chauhan Kingdom became the leading state in Northern India under King Prithviraj III (1165 -- 1192 CE), also known as Prithvi Raj Chauhan or Rai Pithora. Prithviraj III has become famous in folk tales and historical literature as the Chauhan king of Delhi who resisted and repelled the invasion by Mohammed of Ghor at the first Battle of Tarain in 1191. Armies from other Rajput kingdoms, including Mewar, assisted him. The Chauhan kingdom collapsed after Prithviraj and his armies fled from Mohammed of Ghor in 1192 at the Second Battle of Tarain. The Kachwaha originated as tributaries of the preceding powers of the region. Some scholars point out that it was only following the downfall, in the 8th - 10th century, of Kannauj (the regional seat - of - power, following the break - up of Harsha 's empire), that the Kacchapaghata state emerged as a principal power in the Chambal valley of present - day Madhya Pradesh. The Paramara dynasty was an early medieval Indian dynasty who ruled over Malwa region in central India. This dynasty was founded by Upendra in c. 800 CE. The most significant ruler of this dynasty was Bhoja I who was a philosopher king and polymath. The seat of the Paramara kingdom was Dhara Nagari (the present day Dhar city in Madhya Pradesh state). The Chaulukyas (also called Solankis) in vernacular literature) were Hindu. In Gujarat, Anhilwara (modern Siddhpur Patan) served as their capital. Gujarat was a major center of Indian Ocean trade, and Anhilwara was one of the largest cities in India, with population estimated at 100,000 in the year 1000. The Chaulukyas were patrons of the great seaside temple of Shiva at Somnath Patan in Kathiawar; Bhima Dev helped rebuild the temple after it was sacked by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1026. His son, Karna, conquered the Bhil king Ashapall or Ashaval, and after his victory established a city named Karnavati on the banks of the Sabarmati River, at the site of modern Ahmedabad. During 9th - 12th century, the Tomaras of Delhi ruled parts of the present - day Delhi and Haryana. Much of the information about this dynasty comes from bardic legends of little historical value, and therefore, the reconstruction of their history is difficult. According to the bardic tradition, the dynasty 's founder Anangapal Tuar (that is Anangapala I Tomara) founded Delhi in 736 CE. However, the authenticity of this claim is doubtful. The bardic legends also state that the last Tomara king (also named Anangapal) passed on the throne of Delhi to his maternal grandson Prithviraj Chauhan. This claim is also inaccurate: historical evidence shows that Prithviraj inherited Delhi from his father Someshvara. According to the Bijolia inscription of Someshvara, his brother Vigraharaja IV had captured Dhillika (Delhi) and Ashika (Hansi); he probably defeated a Tomara ruler. Pratihars ruled from Mandore, near present day Jodhpur, they held the title of Rana before being defeated by Guhilots of Chittore. Pala Empire was a Buddhist dynasty that ruled from the north - eastern region of the Indian subcontinent. The name Pala (Modern Bengali: পাল pal) means protector and was used as an ending to the names of all Pala monarchs. The Palas were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism. Gopala was the first ruler from the dynasty. He came to power in 750 CE in Gaur by a democratic election. This event is recognized as one of the first democratic elections in South Asia since the time of the Mahā Janapadas. He reigned from 750 - 770 CE and consolidated his position by extending his control over all of Bengal. The Buddhist dynasty lasted for four centuries (750 - 1120 CE) and ushered in a period of stability and prosperity in Bengal. They created many temples and works of art as well as supported the Universities of Nalanda and Vikramashila. Somapura Mahavihara built by Dharmapala is the greatest Buddhist Vihara in the Indian Subcontinent. The empire reached its peak under Dharmapala and Devapala. Dharmapala extended the empire into the northern parts of the Indian Subcontinent. This triggered once again the power struggle for the control of the subcontinent. Devapala, successor of Dharmapala, expanded the empire to cover much of South Asia and beyond. His empire stretched from Assam and Utkala in the east, Kamboja (modern - day Afghanistan) in the north - west and Deccan in the south. According to Pala copperplate inscription Devapala exterminated the Utkalas, conquered the Pragjyotisha (Assam), shattered the pride of the Huna, and humbled the lords of Pratiharas, Gurjara and the Dravidas. The death of Devapala ended the period of ascendancy of the Pala Empire and several independent dynasties and kingdoms emerged during this time. However, Mahipala I rejuvenated the reign of the Palas. He recovered control over all of Bengal and expanded the empire. He survived the invasions of Rajendra Chola and the Chalukyas. After Mahipala I the Pala dynasty again saw its decline until Ramapala, the last great ruler of the dynasty, managed to retrieve the position of the dynasty to some extent. He crushed the Varendra rebellion and extended his empire farther to Kamarupa, Odisha and Northern India. The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal. Palas were responsible for the introduction of Mahayana Buddhism in Tibet, Bhutan and Myanmar. The Palas had extensive trade as well as influence in south - east Asia. This can be seen in the sculptures and architectural style of the Sailendra Empire (present - day Malaya, Java, Sumatra). The Candra Dynasty who ruled over eastern Bengal and were contemporaries of the Palas. The Eastern Ganga dynasty rulers reigned over Kalinga which consisted of the parts of the modern - day Indian states of Odisha, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh from the 11th century to the early 15th century. Their capital was known by the name Kalinganagar, which is the modern Srimukhalingam in Srikakulam District of Andhra Pradesh bordering Odisha. Today they are most remembered as the builders of the Konark Sun Temple a World Heritage site at Konark, Odisha. It was built by King Narasimhadeva I (1238 -- 1264 CE). During their reign (1078 - 1434 CE) a new style of temple architecture came into being, commonly called as Indo - Aryan architecture. This dynasty was founded by King Anantavarma Chodaganga Deva (1078 -- 1147 CE). He was a religious person and a patron of art and literature. He is credited for having built the famous Jagannath Temple of Puri in Odisha. King Anantavarman Chodagangadeva was succeeded by a long line of illustrious rulers such as Narasimhadeva I (1238 -- 1264 CE). The rulers of Eastern Ganga dynasty not only defended their kingdom from the constant attacks of the Muslim rulers from both northern and southern India but were perhaps one of the few empires to have successfully invaded and defeated their Muslim adversaries. The Eastern Ganga King Narasimha Deva I invaded the Muslim kingdom of Bengal and handed a heavy defeat to the Sultan. This ensured that Sultanate never encroached upon the domains of the Ganga Emperors for nearly a century. His military exploits still survive today as folklore in Odisha. This kingdom prospered through trade and commerce and the wealth was mostly used in the construction of temples. The rule of the dynasty came to end under the reign of King Bhanudeva IV (1414 -- 1434 CE), in the early 15th century. The Palas were followed by the Sena dynasty who brought Bengal under one ruler during the 12th century. Vijay Sen the second ruler of this dynasty defeated the last Pala emperor Madanapala and established his reign. Ballal Sena introduced Kulīna System in Bengal and made Nabadwip the capital. The fourth king of this dynasty Lakshman Sen expanded the empire beyond Bengal to Bihar, Assam, northern Odisha and probably to Varanasi. Lakshman was later defeated by the Muslims and fled to eastern Bengal where he ruled few more years. The Sena dynasty brought a revival of Hinduism and cultivated Sanskrit literature in India. The Varman Dynasty (not to be confused with the Varman dynasty of Kamarupa) ruled over eastern Bengal and were contemporaries of the Senas. The Kāmarūpa, also called Pragjyotisha, was one of the historical kingdoms of Assam alongside Davaka, that existed from 350 to 1140 CE. Ruled by three dynasties from their capitals in present - day Guwahati, North Guwahati and Tezpur, it at its height covered the entire Brahmaputra Valley, North Bengal, Bhutan and parts of Bangladesh, and at times portions of West Bengal and Bihar. The Varman dynasty (350 - 650 CE), the first historical rulers of Kamarupa; was established by Pushyavarman, a contemporary of Samudragupta. This dynasty became vassals of the Gupta Empire, but as the power of the Guptas waned, Mahendravarman (470 - 494 CE) performed two horse sacrifices and threw off the imperial yoke. The first of the three Kamarupa dynasties, the Varmans were followed by the Mlechchha and then the Pala dynasties. The Mlechchha dynasty succeeded the Varman dynasty and ruled to the end of the 10th century. They ruled from their capital in the vicinity of the Harrupeshwara (Tezpur). The rulers were aboriginals, with lineage from Narakasura. According to historical records, there were ten rulers in this dynasty. The Mlechchha dynasty in Kamarupa was followed by the Pala kings. The Pala dynasty of Kamarupa succeeded the Mlechchha dynasty, ruled from its capital at Durjaya (North Gauhati). Dynasty reigned till the end of the 12th century. Brahma Pala (900 - 920 CE), was founder Pala dynasty (900 -- 1100 CE) of Kamarupa. Dynasty ruled from its capital Durjaya, modern - day North Guwahati. The greatest of the Pala kings, Dharma Pala had his capital at Kamarupa Nagara, now identified with North Guwahati. Ratna Pala was another notable sovereign of this line. Records of his land - grants have been found at Bargaon and Sualkuchi, while a similar relic of Indra Pala, has been discovered at Guwahati. Pala dynasty come to end with Jaya Pala (1075 - 1100 CE). The Twipra Kingdom ruled ancient Tripura. Kingdom was established around the confluence of the Brahmaputra river with the Meghna and Surma rivers in today 's Central Bangladesh area. The capital was called Khorongma and was along the Meghna river in the Sylhet Division of present - day Bangladesh. In the first half of the millennium the South saw various smalled kingdoms rise and fall mostly independent to the turmoil in the Gangetic plains and the spread of the Buddhism and Jainism to the southern tip of India. During the second half of the millennium after the fall of the Gupta Empire we see a gradual shift of the balance of power both military and cultural from the northern states to the rise of large southern states. In fact, from the mid-seventh to the mid-13th centuries, regionalism was the dominant theme of political or dynastic history of the Indian subcontinent. Three features commonly characterize the sociopolitical realities of this period. Peninsular India was involved in an 8th - century tripartite power struggle among the Chalukyas (556 -- 757 CE), the Pallavas (300 -- 888 CE) of Kanchipuram, and the Pandyas. The Chalukya rulers were overthrown by their subordinates, the Rashtrakutas (753 - 973 CE). Although both the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms were enemies, the real struggle for political domination was between the Pallava and Chalukya realms. The emergence of the Rashtrakutas heralded a new era in the history of South India. The idiom of a Pan-Indian empire had moved to south. South Indian kingdoms had hitherto ruled areas only up to and south of the Narmada River. It was the Rashtrakutas who first forged north to the Gangetic plains and successfully contested their might against the Palas of Bengal and the Rajput Prathiharas of Gujarat. Despite interregional conflicts, local autonomy was preserved to a far greater degree in the south where it had prevailed for centuries. The absence of a highly centralized government was associated with a corresponding local autonomy in the administration of villages and districts. Extensive and well - documented overland and maritime trade flourished with the Arabs on the west coast and with Southeast Asia. Trade facilitated cultural diffusion in Southeast Asia, where local elites selectively but willingly adopted Indian art, architecture, literature, and social customs. The interdynastic rivalry and seasonal raids into each other 's territory notwithstanding, the rulers in the Deccan and South India patronized all three religions - Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism. The religions vied with each other for royal favor, expressed in land grants but more importantly in the creation of monumental temples, which remain architectural wonders. The cave temples of Elephanta Island (near Mumbai or Bombay, as it was known formerly), Ajanta, and Ellora (in Maharashtra), and structural temples of Pattadakal, Aihole, Badami in Karnataka and Mahaballipuram and Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu are enduring legacies of otherwise warring regional rulers. By the mid-7th century, Buddhism and Jainism began to decline as sectarian Hindu devotional cults of Shiva and Vishnu vigorously competed for popular support. Although Sanskrit was the language of learning and theology in South India, as it was in the north, the growth of the bhakti (devotional) movements enhanced the crystallization of vernacular literature in Dravidian languages: Kannada and Tamil; they often borrowed themes and vocabulary from Sanskrit but preserved much local cultural lore. Examples of Tamil literature include two major poems, Cilappatikaram (The Jewelled Anklet) and Manimekalai (The Jewelled Belt); the body of devotional literature of Shaivism and Vaishnavism -- Hindu devotional movements; and the reworking of the Ramayana by Kamban in the 12th century. A nationwide cultural synthesis had taken place with a minimum of common characteristics in the various regions of South Asia, but the process of cultural infusion and assimilation would continue to shape and influence India 's history through the centuries. Farther south were three ancient Tamil states -- Chera (on the west), Chola (on the east), and Pandya (in the south). They were involved in internecine warfare seeking regional supremacy. They are mentioned in Greek and Ashokan sources as important Indian kingdoms beyond the Mauryan Empire. A corpus of ancient Tamil literature, known as Sangam (academy) works, provides much useful information about life in these kingdoms in the era 300 BCE to 200 CE. Dravidian social order was based on different ecoregions rather than on the Aryan varna paradigm, although the Brahmans had a high status at a very early stage. Segments of society were characterized by matriarchy and matrilineal succession -- which survived well into the 19th century -- cross-cousin marriage, and strong regional identity. Tribal chieftains emerged as "kings '' just as people moved from pastoralism toward agriculture sustained by irrigation based on rivers by small - scale water tanks (as man - made ponds are called in India) and wells, as well as maritime trade with Rome and Southeast Asia. Discoveries of Roman gold coins in various sites attest to extensive South Indian links with the outside world. As with Pataliputra in the northeast and Taxila in the northwest (in modern Pakistan), the city of Madurai, the capital of the Pandyan Kingdom (in modern Tamil Nadu), was the center of intellectual and literary activity. Poets and bards assembled there under royal patronage at successive concourses to composed anthologies of poems and expositions on Tamil grammar. By the end of the 1st century BCE, South Asia was crisscrossed by overland trade routes, which facilitated the movements of Buddhist and Jain missionaries and other travelers and opened the area to a synthesis of many cultures. From early pre-historic times, Tamil Nadu was the home of the four Tamil states of the Chera, Chola, Pandya and Pallavas. The oldest extant literature, dated between 300 BCE and 600 CE mentions the exploits of the kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them. Cherans, who spoke Tamil language ruled from the capital of Karur in the west and traded extensively with West Asian kingdoms. An unknown dynasty called Kalabhras invaded and displaced the three Tamil kingdoms between the 4th and the 7th centuries. This is referred to as the Dark Age in Tamil history. They were eventually expelled by the Pallavas and the Pandyas. Little of their origins or the time during which they ruled is known beyond that they ruled over the entirety of the southern tip of India during the 3rd to the 6th century, overcoming the Sangam era kingdoms. The appear to be patrons of Jainism and Buddhism as the only source of information on them is the scattered mentions in the many Buddhist and Jain literature of the time. They were contemporaries of the Kadambas and the Western Ganga Dynasty. They were overcome by the rise of the Pallavas and the resurgence of the Pandyan Kingdom. The Kadamba Dynasty (Kannada: ಕದಂಬರು) (345 -- 525 CE) was an ancient royal family of Karnataka that ruled from Banavasi in present - day Uttara Kannada district. The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the Chalukya and the Rashtrakuta empires for over five hundred years during which time they branched into Goa and Hanagal. At the peak of their power under King Kakushtavarma, they ruled large parts of Karnataka. During the pre-Kadamba era the ruling families that controlled Karnataka, the Mauryas, Satavahanas and Chutus were not natives of the region and the nucleus of power resided outside present day Karnataka. The Kadambas were the first indigenous dynasty to use Kannada, the language of the soil at an administrative level. In the history of Karnataka, this era serves as a broad based historical starting point in the study of the development of region as an enduring geo - political entity and Kannada as an important regional language. The dynasty was founded by Mayurasharma in 345 which at times showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions, an indication to which is provided by the titles and epithets assumed by its rulers. One of his successors, Kakusthavarma was a powerful ruler and even the kings of imperial Gupta Dynasty of northern India cultivated marital relationships with his family, giving a fair indication of the sovereign nature of their kingdom. Tiring of the endless battles and bloodshed, one of the later descendants, King Shivakoti adopted Jainism. The Kadambas were contemporaries of the Western Ganga Dynasty of Talakad and together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy. The Western Ganga Dynasty (350 -- 1000 CE) (Kannada: ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ಗಂಗ ಸಂಸ್ಥಾನ) was an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka in India. They are known as Western Gangas to distinguish them from the Eastern Gangas, who in later centuries ruled over modern Odisha. The general belief is the Western Gangas began their rule during a time when multiple native clans asserted their freedom due to the weakening of the Pallava dynasty of South India, a geo - political event sometimes attributed to the southern conquests of Samudragupta. The Western Ganga sovereignty lasted from about 350 to 550 CE, initially ruling from Kolar and later moving their capital to Talakad on the banks of the Kaveri in modern Mysore district. After the rise of the imperial Chalukya dynasty of Badami, the Gangas accepted Chalukya overlordship and fought for the cause of their overlords against the Pallavas of Kanchipuram. The Chalukyas were replaced by the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta in 753 CE as the dominant power in the Deccan. After a century of struggle for autonomy, the Western Gangas finally accepted Rashtrakuta overlordship and successfully fought alongside them against their foes, the Chola dynasty of Tanjavur. In the late 10th century, north of Tungabhadra river, the Rashtrakutas were replaced by the emerging Western Chalukya Empire and the Chola Dynasty saw renewed power south of the Kaveri. The defeat of the Western Gangas by Cholas around 1000 resulted in the end of Ganga influence over the region. Though territorially a small kingdom, the Western Ganga contribution to polity, culture and literature of the modern south Karnataka region is considered important. The Western Ganga kings showed benevolent tolerance to all faiths but are most famous for their patronage towards Jainism resulting in the construction of monuments in places such as Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli. The kings of this dynasty encouraged the fine arts due to which literature in Kannada and Sanskrit flourished. Chavundaraya 's writing, Chavundaraya Purana of 978 CE, is an important work in