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how many episodes are there in neon genesis evangelion | List of Neon Genesis Evangelion episodes - wikipedia
Neon Genesis Evangelion is an anime series created by Gainax. It began broadcasting in Japan on TV Tokyo on October 4, 1995 and ended on March 27, 1996. WOWOW aired the series again during 2003. It was written and directed by Hideaki Anno and produced by Project Eva, which included TV Tokyo and Nihon Ad Systems (NAS). Evangelion is an apocalyptic anime in the mecha genre. It focuses on a teenage boy recruited by a paramilitary organization named NERV to control a giant cyborg called an Evangelion to fight monstrous beings known as Angels. The show takes place largely in a futuristic Tokyo years after a worldwide catastrophe. It also centers on other Evangelion pilots and members of NERV as they try to prevent another catastrophe.
The series was first aired in North America on San Francisco - area PBS member station KTEH (now KQEH) in 2000. The first two episodes first saw nationwide broadcast in dubbed format on Cartoon Network as part of Toonami 's Giant Robot Week on February 24 -- 25, 2003; both episodes were heavily edited for content. Later, the entire series aired nearly unedited on Adult Swim from October 20, 2005, to April 21, 2006.
In 2004, A.D. Vision, the English language licenser, released the director 's cut versions of episodes 21 through 24 on its Platinum Edition DVDs. The director 's cuts included several new and reworked scenes to better explain the events that occurred in The End of Evangelion.
After several episodes were produced, the first episode aired on October 4, 1995, long after originally planned. Initially ignored (although received positively by those Gainax fans invited to early screenings), viewership grew slowly and largely by word of mouth.
The 16th episode marked a distinct shift that would characterize the second half of Evangelion as being more psychological than action or adventure. This change in emphasis was partly due to the development of the story, but also partly because by this point, production had begun running out of funding and failing to meet the schedule; this collapse has been identified by at least episode director Kazuya Tsurumaki as the impetus for Evangelion 's turn into internal conflict:
I did n't mind it. The schedule was an utter disaster and the number of cels plummeted, so there were some places where unfortunately the quality suffered. However, the tension of the staff as we all became more desperate and frenzied certainly showed up in the film... About the time that the production system was completely falling apart, there were some opinions to the effect that, "If we ca n't do satisfactory work, then what 's the point of continuing? '' However, I did n't feel that way. My opinion was, "Why do n't we show them the entire process including our breakdown. ''
Despite this, by the 18th episode, it had become enough of a sensation that Eva - 01 's violent rampage "is criticized as being unsuitable on an anime show that is viewed by children '', and the 20th episode would be similarly criticized for the offscreen depiction of Misato and Ryoji having sex. With this popularity came the first merchandise, "Genesis 0: 1 '' (containing the first two episodes). Beginning a trend, it sold out. When the series finale aired, the story apparently remained unresolved: Third Impact and the Human Instrumentality Project are implied to have begun or even finished, but the episodes focus largely on the psychology of the characters, leaving deeply unclear what actually happens. The End of Evangelion was meant to replace or complement the original episodes 25 and 26, in order to better explain the events of the ending.
Each episode has two titles: one is the original Japanese title, and the second is an English title that was chosen by Japanese studio Gainax itself. Most often, the official English title is not a direct translation of the Japanese title. For example, the direct translation of the Japanese title of episode 2 is "Unfamiliar Ceiling '', but the English title is "The Beast ''. Sometimes, however, the two titles are either similar or exactly the same, as was the case with episode 10, "Magmadiver ''. Many tracks on the original soundtracks are named after the English episode names in which they are first used.
Second half of the film Neon Genesis Evangelion: Death & Rebirth and first half of the film The End of Evangelion, the latter of which is meant as an alternate ending to the series, complementing or replacing the original episodes 25 and 26.
Second half of The End of Evangelion, which is meant as an alternate ending to the series, complementing or replacing the original episodes 25 and 26.
While the entire series has received wide attention, individual episodes have also earned praise and occasionally been recipients of awards. For instance, in the 19th Annual Anime Grand Prix, a readers ' choice award hosted by Animage magazine, seventeen episodes of Evangelion gained enough votes to be included among the one hundred "Best Loved Single Episodes ''. Episodes 24 and 26 took first and second place respectively with roughly six hundred votes each.
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when is a female border collie fully grown | Border Collie - wikipedia
The Border Collie is a working and herding dog breed developed in the Anglo - Scottish border region for herding livestock, especially sheep. It was specifically bred for intelligence and obedience.
Considered highly intelligent, extremely energetic, acrobatic and athletic, they frequently compete with great success in sheepdog trials and dog sports. They are often cited as the most intelligent of all domestic dogs. Border Collies continue to be employed in their traditional work of herding livestock throughout the world.
In general, Border Collies are medium - sized dogs with a moderate amount of coat, which is most often thick and sheds often. They have a double coat that varies from smooth to rough and is occasionally curled. Whilst black and white is most commonly seen colour pattern of the Border Collie, the breed appears in just about any colour and pattern known to occur in dogs. Some of these include black tricolour (black / tan / white), liver and white, and red tricolour (red / tan / white) have also been seen regularly, with other colours such as blue, lilac, red merle, blue merle, brindle, and Australian red (also known as ee red, blonde, recessive red, or gold) which is seen less frequently. Some Border Collies may also have single - colour coats.
Eye colour varies from brown to blue, and occasionally eyes of differing colour occur; this is usually seen with merles. The ears of the Border Collie are also variable -- some have fully erect ears, some fully dropped ears, and others semi-erect ears (similar to those of the rough Collie). Although working Border Collie handlers sometimes have superstitions about the appearance of their dogs (handlers may avoid mostly white dogs due to the unfounded idea that sheep will not respect a white or almost all white dog), in general a dog 's appearance is considered by the American Border Collie Association to be irrelevant. It is considered much more useful to identify a working Border Collie by its attitude and ability than by its looks.
Dogs bred for show are more homogeneous in appearance than working Border Collies, since to win in conformation showing they must conform closely to breed club standards that are specific on many points of the structure, coat, and colour. Kennel clubs specify, for example, that the Border Collie must have a "keen and intelligent '' expression, and that the preferred eye colour is dark brown. In deference to the dog 's working origin, scars and broken teeth received in the line of duty are not to be counted against a Border Collie in the show ring. The males ' height from withers comes from 48 to 56 centimetres (19 to 22 in), females from 46 to 53 centimetres (18 to 21 in).
Border Collies require considerably more daily physical exercise and mental stimulation than many other breeds. The Border Collie is an intelligent dog breed; in fact, it is widely considered to be the most intelligent dog breed. Although the primary role of the Border Collie is to herd livestock, this breed is becoming increasingly popular as a companion animal.
In this role, due to their working heritage, Border Collies are very demanding, playful, and energetic. They thrive best in households that can provide them with plenty of play and exercise, either with humans or other dogs. Due to their demanding personalities and need for mental stimulation and exercise, many Border Collies develop problematic behaviours in households that are not able to provide for their needs. They are infamous for chewing holes in walls, furniture such as chairs and table legs, destructive scraping and hole digging, due to boredom. Border Collies may exhibit a strong desire to herd, a trait they may show with small children, cats, and other dogs. The breed 's herding trait has been deliberately encouraged, as it was in the dogs from which the Border Collie was developed, by selective breeding for many generations. However, being eminently trainable, they can live amicably with other pets if given proper socialisation training.
Before taking on the breed as a household pet, potential owners should be sure they can provide regular exercise commensurate with the collie 's high energy and prodigious stamina. A working collie may run many miles a day, using its experience, personality and intelligence to control challenging livestock, and these dogs will be distressed and frustrated if left in isolation, ignored or inactive. Like many working breeds, Border Collies can be motion - sensitive and may chase moving vehicles and bicycles, but this behaviour can be modified by training. Some of the more difficult behaviours require patience, as they are developmental and may disappear as the dog matures.
The natural life span of the Border Collie is between 10 and 14 years, with an average lifespan of 12 years. The median longevities of breeds of similar size are usually 12 to 13 years.
Leading causes of death are cancer (23.6 %), old age (17.9 %) and cerebral vascular afflictions (9.4 %).
Hip dysplasia, Collie eye anomaly (CEA), and epilepsy are considered the primary genetic diseases of concern in the breed at this time. CEA is a congenital, inherited eye disease involving the retina, choroid, and sclera that sometimes affects Border Collies. In Border Collies, it is generally a mild disease and rarely significantly impairs vision. However, other eye conditions such as PRA slowly disintegrates the retina and can cause Border Collies to lose almost all of their vision at night which can progress into complete daytime blindness. There is now a DNA test available for CEA and, through its use, breeders can ensure that they will not produce affected pups. There are different types of hip testing available including OFA (Orthopedic Foundation for Animals) and PennHip. Radiographs are taken and sent to these organizations to determine a dog 's hip and elbow quality.
Two types of hearing loss occur in the breed. The first type is pigment associated and is found in Border Collie puppies, although the puppies can have congenital sensorineural deafness from birth as well. The second type is known as adult onset hearing loss. These dogs have a normal auditory brainstem response test as pups but gradually lose their hearing some time between one and eight years of age. A study is currently underway at The Translational Genomics Research Institute to identify the genetic cause of adult onset hearing loss in the breed.
Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (NCL) is a rare but serious disease that is limited to show Border Collies. NCL results in severe neurological impairment and early death; afflicted dogs rarely survive beyond two years of age. The mutation causing the form of the disease found in Border Collies was identified by Scott Melville in the laboratory of Dr. Alan Wilton of the School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales. There is no treatment or cure, but a DNA test is now available to detect carriers as well as affected dogs.
Trapped Neutrophil Syndrome (TNS) is a hereditary disease in which the bone marrow produces neutrophils (white cells) but is unable to effectively release them into the bloodstream. Affected puppies have an impaired immune system and will eventually die from infections they can not fight. The mutation responsible for TNS has been found in Border Collies in English working dogs, in show dogs that had originated in Australia and New Zealand, and in unrelated Australian working dogs. This indicates that the gene is widespread and probably as old as the breed itself. TNS was identified by Jeremy Shearman in the laboratory of Dr. Alan Wilton of the School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales. There is no cure, but a DNA test is now available to detect carriers as well as affected dogs.
Other diseases found less commonly include glaucoma, juvenile cataracts, osteochondritis, hypothyroidism and diabetes mellitus. A syndrome of exercise induced collapse similar to that seen in Labrador Retrievers (otherwise termed Border Collie Collapse) and triggered by episodes of collapse associated with periods of intense exercise has been described in Border Collies in North America, Europe and Australia; and is currently the subject of further investigation.
Elbow dysplasia may also occur in the breed. Dogs homozygous for the merle gene, sometimes referred to as "double merles '', are likely to have ocular and / or auditory defects.
The Border Collie is descended from landrace collies, a type found widely in the British Isles. The name for the breed came from its probable place of origin along the Anglo - Scottish border. Mention of the "Collie '' or "Colley '' type first appeared toward the end of the 19th century, although the word "collie '' is older than this and has its origin in the Scots language. It is also thought that the word ' collie ' comes from the old Celtic word for useful. Many of the best Border Collies today can be traced back to a dog known as Old Hemp.
In 1915, James Reid, Secretary of the International Sheep Dog Society (ISDS) in the United Kingdom first used the term "Border Collie '' to distinguish those dogs registered by the ISDS from the Kennel Club 's Collie (or Scotch Collie, including the Rough Collie and Smooth Collie) which originally came from the same working stock but had developed a different, standardised appearance following introduction to the show ring in 1860 and mixture with different types breeds.
Old Hemp, a tricolour dog, was born in Northumberland in September 1893 and died in May 1901. He was bred by Adam Telfer from Roy, a black and tan dog, and Meg, a black - coated, strong - eyed dog. Hemp was a quiet, powerful dog to which sheep responded easily. Many shepherds used him for stud and Hemp 's working style became the Border Collie style. All pure Border Collies alive today can trace an ancestral line back to Old Hemp.
Wiston Cap (b. 28 Sep. 1963) is the dog that the International Sheep Dog Society (ISDS) badge portrays in the characteristic Border Collie herding pose. He was a popular stud dog in the history of the breed, and his bloodline can be seen in most bloodlines of the modern day Collie. Bred by W.S. Hetherington and trained and handled by John Richardson, Cap was a biddable and good - natured dog. His bloodlines all trace back to the early registered dogs of the stud book, and to J.M. Wilson 's Cap, whose name occurs 16 times within seven generations in his pedigree. Wiston Cap sired three Supreme Champions and is grand - sire of three others, one of whom was E.W. Edwards ' Bill, who won the championship twice.