Kannada prose. Many classics were written on subjects ranging from religious topics to elephant management. The Chalukya Empire, natives of the Aihole and Badami region in Karnataka, were at first a feudatory of the Kadambas. They encouraged the use of Kannada in addition to the Sanskrit language in their administration. In the middle of the 6th century the Chalukyas came into their own when Pulakeshin I made the hill fortress in Badami his center of power. During the rule of Pulakeshin II a south Indian empire sent expeditions to the north past the Tapti River and Narmada River for the first time and successfully defied Harshavardhana, the King of Northern India (Uttarapatheswara). The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II, written in classical Sanskrit language and old Kannada script dated 634, proclaims his victories against the Kingdoms of Kadambas, Western Gangas, Alupas of South Canara, Mauryas of Puri, Kingdom of Kosala, Malwa, Lata and Gurjaras of southern Rajasthan. The inscription describes how King Harsha of Kannauj lost his Harsha (joyful disposition) on seeing a large number of his war elephants die in battle against Pulakeshin II. These victories earned him the title Dakshinapatha Prithviswamy (lord of the south). Pulakeshin II continued his conquests in the east where he conquered all kingdoms in his way and reached the Bay of Bengal in present - day Odisha. A Chalukya viceroyalty was set up in Gujarat and Vengi (coastal Andhra) and princes from the Badami family were dispatched to rule them. Having subdued the Pallavas of Kanchipuram, he accepted tributes from the Pandyas of Madurai, Chola dynasty and Cheras of the Kerala region. Pulakeshin II thus became the master of India, south of the Narmada River. Pulakeshin II is widely regarded as one of the great kings in Indian history. Hiuen - Tsiang, a Chinese traveller visited the court of Pulakeshin II at this time and Persian emperor Khosrau II exchanged ambassadors. However, the continuous wars with Pallavas took a turn for the worse in 642 when the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I avenged his father 's defeat, conquered and plundered the capital of Pulakeshin II who may have died in battle. A century later, Chalukya Vikramaditya II marched victoriously into Kanchipuram, the Pallava capital and occupied it on three occasions, the third time under the leadership of his son and crown prince Kirtivarman II. He thus avenged the earlier humiliation of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas and engraved a Kannada inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha Temple. He later overran the other traditional kingdoms of Tamil country, the Pandyas, Cholas and Keralas in addition to subduing a Kalabhra ruler. The Kappe Arabhatta record from this period (700) in tripadi (three line) metre is considered the earliest available record in Kannada poetics. The most enduring legacy of the Chalukya dynasty is the architecture and art that they left behind. More than one hundred and fifty monuments attributed to them, built between 450 and 700, have survived in the Malaprabha basin in Karnataka. The constructions are centred in a relatively small area within the Chalukyan heartland. The structural temples at Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the cave temples of Badami, the temples at Mahakuta and early experiments in temple building at Aihole are their most celebrated monuments. Two of the famous paintings at Ajanta cave no. 1, "The Temptation of the Buddha '' and "The Persian Embassy '' are also credited to them. Further, they influenced the architecture in far off places like Gujarat and Vengi as evidenced in the Nava Brahma temples at Alampur. The 7th century Tamil Nadu saw the rise of the Pallavas under Mahendravarman I and his son Mamalla Narasimhavarman I. The Pallavas were not a recognised political power before the 2nd century. It has been widely accepted by scholars that they were originally executive officers under the Satavahana Empire. After the fall of the Satavahanas, they began to get control over parts of Andhra and the Tamil country. Later they had marital ties with the Vishnukundina who ruled over the Deccan. It was around 550 AD under King Simhavishnu that the Pallavas emerged into prominence. They subjugated the Cholas and reigned as far south as the Kaveri River. Pallavas ruled a large portion of South India with Kanchipuram as their capital. Dravidian architecture reached its peak during the Pallava rule. Narasimhavarman II built the Shore Temple which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Many sources describe Bodhidharma, the founder of the Zen school of Buddhism in China, as a prince of the Pallava dynasty. Eastern Chalukyas were a South Indian dynasty whose kingdom was located in the present day Andhra Pradesh. Their capital was Vengi and their dynasty lasted for around 500 years from the 7th century until c. 1130 CE when the Vengi kingdom merged with the Chola empire. The Vengi kingdom was continued to be ruled by Eastern Chalukyan kings under the protection of the Chola empire until 1189 CE, when the kingdom succumbed to the Hoysalas and the Yadavas. They had their capital originally at Vengi now (Pedavegi, Chinavegi and Denduluru) near Eluru of the West Godavari district end later changed to Rajamahendravaram (Rajamundry). Eastern Chalukyas were closely related to the Chalukyas of Vatapi (Badami). Throughout their history they were the cause of many wars between the more powerful Cholas and Western Chalukyas over the control of the strategic Vengi country. The five centuries of the Eastern Chalukya rule of Vengi saw not only the consolidation of this region into a unified whole, but also saw the efflorescence of Telugu culture, literature, poetry and art during the later half of their rule. It can be said to be the golden period of Andhra history. Pallavas were replaced by the Pandyas in the 8th century. Their capital Madurai was in the deep south away from the coast. They had extensive trade links with the Southeast Asian maritime empires of Srivijaya and their successors. As well as contacts, even diplomatic, reaching as far as the Roman Empire. During the 13th century of the Christian era Marco Polo mentioned it as the richest empire in existence. Temples like Meenakshi Amman Temple at Madurai and Nellaiappar Temple at Tirunelveli are the best examples of Pandyan Temple architecture. The Pandyas excelled in both trade as well as literature and they controlled the pearl fisheries along the South Indian coast, between Sri Lanka and India, which produced some of the finest pearls in the known ancient world. In the middle of the 8th century the Chalukya rule was ended by their feudatory, the Rashtrakuta family rulers of Berar (in present - day Amravati district of Maharashtra). Sensing an opportunity during a weak period in the Chalukya rule, Dantidurga trounced the great Chalukyan "Karnatabala '' (power of Karnata). Having overthrown the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas made Manyakheta their capital (modern Malkhed in Gulbarga district). Although the origins of the early Rashtrakuta ruling families in central India and the Deccan in the 6th and 7th centuries is controversial, during the eighth through the 10th centuries they emphasised the importance of the Kannada language in conjunction with Sanskrit in their administration. Rashtrakuta inscriptions are in Kannada and Sanskrit only. They encouraged literature in both languages and thus literature flowered under their rule. The Rashtrakutas quickly became the most powerful Deccan empire, making their initial successful forays into the doab region of Ganges River and Jamuna River during the rule of Dhruva Dharavarsha. The rule of his son Govinda III signaled a new era with Rashtrakuta victories against the Pala Dynasty of Bengal and Gurjara Pratihara of north western India resulting in the capture of Kannauj. The Rashtrakutas held Kannauj intermittently during a period of a tripartite struggle for the resources of the rich Gangetic plains. Because of Govinda III 's victories, historians have compared him to Alexander the Great and Pandava Arjuna of the Hindu epic Mahabharata. The Sanjan inscription states the horses of Govinda III drank the icy water of the Himalayan stream and his war elephants tasted the sacred waters of the Ganges River. Amoghavarsha I, eulogised by contemporary Arab traveller Sulaiman as one among the four great emperors of the world, succeeded Govinda III to the throne and ruled during an important cultural period that produced landmark writings in Kannada and Sanskrit. The benevolent development of Jain religion was a hallmark of his rule. Because of his religious temperament, his interest in the arts and literature and his peace - loving nature, he has been compared to emperor Ashoka. The rule of Indra III in the 10th century enhanced the Rashtrakuta position as an imperial power as they conquered and held Kannauj again. Krishna III followed Indra III to the throne in 939. A patron of Kannada literature and a powerful warrior, his reign marked the submission of the Paramara of Ujjain in the north and Cholas in the south. An Arabic writing Silsilatuttavarikh (851) called the Rashtrakutas one among the four principle empires of the world. Kitab - ul - Masalik - ul - Mumalik (912) called them the "greatest kings of India '' and there were many other contemporaneous books written in their praise. The Rashtrakuta empire at its peak spread from Cape Comorin in the south to Kannauj in the north and from Banaras in the east to Broach (Bharuch) in the west. While the Rashtrakutas built many fine monuments in the Deccan, the most extensive and sumptuous of their work is the monolithic Kailasanatha temple at Ellora, the temple being a splendid achievement. In Karnataka their most famous temples are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal. All of the monuments are designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites. In the late 10th century, the Western Chalukyas, also known as the Kalyani Chalukyas or ' Later ' Chalukyas rose to power by overthrowing the Rashtrakutas under whom they had been serving as feudatories. Manyakheta was their capital early on before they moved it to Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan). Whether the kings of this empire belonged to the same family line as their namesakes, the Badami Chalukyas is still debated. Whatever the Western Chalukya origins, Kannada remained their language of administration and the Kannada and Sanskrit literature of their time was prolific. Tailapa II, a feudatory ruler from Tardavadi (modern Bijapur district), re-established the Chalukya rule by defeating the Rashtrakutas during the reign of Karka II. He timed his rebellion to coincide with the confusion caused by the invading Paramara of Central India to the Rashtrakutas capital in 973. This era produced prolonged warfare with the Chola dynasty of Tamilakam for control of the resources of the Godavari River -- Krishna River doab region in Vengi. Someshvara I, a brave Chalukyan king, successfully curtailed the growth of the Chola Empire to the south of the Tungabhadra River region despite suffering some defeats while maintaining control over his feudatories in the Konkan, Gujarat, Malwa and Kalinga regions. For approximately 100 years, beginning in the early 11th century, the Cholas occupied large areas of South Karnataka region (Gangavadi). In 1076 CE, the ascent of the most famous king of this Chalukya family, Vikramaditya VI, changed the balance of power in favour of the Chalukyas. His fifty - year reign was an important period in Karnataka 's history and is referred to as the "Chalukya Vikrama era ''. His victories over the Cholas in the late 11th and early 12th centuries put an end to the Chola influence in the Vengi region permanently. Some of the well known contemporaneous feudatory families of the Deccan under Chalukya control were the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuri. At their peak, the Western Chalukyas ruled a vast empire stretching from the Narmada River in the north to the Kaveri River in the south. Vikramaditya VI is considered one of the most influential kings of Indian history. Important architectural works were created by these Chalukyas, especially in the Tungabhadra river valley, that served as a conceptual link between the building idioms of the early Badami Chalukyas and the later Hoysalas. With the weakening of the Chalukyas in the decades following the death of Vikramaditya VI in 1126, the feudatories of the Chalukyas gained their independence. The Kalachuris of Karnataka, whose ancestors were immigrants into the southern deccan from central India, had ruled as a feudatory from Mangalavada (modern Mangalavedhe in Maharashtra). Bijjala II, the most powerful ruler of this dynasty, was a commander (mahamandaleswar) during the reign of Chalukya Vikramaditya VI. Seizing an opportune moment in the waning power of the Chalukyas, Bijjala II declared independence in 1157 and annexed their capital Kalyani. His rule was cut short by his assassination in 1167 and the ensuing civil war caused by his sons fighting over the throne ended the dynasty as the last Chalukya scion regained control of Kalyani. This victory however, was short - lived as the Chalukyas were eventually driven out by the Seuna Yadavas. The Seuna, Sevuna or Yadava dynasty (Marathi: देवगिरीचे यादव, Kannada: ಸೇವುಣರು) (c. 850 -- 1334 CE) was an Indian dynasty, which at its peak ruled a kingdom stretching from the Tungabhadra to the Narmada rivers, including present - day Maharashtra, north Karnataka and parts of Madhya Pradesh, from its capital at Devagiri (present - day Daulatabad in Maharashtra). The Yadavas initially ruled as feudatories of the Western Chalukyas. Around the middle of the 12th century, they declared independence and established rule that reached its peak under Singhana II. The foundations of Marathi culture was laid by the Yadavas and the peculiarities of Maharashtra 's social life developed during their rule. The Kakatiya dynasty was a South Indian dynasty that ruled parts of what is now Telangana, India from 1083 to 1323 CE. They were one of the great Telugu kingdoms that lasted for centuries. Kalachuri is this the name used by two kingdoms who had a succession of dynasties from the 10th - 12th centuries, one ruling over areas in Central India (west Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan) and were called Chedi or Haihaya (Heyheya) (northern branch) and the other southern Kalachuri who ruled over parts of Karnataka. They are disparately placed in time and space. Apart from the dynastic name and perhaps a belief in common ancestry, there is little in known sources to connect them. The earliest known Kalachuri family (550 -- 620 CE) ruled over northern Maharashtra, Malwa and western Deccan. Their capital was Mahismati situated in the Narmada river valley. There were three prominent members; Krishnaraja, Shankaragana and Buddharaja. They distributed coins and epigraphs around this area. Kalachuris of Kalyani or the southern Kalachuris (1130 -- 1184 CE) at their peak ruled parts of the Deccan extending over regions of present - day North Karnataka and parts of Maharashtra. This dynasty rose to power in the Deccan between 1156 and 1181 CE. They traced their origins to Krishna who was the conqueror of Kalinjar and Dahala in Madhya Pradesh. It is said that Bijjala a viceroy of this dynasty established the authority over Karnataka. He wrested power from the Chalukya king Taila III. Bijjala was succeeded by his sons Someshwara and Sangama but after 1181 CE, the Chalukyas gradually retrieved the territory. Their rule was a short and turbulent and yet very important from the socio - religious movement point of view; a new sect called the Lingayat or Virashaiva sect was founded during these times. A unique and purely native form of Kannada literature - poetry called the Vachanas was also born during this time. The writers of Vachanas were called Vachanakaras (poets). Many other important works like Virupaksha Pandita 's Chennabasavapurana, Dharani Pandita 's Bijjalarayacharite and Chandrasagara Varni 's Bijjalarayapurana were also written. Kalachuris of Tripuri (Chedi) ruled in central India with its base at the ancient city of Tripuri (Tewar); it originated in the 8th century, expanded significantly in the 11th century, and declined in the 12th -- 13th centuries. The Hoysalas had become a powerful force even during their rule from Belur in the 11th century as a feudatory of the Chalukyas (in the south Karnataka region). In the early 12th century they successfully fought the Cholas in the south, convincingly defeating them in the battle of Talakad and moved their capital to nearby Halebidu. Historians refer to the founders of the dynasty as natives of Malnad Karnataka, based on the numerous inscriptions calling them Maleparolganda or "Lord of the Male (hills) chiefs '' (Malepas). With the waning of the Western Chalukya power, the Hoysalas declared their independence in the late 12th century. During this period of Hoysala control, distinctive Kannada literary metres such as Ragale (blank verse), Sangatya (meant to be sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument), Shatpadi (seven line) etc. became widely accepted. The Hoysalas expanded the Vesara architecture stemming from the Chalukyas, culminating in the Hoysala architectural articulation and style as exemplified in the construction of the Chennakesava Temple at Belur and the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu. Both these temples were built in commemoration of the victories of the Hoysala Vishnuvardhana against the Cholas in 1116. Veera Ballala II, the most effective of the Hoysala rulers, defeated the aggressive Pandya when they invaded the Chola kingdom and assumed the titles "Establisher of the Chola Kingdom '' (Cholarajyapratishtacharya), "Emperor of the south '' (Dakshina Chakravarthi) and "Hoysala emperor '' (Hoysala Chakravarthi). The Hoysalas extended their foothold in areas known today as Tamil Nadu around 1225, making the city of Kannanur Kuppam near Srirangam a provincial capital. This gave them control over South Indian politics that began a period of Hoysala hegemony in the southern Deccan. In the early 13th century, with the Hoysala power remaining unchallenged, the first of the Muslim incursions into South India began. After over two decades of waging war against a foreign power, the Hoysala ruler at the time, Veera Ballala III, died in the battle of Madurai in 1343. This resulted in the merger of the sovereign territories of the Hoysala empire with the areas administered by Harihara I, founder of the Vijayanagara Empire, located in the Tungabhadra region in present - day Karnataka. The new kingdom thrived for another two centuries with Vijayanagara as its capital. By the 9th century, under Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola, the Cholas rose as a notable power in south Asia. The Chola Empire stretched as far as Bengal. At its peak, the empire spanned almost 3,600,000 km (1,389,968 sq mi). Rajaraja Chola conquered all of peninsular South India and parts of the Sri Lanka. Rajendra Chola 's navies went even further, occupying coasts from Burma (now Myanmar) to Vietnam, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Sumatra, Java, Malaya in South East Asia and Pegu islands. He defeated Mahipala, the king of the Bengal, and to commemorate his victory he built a new capital and named it Gangaikonda Cholapuram. The Cholas excelled in building magnificent temples. Brihadeshwara Temple in Thanjavur is a classical example of the magnificent architecture of the Chola kingdom. Brihadshwara temple is an UNESCO Heritage Site under "Great Living Chola Temples. '' Another example is the Chidambaram Temple in the heart of the temple town of Chidambaram. cultural period (Punjab - Sapta Sindhu) (Kuru - Panchala) (Brahmin ideology) Painted Grey Ware culture (Kshatriya / Shramanic culture) Northern Black Polished Ware Rise of Shramana movements Jainism - Buddhism - Ājīvika - Yoga Early Pandyan Kingdom Satavahana dynasty Cheras 46 other small kingdoms in Ancient Thamizhagam (continued) (300 BC -- 200 AD) Maha - Meghavahana Dynasty Early Pandyan Kingdom Satavahana dynasty Cheras 46 other small kingdoms in Ancient Thamizhagam Indo - Scythians Indo - Parthians Pandyan Kingdom (Under Kalabhras) Varman dynasty Pandyan Kingdom (Under Kalabhras) Kadamba Dynasty Western Ganga Dynasty Pandyan Kingdom (Under Kalabhras) Vishnukundina Kabul Shahi Kalabhra dynasty Pandyan Kingdom (Under Kalabhras) Pandyan Kingdom (Revival) Pallava Kalachuri Pandyan Kingdom Medieval Cholas Pandyan Kingdom (Under Cholas) Chera Perumals of Makkotai Kamboja - Pala dynasty Medieval Cholas Pandyan Kingdom (Under Cholas) Chera Perumals of Makkotai Rashtrakuta References Sources

what is a cmi level 5 diploma equivalent to

Chartered management Institute - wikipedia The Chartered Management Institute (CMI) is an accredited professional institution for management based in the United Kingdom. The major membership classes are Member, Fellow - for those with significant expertise - and Companion - the most senior grade. In addition to supporting its members, the organisation encourages management development, carries out research, produces a wide variety of publications on management interests, and publishes the official members ' magazine, Professional Manager. The Institute also engages with government and other public bodies concerning policy on management and business related issues. Professional Manager magazine is circulated to over 80,000 members of the CMI. The Chartered Manager process requires candidates to demonstrate how they have developed as a manager and how they have applied their leadership and change management skills to achieve significant business impact. There are three routes to becoming Chartered: Exemption Route - Available to those who have completed a CMI Level 5 Diploma or above. Qualified Route - Available to those who hold a degree level management qualification. Experiential Route - Available to those who have the relevant experience, but who do not currently hold a management qualification. Criteria and requirements for chartered status in the UK have to be approved by the Privy Council and as such the Chartered Manager designation is on par with other chartered qualifications in other fields. Timeline One of the reasons behind this move was the realisation that, although there were professional bodies representing functional activities, there was no comparable body for general management thinking and for the development and promotion of better management. Each level follows a format whereby a number of credits gained lead to an Award (which develops basic skills and knowledge appropriate to that level), Certificate (covers a broader area and builds on knowledge gained in the award), and Diploma (where a comprehensive range of skills and knowledge are gained. The CMI also accredits Coaching and Mentoring qualifications to support the development of coaching and mentoring skills and techniques of individuals, teams and achieve objectives. Management and Leadership qualifications can be accessed through accredited centres. When choosing the correct management qualification to study it is important to first choose the correct level of qualification, which will largely be driven by experience and previous study. Level 5 qualification are foundation degree level equivalent and level 7 equates to postgraduate masters level. Once the correct level of qualification has been chosen it is then possible to decide on the size of the qualification.