Collies were listed as imports to New Zealand as early as 1858, but the type was not specified. In the late 1890s James Lilico (1861? -- 1945) of Christchurch, New Zealand, imported a number of working dogs from the United Kingdom. These included Hindhope Jed, a black, tan and white born in Hindhope, Scotland in 1895, as well as Maudie, Moss of Ancrum, Ness and Old Bob.
It is unclear whether Hindhope Jed was a descendant of Old Hemp. Born two years after him, she is mentioned in a British Hunts and Huntsmen article concerning a Mr John Elliot of Jedburgh:
Mr Elliot himself is well known for his breed of Collies. His father supplied Noble to the late Queen Victoria and it was from our subject that the McLeod got Hindhope Jed, now the champion of New Zealand and Australia.
At the time of her departure to New Zealand, Hindhope Jed was already in pup to Captain, another of the then new "Border '' strain. Hindhope Jed had won three trials in her native Scotland, and was considered to be the "best to cross the equator ''.
In 1901 the King and Mcleod stud, created by Charles Beechworth King (b. 1855, Murrumbidgee, NSW), his brother and Alec McLeod at Canonbar, near Nyngan (north - west of Sydney), brought Hindhope Jed to Australia, where she enjoyed considerable success at sheep dog trials.
There are two types of tests, or standards, to determine the breeding quality of a Border Collie: the original ISDS sheepdog trial and appearance.
The original test is the ISDS sheepdog trial. It is still used today, where a dog and handler collect groups of livestock and move them quietly around a course. There are certain standard elements to this test depending on the level: national or international. For both levels, sheep must be gathered as calmly as possible without being distressed. For a national competition, normally held between England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, trials run over a 400 - yard course. International courses use a 400 - yard course for the qualifying trials, but on the third and final day, trials are held in a course of 800 yards. The international test involves a "double fetch '', where the sheepdog must gather 10 sheep from 800 yards away, bring them on an angle to the center of the field, and then be sent back in another direction to gather another 10 sheep, also placed 800 yards from the handler. Five of those 20 sheep will have collars on, and at the end of a triangular drive, the sheep are gathered into a circular "shedding ring '' and the 15 sheep without collars driven away as the five collared sheep are kept inside the ring and then penned. Sheepdogs must be directed through obstacles at varying distance from the handler, and then the dog must demonstrate the ability to do work close at hand by penning the sheep and sorting them out.
In nearly every region of the world, the Border Collie is now also a breed which is shown in ring or bench shows. For the people who participate in these events, the Border Collie is defined by the breed standard, which is a description of how the dog should look. In New Zealand and Australia, where the breed has been shown throughout most of the twentieth century, the Border Collie standards have produced a dog with the longer double coat (smooth coats are allowed), a soft dark eye, a body slightly longer than tall, a well - defined stop, semi-pricked ears, as well as a gentle and friendly temperament. This style of Border Collie has become popular in winning show kennels around the world, as well as among prestigious judges. Breed standards state that its tail must be slightly curved and must stop at the hock. The fur must be lush. It should show good expression in its eyes, and must be intelligent. It is energetic with most commonly a black and white coat (sometimes brown). It should have a very strong herding instinct.
Away from breed standards, short haired Border collie variants are also found, offering householders a less demanding task clearing year - round shed hair. Crossing collies with German shepherd dogs produces a strong intelligent hybrid of intermediate size, popularly named a "shollie '', used as a working dog with livestock and as an animal companion.
Other enthusiasts oppose the use of Border Collies as show dogs, for fear that breeding for appearance will lead to a decline in the breed 's working dog traits. Few handlers of working Border Collies participate in conformation shows, as working dogs are bred to a performance standard rather than appearance standard. Likewise, conformation - bred dogs are seldom seen on the sheepdog trial field, except in Kennel Club - sponsored events. Dogs registered with either working or conformation based registries are seen in other performance events such as agility, obedience, tracking or flyball; however, these dogs do not necessarily conform to the breed standard of appearance as closely as the dogs shown in the breed rings as this is not a requirement in performance events, nor do they necessarily participate in herding activities.
In the UK, there are two separate registries for Border Collies. The International Sheep Dog Society encourages breeding for herding ability, whereas the Kennel Club (UK) encourages breeding for a standardised appearance. The ISDS registry is by far the older of the two, and ISDS dogs are eligible for registration as pedigree Border Collies with the Kennel Club (KC) -- but not vice versa. The only way for a Border Collie without an ISDS pedigree to be added to the ISDS registry is by proving its worth as a herding dog so that it can be Registered on Merit (ROM).
One of the principal registries for Border Collies in the United States is the American Border Collie Association (ABCA), which is dedicated to the preservation of the traditional working dog. The breed was also recognised in 1995 by the American Kennel Club (AKC) after occupying the AKC 's Miscellaneous Class for over 50 years. The recognition was under protest from the majority of Border Collie affiliated groups, such as the United States Border Collie Club, which felt that emphasis on the breed 's working skills would be lost under AKC recognition. AKC registrations have gradually increased since recognition and by the year 2004 there were 1,984 new AKC registrations of Border Collies, with a further 2,378 for the year 2005. By contrast, the American Border Collie Association registers approximately 20,000 Border Collies annually. Because of the inherent tension between the goals of breeding to a working standard and to an appearance standard, the American Border Collie Association voted in 2003 that dogs who attained a conformation championship would be delisted from the ABCA registry, regardless of ability. Cross-registration is allowed between the working registries, and AKC accepts dogs registered with ABCA and NASDS, but none of the working registries in the U.S. honors AKC pedigrees.
In Australia, Border Collies are registered with an Australian National Kennel Council (ANKC) affiliated state control body or with a working dog registry. Between 2,011 and 2,701 ANKC pedigreed Border Collies have been registered with the ANKC each year since 1986. Inclusion on the ANKC affiliate 's main register allows Border Collies to compete in conformation, obedience, agility, tracking, herding and other ANKC - sanctioned events held by an ANKC affiliated club, while inclusion on the limited register prohibits entry in conformation events. The ANKC provides a breed standard; however, this applies to conformation events only and has no influence on dogs entering in performance events. Non-ANKC pedigreed dogs may also be eligible for inclusion on an ANKC associate or sporting register and be able to compete in ANKC performance or herding events. Agility organisations such as the Agility Dog Association of Australia (ADAA) have their own registry which allows the inclusion of any dog wishing to compete in their events.
In Canada, Agriculture Canada has recognised the Canadian Border Collie Association as the registry under the Animal Pedigree Act for any Border Collie that is designated as "Pure Breed '' in Canada.
The criteria used are based on herding lineage rather than appearance. It is a two - tiered registry in that dogs imported that are registered with a foreign Kennel Club that does hold conformation shows are given a "B '' registration, whereas those that come directly from other working registries are placed on the "A '' registry.
Recently, the Canadian Kennel Club has polled its members to decide if Border Collies should be included on the CKC "Miscellaneous List ''. This designation would allow Border Collie owners the ability to compete in all CKC events, but the CKC would not be the registering body. People who compete in performance events support the move. The CBCA is against this designation.
The registration of working sheepdogs in South Africa is the responsibility of the South African Sheepdog Association. ISDS registered dogs imported into the country can be transferred onto the SASDA register. Dogs not registered can become eligible for registration by being awarded a certificate of working ability by a registered judge. Occasionally they will facilitate the testing of dogs used for breeding, for Hip dysplasia and Collie eye anomaly, to encourage the breeding of dogs without these genetic flaws.
The registration of working Border Collies in Turkey is the province of the Border Collie Dernegi (Turkish Border Collie Association) established in 2007.
The Border Collie breed is also recognised as the prime sheep dog by the International Stock Dog Federation (ISDF), based in Piccadilly, London, UK.
Border Collies are one of the most popular breeds for dog agility competitions. They also excel at competitive obedience, showmanship, flyball, tracking, and USBCHA Sheepdog trials and herding events.
Working Border Collies can take direction by voice and by whistle at long distances when herding. Their great energy and herding instinct are still used to herd all kinds of animals, from the traditional sheep and cattle, to free range poultry, pigs, and ostriches. They are also used to remove unwanted wild birds from airport runways, golf courses, and other public and private areas.
The use of dogs for herding sheep makes good economic sense for many farmers. In a typical pasture environment each trained sheepdog will do the work of three humans. In vast arid areas like the Australian Outback or the Karoo Escarpment, the number increases to five or more. Attempts to replace them with mechanical approaches to herding have only achieved a limited amount of success. Thus, stock handlers find trained dogs more reliable and economical.
Shepherds in the UK have taken the most critical elements of herding and incorporated them into a sheepdog trial. The first recorded sheepdog trials were held in Bala, North Wales, in 1873. These competitions enable farmers and shepherds to evaluate possible mates for their working dogs, but they have developed a sport aspect as well, with competitors from outside the farming community also taking part.
In the USA, the national sanctioning body for these competitions is the USBCHA. In the UK it is the International Sheep Dog Society, in Canada the Canadian Border Collie Association (CBCA) and in South Africa it is the South African Sheepdog Association.
Border Collies excel at several dog sports in addition to their success in sheepdog trials. Because of the high instinct of herding, they are excellent at this sport. Herding instincts and trainability can be tested for when introduced to sheep or at noncompetitive instinct tests. Border Collies exhibiting basic herding instincts can be trained to compete in sheepdog trials and other herding events. They perform well at some higher jump heights at dog agility competitions, so much so that in England, competitions often include classes for ABC dogs, "Anything But Collies ''.
The Border Collie 's speed, agility, and stamina have allowed them to dominate in dog activities like flyball and disc dog competitions. Their trainability has also given them a berth in dog dancing competitions.
Border Collies have a highly developed sense of smell and with their high drive make excellent and easily motivated tracking dogs for Tracking trials. These trials simulate the finding of a lost person in a controlled situation where the performance of the dog can be evaluated, with titles awarded for successful dogs.
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what state has the most ncaa basketball championships | NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball tournament - wikipedia
The NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament (known informally as March Madness or the Big Dance) is a single - elimination tournament played each spring in the United States, currently featuring 68 college basketball teams from the Division I level of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), to determine the national championship. The tournament was created in 1939 by the National Association of Basketball Coaches, and was the idea of Ohio State University coach Harold Olsen. Played mostly during March, it has become one of the most famous annual sporting events in the United States.
The tournament teams include champions from 32 Division I conferences (which receive automatic bids), and 36 teams which are awarded at - large berths. These "at - large '' teams are chosen by an NCAA selection committee, then announced in a nationally televised event on the Sunday preceding the "First Four '' play - in games, currently held in Dayton, Ohio, and dubbed Selection Sunday. The 68 teams are divided into four regions and organized into a single - elimination "bracket '', which pre-determines, when a team wins a game, which team it will face next. Each team is "seeded '', or ranked, within its region from 1 to 16. After the First Four, the tournament occurs during the course of three weekends, at pre-selected neutral sites across the United States. Teams, seeded by rank, proceed through a single - game elimination bracket beginning with a "first four '' consisting of 8 low - seeded teams playing in 4 games for a position in the first round the Tuesday and Wednesday before the first round begins, a first round consisting of 64 teams playing in 32 games over the course of a week, the "Sweet Sixteen '' and "Elite Eight '' rounds the next week and weekend, respectively, and -- for the last weekend of the tournament -- the "Final Four '' round. The Final Four is usually played during the first weekend of April. These four teams, one from each region (East, South, Midwest, and West), compete in a preselected location for the national championship.
The tournament has been at least partially televised since 1969. Currently, the games are broadcast by CBS, TBS, TNT, and truTV under the trade - name NCAA March Madness. Since 2011, all games are available for viewing nationwide and internationally, such as in the Philippines and Canada. As television coverage has grown, so too has the tournament 's popularity. Currently, millions of Americans fill out a bracket, attempting to correctly predict the outcome of all 67 games of the tournament.