what branch of the military is captain america in

Captain America - Wikipedia Captain America is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by cartoonists Joe Simon and Jack Kirby, the character first appeared in Captain America Comics # 1 (cover dated March 1941) from Timely Comics, a predecessor of Marvel Comics. Captain America was designed as a patriotic supersoldier who often fought the Axis powers of World War II and was Timely Comics ' most popular character during the wartime period. The popularity of superheroes waned following the war and the Captain America comic book was discontinued in 1950, with a short - lived revival in 1953. Since Marvel Comics revived the character in 1964, Captain America has remained in publication. The character wears a costume bearing an American flag motif, and he utilizes a nearly indestructible shield which he throws as a projectile. Captain America is the alter ego of Steve Rogers, a frail young man enhanced to the peak of human perfection by an experimental serum to aid the United States government 's efforts in World War II. Near the end of the war, he was trapped in ice and survived in suspended animation until he was revived in the present day. Although Captain America often struggles to maintain his ideals as a man out of his time with its modern realities, he remains a highly respected figure in his community which includes becoming the long - time leader of the Avengers. Captain America was the first Marvel Comics character to appear in media outside comics with the release of the 1944 movie serial, Captain America. Since then, the character has been featured in other films and television series. In the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), the character is portrayed by Chris Evans in Captain America: The First Avenger, The Avengers, Captain America: The Winter Soldier, Avengers: Age of Ultron, Ant - Man, Captain America: Civil War, Spider - Man: Homecoming, Avengers: Infinity War (2018) and the fourth Avengers film. Captain America is ranked sixth on IGN 's "Top 100 Comic Book Heroes of All Time '' in 2011, second in their list of "The Top 50 Avengers '' in 2012, and second in their "Top 25 best Marvel superheroes '' list in 2014. In 1940, writer Joe Simon conceived the idea for Captain America and made a sketch of the character in costume. "I wrote the name ' Super American ' at the bottom of the page, '' Simon said in his autobiography, and then decided: No, it did n't work. There were too many "Supers '' around. "Captain America '' had a good sound to it. There were n't a lot of captains in comics. It was as easy as that. The boy companion was simply named Bucky, after my friend Bucky Pierson, a star on our high school basketball team. Simon recalled in his autobiography that Timely Comics publisher Martin Goodman gave him the go - ahead and directed that a Captain America solo comic book series be published as soon as possible. Needing to fill a full comic with primarily one character 's stories, Simon did not believe that his regular creative partner, artist Jack Kirby, could handle the workload alone: I did n't have a lot of objections to putting a crew on the first issue... There were two young artists from Connecticut that had made a strong impression on me. Al Avison and Al Gabriele often worked together and were quite successful in adapting their individual styles to each other. Actually, their work was not too far from (that of) Kirby 's. If they worked on it, and if one inker tied the three styles together, I believed the final product would emerge as quite uniform. The two Als were eager to join in on the new Captain America book, but Jack Kirby was visibly upset. "You 're still number one, Jack, '' I assured him. "It 's just a matter of a quick deadline for the first issue. '' "I 'll make the deadline, '' Jack promised. "I 'll pencil it (all) myself and make the deadline. '' I had n't expected this kind of reaction... but I acceded to Kirby 's wishes and, it turned out, was lucky that I did. There might have been two Als, but there was only one Jack Kirby... I wrote the first Captain America book with penciled lettering right on the drawing boards, with very rough sketches for figures and backgrounds. Kirby did his thing, building the muscular anatomy, adding ideas and pepping up the action as only he could. Then he tightened up the penciled drawings, adding detailed backgrounds, faces and figures. Al Liederman would ink that first issue, which was lettered by Simon and Kirby 's regular letterer, Howard Ferguson. Simon said Captain America was a consciously political creation; he and Kirby were morally repulsed by the actions of Nazi Germany in the years leading up to the United States ' involvement in World War II and felt war was inevitable: "The opponents to the war were all quite well organized. We wanted to have our say too. '' Captain America Comics # 1 -- cover - dated March 1941 and on sale December 20, 1940, a year before the attack on Pearl Harbor, but a full year into World War II -- showed the protagonist punching Nazi leader Adolf Hitler; it sold nearly one million copies. While most readers responded favorably to the comic, some took objection. Simon noted, "When the first issue came out we got a lot of... threatening letters and hate mail. Some people really opposed what Cap stood for. '' The threats, which included menacing groups of people loitering out on the street outside of the offices, proved so serious that police protection was posted with New York Mayor Fiorello La Guardia personally contacting Simon and Kirby to give his support. Though preceded as a "patriotically themed superhero '' by MLJ 's The Shield, Captain America immediately became the most prominent and enduring of that wave of superheroes introduced in American comic books prior to and during World War II, as evidenced by the unusual move at the time of premiering the character in his own title instead of an anthology title first. This popularity drew the attention and a complaint from MLJ that the character 's triangular shield too closely resembled the chest symbol of their Shield character. In response, Goodman had Simon and Kirby create a distinctive round shield for issue 2, which went on to become an iconic element of the character. With his sidekick Bucky, Captain America faced Nazis, Japanese, and other threats to wartime America and the Allies. Stanley Lieber, now better known as Stan Lee, contributed to the character in issue # 3 in the filler text story "Captain America Foils the Traitor 's Revenge '', which introduced the character 's use of his shield as a returning throwing weapon. Captain America soon became Timely 's most popular character and even had a fan - club called the "Sentinels of Liberty ''. Circulation figures remained close to a million copies per month after the debut issue, which outstripped even the circulation of news magazines such as Time during the period. After the Simon and Kirby team moved to DC Comics in late 1941, having produced Captain America Comics through issue # 10 (January 1942), Al Avison and Syd Shores became regular pencillers of the celebrated title, with one generally inking over the other. The character was featured in All Winners Comics # 1 -- 19 (Summer 1941 -- Fall 1946), Marvel Mystery Comics # 80 -- 84 and # 86 -- 92, USA Comics # 6 -- 17 (Dec. 1942 -- Fall 1945), and All Select Comics # 1 -- 10 (Fall 1943 -- Summer 1946). In the post-war era, with the popularity of superheroes fading, Captain America led Timely 's first superhero team, the All - Winners Squad, in its two published adventures, in All Winners Comics # 19 and # 21 (Fall -- Winter 1946; there was no issue # 20). After Bucky was shot and wounded in a 1948 Captain America story, he was succeeded by Captain America 's girlfriend, Betsy Ross, who became the superheroine Golden Girl. Captain America Comics ran until issue # 73 (July 1949), at which time the series was retitled Captain America 's Weird Tales for two issues, with the finale being a horror / suspense anthology issue with no superheroes. Atlas Comics attempted to revive its superhero titles when it reintroduced Captain America, along with the original Human Torch and the Sub-Mariner, in Young Men # 24 (Dec. 1953). Billed as "Captain America, Commie Smasher! '' Captain America appeared during the next year in Young Men # 24 -- 28 and Men 's Adventures # 27 -- 28, as well as in issues # 76 -- 78 of an eponymous title. Atlas ' attempted superhero revival was a commercial failure, and the character 's title was canceled with Captain America # 78 (Sept. 1954). In the Human Torch story titled "Captain America '' in Marvel Comics ' Strange Tales # 114 (Nov. 1963), writer - editor Stan Lee and artist and co-plotter Jack Kirby depicted the brash young Fantastic Four member Johnny Storm, the Human Torch, in an exhibition performance with Captain America, described as a legendary World War II and 1950s superhero who has returned after many years of apparent retirement. The 18 - page story ends with this Captain America revealed as an impostor: it was actually the villain the Acrobat, a former circus performer the Torch had defeated in Strange Tales # 106, who broke two thieves out of jail, hoping to draw the police away while trying to rob the local bank. Afterward, Storm digs out an old comic book in which Captain America is shown to be Steve Rogers. A caption in the final panel says this story was a test to see if readers would like Captain America to return. According to Lee, fan response to the tryout was very enthusiastic. Captain America was then formally reintroduced in The Avengers # 4 (March 1964), which explained that in the final days of World War II, he had fallen from an experimental drone plane into the North Atlantic Ocean and spent decades frozen in a block of ice in a state of suspended animation. The hero found a new generation of readers as leader of that superhero team. Following the success of other Marvel characters introduced during the 1960s, Captain America was recast as a hero "haunted by past memories, and trying to adapt to 1960s society ''. After then guest - starring in the feature "Iron Man '' in Tales of Suspense # 58 (Oct. 1964), Captain America gained his own solo feature in that "split book '', beginning the following issue. Issue # 63 (March 1965), which retold Captain America 's origin, through issue # 71 (Nov. 1965) was a period feature set during World War II and co-starred Captain America 's Golden Age sidekick, Bucky. Kirby drew all but two of the stories in Tales of Suspense, which became Captain America with # 100 (April 1968); Gil Kane and John Romita Sr., each filled in once. Several stories were finished by penciller - inker George Tuska over Kirby layouts, with one finished by Romita Sr. and another by penciller Dick Ayers and inker John Tartaglione. Kirby 's regular inkers on the series were Frank Giacoia (as "Frank Ray '') and Joe Sinnott, though Don Heck and Golden Age Captain America artist Syd Shores inked one story each. This series -- considered Captain America volume one by comics researchers and historians, following the 1940s Captain America Comics and its 1950s numbering continuation of Tales of Suspense -- ended with # 454 (Aug. 1996). This series was almost immediately followed by the 13 - issue Captain America vol. 2 (Nov. 1996 -- Nov. 1997, part of the "Heroes Reborn '' crossover), the 50 - issue Captain America vol. 3 (Jan. 1998 -- Feb. 2002), the 32 - issue Captain America vol. 4 (June 2002 -- Dec. 2004), and Captain America vol. 5 (Jan. 2005 -- Aug. 2011). Beginning with the 600th overall issue (Aug. 2009), Captain America resumed its original numbering, as if the series numbering had continued uninterrupted after # 454. As part of the aftermath of Marvel Comics ' company - crossover storyline "Civil War '', Steve Rogers was ostensibly killed in Captain America vol. 5, # 25 (March 2007). The storyline of Rogers ' return began in issue # 600. Rogers, who was not dead but caroming through time, returned to the present day in the six - issue miniseries Captain America: Reborn (Sept. 2009 -- March 2010). After Rogers ' return, Barnes, at Rogers ' insistence, continued as Captain America, beginning in the one - shot comic Captain America: Who Will Wield the Shield? (Feb. 2010). While Bucky Barnes continued adventuring in the pages of Captain America, Steve Rogers received his own miniseries (Steve Rogers: Super-Soldier) as well as taking on the leadership position in a new Secret Avengers ongoing series. Spinoff series included Captain America Sentinel of Liberty (Sept. 1998 -- Aug. 1999) and Captain America and the Falcon (May 2004 -- June 2005). The 1940s Captain America appeared alongside the 1940s Human Torch and Sub-Mariner in the 12 - issue miniseries Avengers / Invaders. The 2007 mini-series Captain America: The Chosen, written by David Morrell and penciled by Mitchell Breitweiser, depicts a dying Steve Rogers ' final minutes, at S.H.I.E.L.D. headquarters, as his spirit guides James Newman, a young American Marine fighting in Afghanistan. The Chosen is not part of the main Marvel Universe continuity. During the "Two Americas '' storyline that ran in issues # 602 - 605, the series drew controversy for the similarity between protesters depicted in the comic and the Tea Party movement. Particularly drawing scorn was a panel of a protester holding sign that read "Tea Bag the Libs Before They Tea Bag You! '' Also drawing controversy were remarks made by the Falcon implying that the crowd is racist. In his column on Comic Book Resources, Marvel Comics Editor - in - Chief Joe Quesada apologized for the sign, claiming that it was mistake added by the letterer at the last minute. The character, first as agent Steve Rogers and later after resuming his identity as Captain America, appeared as a regular character throughout the 2010 -- 2013 Avengers series, from issue # 1 (July 2010) through its final issue # 34 (January 2013). The character appeared as agent Steve Rogers as a regular character in the 2010 -- 2013 Secret Avengers series, from issue # 1 (July 2010) through issue # 21 (March 2012); the character made guest appearances as Captain America in issues # 21.1, # 22 -- 23, # 35, and the final issue of the series # 37 (March 2013). Marvel stated in May 2011 that Rogers, following the public death of Bucky Barnes in the Fear Itself miniseries, would resume his Captain America identity in a sixth volume of Captain America, by writer Ed Brubaker and artist Steve McNiven. The Captain America title continued from issue # 620 featuring team up stories with Bucky (# 620 - # 628), Hawkeye (# 629 - # 632), Iron Man (# 633 -- 635), Namor (# 635.1), and Black Widow (# 636 - # 640), and the title ended its print run with issue # 640. Captain America is a regular character in Uncanny Avengers (2012), beginning with issue # 1 as part of Marvel NOW!. Captain America vol. 7 was launched in November 2012 with a January 2013 cover date by writer Rick Remender and artist John Romita Jr... On July 16, 2014 Marvel Comics announced that the mantle of Captain America would be passed on by Rogers (who in the most recent storyline has been turned into a 90 - year - old man) to his long - time ally The Falcon, with the series being relaunched as All - New Captain America. Marvel announced that Rogers will become Captain America once again in the comic series Captain America: Steve Rogers. This new series follows the events of "Avengers: Standoff!, '' in which Captain America is restored to his youthful state following an encounter with the sentient Cosmic Cube, Kobik, and his past is drastically rewritten under the instructions of the Red Skull. Afterward, Captain America plots to set himself and Hydra in a position where they can conquer America in Marvel 's event "Secret Empire. '' In 1966 Joe Simon sued the owners of Marvel Comics, asserting that he -- not Marvel -- was legally entitled to renew the copyright upon the expiration of the original 28 - year term. The two parties settled out of court, with Simon agreeing to a statement that the character had been created under terms of employment by the publisher, and therefore it was work for hire owned by them. In 1999, Simon filed to claim the copyright to Captain America under a provision of the Copyright Act of 1976 which allowed the original creators of works that had been sold to corporations to reclaim them after the original 56 - year copyright term (but not the longer term enacted by the new legislation) had expired. Marvel Entertainment challenged the claim, arguing that the settlement of Simon 's 1966 suit made the character ineligible for termination of the copyright transfer. Simon and Marvel settled out of court in 2003, in a deal that paid Simon royalties for merchandising and licensing use of the character. Steven Rogers was born in the Lower East Side of Manhattan, New York City, in 1920 to poor Irish immigrants, Sarah and Joseph Rogers. Joseph died when Steve was a child, and Sarah died of pneumonia while Steve was a teen. By early 1940, before America 's entry into World War II, Rogers is a tall, scrawny fine arts student specializing in illustration and a comic book writer and artist. Disturbed by Adolf Hitler 's rise to power, Rogers attempts to enlist but is rejected due to his frail body. His resolution attracts the notice of U.S. Army General Chester Phillips and "Project: Rebirth ''. Rogers is used as a test subject for the Super-Soldier project, receiving a special serum made by "Dr. Josef Reinstein '', later retroactively changed to a code name for the scientist Abraham Erskine. The serum is a success and transforms Steve Rogers into a nearly perfect human being with peak strength, agility, stamina, and intelligence. The success of the program leaves Erskine wondering about replicating the experiment on other human beings. The process itself has been inconsistently detailed: While in the original material Rogers is shown receiving injections of the Super-Serum, when the origin was retold in the 1960s, the Comic Code Authority had already put a veto over graphic description of drug intake and abuse, and thus the Super-Serum was retconned into an oral formula. Later accounts hint at a combination of oral and intravenous treatments with a strenuous training regimen, culminating in the Vita - Ray exposure. Erskine refused to write down every crucial element of the treatment, leaving behind a flawed, imperfect knowledge of the steps. Thus, when the Nazi spy Heinz Kruger killed him, Erskine 's method of creating new Super-Soldiers died. Captain America, in his first act after his transformation, avenges Erskine. In the 1941 origin story and in Tales of Suspense # 63, Kruger dies when running into machinery but is not killed by Rogers; in the Captain America # 109 and # 255 revisions, Rogers causes the spy 's death by punching him into machinery. Unable to create new Super-Soldiers and willing to hide the Project Rebirth fiasco, the American government casts Rogers as a patriotic superhero, able to counter the menace of the Red Skull as a counter-intelligence agent. He is supplied with a patriotic uniform of his own design, a bulletproof shield, a personal side arm, and the codename Captain America, while posing as a clumsy infantry private at Camp Lehigh in Virginia. He forms a friendship with the camp 's teenage mascot, James Buchanan "Bucky '' Barnes. Barnes learns of Rogers ' dual identity and offers to keep the secret if he can become Captain America 's sidekick. During their adventures, Franklin D. Roosevelt presents Captain America with a new shield, forged from an alloy of steel and vibranium, fused by an unknown catalyst, so effective that it replaces his own firearm. Throughout World War II, Captain America and Bucky fight the Nazi menace both on their own and as members of the superhero team the Invaders as seen in the 1970s comic of the same name. Captain America fights in numerous battles in World War II, primarily as a member of 1st Battalion, 26th Infantry Regiment "Blue Spaders ''. Captain America battles a number of criminal menaces on American soil, including a wide variety of costumed villains: the Wax Man, the Hangman, the Fang, the Black Talon, and the White Death, among others. In addition to Bucky, Captain America was occasionally assisted by the Sentinels of Liberty. Sentinels of Liberty was the title given to members of the Captain America Comics fan club who Captain America sometimes addressed as an aside, or as characters in the Captain America Comics stories. In late April 1945, during the closing days of World War II, Captain America and Bucky try to stop the villainous Baron Zemo from destroying an experimental drone plane. Zemo launches the plane with an armed explosive on it with Rogers and Barnes in hot pursuit. The pair reaches the plane just before take off. When Bucky tries to defuse the bomb, it explodes in mid-air. Rogers is hurled into the freezing waters of the North Atlantic. Both are presumed dead, though it is later revealed that neither one died. Captain America appeared in comics for the next few years, changing from World War II - era hero fighting the Nazis to confronting the United States ' newest enemy, Communism. The revival of the character in the mid-1950s was short - lived, and events during that time period are later retconned to show that multiple people operated using the code name to explain the changes in the character. These post World War II successors are listed as William Naslund and Jeffrey Mace. The last of these other official Captains, William Burnside, was a history graduate enamored with the Captain America mythos, having his appearance surgically altered to resemble Rogers and legally changing his name to "Steve Rogers '', becoming the new "1950s Captain America ''. He self - administered to himself and his pupil James "Jack '' Monroe a flawed, incomplete copy of the Super-Serum, which made no mention about the necessary Vita - Ray portion of the treatment. As a result, while Burnside and Monroe became the new Captain America and Bucky, they became violently paranoid, often raving about innocent people being communist sympathizers during the height of the Red Scare of the 1950s. Their insanity forced the U.S. government to place them in indefinite cryogenic storage until they could be cured of their mental illness. Monroe would later be cured and assume the Nomad identity. Years later, the superhero team the Avengers discovers Steve Rogers ' body in the North Atlantic. After he revives, they piece together that Rogers has been preserved in a block of ice since 1945, surviving because of his enhancements from Project: Rebirth. The block began to melt after the Sub-Mariner, enraged that an Inuit tribe is worshipping the frozen figure, throws it into the ocean. Rogers accepts membership in the Avengers, and his experience in individual combat service and his time with the Invaders makes him a valuable asset. He quickly assumes leadership and has typically returned to that position throughout the team 's history. Captain America is plagued by guilt for having been unable to prevent Bucky 's death. Although he takes the young Rick Jones (who closely resembles Bucky) under his tutelage, he refuses for some time to allow Jones to take up the Bucky identity, not wishing to be responsible for another youth 's death. Insisting that his hero move on from that loss, Jones convinces Rogers to let him don the Bucky costume, but this partnership lasts only a short time; a disguised Red Skull, impersonating Rogers with the help of the Cosmic Cube, drives Jones away. Rogers reunites with his old war comrade Nick Fury, who is similarly well - preserved due to the "Infinity Formula ''. As a result, Rogers regularly undertakes missions for the security agency S.H.I.E.L.D., for which Fury is public director. Through Fury, Rogers befriends Sharon Carter, a S.H.I.E.L.D. agent, with whom he eventually begins a romantic relationship. Rogers later meets and trains Sam Wilson, who becomes the superhero the Falcon, the first African - American superhero in mainstream comic books. The characters established an enduring friendship and adventuring partnership, sharing the series title for some time as Captain America and the Falcon. The two later encounter the revived but still insane 1950s Captain America. Although Rogers and the Falcon defeat the faux Rogers and Jack Monroe, Rogers becomes deeply disturbed that he could have suffered his counterpart 's fate. During this period, Rogers temporarily gains super strength. The series dealt with the Marvel Universe 's version of the Watergate scandal, making Rogers so uncertain about his role that he abandons his Captain America identity in favor of one called Nomad, emphasizing the word 's meaning as "man without a country ''. During this time, several men unsuccessfully assume the Captain America identity. Rogers eventually re-assumes it after coming to consider that the identity could be a symbol of American ideals and not its government; it 's a personal conviction epitomized when he later confronted a corrupt Army officer attempting to manipulate him by appealing to his loyalty, "I 'm loyal to nothing, General... except the (American) Dream. '' Jack Monroe, cured of his mental instability, later takes up the Nomad alias. Sharon Carter is believed to have been killed while under the mind control of Dr. Faustus. The 1980s included a run by writer Roger Stern and artist John Byrne. Stern had Rogers consider a run for President of the United States in Captain America # 250 (June 1980), an idea originally developed by Roger McKenzie and Don Perlin. Stern, in his capacity as editor of the title, originally rejected the idea but later changed his mind about the concept. McKenzie and Perlin received credit for the idea on the letters page at Stern 's insistence. Stern additionally introduced a new love interest, law student Bernie Rosenthal, in Captain America # 248 (Aug. 1980). Writer J.M. DeMatteis revealed the true face and full origin of the Red Skull in Captain America # 298 -- 300, and had Captain America take on Jack Monroe, Nomad, as a partner for a time. Around this time, the heroes gathered by the Beyonder elect Rogers as leader during their stay on Battleworld in the 1984 miniseries Secret Wars. Homophobia is dealt with as Rogers runs into a childhood friend named Arnold Roth who is gay. Mark Gruenwald became the writer of the series with issue # 307 (July 1985) and wrote 137 issues for 10 consecutive years from until # 443 (Sept. 1995), the most issues by any single author in the character 's history. Gruenwald created several new foes, including Crossbones and the Serpent Society. Other Gruenwald characters included Diamondback, Super Patriot, and Demolition Man. Gruenwald explored numerous political and social themes as well, such as extreme idealism when Captain America fights the anti-nationalist terrorist Flag - Smasher; and vigilantism when he hunts the murderous Scourge of the Underworld. Rogers receives a large back - pay reimbursement dating back to his disappearance at the end of World War II, and a government commission orders him to work directly for the U.S. government. Already troubled by the corruption he had encountered with the Nuke incident in New York City, Rogers chooses instead to resign his identity, and then takes the alias of "the Captain ''. A replacement Captain America, John Walker, struggles to emulate Rogers ' ideals until pressure from hidden enemies helps to drive Walker insane. Rogers returns to the Captain America identity while a recovered Walker becomes the U.S. Agent. Sometime afterward, Rogers avoids the explosion of a methamphetamine lab, but the drug triggers a chemical reaction in the Super-Soldier serum in his system. To combat the reaction, Rogers has the serum removed from his body and trains constantly to maintain his physical condition. A retcon later establishes that the serum was not a drug per se, which would have metabolized out of his system, but in fact a virus - like organism that effected a biochemical and genetic change. This additionally explained how nemesis the Red Skull, who at the time inhabited a body cloned from Rogers ' cells, has the formula in his body. Because of his altered biochemistry, Rogers ' body begins to deteriorate, and for a time he must wear a powered exoskeleton and is eventually placed again in suspended animation. During this time, he is given a transfusion of blood from the Red Skull, which cures his condition and stabilizes the Super-Soldier virus in his system. Captain America returns to crime fighting and the Avengers. Following Gruenwald 's departure from the series, Mark Waid took over and resurrected Sharon Carter as Cap 's love interest. The title was then relaunched under Rob Liefeld as Cap became part of the Heroes Reborn universe for 13 issues before another relaunch restored Waid to the title in an arc that saw Cap lose his shield for a time using an energy based shield as a temporary replacement. Following Waid 's run, Dan Jurgens took over and introduced new foe Protocide, a failed recipient of the Super Soldier serum prior to the experiment that successfully created Rogers. Some time after this, Rogers ' original shield was retrieved, but subtle damage sustained during the battle with the Beyonder resulted in it being shattered and a ' vibranium cancer ' being triggered that would destroy all vibranium in the world, with Rogers nearly being forced to destroy the shield before a confrontation with the villain Klaw saw Klaw 's attacks unwittingly repair the shield 's fractured molecular bonds and negate the cancer. In the aftermath of the September 11 terrorist attacks, Rogers reveals his identity to the world and establishes a residence in the Red Hook neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York, as seen in Captain America vol. 4, # 1 -- 7 (June 2002 -- Feb. 2003). Following the disbandment of the Avengers in the "Avengers Disassembled '' story arc, Rogers, now employed by S.H.I.E.L.D., discovers Bucky is alive, having been saved and deployed by the Soviets as the Winter Soldier. Rogers resumes his on - again, off - again relationship with S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Sharon Carter. After a mass supervillain break - out of the Raft, Rogers and Tony Stark assemble a new team of Avengers to hunt the escapees. In the 2006 -- 2007 company - wide story arc "Civil War '', Rogers opposes the new mandatory federal registration of super-powered beings, and leads the underground anti-registration movement. After significant rancor and danger to the public as the two sides clash, Captain America voluntarily surrenders and orders the Anti-Registration forces to stand down, feeling that the fight has reached a point where the principle originally cited by the anti-registration forces has been lost. In the story arc "The Death of Captain America '', Rogers is fatally shot by Sharon Carter, whose actions are manipulated by the villain Dr. Faustus. The miniseries Fallen Son: The Death of Captain America # 1 -- 5 (June -- Aug. 2007) examines the reaction of the stunned superhero community to Rogers ' assassination, with each of the five issues focusing a different character 's reaction. Bucky takes on the mantle of Captain America, per Rogers ' antemortem request. Captain America: Reborn # 1 (Aug. 2009) reveals that Rogers did not die, as the gun Sharon Carter had been hypnotized into firing at Rogers caused his consciousness to phase in and out of space and time, appearing at various points in his lifetime. Although Rogers manages to relay a message to the future by giving a time - delayed command to the Vision during the Kree - Skrull War, the Skull returns Rogers to the present, where he takes control of Rogers ' mind and body. Rogers eventually regains control, and, with help from his allies, defeats the Skull. In the subsequent one - shot comic Captain America: Who Will Wield the Shield?, Rogers formally grants Bucky his Captain America shield and asks him to continue as Captain America. The President of the United States grants Rogers a full pardon for his anti-registration actions. Following the company - wide "Dark Reign '' and "Siege '' story arcs, the Steve Rogers character became part of the "Heroic Age '' arc. The President of the United States appoints Rogers, in his civilian identity, as "America 's top cop '' and head of the nation 's security, replacing Norman Osborn as the tenth Executive Director of S.H.I.E.L.D.. The Superhuman Registration Act is repealed and Rogers re-establishes the superhero team the Avengers, spearheaded by Iron Man, Thor, and Bucky as Captain America. In the miniseries Steve Rogers: Super Soldier, he encounters Jacob Erskine, the grandson of Professor Abraham Erskine and the son of Tyler Paxton, one of Rogers ' fellow volunteers in the Super-Soldier program. Shortly afterward, Rogers becomes leader of the Secret Avengers, a black - ops superhero team. During the Fear Itself storyline, Steve Rogers is present when the threat of the Serpent is known. Following the apparent death of Bucky at the hands of Sin (in the form of Skadi), Steve Rogers ends up changing into his Captain America uniform. When the Avengers and the New Avengers are fighting Skadi, the Serpent ends up joining the battle and breaks Captain America 's shield with his bare hands. Captain America and the Avengers teams end up forming a militia for a last stand against the forces of the Serpent. When it comes to the final battle, Captain America uses Thor 's hammer to fight Skadi until Thor manages to kill the Serpent. In the aftermath of the battle, Iron Man presents him with his reforged shield, now stronger for its uru - infused enhancements despite the scar it bears. It is then revealed that Captain America, Nick Fury, and Black Widow are the only ones who know that Bucky actually survived the fight with Skadi as Bucky resumes his identity as Winter Soldier. In the Avengers vs. X-Men story arc, Captain America attempts to apprehend Hope Summers of the X-Men. She is the targeted vessel for the Phoenix Force, a destructive cosmic entity. Captain America believes that this Phoenix Force is too dangerous to entrust in one person and seeks to prevent Hope from having it. Cyclops and the X-Men believe that the Phoenix Force will save their race, and oppose Captain America 's wishes. The result is a series of battles that eventually take both teams to the blue area of the moon. The Phoenix Force eventually possesses the five X-Men present, leaving the Avengers at an extreme disadvantage. The Phoenix Five, who become corrupted by the power of the Phoenix, are eventually defeated and scattered, with Cyclops imprisoned for turning the world into a police state and murdering Charles Xavier after being pushed too far, only for him to note that, in the end, he was proven right about the Phoenix 's intentions. From there, Captain America proceeds to assemble the Avengers Unity Squad, a new team of Avengers composed of both classic Avengers and X-Men. After Cyclops was incarcerated, and Steve accepted the Avengers should have done more to help mutants, and allowed the world to hate them, he started planning a new sub-team of Avengers in the hopes of unifying mutant and humankind alike. He chose Havok to lead his team and become the new face to represent mutants as Professor X and Cyclops once were. Their first threat was the return of the Red Skull - more specifically, a clone of the Skull created in 1942 and kept in stasis in the event of the original 's death - who usurped Professor X 's body to provide himself with telepathic powers, which he would use to provoke citizens of New York into a mass assault against mutants, or anyone who could be one, and force the Scarlet Witch and Rogue to allow themselves to be attacked. With the help of the S - Man Honest John, he managed to even manipulate Thor. The Red Skull 's skills were still erratic, and could not completely control Captain America, an attack against him was enough of a distraction to lose control of Rogue and the Scarlet Witch. After being overpowered by the rest of the Uncanny Avengers, the Red Skull escapes, but promises to return. In the aftermath, both Rogue and the Scarlet Witch joined the team. During a battle with an enemy called the Iron Nail, the Super-Soldier Serum within Rogers 's body was neutralized, causing him to age rapidly to match his chronological age of over 90 years. No longer able to take part in field missions but retaining his sharp mind, Rogers decided to take on a role as mission coordinator, organizing the Avengers ' plans of attack from the mansion, while appointing Sam Wilson as his official "replacement '' as Captain America. When various Avengers and X-Men were inverted into villains and several villains inverted into heroism due to a miscast spell by the Scarlet Witch and Doctor Doom, Rogers not only coordinated the efforts of Spider - Man and the inverted villains, now called the "Astonishing Avengers '', but also donned his old armor to battle the inverted Falcon, until the heroes and villains could be returned to normal with the aid of the White Skull (the inverted Red Skull). During the "Time Runs Out '' storyline, Steve Rogers wears armor when he confronts Iron Man. The ensuing fight between the two old friends led Steve Rogers to force Iron Man to admit that he had lied to him and all of their allies, when he had known about the incursions between alternate Earths all along, but Iron Man also confessed that he would n't change a thing. The final incursion started and Earth - 1610 started approaching Earth - 616 while Iron Man and Steve Rogers kept fighting. Earth - 1610 's S.H.I.E.L.D. launched a full invasion to destroy Earth - 616, where Tony Stark and Steve Rogers were crushed by a Helicarrier. As part of the All - New, All - Different Marvel, Steve Rogers became the new Chief of Civilian Oversight for S.H.I.E.L.D. He returned to the Uncanny Avengers where the team is now using the Schaefer Theater as their headquarters. Steve Rogers later has an encounter with an alternate Logan from Earth - 807128. After defeating Logan and bringing him to Alberta, Canada, Rogers tried to "reassure '' Logan that this was not "his '' past by showing him the adamantium - frozen body of Earth - 616 's Logan. This sight reminds Logan of the need to enjoy being alive rather than brooding over the ghosts of his past. Although he told Steve Rogers what he had experienced in his timeline, Logan declined Steve 's offer of help. During the 2016 "Avengers: Standoff! '' storyline, Steve Rogers learns from Rick Jones that S.H.I.E.L.D. has established Pleasant Hill, a gated community where they use Kobik to transform villains into ordinary citizens. When Rogers is brought to Pleasant Hill, he confronts Maria Hill about the Kobik project. Their argument is interrupted when Baron Helmut Zemo and Fixer restore the inmates to normal. After Hill is injured, Rogers convinces Zemo to let Hill get medical attention. Rogers is then escorted to Dr. Erik Selvig 's clinic by Father Patrick. Selvig tells Rogers that Kobik is at the Pleasant Hill Bowling Alley. During an attempt to reason with Kobik, Rogers is attacked by Crossbones. Before Rogers can be killed, Kobik uses her abilities to restore him back to his prime. Declaring that "It 's good to be back, '' Steve defeats Crossbones as Captain America and the Winter Soldier catch up with him. They resume their search for Kobik, and discover that Baron Zemo had Fixer invent a device that would make Kobik subservient to them. Rogers rallies the heroes so that they can take the fight to Zemo. In the aftermath of the incident, Steve and Sam plan to keep what happened at Pleasant Hill under wraps for the time being. In Captain America: Steve Rogers # 1 (July 2016), the final panel apparently revealed that Rogers has been a Hydra double - agent since his early youth. This is subsequently revealed to be the result of Kobik 's restoration of Rogers ' youth, as she had been taught by the Red Skull that Hydra was good for the world, and having the mind of a four - year - old child, Kobik changed reality so that Rogers would be the greatest man he could be: believing Hydra to be good, Kobik permanently altered his memories so that Rogers believed that he had always been a member of Hydra. Some of Rogers ' original heroic attributes remain intact, such as covering the death of another Hydra member within S.H.I.E.L.D., Erik Selvig, as well as knowing of Jack Flag 's tragic life and his immortality, which is why Steve pushes him from Zemo 's airplane (resulting in coma, not death). Additionally, it is revealed that Rogers ' abusive father, Joseph, was actually killed by Hydra, and that Hydra deceived him into thinking Joseph died of a heart attack. It is also revealed that Rogers witnessed his mother, Sarah, being killed by Sinclair 's Hydra goons and kidnapped him, which is the reason why Steve held a grudge towards Hydra 's evilness and plans to kill the Red Skull 's clone and restore Hydra 's lost honor. As part of his long - term plans, Steve further compromised Sam Wilson 's current image as ' the ' Captain America by using his greater familiarity with the shield to deliberately put Wilson in a position where he would be unable to use the shield to save a senator from Flag - Smasher, with the final goal of demoralizing Sam to the point where he will return the shield to Rogers of his own free will, not wanting to kill Wilson and risk creating a martyr. During the 2016 "Civil War II '' storyline, with the discovery of new Inhuman Ulysses -- who has the ability to "predict '' the future by calculating complex patterns -- Rogers has set out to prevent Ulysses from learning of his true plans and allegiance. Rogers does this by "forcing '' certain predictions on him, such as anonymously providing Bruce Banner with new gamma research to provoke a vision that would drive the Avengers to kill Banner, although this plan has apparently backfired with a recent vision showing the new Spider - Man standing over the dead Steve Rogers. Despite this revelation, Rogers presents himself as the voice of reason by allowing Spider - Man to flee with Thor. This inspires doubt in Tony Stark for his current stance by suggesting that he is just acting against Danvers because he does not like being top dog. He then goes to Washington, D.C., the location seen in Ulysses ' vision, to talk to Spider - Man, who was trying to understand the vision like he was. When Captain Marvel attempts to arrest Spider - Man, Tony, wearing the War Machine armor, confronts her and the two begin to fight. Later, Rogers goes to Sokovia and joins forces with Black Widow to liberate freedom fighters from a prison so they can reclaim their country. After that, he goes to his base where Doctor Selvig expresses concern of his plan to kill the Red Skull. He then reveals that he has Baron Zemo in a cell, planning to recruit him. He eventually kills the Skull after the villain is captured by the Unity Squad and the Xavier brain fragment extracted by the Beast, Rogers throwing the Skull out of a window over a cliff after Sin and Crossbones affirm their new allegiance to Rogers. In the 2017 "Secret Empire '' storyline, Rogers, as the head of S.H.I.E.L.D, uses a subsequent alien invasion and a mass supervillain assault in order to neutralize the superheroes that might oppose him, and seeks the Cosmic Cube to bring about a reality in which Hydra won World War II. When Rick smuggles information about the Cube 's rewriting of Rogers ' reality to the remaining free Avengers, a disheveled, bearded man in a torn World War II army uniform appears who introduces himself as Steve Rogers. As the Avengers and Hydra search for fragments of the shattered Cube, it is revealed that this amnesic Steve Rogers is actually a manifestation of Rogers existing within the Cube itself, created by Kobik 's memories of Rogers before he was converted to Hydra, as she comes to recognize that her decision to ' rewrite ' Rogers as an agent of Hydra was wrong. Although Hydra Rogers is able to mostly reassemble the Cosmic Cube, Sam Wilson and Bucky are able to use a fragment of the cube to restore the ' memory ' of pre-Hydra Rogers in the Cube to corporeal existence, allowing him to defeat his Hydra self, subsequently using the Cube to undo most of the damage caused by Hydra manipulating reality even if the physical damage remains. ' Hydra Cap ' continues to exist as a separate entity and is kept trapped in a prison where he is the only inmate, mocking the restored Rogers about the challenge he will face rebuilding his reputation even as Rogers muses that this experience will teach everyone not to place such blind trust in another. Captain America has no superhuman powers, but through the Super-Soldier Serum and "Vita - Ray '' treatment, he is transformed and his strength, endurance, agility, speed, reflexes, durability, and healing are at the zenith of natural human potential. Rogers ' body regularly replenishes the super-soldier serum; it does not wear off. Although he lacks superhuman strength, Captain America is one of the few mortal beings who has been deemed worthy enough to wield Thor 's hammer Mjolnir. Rogers ' battle experience and training make him an expert tactician and an excellent field commander, with his teammates frequently deferring to his orders in battle. Thor has stated that Rogers is one of the very few humans he will take orders from and follow "through the gates of Hades ''. Rogers ' reflexes and senses are extraordinarily keen. He has blended Boxing, Judo, Karate, Jujutsu, Kickboxing, and gymnastics into his own unique fighting style and is a master of multiple martial arts. Years of practice with his near - indestructible shield make him able to aim and throw it with almost unerring accuracy. His skill with his shield is such that he can attack multiple targets in succession with a single throw or even cause a boomerang - like return from a throw to attack an enemy from behind. In canon, he is regarded by other skilled fighters as one of the best hand - to - hand combatants in the Marvel Universe, limited only by his human physique. Although the super-soldier serum is an important part of his strength, Rogers has shown himself still sufficiently capable against stronger opponents, even when the serum has been deactivated reverting him to his pre-Captain America physique. Rogers has vast U.S. military knowledge and is often shown to be familiar with ongoing, classified Defense Department operations. He is an expert in combat strategy, survival, acrobatics, parkour, military strategy, piloting, and demolitions. Despite his high profile as one of the world 's most popular and recognizable superheroes, Rogers has a broad understanding of the espionage community, largely through his ongoing relationship with S.H.I.E.L.D. The formula enhances all of his metabolic functions and prevents the build - up of fatigue poisons in his muscles, giving him endurance far in excess of an ordinary human being. This accounts for many of his extraordinary feats, including bench pressing 1,200 pounds (540 kg) and running a mile (1.6 km) in 73 seconds (49 mph / 78 kph, nearly twice the maximum speed achieved by the best human sprinters). Furthermore, his enhancements are the reason why he was able to survive being frozen in suspended animation for decades. He is highly resistant to hypnosis or gases that could limit his focus. The secrets of creating a super-soldier were lost with the death of its creator, Dr. Abraham Erskine. In the ensuing decades there have been numerous attempts to recreate Erskine 's treatment, only to have them end in failure. Even worse, the attempts have instead often created psychopathic supervillains of which Captain America 's 1950s imitator and Nuke are the most notorious examples. Captain America has used multiple shields throughout his history, the most prevalent of which is a nigh - indestructible disc - shaped shield made from an experimental alloy of steel and the fictional vibranium. The shield was cast by American metallurgist Dr. Myron MacLain, who was contracted by the U.S. government, from orders of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, to create an impenetrable substance to use for tanks during World War II. This alloy was created by accident and never duplicated, although efforts to reverse - engineer it resulted in the discovery of adamantium. Captain America often uses his shield as an offensive throwing weapon. The first instance of Captain America 's trademark ricocheting shield - toss occurs in Stan Lee 's first comics writing, the two - page text story "Captain America Foils the Traitor 's Revenge '' in Captain America Comics # 3 (May 1941). The legacy of the shield among other comics characters includes the time - traveling mutant superhero Cable telling Captain America that his shield still exists in one of the possible futures; Cable carries it into battle and brandishes it as a symbol. When without his trademark shield, Captain America sometimes uses other shields made from less durable metals such as steel, or even a photonic energy shield designed to mimic a vibranium matrix. Rogers, having relinquished his regular shield to Barnes, carried a variant of the energy shield which can be used with either arm, and used to either block attacks or as an improvised offensive weapon able to cut through metal with relative ease. Much like his Vibranium shield, the energy shield can be thrown, including ricocheting off multiple surfaces and returning to his hand. Captain America 's uniform is made of a fire - retardant material, and he wears a lightweight, bulletproof duralumin scale armor beneath his uniform for added protection. Originally, Rogers ' mask was a separate piece of material, but an early engagement had it dislodged, thus almost exposing his identity. To prevent a recurrence of the situation, Rogers modified the mask with connecting material to his uniform, an added benefit of which was extending his armor to cover his previously exposed neck. As a member of the Avengers, Rogers has an Avengers priority card, which serves as a communications device. Captain America has used a custom specialized motorcycle, modified by the S.H.I.E.L.D. weapons laboratory, as well as a custom - built battle van, constructed by the Wakanda Design Group with the ability to change its color for disguise purposes (red, white and blue), and fitted to store and conceal the custom motorcycle in its rear section with a frame that allows Rogers to launch from the vehicle riding it. Captain America has faced numerous foes in over 70 years of published adventures. Many of his recurring foes embody ideologies contrary to the American values that Captain America is shown to strive for and believes in. Some examples of these opposing values are Nazism (Red Skull, Baron Zemo), neo-Nazism (Crossbones, Doctor Faustus), technocratic fascism (AIM, Arnim Zola), Communism (Aleksander Lukin), anarchism (Flag Smasher) and international and domestic terrorism (Hydra).