With 11 national titles, UCLA has the record for the most NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championships; John Wooden coached UCLA to 10 of its 11 titles. The University of Kentucky (UK) is second, with eight national titles. The University of North Carolina is in third place, with six titles, Duke University and Indiana University are tied for fourth with five national titles. The University of Connecticut is sixth with four national titles. The University of Kansas (KU) and University of Louisville are tied with three championships. Since 1985, when the tournament expanded to 64 teams, North Carolina and Duke have each won five championships; Connecticut has four; Kentucky has three; Kansas, Louisville, Florida, and Villanova have two; UCLA, Indiana, and Michigan State have one. During that time Villanova, Michigan, UNLV, Duke, Arkansas, Arizona, Connecticut, Maryland, Syracuse, and Florida all won their first championships.
The NCAA has changed the tournament format several times since its inception, most often representing an increase of the number of teams. This section describes the tournament as it has operated since 2011. For changes during the course of its history, and to see how the tournament operated during past years, go to Format history, below.
A total of 68 teams qualify for the tournament played during March and April. Thirty - two teams earn automatic bids as their respective conference champions. Of the 32 Division I "all - sports '' conferences (defined as those that sponsor men 's and women 's basketball), all 32 currently hold championship tournaments to determine which team receives the automatic qualification. The Ivy League was the last Division I conference that did not conduct a tournament; through the 2015 -- 16 season, it awarded its tournament berth to the regular - season champion. If two or more Ivies shared a regular - season championship, a one - game playoff (or series of such playoffs) was used to decide the tournament participant. Since 2017, the league conducts their own postseason tournament.
The remaining 36 tournament slots are granted to at - large bids, which are determined by the Selection Committee in a nationally televised event on the Sunday preceding the First Four play - in tournament and dubbed Selection Sunday by the media and fans, by a group primarily of conference commissioners and school athletic directors who are appointed into service by the NCAA. The committee also determines where all sixty - eight teams are seeded and placed in the bracket.
The tournament is divided into four regions and each region has at least sixteen teams, but four additional teams are added per the decision of the Selection Committee. (See: First Four, below.) The committee is charged with making each of the four regions as close as possible in overall quality of teams from wherever they come from.
The names of the regions vary from year to year, and are broadly geographic (such as "West '', "South '', "East '', and "Midwest ''). From 1956 to 1984, the "Mideast '', roughly corresponding to the Southeastern region of the United States, designation was used. From 1985 to 1998, the Mideast region was known as "Southeast '' and again changed to "South '' starting from 1999. The selected names roughly correspond to the location of the four cities hosting the regional finals. From 2004 to 2006, the regions were named after their host cities, e.g. the Phoenix Regional in 2004, the Chicago Regional in 2005, and the Minneapolis Regional in 2006, but reverted to the traditional geographic designations beginning in 2007. For example, during 2012, the regions were named South (Atlanta, Georgia), East (Boston, Massachusetts), Midwest (St. Louis, Missouri), and West (Phoenix, Arizona).
The selection committee ranks the whole field of 68 teams from 1 to 68. (It did not make this information public until 2012.) The committee then divides the teams amongst the regions. The top four teams will be distributed among the four regions, and each will receive a No. 1 seed within that region. The next four ranked teams will then be distributed among the four regions, each receiving a No. 2 seed in their region, and the process continues down the line, with some exceptions (as is explained below). Carried to its logical conclusion, this would give each region seventeen teams -- seeded from No. 1 to No. 17 -- but, each region has only sixteen teams (from No. 1 to No. 16). As can be seen below, the actual seeding depends on (among other factors) the rankings of the eight teams that the committee selects for the "First Four '' opening round (see the next paragraph and the "First Four '' section below).
The selection committee is also instructed to place teams so that whenever possible, teams from the same conference can not meet until the regional finals. Additionally, it is also instructed to avoid any possible rematches of regular - season or previous year 's tournament games during the First and Second rounds. Further restrictions are listed in the Venues section below. To comply with these other requirements, the selection committee may move one or several teams up or down one seed from their respective original seed line. Thus, for example, the 40th overall ranked team, originally slated to be a No. 10 seed within a particular region, may instead be moved up to a No. 9 seed or moved down to a No. 11 seed. In addition, the rankings of the eight teams selected for the "First Four '' play - in round will likewise affect the final seedlings.
The bracket is thus established, and during the semifinals, the champion of the top - ranked number 1 seed 's region will play against the champion of the fourth - ranked number 1 seed 's region, and the champion of the second - ranked number 1 seed 's region will play against the champion of the third - ranked number 1 seed 's region.
In the men 's tournament, all sites are nominally neutral: teams are prohibited from playing tournament games on their home courts prior to the Final Four (though in some cases, a team may be fortunate enough to play in or near its home state or city). By current NCAA rules, any court on which a team hosts more than three regular - season games (in other words, not including conference tournament games) is considered a "home court ''. The exception to this rule is the University of Dayton, which would be allowed to play a game in the "First Four '' round in their home arena as they did in 2015.
However, while a team can be moved to a different region if its home court is being used during any of the first two weeks of the tournament, the Final Four venue is determined years in advance, and can not be changed regardless of participants. For this reason, in theory, a team could play in a Final Four on its home court; in reality, this would be unlikely, since the Final Four is usually staged at a venue larger than most college basketball arenas. (The most recent team to play the Final Four in its home city was Butler during 2010; its home court then seated only 10,000 and has since been reduced to a capacity of 9,100, as opposed to the 70,000 - plus seating capacity of Lucas Oil Stadium in its Final Four configuration.)
The tournament consists of several rounds. They are currently named, in order of first to last:
The tournament is single - elimination, which increases the chance of an underdog and lower - seeded "Cinderella team '' advancing to subsequent rounds. Although these lower - ranked teams are forced to play stronger teams, they need only one win to advance (instead of needing to win a majority of games in a series, as in professional basketball).
The "First Four '' refers to the number of games played, not the number of teams. First held during 2011, the First Four are games between the four lowest - ranked at - large teams and the four lowest - ranked automatic - bid (conference - champion) teams. They are not normally the eight lowest - ranked teams in the field; the four lowest - ranked at - large teams usually have higher rankings among the entire field of 68 than several of the automatic - bid teams coming from the smaller conferences. The four games are held to determine which teams will assume a place in the First Round. Unlike other early games in the tournament, the teams are not matched with disparity intended. Rather, equality governs match - ups (e.g., in one game, two teams -- usually two of the four lowest - ranked automatic - bid teams -- might play for a No. 16 seeding in the first round, while in another game, two teams -- usually two of the four lowest - ranked at - large teams -- are usually trying to advance as a No. 11 seed).
While other NCAA tournament games are played Thursday through Sunday (and the final game on a Monday), the First Four games are played earlier in the first week, between Selection Sunday and the First Round on Thursday and Friday. As of 2017, two games are played on the Tuesday following Selection Sunday, and the remaining two are played on Wednesday. Once the First Four games are played, the four winning teams assume their places in the bracket of 64 teams, and must play again later that week, with little rest. Typically, the two Tuesday winners are paired with their next opponent on Thursday; and, the Wednesday winners play on Friday. With the Second Round being played on Saturday and Sunday, this scheduling allows for six consecutive days of televised competition during the first week of the tournament.
Every year that the First Four has taken place, at least one of the teams that participated went on to win in the round of 64. In 2011, VCU was part of the First Four and advanced all the way to the Final Four. In 2012, South Florida advanced to the round of 32. In 2013, La Salle advanced to the Sweet 16 by defeating Boise State, Kansas State, and Ole Miss. In 2014, Tennessee advanced to the Sweet 16 by defeating Iowa, Massachusetts, and Mercer. The following year, Dayton won its First Four game on their home court and then defeated Providence to advance to the round of 32. In 2016, Wichita State advanced to the round of 32 by defeating Vanderbilt and Arizona. In 2017, USC won the first round against SMU but lost to Baylor in the round of 32.
Prior to expanding from 65 to 68 teams, the two lowest seeded teams played in the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Opening Round game. All of the previous - format single Opening Round games and current - format First Four games, have been played at the University of Dayton Arena in Dayton, Ohio.
During the First Round (the Round of 64), the No. 1 seed plays the No. 16 seed in all regions; the No. 2 team plays the No. 15, and so on. The effect of this seeding structure ensures that the better a team is ranked (and therefore seeded), the worse - ranked (and presumably weaker) their opponents will be. Sixteen first - round games are played on the Thursday following the "First Four '' round. The remaining sixteen first - round games are played Friday. At this point the contestants are reduced to 32 teams.
The Second Round (the Round of 32) is played on Saturday and Sunday immediately after the first round. The second round consists of Thursday 's winners playing in eight games on Saturday, followed by Friday 's winners playing in the remaining eight second - round games on Sunday. Thus, after the first weekend, 16 teams remain, commonly known as the "Sweet Sixteen. ''
The teams that are still competing after the first weekend advance to the regional semifinals (the Sweet Sixteen) and finals (the Elite Eight), which are played during the second weekend of the tournament (again, the games are split into Thursday / Saturday and Friday / Sunday). Four regional semi-final games are played Thursday and four are played Friday. After Friday 's games, 8 teams (the Elite Eight) remain. Saturday features two regional final games matching Thursday 's winners and Sunday 's two final games match Friday 's winners. After the second weekend of the tournament, the four regional champions are the "Final Four. ''
The winners of each region advance to the Final Four, where the national semifinals are played on Saturday and the national championship is played on Monday. As is noted above, which regional champion will play which, and in which semifinal they play, is determined by the overall rankings of the four No. 1 seeds in the original bracket, not on the ranks of the eventual Final Four teams themselves.
Mid-major teams -- which are (as of 2017) defined as teams from the America East Conference (America East), Atlantic Sun Conference (ASUN), Big Sky Conference (Big Sky), Big South Conference (Big South), Big West Conference (Big West), Colonial Athletic Conference (CAA), Conference USA (C - USA), Horizon League (Horizon), Ivy League (Ivy), Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference (MAAC), Mid-American Conference (MAC), Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference (MEAC), Missouri Valley Conference (MVC), Mountain West Conference (MW), Northeast Conference (NEC), Ohio Valley Conference (OVC), Patriot League (Patriot), Southern Conference (SoCon), Southland Conference (Southland), Southwest Athletic Conference (SWAC), Summit League (Summit), Sun Belt Conference (Sun Belt), West Coast Conference (WCC), and the Western Athletic Conference (WAC) -- have experienced periods of success in the tournament.
Below is a table that shows the performance of mid-major teams from the Sweet Sixteen round to the National Championship Game from 1939 -- the tournament 's first year -- to 2017, the most recent tournament.
This table shows mid-major teams that saw success in the tournament from now - defunct conferences or were independents.
List of schools with the longest time between NCAA Men 's Basketball Tournament appearances:
Through the 2017 NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament, four schools that have been Division I members since the distinction between "major college '' and "small college '' was first officially made, in 1948, have never reached the national tournament.
The NCAA tournament has changed its format many times over the years. Below are listed many of these changes.
For a list of all the cities and arenas that have hosted the Final Four, go to Host cities, below. Municipal Auditorium in Kansas City, Missouri hosted the Final Four nine times followed by the third Madison Square Garden in New York City which hosted seven times, and Louisville 's Freedom Hall which hosted six times. Additionally, Indianapolis has hosted the Final Four seven time, across three venues.
From 1997 to 2013, the NCAA required that all Final Four sessions take place in domed stadiums with a minimum capacity of 40,000, usually having only half of the dome in use. The Metrodome in Minneapolis, which usually hosted baseball and football, had one of the long ends of the court along the first base line with temporary stands surrounding the court so that much of the outfield is isolated from the action. The same was true of football stadiums like the Alamodome in San Antonio and the RCA Dome in Indianapolis. The last NBA arena to host the Final Four was the Meadowlands Arena, then known as Continental Airlines Arena, in 1996. As of 2009, the minimum was increased to 70,000, by adding additional seating on the floor of the dome, and raising the court on a platform three feet above the dome 's floor, which is usually crowned for football, like the setup at Ford Field in Detroit which hosted the 2009 Final Four.
In September 2012, the NCAA began preliminary discussions on the possibility of returning occasional Final Fours to basketball - specific arenas in major metropolitan areas. According to ESPN.com writer Andy Katz, when Mark Lewis was hired as NCAA executive vice president for championships during 2012, "he took out a United States map and saw that both coasts are largely left off from hosting the Final Four. '' Lewis added in an interview with Katz,
I do n't know where this will lead, if anywhere, but the right thing is to sit down and have these conversations and see if we want our championship in more than eight cities or do we like playing exclusively in domes. None of the cities where we play our championship is named New York, Boston, Los Angeles, Chicago or Miami. We do n't play on a campus. We play in professional football arenas.
Under then - current criteria, only nine stadiums, all but one of which are current NFL venues, could be considered as Final Four locations:
Two domed stadiums that have hosted past Final Fours -- the Alamodome (1998, 2004, 2008, 2018 (future)) and Tropicana Field in St. Petersburg, Florida (1999) -- were considered too small to be eligible to host, despite the Alamodome being a college football stadium and having a permanent seating capacity of 65,000. The basketball setup at the Alamodome uses only half of the stadium and has a capacity of 39,500.
The first instance of a domed stadium being used for a NCAA Tournament Final Four was the Houston Astrodome in 1971, but the Final Four would not return to a dome until 1982, when the Louisiana Superdome in New Orleans hosted the event for the first time.
On June 12, 2013, Katz reported that the NCAA had changed its policy. In July 2013, the NCAA had a portal available on its website for venues to make Final Four proposals in the 2017 -- 2020 period, and there were no restrictions on proposals based on venue size. Also, the NCAA decided that future regionals will no longer be held in domes. In Katz ' report, Lewis indicated that the use of domes for regionals was intended as a dry run for future Final Four venues, but this particular policy was no longer necessary because all of the Final Four sites from 2014 to 2016 had already hosted regionals. At least one other report indicated that the new policy would still allow a completely new domed stadium, or an existing dome that has never hosted a Final Four (such as University of Phoenix Stadium), to receive a regional if it is awarded a future Final Four. In November 2014, reflecting the new policy 's effect, the NCAA announced that University of Phoenix Stadium would host the Final Four in 2017.
On several occasions NCAA tournament teams played their games in their home arena. In 1959, Louisville played at its regular home of Freedom Hall; however, the Cardinals lost to West Virginia in the semifinals. In 1984, Kentucky defeated Illinois, 54 - 51 in the Elite Eight on its home court of Rupp Arena. In 1985, Dayton played its first - round game against Villanova (it lost 51 - 49) on its home floor. In 1986 (beating Brown before losing to Navy) and ' 87 (beating Georgia Southern and Western Kentucky), Syracuse played the first 2 rounds of the NCAA tournament in the Carrier Dome. Also in 1986, LSU played in Baton Rouge on its home floor for the first 2 rounds despite being an 11th seed (beating Purdue and Memphis State). In 1987, Arizona lost to UTEP on its home floor in the first round. In 2015, Dayton played at its regular home of UD Arena, and the Flyers beat Boise State in the First Four.
Since the inception of the modern Final Four in 1952, only once has a team played a Final Four on its actual home court -- Louisville in 1959. But through the 2015 tournament, three other teams have played the Final Four in their home cities, one other team has played in its metropolitan area, and six additional teams have played the Final Four in their home states through the 2015 tournament. Kentucky (1958 in Louisville), UCLA (1968 and 1972 in Los Angeles, 1975 in San Diego), and North Carolina State (1974 in Greensboro) won the national title; Louisville (1959 at its home arena, Freedom Hall); Purdue (1980 in Indianapolis) lost in the Final Four; and California (1960 in suburban San Francisco), Duke (1994 in Charlotte), Michigan State (2009 in Detroit), and Butler (2010 in Indianapolis) lost in the final.
In 1960, Cal had nearly as large an edge as Louisville had the previous year, only having to cross the San Francisco Bay to play in the Final Four at the Cow Palace in Daly City; the Golden Bears lost in the championship game to Ohio State. UCLA had a similar advantage in 1968 and 1972 when it advanced to the Final Four at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena, not many miles from the Bruins ' homecourt of Pauley Pavilion (also UCLA 's home arena before the latter venue opened in 1965, and again during the 2011 - 12 season while Pauley was closed for renovations); unlike Louisville and Cal, the Bruins won the national title on both occasions. Butler lost the 2010 title 6 miles (9.7 km) from its Indianapolis campus and was regarded as the host school, as it is most times whenever the NCAA holds a tournament in Indianapolis (in the 2013 tournament, Butler 's former conference, the Horizon League, was considered the host for the Midwest Regional rather than Butler).
Before the Final Four was established, the East and West regionals were held at separate sites, with the winners advancing to the title game. During that era, three New York City teams, all from Manhattan, played in the East Regional at Madison Square Garden -- frequently used as a "big - game '' venue by each team -- and advanced at least to the national semifinals. NYU won the East Regional in 1945 but lost in the title game, also held at the Garden, to Oklahoma A&M. CCNY played in the East Regional in both 1947 and 1950; the Beavers lost in the 1947 East final to eventual champion Holy Cross but won the 1950 East Regional and national titles at the Garden.
In 1974, North Carolina State won the NCAA tournament without leaving its home state of North Carolina. The team was put in the East Region, and played its regional games at its home arena Reynolds Coliseum. NC State played the final four and national championship games at nearby Greensboro Coliseum.
While not its home state, Kansas has played in the championship game in Kansas City, Missouri, only 45 minutes from the campus in Lawrence, Kansas, not just once, but four times. In 1940, 1953, and 1957 the Jayhawks lost the championship game each time at Municipal Auditorium. In 1988, playing at Kansas City 's Kemper Arena, Kansas won the championship, over Big Eight -- rival Oklahoma. Similarly, in 2005, Illinois played in St. Louis, Missouri, where it enjoyed a noticeable homecourt advantage, yet still lost in the championship game to North Carolina.
The NCAA had banned the Bon Secours Wellness Arena, originally known as Bi-Lo Center, and Colonial Life Arena, originally Colonial Center, in South Carolina from hosting tournament games, despite their sizes (16,000 and 18,000 seats, respectively) because of an NAACP protest at the Bi-Lo Center during the 2002 first and second round tournament games over that state 's refusal to completely remove the Confederate Battle Flag from the state capitol grounds, although it had already been relocated from atop the capitol dome to a less prominent place in 2000. Following requests by the NAACP and Black Coaches Association, the Bi-Lo Center, and the newly built Colonial Center, which was built for purposes of hosting the tournament, were banned from hosting any future tournament events. As a result of the removal of the battle flag from the South Carolina State Capitol, the NCAA lifted its ban on South Carolina hosting games in 2015, and it was able to host in 2017 due to House Bill 2 (see next section).
On September 12, 2016, the NCAA stripped the State of North Carolina of hosting rights for seven upcoming college sports tournaments and championships held by the association, including early round games of the 2017 NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament scheduled for the Greensboro Coliseum. The NCAA argued that House Bill 2 made it "challenging to guarantee that host communities can help deliver (an inclusive atmosphere) ''. Bon Secours Wellness Arena was able to secure the bid to be the replacement site.
As a tournament ritual, the winning team cuts down the nets at the end of regional championship games as well as the national championship game. Starting with the seniors, and moving down by classes, players each cut a single strand off of each net; the head coach cuts the last strand connecting the net to the hoop, claiming the net itself. An exception to the head coach cutting the last strand came in 2013, when Louisville head coach Rick Pitino gave that honor to Kevin Ware, who had suffered a catastrophic leg injury during the tournament. This tradition is credited to Everett Case, the coach of North Carolina State, who stood on his players ' shoulders to accomplish the feat after the Wolfpack won the Southern Conference tournament in 1947. CBS, since 1987, in the odd - numbered years, and TBS, since 2016, the even - numbered years, close out the tournament with "One Shining Moment, '' performed by Luther Vandross.
Just as the Olympics awards gold, silver, and bronze medals for 1st, 2nd, and 3rd place, respectively, the NCAA awards the National Champions a gold - plated wooden NCAA National Championship trophy. The loser of the championship game receives a silver - plated National Runner - Up trophy for second place. Since 2006, all four Final Four teams receive a bronze plated NCAA Regional Championship trophy; prior to 2006, only the teams who did not make the title game received bronze plated trophies for third place.
The champions also receive a commemorative gold championship ring, and the other three Final Four teams receive Final Four rings.
The National Association of Basketball Coaches also presents a more elaborate marble / crystal trophy to the winning team. Ostensibly, this award is given for taking the top position in the NABC 's end - of - season poll, but this is invariably the same as the NCAA championship game winner. In 2005, Siemens AG acquired naming rights to the NABC trophy, which is now called the Siemens Trophy. Formerly, the NABC trophy was presented right after the standard NCAA championship trophy, but this caused some confusion. Since 2006, the Siemens / NABC Trophy has been presented separately at a press conference the day after the game.
After the championship trophy is awarded, one player is selected and then awarded the Most Outstanding Player award (which almost always comes from the championship team). It is not intended to be the same as a Most Valuable Player award although it is sometimes informally referred to as such.
Because the National Basketball Association Draft takes place just three months after the NCAA tournament, NBA executives have to decide how players ' performances in a maximum of seven games, from the First Four to the championship game, should affect their draft decisions. A 2012 study for the National Bureau of Economic Research explores how the March tournament affects the way that professional teams behave in the June draft. The study is based on data from 1997 to 2010 that looks at how college tournament standouts performed at the NBA level.
The researchers determined that a player who outperforms his regular season averages or who is on a team that wins more games than its seed would indicate will be drafted higher than he otherwise would have been. At the same time, the study indicated that professional teams do n't take college tournament performance into consideration as much as they should, as success in the tournament correlates with elite professional accomplishment, particularly top - level success, where a player makes the NBA All - Star Team three or more times. "If anything, NBA teams undervalue the signal provided by unexpected performance in the NCAA March Madness tournament as a predictor of future NBA success. ''
Since 2010, the NCAA has had a joint contract with CBS and Turner Sports, a division of Time Warner (which co-owns the CW Television Network with CBS). The coverage of the tournament is split between CBS, TNT, TBS, and truTV.
Broadcasters from CBS, TBS, and TNT 's sports coverage are shared across all four networks, with CBS ' college basketball teams supplemented with Turner 's NBA teams, while studio segments take place at the CBS Broadcast Center in New York City and Turner 's studios in Atlanta. In the New York - based studio shows, CBS ' Greg Gumbel and Clark Kellogg are joined by Ernie Johnson, Jr., Kenny Smith, and Charles Barkley of TNT 's Inside the NBA while Seth Davis of CBS assists with Matt Winer and various NBA TV personalities. While Turner 's primary NBA voices, Marv Albert and Kevin Harlan, are already employed by CBS in other capacities, they also lend analysts Chris Webber, Grant Hill, and Reggie Miller and secondary play - by - play man Brian Anderson to CBS. In turn, CBS announcers Jim Nantz, Brad Nessler, Spero Dedes, and Andrew Catalon appear on Turner network broadcasts along with analysts Len Elmore, Bill Raftery, Dan Bonner, Mike Gminski, and Doug Gottlieb.
The current contract runs through 2024 and, for the first time in history, provides for the nationwide broadcast each year of all games of the tournament. All First Four games air on truTV. A featured first - or second - round game in each time "window '' is broadcast on CBS, while all other games are shown either on TBS, TNT or truTV. The regional semifinals, better known as the Sweet Sixteen, are split between CBS and TBS. CBS had the exclusive rights to the regional finals, also known as the Elite Eight, through 2014. That exclusivity extended to the entire Final Four as well, but after the 2013 tournament Turner Sports elected to exercise a contractual option for 2014 and 2015 giving TBS broadcast rights to the national semifinal matchups. CBS kept its national championship game rights.
Since 2015, CBS and TBS split coverage of the Elite Eight. Since 2016 CBS and TBS alternate coverage of the Final Four and national championship game, with TBS getting the final two rounds in even - numbered years, and CBS getting the games in odd - numbered years. March Madness On Demand would remain unchanged, although Turner was allowed to develop their own service.
The CBS broadcast provides the NCAA with over $500 million annually, and makes up over 90 % of the NCAA 's annual revenue. The revenues from the multibillion - dollar television contract are divided among the Division I basketball playing schools and conferences as follows:
The Division I Men 's Basketball tournament is the only NCAA championship tournament where the NCAA does not keep the profits.
CBS has been the major partner of the NCAA in televising the tournament since 1982, but there have been many changes in coverage since the tournament was first broadcast in 1969.
From 1969 to 1981, the NCAA tournament aired on NBC, but not all games were televised. The early rounds, in particular, were not always seen on TV.