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List of regions of California - wikipedia This is a list of regions of California, organized by location.

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Illinois gubernatorial election, 2018 - wikipedia Bruce Rauner Republican The 2018 Illinois gubernatorial election takes place as part of the 2018 Illinois general election and elects the Governor of Illinois. The Democratic and Republican general primary elections will take place on March 20, 2018, and the general election will take place on November 6, 2018. Incumbent Republican Governor Bruce Rauner has declared his intention to run for re-election to a second term in office. "The Illinois LGBTQ Forum: The Democratic Candidates for Governor '' was held on Wednesday, December 6, organized by Affinity Community Services, the Association of Latinos / as Motivating Action (ALMA), the Equality Illinois Institute, and Pride Action Tank. Candidates who attended included Daniel Biss, Tio Hardiman, Ameya Pawar, J.B. Pritzker, and Chris Kennedy. Whitney Young High School hosted the first student run gubernatorial debate in the USA on October 4. All 7 then current candidates attended, meaning Daniel Biss, Bob Daiber, Tio Hardiman, Chris Kennedy, Alex Paterakis, Ameya Pawar, and J.B. Pritzker. The Illinois chapter of progressive advocacy organization Our Revolution sponsored a forum at the Chicago Teacher 's Union headquarters on October 8. Candidates voiced similar opinions on single - payer health care, gun control, and the minimum wage, but differed on a hypothetical state deal with Amazon and relationships with powerful Illinois Speaker Mike Madigan. Hypothetical polling In order to qualify as an established party in Illinois, a candidate for said party must earn at least 5 % of the vote in a statewide election. This last occurred in 2006, when Rich Whitney won 10 % of the vote, allowing the Illinois Green Party to achieve such status. Established party status comes with benefits. For example, candidates of an established party needs only 5,000 voter signatures on its petitions to gain ballot access. For non-established parties this number is approximately 25,000. For the 2018 election, non-established parties will not need to run a full slate in order to qualify for ballot access. The party ran a slate of statewide candidates in 2006 and 2010, but failed to be placed on the ballot in 2014. Hypothetical polling

where is lulu's 134th outlet is opened

LuLu Hypermarket - wikipedia Lulu Hypermarket (stylized as LuLu Hypermarket) is a hypermarket chain and retail venture started by Lulu Group International in 2000. M.A. Yousuf Ali is the managing director of the group that is based in Abu Dhabi. LuLu has over 35,600 employees of various nationalities. It is one of the largest retail chains in Asia and is the biggest in Middle East with 128 outlets in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. They also have 13 malls all over the GCC and India with a mall planned to come up in Malaysia which after opening will be the largest mall in Malaysia. Research firm Deloitte, recently placed it amongst the world 's 50 fastest growing retailers. LuLu Group International opened its first supermarket in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, in 1995, when the retail business scenario in the region started to change with the entry of Continent (now Carrefour). Later, more LuLu Supermarket stores were opened in different parts of Abu Dhabi There are also several Lulu stores found in the emirate of Dubai. In the late 1990s, the LuLu Center department stores were launched, and the group expanded to other countries in the Middle East. In 2000, the first Lulu Hypermarket store was opened in Dubai. With this launch, the Group embarked on an aggressive expansion plan. It soon grew into a chain with several outlets across the UAE, Kuwait, Qatar, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Oman, and Yemen. On March 10, 2013, LuLu Hypermarket was opened in Kochi, India at LuLu Mall. The group has started construction of the LuLu Mall in Thiruvananthapuram, which upon completion will be the largest shopping mall in India and the 5th largest in Asia. LuLu group also plans to invest Rs 1,000 crore to set up an international convention centre, a five - star hotel and a mall in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. As of June 2017, there are 134 LuLu Hypermarkets in the GCC countries, one in India at Kochi, Kerala and one each in Malaysia and Indonesia. In April 2013, LuLu Group launched its UK operations in Birmingham with the inauguration of a logistics and packaging facility under the name, Y International. The 20,000 sq. ft. facility procures and exports food, non-food, chilled and frozen products of British origin to LuLu Hypermarkets spread across the Gulf countries. Date coding and labeling for different countries, translation of labels, Halal and other relevant certifications are also carried out here. About 60 British nationals are employed at the facility which hopes to create 200 jobs soon. In May 2014, following the visit of Prime Minister Najib Razak to United Arab Emirates, a memorandum of understanding between Lulu Hypermarket and the Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) was signed for the establishment of ten Lulu Hypermarkets in Malaysia. LuLu Hypermarket has partnered with banks in the Middle East to create co-branded cards that help loyal customers gain special privileges and rewards every time they shop. The ADCB LuLu Credit Card in association with the Abu Dhabi Commercial Bank (ADCB) helps users gain points on every AED 1 spent at any Lulu outlet in the UAE. The LuLu Doha Bank Shopping Credit Card in association with Doha Bank gives cardholders a 5 % rebate on every purchase made from a LuLu outlet in Qatar. Shopping points can also be accumulated and redeemed on purchases.

why are they calling it the car fire in california

Carr Fire - wikipedia The Carr Fire was a large wildfire that burned in Shasta and Trinity Counties in California, United States. The fire burned 229,651 acres (92,936 ha; 359 sq mi), before it was 100 % contained late on August 30, 2018. The Carr Fire destroyed at least 1,604 structures (at least 1,077 were homes) while damaging 277 others, becoming the sixth-most destructive fire in California history, as well as the seventh - largest wildfire recorded in modern California history. The Carr Fire cost over $1.659 billion (2018) in damages, including $1.5 billion in insured losses and more than $158.7 million in suppression costs. At its height, the fire engaged as many as 4,766 personnel from multiple agencies. The fire was reported on the afternoon of July 23, 2018, at the intersection of Highway 299 and Carr Powerhouse Road, in the Whiskeytown district of the Whiskeytown -- Shasta -- Trinity National Recreation Area. The fire was started when a flat tire on a vehicle caused the wheel 's rim to scrape against the asphalt, creating sparks that set off the fire. On July 26, the fire jumped the Sacramento River, making its way into the city of Redding, causing the evacuation of 38,000 people. Evacuations also took place in Summit City, Keswick, Lewiston, Shasta Lake City, Igo, Ono, and French Gulch. Eight people died in the fire, including three firefighters. The Carr Fire was reported on the afternoon of July 23, 2018, at the intersection of Highway 299 and Carr Powerhouse Road, in the Whiskeytown district of the Whiskeytown -- Shasta -- Trinity National Recreation Area, in Shasta County, California, near French Gulch. The fire was believed to have been started accidentally by a vehicle towing a dual - axle travel trailer. One of the tires on the trailer blew out, causing the steel rim to scrape along the pavement, generating sparks that ignited dry vegetation along the edge of the highway. Wind caused the fire to spread quickly. Hot conditions and steep, inaccessible terrain presented challenges for fire crews as they strengthened containment lines. Highway 299 was closed and French Gulch was placed under mandatory evacuation. Overnight from July 25 to 26, the fire grew to 20,000 acres (8,094 ha) in total area burned. By the evening of July 26, the fire had burned 28,763 acres (11,640 ha) and was 10 percent contained. It was reported to have destroyed 15 buildings and damaged 5, while remaining a threat to 496 other buildings. The fire jumped the Sacramento River and portions of the western area of Redding were put under mandatory evacuation orders. Power to residents in North Redding was shut off by Redding Electric Utility. A state of emergency was declared by Governor Jerry Brown. The evacuation center at Shasta High School was relocated to Shasta College. A firefighter was killed while operating a bulldozer. The National Guard was called in to help fight the fire on the night of July 26. The fire remained active overnight, with fire crews continuing to build containment lines. However, crews were stalled in their work due to the fire 's extreme behavior. Just after midnight, evacuation orders were put in place for Shasta Dam, Summit City, and neighborhoods in western Redding. A second firefighter, Jeremy Stoke of the Redding Fire Department, was killed and it was reported that three firefighters from Marin County sustained burns. They were defending a structure when a heat blast from the flames came towards them. All three were released, with one being evaluated at the University of California, Davis Burn Center for burns on his face, hands and ears. By the evening of July 27, the fire had destroyed 500 structures and threatened almost 5,000. CrossPointe Community Church was named the third evacuation place. Amtrak announced that their Coast Starlight service would stop in Sacramento and Klamath Falls with alternative transportation being provided. Containment lines remained the priority for firefighters overnight. Red flag warnings and heat advisories were put in place for the area. By the next morning, over 38,000 individuals had been evacuated. The Shasta College evacuation center reached capacity by July 28 and two more shelters operated by the Red Cross, and one at Grace Baptist Church, were opened. President Donald Trump declared a state of emergency for the state of California due to this fire and other fires burning in the state. The communities of Happy Valley and Anderson, as well as other areas, were put under mandatory evacuation in the mid-morning. A woman and two children, who were reported missing on July 26 due to the fire, were reported dead. More buildings were evaluated for damage, bringing the total up to 536 destroyed and 117 damaged. Winds were erratic, fueled by hot weather, which created spot fires throughout the fire area. Weaverville Elementary School was closed as an evacuation center and a new center was opened at Trinity High School. In the evening, new evacuation orders were put in place for Highway 299 at Trinity Dam Road west to Douglas City and other nearby subdivisions. A sixth fatality was reported on July 29, as the fire moved from densely populated areas and into rural parts of Shasta and Trinity Counties. The community of Lewiston was evacuated. By the evening, fire containment had grown from 5 to 17 percent. The National Guard was assigned to Redding to monitor for looting in evacuated neighborhoods. The next day, repopulation began of areas of western Redding, Shasta Lake, and Happy Valley that had previously been evacuated. Overnight, strengthening containment lines remained a priority as east and west winds converged and created challenges for firefighters. Repopulation efforts continued, starting on the morning of July 31 for areas of western Redding, Summit City, Buckeye, and Happy Valley. Celebrity chef Guy Fieri provided food for evacuees in Redding. By the evening of July 31, the fire had burned 112,888 acres (45,684 ha) and was 30 percent contained. Crews were challenged by the fire along the western edge, where the fire burned in high terrain with strong winds and dry fuels. A powerful fire whirl with winds estimated in excess of 143 mph (230 km / h) -- equivalent to an EF3 tornado -- developed within the Carr Fire in Redding, California, on July 26. Remaining on the ground from 7: 30 -- 8: 00 p.m., the fire whirl reached an estimated height of 18,000 ft (5,500 m) and caused extensive tornado - like damage while spreading the fire. The winds toppled transmission towers, shredded foliage, and debarked and uprooted trees. The smoke plume from the whirl "dominated '' the majority of the wildfire. Substantial damage occurred in areas untouched by fire, including signs of ground scouring. Three people were killed inside their Redding home after the structure 's walls were blown out and the roof collapsed on the occupants. Several other homes suffered significant roof damage. The fire grew over 2,000 acres (809 ha) and to 35 percent containment, as the fire burned into August 1. Late morning, evacuation orders were lifted for the Mary Lake Subdivision and, later in the day, residents were allowed back to Plateau Road. The City of Redding shut down their Carr Fire - related missing persons hotline as all missing people were accounted for. Shasta College, which served as an evacuation center, resumed normal services. Six people were reported as arrested for alleged looting or illegally being in evacuated areas. The area west of Lakehead, California, was closed to public access to allow for fire crews ' safety. Thus far, the fire had destroyed 1,546 structures, including 1,058 residential and 13 commercial. On the morning of August 2, the fire was 125,842 acres (50,926 ha) and remained 35 percent contained. Over 1,600 structures remained threatened, due to the fire. The Carr Fire continued to grow as the terrain, wind, and dry fuels continued to create challenges for fire crews. The Sunset West, Sunset Terrace, Ranch Land Acres, Middletown Park neighborhoods, and Centerville were reopened to population in the morning. By August 4, the fire grew to 145,015 acres (58,685 ha) and to 41 percent containment. California Governor Jerry Brown toured the site and announced that he had requested a major disaster declaration, which provides federal assistance. Later that day, President Donald Trump approved the request for Shasta County. A seventh fatality was reported when a PG&E employee died in a vehicle incident. By August 9, the fire grew to 178,752 acres (72,338 ha), with 49 percent containment. Early that morning, a Cal Fire heavy equipment mechanic was killed in a traffic incident, bringing the total number of fatalities to eight. During the evening of August 30, the Carr Fire was reported to be 100 % contained, at 229,651 acres (92,936 ha). The Carr Fire is currently the sixth-most destructive in California history. It caused evacuations of over 36,000 people in the communities of French Gulch, Igo, Ono, Lewiston, Douglas City, Shasta, Shasta Lake City, Summit City, and the City of Redding, and caused closures of portions of California State Route 299. The fire directly impacted the water sources Keswick Dam and Shasta Dam. The fire affected recreational activities. At early stages, the access to Whiskeytown -- Shasta -- Trinity National Recreation Area was halted, specifically in Shasta County, including access to Whiskey Creek and Whiskeytown Lake. The area surrounding Shasta Dam and the dam 's visitors center were evacuated and closed. Lake Redding Park and the adjacent golf course were closed due to the fire after it jumped the Sacramento River, destroying close to 40 homes in the surrounding neighborhood. The Bureau of Land Management closed trails in western Redding. Amtrak service on the Coast Starlight was disrupted between Sacramento and Klamath Falls, Oregon. Amtrak arranged alternative transportation for travelers between those two cities. Large portions of Highway 299 were closed as a result of the fire. Many sections of the highway 's route through Redding were closed, including the North Market Street Bridge which connects downtown Redding to the Benton Tract neighborhood. Highway 273 was closed in many areas. Access to Keswick Dam was restricted and the surrounding areas were evacuated as a result of the fire. Access to the remains of the historic ghost town of Gas Point was restricted due to the fire. A 2008 fire had destroyed the historic town. The historic town of French Gulch was evacuated and closed. This was the second time the community had been evacuated due to a fire, the prior evacuation taking place in August 2004, in which 103 structures burned in the community. The Shasta State Historic Park was also affected, where the 1920s schoolhouse was destroyed and other buildings were damaged. Artifacts had been removed before the fire. The fire affected air quality throughout Northern California and the Central Valley down to Bakersfield, Oregon, Washington and Nevada. Smoke reached as far north as Seattle, Washington, and Boise, Idaho. Two firefighters have been killed in the Carr Fire. One was a contract firefighter who was driving a bulldozer when he died. The second was Redding - based fire inspector Jeremy Stoke. On July 28, a great - grandmother and her two great - grandchildren were found dead, as they did not have a car and were unable to evacuate. A sixth fatality was reported on July 29. An evacuation order was issued to the victim, but they did not evacuate. The victim was recovering from heart surgery, which possibly prevented him from leaving. On August 4, a PG&E employee was killed in a vehicle incident. On August 9, a Cal Fire heavy equipment mechanic was killed in a traffic incident.

when was the last time inter milan was in the champions league

Inter Milan in European football - wikipedia Inter Milan is an Italian association football club based in Milan, Lombardy. The club was formed on 9 March 1908 to allow the foreign players to play in Italy. Inter played its first competitive match on 10 January 1910 against their cross-town rivals Milan, in which they lost 3 -- 2. The club won its very first title in 1910 -- the 1909 -- 10 Italian Football Championship. Since then, the club has won further 17 league titles, along with seven Coppa Italia and five Supercoppa Italiana. They have also been crowned champions of Europe on three occasions by winning two European Cups back - to - back in 1964 and 1965 and then another in 2010. The club experienced the most successful period in their history from 2006 to 2010, in which it won five successive league titles, equaling the all - time record at that time, by adding three Italian Cups, three Italian Supercups, one UEFA Champions League and one FIFA Club World Cup. During the 2009 -- 10, Inter become the first and only Italian team to win the Treble and the second team to win five trophies in a calendar year. Only official matches include UEFA Champions League (formerly European Cup), UEFA Europa League (formerly UEFA Cup), UEFA Super Cup, UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup & Inter-Cities Fairs Cup matches.