In 1982, CBS obtained broadcast television rights to the NCAA tournament.
The same year as CBS obtained rights to the Big Dance, ESPN began showing the opening rounds of the tournament. This was the network 's first contract signed with the NCAA for a major sport, and helped to establish ESPN 's following among college basketball fans. ESPN showed six first - round games on Thursday and again on Friday, with CBS then picking up a seventh game at 11: 30 pm ET. Thus, 14 of 32 first - round games were televised. ESPN also re-ran games overnight. At the time, there was only one ESPN network, with no ability to split its signal regionally, so ESPN showed only the most competitive games. During the 1980s, the tournament 's popularity on television soared.
However, ESPN became a victim of its own success, as CBS was awarded the rights to cover all games of the NCAA tournament, starting in 1991. Only with the introduction of the so - called "play - in '' game (between the 64 seed and the 65 seed) in the 2000s, did ESPN get back in the game (and actually, the first time this "play - in '' game was played in 2001, the game was aired on TNN, using CBS graphics and announcers. CBS and TNN were both owned by Viacom at the time).
Through 2010, CBS broadcast the remaining 63 games of the NCAA tournament proper. Most areas saw only eight of 32 first - round games, seven of 16 second - round games, and four of eight regional semifinal games (out of the possible 56 games during these rounds; there would be some exceptions to this rule in the 2000s). Coverage preempted regular programming on the network, except during a 2 - hour window from about 5 ET until 7 ET when the local affiliates could show programming. The CBS format resulted in far fewer hours of first - round coverage than under the old ESPN format but allowed the games to reach a much larger audience than ESPN was able to reach.
During this period of near - exclusivity by CBS, the network provided to its local affiliates three types of feeds from each venue: constant feed, swing feed, and flex feed. Constant feeds remained primarily on a given game, and were used primarily by stations with a clear local interest in a particular game. Despite its name, a constant feed occasionally veered away to other games for brief updates (as is typical in most American sports coverage), but coverage generally remained with the initial game. A swing feed tended to stay on games believed to be of natural interest to the locality, such as teams from local conferences, but may leave that game to go to other games that during their progress become close matches. On a flex feed, coverage bounced around from one venue to another, depending on action at the various games in progress. If one game was a blowout, coverage could switch to a more competitive game. A flex feed was provided when there were no games with a significant natural local interest for the stations carrying them, which allowed the flex game to be the best game in progress. Station feeds were planned in advance and stations had the option of requesting either constant or flex feed for various games.
In 1999, DirecTV began broadcasting all games otherwise not shown on local television with its Mega March Madness premium package. The DirecTV system used the subscriber 's ZIP code to black out games which could be seen on broadcast television. Prior to that, all games were available on C - Band satellite and were picked up by sports bars.
In 2003, CBS struck a deal with Yahoo! to offer live streaming of the first three rounds of games under its Yahoo! Platinum service, for $16.95 a month. In 2004, CBS began selling viewers access to March Madness On Demand, which provided games not otherwise shown on broadcast television; the service was free for AOL subscribers. In 2006, March Madness On Demand was made free, and continued to be so to online users through the 2011 tournament. For 2012, it once again became a pay service, with a single payment of $3.99 providing access to all 67 tournament games. In 2013, the service, now renamed March Madness Live, was again made free, but uses Turner 's rights and infrastructure for TV Everywhere, which requires sign - in though the password of a customer 's cable or satellite provider to watch games, both via PC / Mac and mobile devices. Those that do not have a cable or satellite service or one not participating in Turner 's TV Everywhere are restricted to games carried on the CBS national feed, the national semifinals and final (regardless of the broadcaster), and three hours (originally four) of other games without sign - in, or coverage via Westwood One 's radio coverage.
In addition, CBS Sports Network (formerly CBS College Sports Network) had broadcast two "late early '' games that would not otherwise be broadcast nationally. These were the second games in the daytime session in the Pacific Time Zone, to avoid starting games before 10 AM. These games are also available via March Madness Live and on CBS affiliates in the market areas of the team playing. In other markets, newscasts, local programming or preempted CBS morning programming are aired. CBSSN is scheduled to continue broadcasting the official pregame and postgame shows and press conferences from the teams involved, along with overnight replays.
The Final Four has been broadcast in HDTV since 1999. From 2000 to 2004, only one first / second round site and one regional site were designated as HDTV sites. In 2005, all regional games were broadcast in HDTV, and four first and second round sites were designated for HDTV coverage. Local stations broadcasting in both digital and analog had the option of airing separate games on their HD and SD channels, to take advantage of the available high definition coverage. Beginning in 2007, all games in the tournament (including all first and second - round games) were available in high definition, and local stations were required to air the same game on both their analog and digital channels. However, due to satellite limitations, first round "constant '' feeds were only available in standard definition. Moreover, some digital television stations, such as WRAL - TV in Raleigh, North Carolina, choose to not participate in HDTV broadcasts of the first and second rounds and the regional semifinals, and used their available bandwidth to split their signal into digital subchannels to show all games going on simultaneously. By 2008, upgrades at the CBS broadcast center allowed all feeds, flex and constant, to be in HD for the tournament.
As of 2011, ESPN International holds international broadcast rights to the tournament, distributing coverage to its co-owned networks and other broadcasters. ESPN produces the world feed for broadcasts of the Final Four and championship game, produced using ESPN College Basketball staff and commentators.
Best outcomes for low seeds since expansion to 64 teams in 1985:
numerous (20 teams)
numerous (20 teams)
numerous (23 teams)
numerous (25 teams)
No team as a No. 16 seed has ever defeated a No. 1 seed since the field was expanded to 64 or more teams, though on five occasions, a No. 16 seed has come within 4 or fewer points of winning:
As noted above, despite numerous instances of early - round tournament upsets, no No. 1 seed has ever lost in the first round to a No. 16 seed. However, while seeding is one way of measuring the impact of an upset, prior to the implementation of seeding, point spread was the better determinant of an upset, and a loss by a highly favored team remains for many the definition of "upset ''.
It has happened only once that all four No. 1 seeds made it to the Final Four:
Three times (twice since the field expanded to 64 teams) the Final Four has been without a No. 1 seed:
Since 1985, there have been 4 instances of three No. 1 seeds reaching the Final Four; 11 instances of two No. 1 seeds making it; and 14 instances of just one No. 1 seed reaching the Final Four.
It has happened eight times (seven times since the field expanded to 64) that the championship game has been played between two No. 1 seeds:
Since 1985, there have been 17 instances of one No. 1 seed reaching the Championship Game (No. 1 seeds are 13 - 4 against other seeds in the title game), and eight instances where no No. 1 seed made it to the title game. In total, since 1985, No. 1 seeds are 19 - 10 in the championship game.
The following teams entered the tournament ranked No. 1 in at least one of the AP, UPI, or USA Today polls and won the tournament:
The team 's record here refers to their record before the first game of the NCAA tournament.
The NCAA tournament has undergone dramatic expansion since 1975, and since the tournament was expanded to 48 teams in 1980, no unbeaten teams have failed to qualify. (As, by definition, a team would have to win its conference tournament, and thus secure an automatic bid to the tournament, to be undefeated in a season, the only way a team could finish undefeated and not reach the tournament is if the team is banned from postseason play; as of 2016, no team banned from postseason play has finished undefeated since 1980.) Before that, there were occasions on which a team achieved perfection in the regular season, yet did not appear in the NCAA tournament.
There have been nine times in which the tournament did not include the reigning champion (the previous year 's winner):
Coaches in italics are active at levels below NCAA Division I.
Rick Pitino is the only coach to have officially taken three different teams to the Final Four: Providence (1987), Kentucky (1993, 1996, 1997) and Louisville (2005, 2012, 2013).
There are 12 coaches who have officially coached two different schools to the Final Four -- Roy Williams, Eddie Sutton, Frank McGuire, Lon Kruger, Hugh Durham, Jack Gardner, Lute Olson, Gene Bartow, Forddy Anderson, Lee Rose, Bob Huggins, and Lou Henson.
Point differentials, or margin of victory, can be viewed either by the championship game, or by a team 's performance over the whole tournament.
30 points, by UNLV in 1990 (103 -- 73, over Duke)
Seven times the championship game has been tied at the end of regulation. On one of those occasions (1957) the game went into double and then triple overtime.
1 point, on six occasions
Teams that played 6 games
Teams that played 5 games
Teams that played 4 games
Teams that played 3 games
Achieved twelve times by nine different schools
Since the inception of the 64 - team tournament in 1985, through 2017 each seed - pairing has played 132 games in the Round of 64, with the following results:
This table lists all the cities that have hosted or will host the Final Four, as well as the venues in which the Final Four was or will be played. For additional information about a particular year 's tournament, click on the year to go directly to that year 's NCAA Men 's Basketball Tournament or go to the main article.
There are pools or private gambling - related contests as to who can predict the tournament most correctly. The filling out of a tournament bracket has been referred to as a "national pastime. '' Filling out a tournament bracket with predictions is called the practice of "bracketology '' and sports programming during the tournament is rife with commentators comparing the accuracy of their predictions. On The Dan Patrick Show, a wide variety of celebrities from various fields (such as Darius Rucker, Charlie Sheen, Neil Patrick Harris, Ellen DeGeneres, Dave Grohl, and Brooklyn Decker) have posted full brackets with predictions. Former President Barack Obama 's bracket, is posted on the White House website.
There are many different tournament prediction scoring systems. Most award points for correctly picking the winning team in a particular match up, with increasingly more points being given for correctly predicting later round winners. Some provide bonus points for correctly predicting upsets, the amount of the bonus varying based on the degree of upset. Some just provide points for wins by correctly picked teams in the brackets.
There are 2 ^ 63 or 9.2 quintillion possibilities for the possible winners in a 64 - team NCAA bracket, making the odds of randomly picking a perfect bracket (i.e. without weighting for seed number) 9.2 quintillion to 1. With the expansion of the tournament field to 68 teams in 2011, there are now 2 ^ 67 or 147.57 quintillion possibilities if one includes the first four opening round games.
There are numerous awards and prizes given by companies for anyone who can make the perfect bracket. One of the largest was done by a partnership between Quicken Loans and Berkshire Hathaway, which was backed by Warren Buffett, with a $1 billion prize to any person (s) who could correctly predict the outcome of the 2014 tournament. No one was able to complete the challenge and win the $1 billion prize.
As indicated below, none of these phrases are exclusively used in regard to the NCAA tournament. Nonetheless, they are associated widely with the tournament, sometimes for legal reasons, sometimes just because it 's become part of the American sports vernacular.
March Madness is a popular on - ending basketball tournaments played in March. March Madness is also a registered trademark currently owned exclusively by the NCAA.
H.V. Porter, an official with the Illinois High School Association (and later a member of the Basketball Hall of Fame), was the first person to use March Madness to describe a basketball tournament. Porter published an essay named March Madness during 1939, and during 1942, he used the phrase in a poem, Basketball Ides of March. Through the years the use of March Madness was increased, especially in Illinois, Indiana, and other parts of the Midwest. During this period the term was used almost exclusively in reference to state high school tournaments. During 1977, Jim Enright published a book about the Illinois tournament entitled March Madness.
Fans began associating the term with the NCAA tournament during the early 1980s. Evidence suggests that CBS sportscaster Brent Musburger, who had worked for many years in Chicago before joining CBS, popularized the term during the annual tournament broadcasts. The NCAA has credited Bob Walsh of the Seattle Organizing Committee for starting the March Madness celebration in 1984.
Only during the 1990s did either the IHSA or the NCAA think about trademarking the term, and by that time a small television production company named Intersport had already trademarked it. IHSA eventually bought the trademark rights from Intersport, and then went to court to establish its primacy. IHSA sued GTE Vantage, an NCAA licensee that used the name March Madness for a computer game based on the college tournament. During 1996, in a historic ruling, Illinois High School Association v. GTE Vantage, Inc., the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit created the concept of a "dual - use trademark '', granting both the IHSA and NCAA the right to trademark the term for their own purposes.
After the ruling, the NCAA and IHSA joined forces and created the March Madness Athletic Association to coordinate the licensing of the trademark and investigate possible trademark infringement. One such case involved a company that had obtained the internet domain name marchmadness.com and was using it to post information about the NCAA tournament. During 2003, by March Madness Athletic Association v. Netfire, Inc., the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit decided that March Madness was not a generic term, and ordered Netfire to relinquish the domain name to the NCAA.
Later during the 2000s, the IHSA relinquished its ownership share in the trademark, although it retained the right to use the term in association with high school championships. During October 2010, the NCAA reached a settlement with Intersport, paying $17.2 million for the latter company 's license to use the trademark.
This is a popular term for the regional semifinal round of the tournament, consisting of the final 16 teams. As in the case of "March Madness '', this was first used by a high school federation -- in this case, the Kentucky High School Athletic Association (KHSAA), which has used the term for decades to describe its own season - ending tournaments. It officially registered the trademark in 1988. Unlike the situation with "March Madness '', the KHSAA has retained sole ownership of the "Sweet Sixteen '' trademark; it licenses the term to the NCAA for use in collegiate tournaments.
The term Final Four refers to the last four teams remaining in the playoff tournament. These are the champions of the tournament 's four regional brackets, and are the only teams remaining on the tournament 's final weekend. (While the term "Final Four '' was not used during the early decades of the tournament, the term has been applied retroactively to include the last four teams in tournaments from earlier years, even when only two brackets existed.)
Some claim that the phrase Final Four was first used to describe the final games of Indiana 's annual high school basketball tournament. But the NCAA, which has a trademark on the term, says Final Four was originated by a Plain Dealer sportswriter, Ed Chay, in a 1975 article that appeared in the Official Collegiate Basketball Guide. The article stated that Marquette University "was one of the final four '' of the 1974 tournament. The NCAA started capitalizing the term during 1978 and converting it to a trademark several years later.
During recent years, the term Final Four has been used for other sports besides basketball. Tournaments which use Final Four include the Euroleague in basketball, national basketball competitions in several European countries, and the now - defunct European Hockey League. Together with the name Final Four, these tournaments have adopted an NCAA - style format in which the four surviving teams compete in a single - elimination tournament held in one place, typically, during one weekend. The derivative term "Frozen Four '' is used by the NCAA to refer to the final rounds of the Division I men 's and women 's ice hockey tournaments. Until 1999, it was just a popular nickname for the last two rounds of the hockey tournament; officially, it was also known as the Final Four.
Although there is not any official definition of what constitutes a Cinderella team, there does seem to be a consensus that such teams represent small schools, are usually low - seeded in the tournament, and achieves at least one unexpected win in the tournament. A recent example of this is Florida Gulf Coast University, a relatively new school that held its first classes in 1997 and became Division I postseason eligible in 2011. They made their first ever appearance in the 2013 tournament, winning two games to become the first ever # 15 seed to advance to the Sweet Sixteen. The term was popularized as a result of City College of New York 's successful run in the 1950 tournament.
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the decimal number 10 is represented in its bcd form as | Binary - coded decimal - wikipedia
In computing and electronic systems, binary - coded decimal (BCD) is a class of binary encodings of decimal numbers where each decimal digit is represented by a fixed number of bits, usually four or eight. Special bit patterns are sometimes used for a sign or for other indications (e.g., error or overflow).
In byte - oriented systems (i.e. most modern computers), the term unpacked BCD usually implies a full byte for each digit (often including a sign), whereas packed BCD typically encodes two decimal digits within a single byte by taking advantage of the fact that four bits are enough to represent the range 0 to 9. The precise 4 - bit encoding may vary however, for technical reasons, see Excess - 3 for instance. The ten states representing a BCD decimal digit are sometimes called tetrades (for the nibble typically needed to hold them also known as tetrade) with those do n't care - states unused named pseudo-tetrad (e) s (de) or pseudo-decimal digit).
BCD 's main virtue is its more accurate representation and rounding of decimal quantities as well as an ease of conversion into human - readable representations, in comparison to binary positional systems. BCD 's principal drawbacks are a small increase in the complexity of the circuits needed to implement basic arithmetics and a slightly less dense storage.
BCD was used in many early decimal computers, and is implemented in the instruction set of machines such as the IBM System / 360 series and its descendants, Digital Equipment Corporation 's VAX and the Motorola 68000 - series processors. Although BCD per se is not as widely used as in the past and is no longer implemented in newer computers ' instruction sets (such as ARM; x86 does not support its BCD instructions in long mode any more), decimal fixed - point and floating - point formats are still important and continue to be used in financial, commercial, and industrial computing, where subtle conversion and fractional rounding errors that are inherent in floating point binary representations can not be tolerated.
BCD takes advantage of the fact that any one decimal numeral can be represented by a four bit pattern. The most obvious way of encoding digits is "natural BCD '' (NBCD), where each decimal digit is represented by its corresponding four - bit binary value, as shown in the following table. This is also called "8421 '' encoding.
Other encodings are also used, including so - called "4221 '' and "7421 '' -- named after the weighting used for the bits -- and "Excess - 3 ''. For example, the BCD digit 6, ' 0110'b in 8421 notation, is ' 1100'b in 4221 (two encodings are possible), ' 0110'b in 7421, and ' 1001'b (6 + 3 = 9) in excess - 3.
As most computers deal with data in 8 - bit bytes, it is possible to use one of the following methods to encode a BCD number:
As an example, encoding the decimal number 91 using unpacked BCD results in the following binary pattern of two bytes:
In packed BCD, the same number would fit into a single byte:
Hence the numerical range for one unpacked BCD byte is zero through nine inclusive, whereas the range for one packed BCD is zero through ninety - nine inclusive.
To represent numbers larger than the range of a single byte any number of contiguous bytes may be used. For example, to represent the decimal number 12345 in packed BCD, using big - endian format, a program would encode as follows:
Note that the most significant nibble of the most significant byte is zero, implying that the number is in actuality 012345. Also note how packed BCD is more efficient in storage usage as compared to unpacked BCD; encoding the same number (with the leading zero) in unpacked format would consume twice the storage.
Shifting and masking operations are used to pack or unpack a packed BCD digit. Other logical operations are used to convert a numeral to its equivalent bit pattern or reverse the process.
BCD is very common in electronic systems where a numeric value is to be displayed, especially in systems consisting solely of digital logic, and not containing a microprocessor. By employing BCD, the manipulation of numerical data for display can be greatly simplified by treating each digit as a separate single sub-circuit. This matches much more closely the physical reality of display hardware -- a designer might choose to use a series of separate identical seven - segment displays to build a metering circuit, for example. If the numeric quantity were stored and manipulated as pure binary, interfacing to such a display would require complex circuitry. Therefore, in cases where the calculations are relatively simple, working throughout with BCD can lead to a simpler overall system than converting to and from binary. Most pocket calculators do all their calculations in BCD.
The same argument applies when hardware of this type uses an embedded microcontroller or other small processor. Often, smaller code results when representing numbers internally in BCD format, since a conversion from or to binary representation can be expensive on such limited processors. For these applications, some small processors feature BCD arithmetic modes, which assist when writing routines that manipulate BCD quantities.
In packed BCD (or simply packed decimal), each of the two nibbles of each byte represent a decimal digit. Packed BCD has been in use since at least the 1960s and is implemented in all IBM mainframe hardware since then. Most implementations are big endian, i.e. with the more significant digit in the upper half of each byte, and with the leftmost byte (residing at the lowest memory address) containing the most significant digits of the packed decimal value. The lower nibble of the rightmost byte is usually used as the sign flag, although some unsigned representations lack a sign flag. As an example, a 4 - byte value consists of 8 nibbles, wherein the upper 7 nibbles store the digits of a 7 - digit decimal value and the lowest nibble indicates the sign of the decimal integer value.
Standard sign values are 1100 (hex C) for positive (+) and 1101 (D) for negative (−). This convention comes from the zone field for EBCDIC characters and the signed overpunch representation. Other allowed signs are 1010 (A) and 1110 (E) for positive and 1011 (B) for negative. IBM System / 360 processors will use the 1010 (A) and 1011 (B) signs if the A bit is set in the PSW, for the ASCII - 8 standard that never passed. Most implementations also provide unsigned BCD values with a sign nibble of 1111 (F). ILE RPG uses 1111 (F) for positive and 1101 (D) for negative. These match the EBCDIC zone for digits without a sign overpunch. In packed BCD, the number 127 is represented by 0001 0010 0111 1100 (127C) and − 127 is represented by 0001 0010 0111 1101 (127D). Burroughs systems used 1101 (D) for negative, and any other value is considered a positive sign value (the processors will normalize a positive sign to 1100 (C)).
No matter how many bytes wide a word is, there are always an even number of nibbles because each byte has two of them. Therefore, a word of n bytes can contain up to (2n) − 1 decimal digits, which is always an odd number of digits. A decimal number with d digits requires 1 / 2 (d + 1) bytes of storage space.
For example, a 4 - byte (32 - bit) word can hold seven decimal digits plus a sign, and can represent values ranging from ± 9,999,999. Thus the number − 1,234,567 is 7 digits wide and is encoded as:
(Note that, like character strings, the first byte of the packed decimal -- with the most significant two digits -- is usually stored in the lowest address in memory, independent of the endianness of the machine.)
In contrast, a 4 - byte binary two 's complement integer can represent values from − 2,147,483,648 to + 2,147,483,647.
While packed BCD does not make optimal use of storage (about one - sixth of the memory used is wasted), conversion to ASCII, EBCDIC, or the various encodings of Unicode is still trivial, as no arithmetic operations are required. The extra storage requirements are usually offset by the need for the accuracy and compatibility with calculator or hand calculation that fixed - point decimal arithmetic provides. Denser packings of BCD exist which avoid the storage penalty and also need no arithmetic operations for common conversions.
Packed BCD is supported in the COBOL programming language as the "COMPUTATIONAL - 3 '' (an IBM extension adopted by many other compiler vendors) or "PACKED - DECIMAL '' (part of the 1985 COBOL standard) data type. It is supported in PL / I as "FIXED DECIMAL ''. Besides the IBM System / 360 and later compatible mainframes, packed BCD is implemented in the native instruction set of the original VAX processors from Digital Equipment Corporation and some models of the SDS Sigma series mainframes, and is the native format for the Burroughs Corporation Medium Systems line of mainframes (descended from the 1950s Electrodata 200 series).
Ten 's complement representations for negative numbers offer an alternative approach to encoding the sign of packed (and other) BCD numbers. In this case, positive numbers always have a most significant digit between 0 and 4 (inclusive), while negative numbers are represented by the 10 's complement of the corresponding positive number. As a result, this system allows for, a 32 - bit packed BCD numbers to range from - 50,000,000 to 49,999,999, and - 1 is represented as 99999999. (As with two 's complement binary numbers, the range is not symmetric about zero.)
Fixed - point decimal numbers are supported by some programming languages (such as COBOL, PL / I and Ada). These languages allow the programmer to specify an implicit decimal point in front of one of the digits. For example, a packed decimal value encoded with the bytes 12 34 56 7C represents the fixed - point value + 1,234.567 when the implied decimal point is located between the 4th and 5th digits:
The decimal point is not actually stored in memory, as the packed BCD storage format does not provide for it. Its location is simply known to the compiler and the generated code acts accordingly for the various arithmetic operations.
If a decimal digit requires four bits, then three decimal digits require 12 bits. However, since 2 (1,024) is greater than 10 (1,000), if three decimal digits are encoded together, only 10 bits are needed. Two such encodings are Chen -- Ho encoding and densely packed decimal (DPD). The latter has the advantage that subsets of the encoding encode two digits in the optimal seven bits and one digit in four bits, as in regular BCD.
Some implementations, for example IBM mainframe systems, support zoned decimal numeric representations. Each decimal digit is stored in one byte, with the lower four bits encoding the digit in BCD form. The upper four bits, called the "zone '' bits, are usually set to a fixed value so that the byte holds a character value corresponding to the digit. EBCDIC systems use a zone value of 1111 (hex F); this yields bytes in the range F0 to F9 (hex), which are the EBCDIC codes for the characters "0 '' through "9 ''. Similarly, ASCII systems use a zone value of 0011 (hex 3), giving character codes 30 to 39 (hex).
For signed zoned decimal values, the rightmost (least significant) zone nibble holds the sign digit, which is the same set of values that are used for signed packed decimal numbers (see above). Thus a zoned decimal value encoded as the hex bytes F1 F2 D3 represents the signed decimal value − 123:
(*) Note: These characters vary depending on the local character code page setting.