when were electric trains introduced in the uk

Railway electrification in Great Britain - wikipedia Railway electrification in Great Britain began during the late 19th century. A range of voltages has been used, employing both overhead lines and conductor rails; the two most common systems are 25 kV AC using overhead lines and the 750 V DC third rail system used in southeast England and on Merseyrail. In 2006, 40 % -- 3,062 miles (4,928 km) of the British rail network was electrified, and 60 % of all rail journeys were by electric traction (both by locomotives and multiple units). According to Network Rail, 64 % of the electrified network uses the 25 kV AC overhead system, and 36 % uses the 660 / 750 V DC third - rail system. The electrified network is set to expand over coming years, as 25 kV electrification is extended to currently unelectrified lines, such as the Great Western Main Line, the Midland Main Line and lines in the North of England as part of the Northern Hub. The first electric railway in Great Britain was Volk 's Electric Railway in Brighton, a pleasure railway, which opened in 1883, still functioning to this day. The London Underground began operating electric services using a fourth rail system in 1890 on the City and South London Railway, now part of the London Underground Northern line. The Liverpool Overhead Railway followed in 1893, being designed from the outset to be electric traction, unlike the City and South London Railway which was designed to be cable hauled initially. Main line electrification of some suburban lines began in the early years of the 20th century, using a variety of different systems. In 1921 a government committee chose 1,500 V DC overhead to be the national standard, but little implementation followed and many different systems co-existed. During the interwar period, the Southern Railway adopted the 660 V DC third rail system as its standard and greatly expanded this system across its network of lines south of London. After World War II and the nationalisation of the railways in 1948, British Railways (BR) expanded electrification at both 1,500 V DC overhead and 660 / 750 V third rail. In 1956, BR adopted 25 kV AC overhead as standard for all projects outside logical extensions of third - rail systems. The 25 kV AC network has continued to expand slowly, and large areas of the country outside London are not electrified. In 2007, the government 's preferred option was to use diesel trains running on biodiesel, its White Paper Delivering a Sustainable Railway, ruling out large - scale railway electrification for the following five years. In May 2009, Network Rail launched a consultation on large - scale electrification, potentially to include the Great Western Main Line and Midland Main Line and smaller "in - fill '' schemes. Key benefits cited were that electric trains are faster, more reliable and cause less track wear than diesel trains. Since then, electrification of the Great Western Main Line has been approved; electric trains are planned to run to Bristol from 2016 and Cardiff from 2017. Electrification of the Midland Main Line, several Trans - Pennine routes and the Welsh Valleys has also been approved. In Scotland, where transport is devolved to the Scottish Government, Transport Scotland is extending electrification, for example, on the Airdrie - Bathgate Rail Link. This is part of a larger plan that sees many major routes in central Scotland electrified, including the main Edinburgh Waverley -- Glasgow Queen Street route. In June 2011, Peter Dearman of Network Rail suggested that the third - rail network will need to be converted into overhead lines. He stated, "Although the top speed is 100 mph, the trains can not go over 80 mph well and 25 % of power is lost from heat ''. Agreeing that conversion would be expensive, he said that the third rail network is at the limit of its power capability, especially as trains become more advanced in technology. The July 2012 Department for Transport High Level Output Specification for Network Rail Control Period 5 includes the conversion of the South Western Main Line between Southampton Central and Basingstoke from 750 V DC third rail to 25 kV AC overhead as part of a scheme to improve rail freight capacity from Southampton Port. This conversion is a pilot scheme to develop a business case for full conversion of the third rail network. The ORR has also stated that on safety grounds, third rail 750V DC has a limited future. British Railways chose this as the national standard for future electrification projects outside of the third rail area in 1956. Following this, a number of lines that were originally electrified at a different voltage were converted, and a number of lines have been newly electrified with this system. Work started in the late 1950s. The first major electrification project using 25 kV was the West Coast Main Line (1959 - 1974). The 25 kV network has been gradually expanded ever since: The majority was originally electrified at 6.25 kV, converted to 25 kV in the early 1980s. This covers the lines from London Liverpool Street (Bethnal Green Jn) to Chingford, Enfield Town, Hertford East and Cambridge. In the 1960s, the lines to Chingford, Enfield Town and Cheshunt were electrified at 6.25 kV, from Cheshunt to Bishop 's Stortford and Hertford East at 25 kV. The Lea Valley line between Coppermill Junction and Cheshunt was electrified at 25 kV in 1969. All the 6.25 kV areas were converted to 25 kV in 1983. In 1987, electrification was extended from Bishop 's Stortford to Cambridge at 25 kV. In 1990 the line to Stansted Airport opened, and in 1992 electrification was extended from Cambridge to King 's Lynn along the Fen Line. Converted from 6.25 kV / 1,500 V DC to a combination of AT and FT 25kV Mark GE (Great Eastern) between 1976 and 1980. Presently being upgraded to the GEFF (Great Eastern Furrer + Frey) range altering the catenary from a compound to simple sagged arrangement. Electrified in 1994 in a joint venture between British Rail and the British Airports Authority using Mark 3B series. Using part of the Great Western Main Line. Newest main line, completed in 2007. Links London (St Pancras) with Kent and the Channel Tunnel. Local lines within London to be electrified with 25 kV are: The route from Edinburgh to Glasgow via Bathgate has been reinstated between Bathgate and Airdrie and electrified throughout. It opened on 11 December 2010. Approval has also been given by the Scottish Parliament for electrification of the main inter-city route between Edinburgh and Glasgow Queen Street High Level via Falkirk. The project, known as EGIP, was scheduled to encompass infill electrification in the Glasgow area and Greenhill Junction to Stirling, Dunblane and (recently re-opened) Alloa, which mainly carry commuter services, but these were removed in 2012 as part of a cost review. Suburban electrification was begun during the 1960s in the wake of the BR 1955 Modernisation Plan. Electrification was piecemeal and is still incomplete, with several suburban, rural and intercity lines still unelectrified. The Glasgow Suburban railway network can be divided into three main areas: On the Glasgow to Edinburgh via Carstairs Line, some North Berwick Line trains continue to Glasgow Central. A single daily East Coast intercity train from the ECML continues to and from Glasgow Central. On the Shotts Line, Holytown Junction to Kirknewton is not electrified, but both ends are, shared with the WCML, Argyle Line and ECML. The remaining section is to be electrified in mid-2019. The Cumbernauld Line to Springburn and the remaining section of the Motherwell to Cumbernauld Line was electrified in mid 2014. The line between Springburn and Glasgow Queen Street (High Level) has not yet been completed. Until Glasgow Queen Street High Level has been electrified, electric Cumbernauld Line trains reverse at Springburn and run through Glasgow Queen Street Low Level station. The Whifflet Line between Whifflet and Rutherglen via Carmyle was electrified in late 2014. In 1994, a project to electrify some of the local lines around Leeds was given authority to proceed. The project was called the "Leeds North West Electrification '', which electrified: In July 2012, the UK government announced £ 4.2 billion of new electrification schemes, all at 25 kV AC. These will be Northern Hub, Great Western Main Line, South Wales Main Line, Midland Main Line, Electric Spine, Crossrail, Gospel Oak to Barking Line and West Midlands suburban lines. The projects have been subject to cost overruns and delays, and on 8 November 2016 the government announced that several elements of the Great Western Main Line electrification program would be indefinitely deferred. Historically, there were more lines electrified at 1,500 V DC, but these have all since been either converted to 25 kV AC or closed. (see 1,500 V DC, overhead (historic)) Used on several tram systems: The extensive southern third rail electric network covers south London and the southern counties of Dorset, Hampshire, Sussex, Surrey and Kent. The London and South Western Railway (L&SWR) third - rail system at 660 V DC began before World War I from Waterloo to suburban destinations. The Southern Railway was formed in the 1923 grouping; it adopted the L&SWR system, and by 1929 the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway (LB&SCR) suburban overhead network was replaced by third rail. The South Eastern Main Line was electrified at 600 V, later upgraded to 750 V DC. The third rail extended throughout most South London lines out of all its London termini. Throughout the 1930s, there was much main line electrification, including the Brighton Main Line (including East, West Coastways and related routes in 1932 - 1933), the Portsmouth Direct Line (4 July 1937) and to Maidstone and Gillingham (1939). After World War II, electrification was soon resumed in the newly nationalised British Railways ' Southern Region. The BR 1955 Modernisation Plan included the two - stage "Kent Coast Electrification ''. The Chatham Main Line was completed, followed by the South Eastern Main Line and related lines. The voltage was raised from 660 V to 750 V. Since then, all electrification has used 750 V; lines electrified before then remain at 660 V. Attention then switched to the neglected former L&SWR area (then the South Western Division). The South Western Main Line (SWML) to Southampton Central and Bournemouth was electrified in 1967 and to Weymouth in 1988. During sectorisation in the 1980s, Network SouthEast conducted extensive infill electrification. The Snow Hill tunnel was reopened, enabling Thameslink. The Hastings Line, Eastleigh to Fareham Line and the Oxted Line (East Grinstead branch) were electrified. This left only a few lines unelectrified: the West of England Main Line, the Wessex Main Line, the North Downs Line, the Oxted Line (Uckfield branch), and the Marshlink Line. Two lines of the Merseyrail network; the Northern Line and the Wirral Line use 750 V DC third rail (see Suburban electrification of the London, Midland and Scottish Railway for its history). See Suburban electrification of the London, Midland and Scottish Railway for its history. In 1970, the North London DC lines and the Class 501 EMUs used on these services were converted for third - rail operation, with the fourth rail generally being removed on sections not used by LUL. Some fourth rail was retained in the Gunnersbury and Queens Park areas for emergency use by LUL. With the closure of Broad Street, the North London Line was joined with the Stratford to North Woolwich line; this was electrified with third rail and overhead line as far as Stratford, third rail to North Woolwich. Two branches of the Watford DC Line have been closed: to Rickmansworth in 1952 (to passengers, to goods in 1967) and to Croxley Green in 1996. The Watford DC Line between Queens Park and Harrow & Wealdstone and the North London Line between Richmond and Gunnersbury are used by London Overground trains designed for 750 V third rail and Bakerloo line trains designed for 630 V third and fourth rail. As a compromise, the nominal line voltage is 650 V, and since 1970 the centre rail has been bonded to the return running rail. There are no special provisions required at Queens Park, where the two dissimilar systems meet, just a gap longer than one coach of a Bakerloo line train at the entry to (and exit from) the Bakerloo, which operates with a nominal - 210 V on the fourth rail and + 420 V on the third rail. There is no bridging of the incompatible systems as trains pass from one to the other since, like all UK electric trains intended to run extensively in tunnels, there is no continuity of traction power circuits between vehicles of the train. A similar arrangement applies between Putney Bridge and Wimbledon, where the District line runs over tracks owned by Network Rail, which also used by South West Trains, though normally only for stock movements. The Northern City Line connects the East Coast Main Line to Moorgate. It was isolated by the abandonment of the 1930s "New Works '' programme (and the development of the Metropolitan Green Belt). Tube services were truncated at its northern end by the Victoria line in 1964 at Drayton Park. The remainder was handed over to BR in 1975 in conjunction with the suburban electrification of the East Coast Main Line. The line uses third - rail DC electrification between Moorgate and Drayton Park, where trains switch to 25kV AC overhead. The single remaining national rail line on the Isle of Wight was electrified in 1967, so that former London Underground rolling stock could be used, due to the limited height of Ryde Tunnel. The Island Line used 630 V DC third rail, as it was a cheaper option to convert the LUL stock into third rail, and implement third rail only on the line. The rolling stock currently used is BR Class 483s. The London Underground is a large metro system operating across London and beyond, commonly known as "the Tube ''. Its 408 - kilometre (254 mi) is made up of 11 lines; electrification began during the 1890s. It was largely unified between 1900 and 1910 and nationalised in 1933, becoming the railway component of London Transport (LT). A major expansion programme (the "New Works '') was launched, in which LT took over several urban branches of mainline railways. The Underground is mostly in north London; its expansion into south London was limited by geology unfavourable to tunnelling and by the extensive main - line network, much of which was being electrified (see "Southern Electric ''). The Underground uses a relatively uncommon four rail system of electrification. Two standard gauge rails are the running rails; the outer third rail carries positive current at + 420 V DC and the inner fourth rail is the negative return at -- 210 V DC, giving a supply voltage of 630 V DC. The chief advantage of the fourth - rail system is that, in tunnels with a metallic (usually cast - iron) lining, the return traction current does not leak into the lining causing electrolytic corrosion there or in the neighbouring utility mains. The two running rails are available exclusively for track circuits. The surface sections use the fourth rail solely for operational consistency; the system shares track with Network Rail in several places. Where the track is shared with 750 V third - rail stock, the central rail is bonded to the running rails and the outside rail electrified at 660 V. This allows both types of train to operate satisfactorily. The suburban network of the London & North Western Railway (LNWR) was electrified in co-operation with the Underground, but during the 1970s British Rail introduced third - rail EMUs and the sections of the LNWR suburban network not used by the Underground had the fourth rail removed (see "London and North Western Railway '', above). The Underground has carried out studies to consider raising the voltage above the present 630 V nominal. New equipment at their substations does allow for a future increase to a standard 750 V nominal. In addition, the electrical equipment of new trains are also based on the use of 750 V rated equipment. So, whilst new equipment is being designed to for 750 V operation, no decision to increase the voltage has yet been made public by the Underground. This uses bottom - contact composite third rail, with an aluminium body and a steel contact surface. The advantage of this is a low - resistance, high - current - capacity rail with a durable steel surface for current collection. The rail may be surrounded by insulating material on the top and sides to reduce the risk of electrocution to railway staff and trespassers. The bottom - contact system is less prone to derangement by snow than top contact. Great Britain has used different electrification systems in the past. Many of these date from the early part of the 20th century, when traction electricity was in the experimental stage. This section describes each system, in order of decreasing voltage. During the initial electrification of parts of the network to 25 kV 50 Hz AC overhead, the initial solution to the limited clearance problems in suburban areas (due to numerous tunnels and bridges) in London and Glasgow was to use the lower voltage of 6.25 kV. Later technological improvements in insulation allowed these areas to be converted to 25 kV. The last sections of 6.25 kV were converted during the 1980s. The 6.25 kV section was from Fenchurch Street to beyond Barking, with changeovers there on both the Upminster and Tilbury lines. The section between Chalkwell and Shoeburyness was also at 6.25 kV. The remainder was at 25 kV. The sections electrified at 6.25 kV were converted to 25 kV during the early 1980s. The line from Liverpool Street to Southend Victoria was originally electrified at 1,500 V DC overhead during the 1940s - 50s. During the early 1960s, the whole of this line was converted to 6.25 kV AC overhead, while the main line east of Shenfield was progressively electrified at 25 kV, with changeover east of Shenfield. During the early 1980s, the line was again converted, this time to 25 kV. The Cambridge line and branches from Liverpool Street was electrified in the early 1960s, with 6.25 kV out to a changeover at Cheshunt, and 25 kV beyond. The Chingford and Enfield lines were thus at 6.25 kV throughout. This route was again fully converted to 25 kV in the early 1980s. As part of the electrification onwards to Cambridge and Norwich in the 1980s, electric locomotives were transferred to these routes from the West Coast route. These locomotives would not have been able to operate at 6.25 kV. On the North Clyde, the central section between Parkhead and before Dalmuir (Clydebank loop) and Westerton (Anniesland loop) were at 6.25 kV, with the outer sections at 25 kV. The Bridgeton and Springburn branches were thus at 6.25 kV throughout. The sections electrified at 6.25 kV were converted to 25 kV during the early 1980s. On the South Clyde, the route from Glasgow Central around the Cathcart Loop was initially at 6.25 kV, with changeovers to 25 kV at Kings Park and Muirend on the Motherwell and Neilston routes. These lines were progressively converted to 25 kV in the 1970s - 80s. This was electrified by the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway in 1913 as part of a trial system for export. The system was converted to third rail in 1918 (see below). After World War I, the UK Government set up a committee to investigate the various systems of railway electrification; in 1921, it recommended that 1,500 V DC overhead should be the future national standard. Several schemes were implemented in its wake, but the Great Depression and World War II meant that very little work was done. Technological advances after 1945 meant that the 25 kV AC system was adopted instead for the West Coast Main line and Glasgow suburban electrification (as set out in the BR 1955 Modernisation Plan). However, at the same time, large amounts of money had been (and were still being) spent converting several lines to 1,500 V DC. A joint LMS and LNER scheme, it opened on 11 May 1931. The success of this scheme influenced LNER 's later electrification schemes. The line was converted to 25 kV AC in 1971, but the stretch between Altrincham and Trafford Bar (plus the stretch between Trafford Bar and the Cornbrook viaduct) were later incorporated into Manchester Metrolink and converted again (this time to 750 V DC). Known as the Woodhead Route, the LNER chose this hilly (and busy) main line for its first mainline electrification, with work beginning in 1936. Due to the Depression and World War II, it was not completed until the 1950s. After completion, the government chose to standardise on 25 kV AC instead, leaving the Woodhead Route and the few other 1,500 V DC lines isolated and non-standard. The passenger locomotives were sold in 1969 and saw further service in the Netherlands. In a subsequent rationalisation, BR closed much of this route east of Hadfield in 1981 in favour of the more southerly Hope Valley Line, which serves more local communities. A section of the line between Manchester, Glossop and Hadfield remained open as part of the Manchester suburban network, and was operated by Class 506 EMU 's, until it was converted to 25 kV AC in December 1984. The LNER decided to electrify the Liverpool Street to Shenfield section of the Great Eastern Main Line (GEML), known as the Shenfield Metro. Civil engineering works began during the 1930s, but World War II intervened. Work was completed in 1949 and extended to Chelmsford and Southend Victoria in 1956, using Class 306 (AM6) EMUs. It was converted on 4 -- 6 November 1960, in the wake of the BR 1955 Modernisation Plan, to the new standard of 25 kV AC (initially with some sections at 6.25 kV). The rest of the GEML was subsequently electrified. This line ran from Shildon (County Durham) to Newport (near Middlesbrough). The route was initially over the 1825 Stockton - to - Darlington line, then via Simpasture Junction (the former Clarence railway) through Carlton, Carlton Junction to Carlton South Junction, Bowesfield West Junction to Bowesfield Junction, through Thornaby and ending at Erimus Yard (Newport East). In the wake of the electrification of Tyneside by the NER, this coal - carrying line was electrified between 1 July 1915 and 1 January 1916 as a planned precursor to electrifying NER 's busy York to Newcastle main line (part of the East Coast Main Line). The LNER removed this electrification system in 1935 (between 7 January and 8 July); the decline in the coal market making it economically unfeasible to undertake the significant renewals required to continue electric operation. The locomotives were stored for other electrified routes. In 1916, the line between Manchester Victoria and Bury was electrified using 1,200 V DC third rail (side contact). The line between Bury and Holcombe Brook which had been electrified using 3,500 V DC overhead in 1913 was converted to this system in 1918. It was abandoned in 1991, when the line was converted to a 750 V DC system and became part of the Manchester Metrolink. This was electrified in 1904, in response to extensive competition from new electric trams. The concept was a success for the North Eastern Railway (NER), a noted pioneer in electrification, as passenger numbers returned to pre-tram levels. As the stock reached life expectancy in 1937, the network was remodelled by London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) to reflect the changing industrial and residential makeup of the area. Electrified at the same time was the dockside branch, where a pair of Class ES1 (formerly NER No. 1 and 2) locomotives were introduced in 1905. These British Thomson - Houston locomotives operated from both the third rail and overhead line. British Railways removed the electrification between 1963 and 1967, citing the changing industrial and population makeup of the area which reduced the need for electric traction. Much of the Tyneside network was later re-electrified (using 1500 V DC overhead) as the Tyne and Wear Metro. The Liverpool Overhead Railway was one of the earliest electric railways in Great Britain. The first section, between Alexandra Dock and Herculaneum Dock, was opened in 1893. The line connected with Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway 's North Mersey Branch. It was never nationalised, and closed on 30 December 1956 due to extensive corrosion throughout its iron infrastructure (which was deemed uneconomical to replace). The City and South London Railway electrification was unusual (compared with later schemes) in that it used a three - wire DC system. This meant that although the offset centre third rail was electrified at + 500 volts in the northbound tunnel, it was electrified at - 500 volts in the southbound tunnel. The motors on the locomotives and the incandescent electric lamps in the carriages worked, regardless of the polarity of the supply. The three - wire system was adopted because the initial system was fed directly from the dynamos in the surface power plant at the Stockwell end of the line. It was important to minimise the voltage drop as much as possible, bearing in mind the rather steep gradient on the approach to King William Street station. Underground railway under London operated by the Post Office. Operated between 1927 and closure in 2003.