Some languages (such as COBOL and PL / I) directly support fixed - point zoned decimal values, assigning an implicit decimal point at some location between the decimal digits of a number. For example, given a six - byte signed zoned decimal value with an implied decimal point to the right of the fourth digit, the hex bytes F1 F2 F7 F9 F5 C0 represent the value + 1,279.50:
IBM used the terms Binary - Coded Decimal Interchange Code (BCDIC, sometimes just called BCD), for 6 - bit alphanumeric codes that represented numbers, upper - case letters and special characters. Some variation of BCDIC alphamerics is used in most early IBM computers, including the IBM 1620, IBM 1400 series, and non-Decimal Architecture members of the IBM 700 / 7000 series.
The IBM 1400 series are character - addressable machines, each location being six bits labeled B, A, 8, 4, 2 and 1, plus an odd parity check bit (C) and a word mark bit (M). For encoding digits 1 through 9, B and A are zero and the digit value represented by standard 4 - bit BCD in bits 8 through 1. For most other characters bits B and A are derived simply from the "12 '', "11 '', and "0 '' "zone punches '' in the punched card character code, and bits 8 through 1 from the 1 through 9 punches. A "12 zone '' punch set both B and A, an "11 zone '' set B, and a "0 zone '' (a 0 punch combined with any others) set A. Thus the letter A, which is (12, 1) in the punched card format, is encoded (B, A, 1). The currency symbol $, (11, 8, 3) in the punched card, was encoded in memory as (B, 8, 2, 1). This allows the circuitry to convert between the punched card format and the internal storage format to be very simple with only a few special cases. One important special case is digit 0, represented by a lone 0 punch in the card, and (8, 2) in core memory.
The memory of the IBM 1620 is organized into 6 - bit addressable digits, the usual 8, 4, 2, 1 plus F, used as a flag bit and C, an odd parity check bit. BCD alphamerics are encoded using digit pairs, with the "zone '' in the even - addressed digit and the "digit '' in the odd - addressed digit, the "zone '' being related to the 12, 11, and 0 "zone punches '' as in the 1400 series. Input / Output translation hardware converted between the internal digit pairs and the external standard 6 - bit BCD codes.
In the Decimal Architecture IBM 7070, IBM 7072, and IBM 7074 alphamerics are encoded using digit pairs (using two - out - of - five code in the digits, not BCD) of the 10 - digit word, with the "zone '' in the left digit and the "digit '' in the right digit. Input / Output translation hardware converted between the internal digit pairs and the external standard 6 - bit BCD codes.
With the introduction of System / 360, IBM expanded 6 - bit BCD alphamerics to 8 - bit EBCDIC, allowing the addition of many more characters (e.g., lowercase letters). A variable length Packed BCD numeric data type is also implemented, providing machine instructions that perform arithmetic directly on packed decimal data.
On the IBM 1130 and 1800, packed BCD is supported in software by IBM 's Commercial Subroutine Package.
Today, BCD data is still heavily used in IBM processors and databases, such as IBM DB2, mainframes, and Power6. In these products, the BCD is usually zoned BCD (as in EBCDIC or ASCII), Packed BCD (two decimal digits per byte), or "pure '' BCD encoding (one decimal digit stored as BCD in the low four bits of each byte). All of these are used within hardware registers and processing units, and in software. To convert packed decimals in EBCDIC table unloads to readable numbers, you can use the OUTREC FIELDS mask of the JCL utility DFSORT.
The Digital Equipment Corporation VAX - 11 series includes instructions that can perform arithmetic directly on packed BCD data and convert between packed BCD data and other integer representations. The VAX 's packed BCD format is compatible with that on IBM System / 360 and IBM 's later compatible processors. The MicroVAX and later VAX implementations dropped this ability from the CPU but retained code compatibility with earlier machines by implementing the missing instructions in an operating system - supplied software library. This is invoked automatically via exception handling when the no longer implemented instructions are encountered, so that programs using them can execute without modification on the newer machines.
The Intel x86 architecture supports a unique 18 - digit (ten - byte) BCD format that can be loaded into and stored from the floating point registers, and computations can be performed there.
The Motorola 68000 series had BCD instructions.
In more recent computers such capabilities are almost always implemented in software rather than the CPU 's instruction set, but BCD numeric data is still extremely common in commercial and financial applications. There are tricks for implementing packed BCD and zoned decimal add or subtract operations using short but difficult to understand sequences of word - parallel logic and binary arithmetic operations. For example, the following code (written in C) computes an unsigned 8 - digit packed BCD add using 32 - bit binary operations:
It is possible to perform addition in BCD by first adding in binary, and then converting to BCD afterwards. Conversion of the simple sum of two digits can be done by adding 6 (that is, 16 -- 10) when the five - bit result of adding a pair of digits has a value greater than 9. For example:
Note that 10001 is the binary, not decimal, representation of the desired result. Also note that it can not fit in a 4 - bit number. In BCD as in decimal, there can not exist a value greater than 9 (1001) per digit. To correct this, 6 (0110) is added to that sum and then the result is treated as two nibbles:
The two nibbles of the result, 0001 and 0111, correspond to the digits "1 '' and "7 ''. This yields "17 '' in BCD, which is the correct result.
This technique can be extended to adding multiple digits by adding in groups from right to left, propagating the second digit as a carry, always comparing the 5 - bit result of each digit - pair sum to 9. Some CPUs provide a half - carry flag to facilitate BCD arithmetic adjustments following binary addition and subtraction operations.
Subtraction is done by adding the ten 's complement of the subtrahend. To represent the sign of a number in BCD, the number 0000 is used to represent a positive number, and 1001 is used to represent a negative number. The remaining 14 combinations are invalid signs. To illustrate signed BCD subtraction, consider the following problem: 357 − 432.
In signed BCD, 357 is 0000 0011 0101 0111. The ten 's complement of 432 can be obtained by taking the nine 's complement of 432, and then adding one. So, 999 − 432 = 567, and 567 + 1 = 568. By preceding 568 in BCD by the negative sign code, the number − 432 can be represented. So, − 432 in signed BCD is 1001 0101 0110 1000.
Now that both numbers are represented in signed BCD, they can be added together:
Since BCD is a form of decimal representation, several of the digit sums above are invalid. In the event that an invalid entry (any BCD digit greater than 1001) exists, 6 is added to generate a carry bit and cause the sum to become a valid entry. The reason for adding 6 is that there are 16 possible 4 - bit BCD values (since 2 = 16), but only 10 values are valid (0000 through 1001). So adding 6 to the invalid entries results in the following:
Thus the result of the subtraction is 1001 1001 0010 0101 (− 925). To check the answer, note that the first digit is 9, which means negative. This seems to be correct, since 357 − 432 should result in a negative number. To check the rest of the digits, represent them in decimal. 1001 0010 0101 is 925. The ten 's complement of 925 is 1000 − 925 = 999 − 925 + 1 = 074 + 1 = 75, so the calculated answer is − 75. To check, perform standard subtraction to verify that 357 − 432 is − 75.
Note that in the event that there are a different number of nibbles being added together (such as 1053 − 122), the number with the fewest number of digits must first be padded with zeros before taking the ten 's complement or subtracting. So, with 1053 − 122, 122 would have to first be represented as 0122, and the ten 's complement of 0122 would have to be calculated.
The binary - coded decimal scheme described in this article is the most common encoding, but there are many others. The method here can be referred to as Simple Binary - Coded Decimal (SBCD) or BCD 8421. In the headers to the table, the ' 8 4 2 1 ', indicates the weight of each bit shown; note that in the fifth column, "BCD 8 4 − 2 − 1 '', two of the weights are negative. Both ASCII and EBCDIC character codes for the digits are examples of zoned BCD, and are also shown in the table.
The following table represents decimal digits from 0 to 9 in various BCD systems:
In the 1972 case Gottschalk v. Benson, the U.S. Supreme Court overturned a lower court decision which had allowed a patent for converting BCD encoded numbers to binary on a computer. This was an important case in determining the patentability of software and algorithms.
The BIOS in many personal computers stores the date and time in BCD because the MC6818 real - time clock chip used in the original IBM PC AT motherboard provided the time encoded in BCD. This form is easily converted into ASCII for display.
The Atari 8 - bit family of computers used BCD to implement floating - point algorithms. The MOS 6502 processor has a BCD mode that affects the addition and subtraction instructions. The Psion Organiser 1 handheld computer 's manufacturer - supplied software also used entirely BCD to implement floating point; later Psion models used binary exclusively.
Early models of the PlayStation 3 store the date and time in BCD. This led to a worldwide outage of the console on 1 March 2010. The last two digits of the year stored as BCD were misinterpreted as 16 causing an error in the unit 's date, rendering most functions inoperable. This has been referred to as the Year 2010 Problem.
Various BCD implementations exist that employ other representations for numbers. Programmable calculators manufactured by Texas Instruments, Hewlett - Packard, and others typically employ a floating - point BCD format, typically with two or three digits for the (decimal) exponent. The extra bits of the sign digit may be used to indicate special numeric values, such as infinity, underflow / overflow, and error (a blinking display).
Signed decimal values may be represented in several ways. The COBOL programming language, for example, supports a total of five zoned decimal formats, each one encoding the numeric sign in a different way:
3GPP developed TBCD, an expansion to BCD where the remaining (unused) bit combinations are used to add specific telephony characters, with digits similar to those found in telephone keypads original design. It is backward compatible with BCD.
If errors in representation and computation are more important than the speed of conversion to and from display, a scaled binary representation may be used, which stores a decimal number as a binary - encoded integer and a binary - encoded signed decimal exponent. For example, 0.2 can be represented as 2 × 10.
This representation allows rapid multiplication and division, but may require shifting by a power of 10 during addition and subtraction to align the decimal points. It is appropriate for applications with a fixed number of decimal places that do not then require this adjustment -- particularly financial applications where 2 or 4 digits after the decimal point are usually enough. Indeed, this is almost a form of fixed point arithmetic since the position of the radix point is implied.
Chen -- Ho encoding provides a boolean transformation for converting groups of three BCD - encoded digits to and from 10 - bit values that can be efficiently encoded in hardware with only 2 or 3 gate delays. Densely packed decimal is a similar scheme that is used for most of the significand, except the lead digit, for one of the two alternative decimal encodings specified in the IEEE 754 - 2008 standard.
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pirates of the caribbean full list of movies | Pirates of the Caribbean (film series) - wikipedia
Pirates of the Caribbean is a series of American fantasy swashbuckler films produced by Jerry Bruckheimer and based on Walt Disney 's theme park ride of the same name.
Directors of the series include Gore Verbinski (1 -- 3), Rob Marshall (4) and Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg (5). The series is primarily written by Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio (1 -- 4); other writers include Stuart Beattie (1), Jay Wolpert (1) and Jeff Nathanson (5). The stories follow the adventures of Captain Jack Sparrow (Johnny Depp), Will Turner (Orlando Bloom) and Elizabeth Swann (Keira Knightley). Characters such as Hector Barbossa (Geoffrey Rush) and Joshamee Gibbs (Kevin McNally) follow Jack, Will and Elizabeth in the course of the films. The fourth film features Blackbeard (Ian McShane) and Angelica (Penélope Cruz), while the fifth film features Armando Salazar (Javier Bardem), Henry Turner (Brenton Thwaites) and Carina Smyth (Kaya Scodelario). The films take place in a fictional historical setting; a world ruled by the British Empire, the East India Trading Company (based on the real East India Company) and the Spanish Empire, with pirates representing freedom from the ruling powers.
The film series started in 2003 with Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl, which received positive reviews from critics and grossed US $ 654 million worldwide. After the first film 's success, Walt Disney Pictures revealed that a trilogy was in the works. The franchise 's second film, subtitled Dead Man 's Chest, was released three years later in 2006; the sequel proved successful, breaking financial records worldwide the day of its premiere. Dead Man 's Chest ended up being the number one film of the year upon earning almost $1.1 billion at the worldwide box office. The third film in the series, subtitled At World 's End, followed in 2007 earning $960 million, and Disney released a fourth film, subtitled On Stranger Tides, in 2011 in conventional 2D, Digital 3 - D and IMAX 3D. On Stranger Tides succeeded in also grossing more than $1 billion, becoming the second film in the franchise and only the eighth film in history to achieve this.
The franchise has grossed over $4.5 billion worldwide; it is the tenth - highest - grossing film series of all time and it was the first franchise where more than one film grossed $1 billion worldwide.