the world court role in the international system

International Court of Justice - wikipedia The International Court of Justice (French: Cour internationale de justice; commonly referred to as the World Court, ICJ or The Hague) is the primary judicial branch of the United Nations (UN). Seated in the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands, the court settles legal disputes submitted to it by states and provides advisory opinions on legal questions submitted to it by duly authorized international branches, agencies, and the UN General Assembly. Established in 1945 by the UN Charter, the Court began work in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice. The Statute of the International Court of Justice, similar to that of its predecessor, is the main constitutional document constituting and regulating the Court. The Court 's workload covers a wide range of judicial activity. After the court ruled that the United States 's covert war against Nicaragua was in violation of international law (Nicaragua v. United States), the United States withdrew from compulsory jurisdiction in 1986 to accept the court 's jurisdiction only on a case - by - case basis. Chapter XIV of the United Nations Charter authorizes the UN Security Council to enforce Court rulings. However, such enforcement is subject to the veto power of the five permanent members of the Council, which the United States used in the Nicaragua case. The ICJ is composed of fifteen judges elected to nine - year terms by the UN General Assembly and the UN Security Council from a list of people nominated by the national groups in the Permanent Court of Arbitration. The election process is set out in Articles 4 -- 19 of the ICJ statute. Elections are staggered, with five judges elected every three years to ensure continuity within the court. Should a judge die in office, the practice has generally been to elect a judge in a special election to complete the term. No two judges may be nationals of the same country. According to Article 9, the membership of the Court is supposed to represent the "main forms of civilization and of the principal legal systems of the world ''. Essentially, that has meant common law, civil law and socialist law (now post-communist law). There is an informal understanding that the seats will be distributed by geographic regions so that there are five seats for Western countries, three for African states (including one judge of francophone civil law, one of Anglophone common law and one Arab), two for Eastern European states, three for Asian states and two for Latin American and Caribbean states. The five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council (France, Russia, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States) always have a judge on the Court, thereby occupying three of the Western seats, one of the Asian seats and one of the Eastern European seats. The exception was China, which did not have a judge on the Court from 1967 to 1985 because it did not put forward a candidate. Article 6 of the Statute provides that all judges should be "elected regardless of their nationality among persons of high moral character '' who are either qualified for the highest judicial office in their home states or known as lawyers with sufficient competence in international law. Judicial independence is dealt with specifically in Articles 16 -- 18. Judges of the ICJ are not able to hold any other post or act as counsel. In practice, Members of the Court have their own interpretation of these rules and allow them to be involved in outside arbitration and hold professional posts as long as there is no conflict of interest. A judge can be dismissed only by a unanimous vote of the other members of the Court. Despite these provisions, the independence of ICJ judges has been questioned. For example, during the Nicaragua case, the United States issued a communiqué suggesting that it could not present sensitive material to the Court because of the presence of judges from Eastern bloc states. Judges may deliver joint judgments or give their own separate opinions. Decisions and Advisory Opinions are by majority, and, in the event of an equal division, the President 's vote becomes decisive, which occurred in the Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Conflict (Opinion requested by WHO), (1996) ICJ Reports 66. Judges may also deliver separate dissenting opinions. Article 31 of the statute sets out a procedure whereby ad hoc judges sit on contentious cases before the Court. The system allows any party to a contentious case, if it otherwise does not have one of that party 's nationals sitting on the Court, to select one additional person to sit as a judge on that case only. It is thus possible that as many as seventeen judges may sit on one case. The system may seem strange when compared with domestic court processes, but its purpose is to encourage states to submit cases. For example, if a state knows that it will have a judicial officer who can participate in deliberation and offer other judges local knowledge and an understanding of the state 's perspective, it may be more willing to submit to the jurisdiction of the court. Although this system does not sit well with the judicial nature of the body, it is usually of little practical consequence. Ad hoc judges usually (but not always) vote in favor of the state that appointed them and thus cancel each other out. Generally, the Court sits as full bench, but in the last fifteen years, it has on occasion sat as a chamber. Articles 26 -- 29 of the statute allow the Court to form smaller chambers, usually 3 or 5 judges, to hear cases. Two types of chambers are contemplated by Article 26: firstly, chambers for special categories of cases, and second, the formation of ad hoc chambers to hear particular disputes. In 1993, a special chamber was established, under Article 26 (1) of the ICJ statute, to deal specifically with environmental matters (although it has never been used). Ad hoc chambers are more frequently convened. For example, chambers were used to hear the Gulf of Maine Case (Canada / US). In that case, the parties made clear they would withdraw the case unless the Court appointed judges to the chamber acceptable to the parties. Judgments of chambers may either less authority than full Court judgments or diminish the proper interpretation of universal international law informed by a variety of cultural and legal perspectives. On the other hand, the use of chambers might encourage greater recourse to the court and thus enhance international dispute resolution. As of 9 February 2015, the composition of the Court is as follows: As stated in Article 93 of the UN Charter, all 193 UN members are automatically parties to the Court 's statute. Non-UN members may also become parties to the Court 's statute under the Article 93 (2) procedure. For example, before becoming a UN member state, Switzerland used this procedure in 1948 to become a party, and Nauru became a party in 1988. Once a state is a party to the Court 's statute, it is entitled to participate in cases before the Court. However, being a party to the statute does not automatically give the Court jurisdiction over disputes involving those parties. The issue of jurisdiction is considered in the two types of ICJ cases: contentious issues and advisory opinions. In contentious cases (adversarial proceedings seeking to settle a dispute), the ICJ produces a binding ruling between states that agree to submit to the ruling of the court. Only states may be parties in contentious cases. Individuals, corporations, parts of a federal state, NGOs, UN organs and self - determination groups are excluded from direct participation in cases although the Court may receive information from public international organizations. That does not preclude non-state interests from being the subject of proceedings if a state brings the case against another. For example, a state may, in cases of "diplomatic protection '', bring a case on behalf of one of its nationals or corporations. Jurisdiction is often a crucial question for the Court in contentious cases. (See Procedure below.) The key principle is that the ICJ has jurisdiction only on the basis of consent. Article 36 outlines four bases on which the Court 's jurisdiction may be founded: An advisory opinion is a function of the Court open only to specified United Nations bodies and agencies. On receiving a request, the Court decides which states and organizations might provide useful information and gives them an opportunity to present written or oral statements. Advisory opinions were intended as a means by which UN agencies could seek the Court 's help in deciding complex legal issues that might fall under their respective mandates. In principle, the Court 's advisory opinions are only consultative in character but they are influential and widely respected. Certain instruments or regulations can provide in advance that the advisory opinion shall be specifically binding on particular agencies or states, but inherently, they are non-binding under the Statute of the Court. This non-binding character does not mean that advisory opinions are without legal effect, because the legal reasoning embodied in them reflects the Court 's authoritative views on important issues of international law. In arriving at them, the Court follows essentially the same rules and procedures that govern its binding judgments delivered in contentious cases submitted to it by sovereign states. An advisory opinion derives its status and authority from the fact that it is the official pronouncement of the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. Advisory opinions have often been controversial because the questions asked are controversial or the case was pursued as an indirect way of bringing what is really a contentious case before the Court. Examples of advisory opinions can be found in the section advisory opinions in the List of International Court of Justice cases article. One such well - known advisory opinion is the Nuclear Weapons Case. Article 94 establishes the duty of all UN members to comply with decisions of the Court involving them. If parties do not comply, the issue may be taken before the Security Council for enforcement action. There are obvious problems with such a method of enforcement. If the judgment is against one of the permanent five members of the Security Council or its allies, any resolution on enforcement would then be vetoed. That occurred, for example, after the Nicaragua case, when Nicaragua brought the issue of the United States ' noncompliance with the Court 's decision before the Security Council. Furthermore, if the Security Council refuses to enforce a judgment against any other state, there is no method of forcing the state to comply. Furthermore, the most effective form to take action for the Security Council, coercive action under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, can be justified only if international peace and security are at stake. The Security Council has never done that so far. The relationship between the ICJ and the Security Council, and the separation of their powers, was considered by the Court in 1992 in the Pan Am case. The Court had to consider an application from Libya for the order of provisional measures to protect its rights, which, it alleged, were being infringed by the threat of economic sanctions by the United Kingdom and United States. The problem was that these sanctions had been authorized by the Security Council, which resulted in a potential conflict between the Chapter VII functions of the Security Council and the judicial function of the Court. The Court decided, by eleven votes to five, that it could not order the requested provisional measures because the rights claimed by Libya, even if legitimate under the Montreal Convention, could not be prima facie regarded as appropriate since the action was ordered by the Security Council. In accordance with Article 103 of the UN Charter, obligations under the Charter took precedence over other treaty obligations. Nevertheless, the Court declared the application admissible in 1998. A decision on the merits has not been given since the parties (United Kingdom, United States, and Libya) settled the case out of court in 2003. There was a marked reluctance on the part of a majority of the Court to become involved in a dispute in such a way as to bring it potentially into conflict with the Council. The Court stated in the Nicaragua case that there is no necessary inconsistency between action by the Security Council and adjudication by the ICJ. However, when there is room for conflict, the balance appears to be in favor of the Security Council. Should either party fail "to perform the obligations incumbent upon it under a judgment rendered by the Court '', the Security Council may be called upon to "make recommendations or decide upon measures '' if the Security Council deems such actions necessary. In practice, the Court 's powers have been limited by the unwillingness of the losing party to abide by the Court 's ruling and by the Security Council 's unwillingness to impose consequences. However, in theory, "so far as the parties to the case are concerned, a judgment of the Court is binding, final and without appeal, '' and "by signing the Charter, a State Member of the United Nations undertakes to comply with any decision of the International Court of Justice in a case to which it is a party. '' For example, the United States had previously accepted the Court 's compulsory jurisdiction upon its creation in 1946 but in 1984, after Nicaragua v. United States, withdrew its acceptance following the court 's judgment that called on the US to "cease and to refrain '' from the "unlawful use of force '' against the government of Nicaragua. The court ruled (with only the American judge dissenting) that the United States was "in breach of its obligation under the Treaty of Friendship with Nicaragua not to use force against Nicaragua '' and ordered the United States to pay war reparations. When deciding cases, the Court applies international law as summarised in Article 38 of the ICJ Statute, which provides that in arriving at its decisions the Court shall apply international conventions, international custom and the "general principles of law recognized by civilized nations. '' It may also refer to academic writing ("the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of the various nations '') and previous judicial decisions to help interpret the law although the Court is not formally bound by its previous decisions under the doctrine of stare decisis. Article 59 makes clear that the common law notion of precedent or stare decisis does not apply to the decisions of the ICJ. The Court 's decision binds only the parties to that particular controversy. Under 38 (1) (d), however, the Court may consider its own previous decisions. If the parties agree, they may also grant the Court the liberty to decide ex aequo et bono ("in justice and fairness ''), granting the ICJ the freedom to make an equitable decision based on what is fair under the circumstances. That provision has not been used in the Court 's history. So far, the International Court of Justice has dealt with about 130 cases. The ICJ is vested with the power to make its own rules. Court procedure is set out in the Rules of Court of the International Court of Justice 1978 (as amended on 29 September 2005). Cases before the ICJ will follow a standard pattern. The case is lodged by the applicant, which files a written memorial setting out the basis of the Court 's jurisdiction and the merits of its claim. The respondent may accept the Court 's jurisdiction and file its own memorial on the merits of the case. A respondent that does not wish to submit to the jurisdiction of the Court may raise Preliminary Objections. Any such objections must be ruled upon before the Court can address the merits of the applicant 's claim. Often, a separate public hearing is held on the Preliminary Objections and the Court will render a judgment. Respondents normally file Preliminary Objections to the jurisdiction of the Court and / or the admissibility of the case. Inadmissibility refers to a range of arguments about factors the Court should take into account in deciding jurisdiction, such as the fact that the issue is not justiciable or that it is not a "legal dispute ''. In addition, objections may be made because all necessary parties are not before the Court. If the case necessarily requires the Court to rule on the rights and obligations of a state that has not consented to the Court 's jurisdiction, the Court does not proceed to issue a judgment on the merits. If the Court decides it has jurisdiction and the case is admissible, the respondent then is required to file a Memorial addressing the merits of the applicant 's claim. Once all written arguments are filed, the Court holds a public hearing on the merits. Once a case has been filed, any party (usually the applicant) may seek an order from the Court to protect the status quo pending the hearing of the case. Such orders are known as Provisional (or Interim) Measures and are analogous to interlocutory injunctions in United States law. Article 41 of the statute allows the Court to make such orders. The Court must be satisfied to have prima facie jurisdiction to hear the merits of the case before it grants provisional measures. In cases in which a third state 's interests are affected, that state may be permitted to intervene in the case and participate as a full party. Under Article 62, a state "with an interest of a legal nature '' may apply; however, it is within the Court 's discretion whether or not to allow the intervention. Intervention applications are rare, and the first successful application occurred only in 1991. Once deliberation has taken place, the Court issues a majority opinion. Individual judges may issue concurring opinions (if they agree with the outcome reached in the judgment of the court but differ in their reasoning) or dissenting opinions (if they disagree with the majority). No appeal is possible, but any party may ask for the court to clarify if there is a dispute as to the meaning or scope of the court 's judgment. The International Court has been criticized with respect to its rulings, its procedures, and its authority. As with criticisms of the United Nations, many of these criticisms refer more to the general authority assigned to the body by member states through its charter than to specific problems with the composition of judges or their rulings. Major criticisms include the following:

top 10 nuclear power plants in the world

List of largest Power stations - Wikipedia This article lists the largest power stations in the world, the ten overall and the five of each type, in terms of current installed electrical capacity. Non-renewable power stations are those that run on coal, fuel oils, nuclear, natural gas, oil shale and peat, while renewable power stations run on fuel sources such as biomass, geothermal heat, hydro, solar energy, solar heat, tides, waves and the wind. Only the most significant fuel source is listed for power stations that run on multiple sources. At present, the largest power generating facility ever built is the Three Gorges Dam in China. The facility generates power by utilizing 32 Francis turbines each having a capacity of 700 MW and two 50 MW turbines, totalling the installed capacity to 22,500 MW, more than twice the installed capacity of the largest nuclear power station, the Kashiwazaki - Kariwa (Japan) at 7,965 MW. As of 2017 no power station comparable to Three Gorges is under construction, as the largest under construction power stations are hydroelectric Baihetan Dam (16,000 MW) and Belo Monte Dam (11,233 MW). Although currently only a proposal, the Grand Inga Dam in the Congo would surpass all existing power stations, including the Three Gorges Dam, if construction commences as planned. The design targets to top 39,000 MW in installed capacity, nearly twice that of the Three Gorges. Another proposal, Penzhin Tidal Power Plant Project, presumes an installed capacity up to 87,100 MW. At any point in time since the early 20th century, the largest power station in the world has been a hydroelectric power plant. The following table lists the largest operating power station, and the largest single generating unit within each country.