Blacksmith Will Turner teams up with eccentric pirate Captain Jack Sparrow to save Turner 's love, Elizabeth Swann, from cursed pirates led by Jack 's mutinous former first mate, Captain Barbossa. Jack wants revenge against Barbossa, who left him stranded on an island before stealing his ship, the Black Pearl, along with 882 pieces of cursed Aztec Gold.
Lord Cutler Beckett of the East India Trading Company arrests Will and Elizabeth for aiding Captain Jack Sparrow in the previous film. Beckett offers clemency if Will agrees to search for Jack 's compass in a bid to find the Dead Man 's Chest -- and inside, the heart of villainous Davy Jones -- which would give Beckett control of the seas. However, Jack wants the Chest to escape from an unpaid debt with Jones, who made Jack captain of the Black Pearl for 13 years in exchange for 100 years of service aboard Jones ' ship, the Flying Dutchman.
Lord Beckett gains power over Davy Jones and, with the help of the Flying Dutchman, he is now executing his plans to extinguish piracy forever. To stand against the East India Trading Co., Will, Elizabeth, Barbossa, and the crew of the Black Pearl set out to rescue Captain Jack Sparrow from Davy Jones ' Locker. As one of the Nine Pirate Lords, Jack is needed in order to release an ancient goddess with the power to defeat Beckett 's forces.
Captain Jack Sparrow is on a quest to find the fabled Fountain of Youth and crosses paths with a former lover, Angelica. She forces Jack aboard the Queen Anne 's Revenge, a ship captained by the infamous pirate Blackbeard, Angelica 's father. Both are also in search of the Fountain; Angelica to save her father 's soul, Blackbeard to escape a prophecy of his demise at the hands of a one - legged man. Joining the hunt is former pirate captain Barbossa, now a privateer in King George II 's Navy, who is in a race against the Spanish for the Fountain of Youth.
Ghost Spanish Royal Navy soldiers led by Jack Sparrow 's old nemesis, Captain Armando Salazar, escape from the Devil 's Triangle, with the goal of killing every pirate at sea, including him. To survive, Jack seeks out the legendary Trident of Poseidon, a powerful artifact whose owner can control the seas and break curses.
Shortly before the release of On Stranger Tides, it was reported that Disney was planning to shoot the fifth and the sixth films back - to - back, although it was later revealed that only the fifth film was in development. On March 4, 2017, director Joachim Rønning stated that Dead Men was only the beginning of the final adventure, implying that it would not be the last film of the franchise and that a sixth film could be released.
In September 2017, producer Jerry Bruckheimer indicated that another Pirates sequel is still possible if Dead Men Tell No Tales does well in its home release. In October 2017, Kaya Scodelario said that she was contracted to return for a sixth film. Shortly after, it was announced that Joachim Rønning is being eyed to direct the film.
Wenches Scarlett (Lauren Maher) and Giselle (Vanessa Branch) fix each other up for their wedding, in which they would each marry their groom. Upon realizing that both their grooms were the same man -- Jack Sparrow -- the two wenches find themselves in an auction led by the Auctioneer. The short film serves as a prequel to The Curse of the Black Pearl, explaining just why Jack Sparrow 's boat, the Jolly Mon, was seen sinking at the beginning of the whole story, and explaining why wenches Scarlett and Giselle were so upset with him, and it also implies how Cotton lost his tongue. The plot took inspiration from the "Auction scene '' from the original ride.
The short was directed by James Ward Byrkit, and was only included as a special feature in the US 15 - disc 3D Blu - ray / 2D Blu - ray / DVD + Digital Copy box set that includes films 1 -- 4; and in the similar UK five - disc set.
In the early 1990s screenwriters Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio conceived a supernatural spin on the pirate genre after completing work on Aladdin, but there was no interest from any studio. Undeterred, the writing team refused to give up the dream, waiting for a studio to pick up their take on a pirate tale. Disney had Jay Wolpert write a script based on the Pirates of the Caribbean, which producer Jerry Bruckheimer rejected, feeling it was "a straight pirate movie ''. Bruckheimer brought Stuart Beattie in to rewrite the script in March 2002, due to his knowledge of piracy, and later that month Elliott and Rossio were brought in. Elliott and Rossio, inspired by the opening narration of the Pirates of the Caribbean ride, decided to give the film a supernatural edge. As the budget rose, Michael Eisner and Robert Iger threatened to cancel the film, though Bruckheimer changed their minds when he showed them concept art and animatics.
In June 2002 Gore Verbinski signed on to direct The Curse of the Black Pearl, and Johnny Depp and Geoffrey Rush signed on the following month to star. Verbinski was attracted to the idea of using modern technology to resurrect a genre, one that had disappeared after the Golden Age of Hollywood, and recalled his childhood memories of the ride, feeling the film was an opportunity to pay tribute to the "scary and funny '' tone of it. Depp was attracted to the story as he found it quirky: rather than trying to find treasure, the crew of the Black Pearl were trying to return it in order to lift their curse; also, the traditional mutiny had already taken place. Verbinski approached Rush for the role of Barbossa, as he knew he would not play it with attempts at complexity, but with a simple villainy that would suit the story 's tone. Orlando Bloom read the script after Rush, with whom he was working on Ned Kelly, suggested it to him. Keira Knightley came as a surprise to Verbinski: he had not seen her performance in Bend It Like Beckham and was impressed by her audition. Tom Wilkinson was negotiated with to play Governor Swann, but the role went to Jonathan Pryce, whom Depp idolized.
Shooting for The Curse of the Black Pearl began on October 9, 2002 and wrapped by March 7, 2003. Before its release, many executives and journalists had expected the film to flop, as the pirate genre had not been successful for years, the film was based on a theme - park ride, and Depp rarely made a big film. However, The Curse of the Black Pearl became both a critical and commercial success.
After seeing how well the first film was made, the cast and crew signed for two sequels to be shot back - to - back, a practical decision on Disney 's part to allow more time with the same cast and crew. Writers Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio knew that with an ensemble cast, they were n't free to invent totally different situations and characters, as with the Indiana Jones and James Bond series, and so had to retroactively turn The Curse of the Black Pearl into the first of a trilogy. They wanted to explore the reality of what would happen after Will Turner and Elizabeth Swann 's embrace at the end of the first film, and initially considered the Fountain of Youth as the plot device. They settled on introducing Davy Jones, the Flying Dutchman and the Kraken, a mythology mentioned twice in the first film. They introduced the historical East India Trading Company (also mentioned in the first film), which for them represented a counterpoint to the themes of personal freedom represented by pirates.
Filming for the sequels began on February 28, 2005, with Dead Man 's Chest finishing on March 1, 2006, and At World 's End on January 10, 2007. The second film was also the first Disney theatrical feature film with the computer - generated Walt Disney Pictures logo.
Rossio and Elliot discovered the novel On Stranger Tides during production of Dead Man 's Chest and At World 's End and decided to use it as the basis for a fourth film. As Gore Verbinski was unavailable, Bruckheimer invited Rob Marshall to direct the film. Elliott and Rossio decided to do a stand - alone film, with a story that would support new characters, and incorporate elements from the novel, such as Blackbeard, the Fountain of Youth and mermaids -- the latter two having been already alluded to in the previous films. Depp, Rush, Greg Ellis and Kevin McNally returned to their roles, and the cast saw the additions of Ian McShane as Blackbeard and Penélope Cruz as Angelica, Blackbeard 's daughter and Jack Sparrow 's love interest. A further addition was Richard Griffiths as King George II of Great Britain. After the costly production of two simultaneous films, Disney tried to scale down the fourth installment, giving a lower budget, which led to cheaper locations and fewer scenes with special effects. It was also filmed in 3D, with cameras similar to the ones used in Avatar.
Filming for On Stranger Tides began June 14, 2010 and ended on November 19, 2010. It was released in the United States on May 20, 2011. With a budget of $378.5 million, On Stranger Tides holds the record for most expensive film ever made.
On January 14, 2011, it was confirmed that Terry Rossio would write the screenplay for the fifth installment, without his co-writer Ted Elliott. On January 11, 2013, Jeff Nathanson signed on to write the script for the film. On May 29, 2013, it was announced that Norwegian directors Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg were selected to direct. On August 22, 2013, the two revealed that the title of the fifth film would be Dead Men Tell No Tales, alluding to the line well - known from the Pirates of the Caribbean theme park attractions. Although, the film was given an alternative title, Salazar 's Revenge, in selected European, South American and Asian countries for marketing purposes. They also confirmed that they were working on the film, speaking highly of Jeff Nathanson 's "funny and touching '' script and that they are inspired by the first film, The Curse of the Black Pearl. On September 10, 2013, Disney pushed back the film 's initial 2015 release, with sources indicating that a Summer 2016 release is likely. Producer Jerry Bruckheimer revealed that script issues were behind the delay, and that Jeff Nathanson was at work on a second attempt based on a well - received outline. While Disney originally announced a release on July 7, 2017, Dead Men Tell No Tales was released on May 26, 2017.
A spokesman for the Australian Arts Minister confirmed that the fifth installment was set to shoot in Australia after the government agreed to repurpose $20 million of tax incentives originally intended for the remake of 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea. According to Australian film industry sources, pre-production started in late September 2014 with filming expected to commence in February 2015. This was officially confirmed by Disney and Ian Walker the Queensland Arts Minister on October 2, 2014, stating that filming will take place exclusively in Australia, being the largest production to ever shoot in the country. Village Roadshow Studios and Port Douglas were officially confirmed as filming locations. Production began in Australia on February 17, 2015 and wrapped on July 9, 2015.
The Pirates of the Caribbean film series was successful at the box office, with each film grossing over $650 million, and all but Dead Men Tell No Tales at some point ranking among the fifty highest - grossing films of all time. It also became the first ever series to have multiple films passing the billion dollar mark in box office revenues with Dead Man 's Chest and On Stranger Tides, since followed by other film franchises.
The Curse of the Black Pearl was the third - highest - grossing 2003 film in North America (behind The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King and Finding Nemo) and fourth worldwide (behind The Return of the King, Finding Nemo and The Matrix Reloaded). Dead Man 's Chest was the most successful film of 2006 worldwide, and At World 's End led the worldwide grosses in 2007, though being only fourth in North America (behind Spider - Man 3, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix and Shrek the Third). On Stranger Tides was the third - highest - grossing film of 2011 worldwide (behind Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 and Transformers: Dark of the Moon) and the fifth in North America. The first three sequels broke box office records upon release, of which the most notable are the opening - weekend record in North America (Dead Man 's Chest), the Memorial - Day weekend record in North America (At World 's End) and the opening - weekend record outside North America (On Stranger Tides).
The series is noted for its high quality of acting talent, and is one of the aspects of the films that is always praised. The visual and practical effects are considered some of the best ever done on film, so much so that audiences believed certain CGI elements of the films were real and done practically. However, the plots of the four sequels have received mixed reviews, with the general consensus that they are too bloated and convoluted to follow. Pirates of the Caribbean is noted for reinvigorating the pirate genre of film after decades of either no pirate films or failed pirate films. The success of the series saw Disney and Jerry Bruckheimer try to replicate the franchise 's success by launching films such as Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time and The Lone Ranger, the latter of which directed by Gore Verbinski. Both movies failed critically and commercially.
Together, all the first three films were nominated for a total of 11 Academy Awards, of which a single award was won.
Together, all the four films were nominated for a total of 2 Golden Globe Awards, of which neither were won.
Together, all the first three films were nominated for a total of 13 MTV Movie Awards, of which 4 were won.
Together, the first four films were nominated for a total of 32 Teen Choice Awards, of which 17 were won.
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who coined the term robotics and in what context was it first used | Robotics - wikipedia
Robotics is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering and science that includes mechanical engineering, electronics engineering, computer science, and others. Robotics deals with the design, construction, operation, and use of robots, as well as computer systems for their control, sensory feedback, and information processing.
These technologies are used to develop machines that can substitute for humans and replicate human actions. Robots can be used in any situation and for any purpose, but today many are used in dangerous environments (including bomb detection and de-activation), manufacturing processes, or where humans can not survive. Robots can take on any form but some are made to resemble humans in appearance. This is said to help in the acceptance of a robot in certain replicative behaviors usually performed by people. Such robots attempt to replicate walking, lifting, speech, cognition, and basically anything a human can do. Many of today 's robots are inspired by nature, contributing to the field of bio-inspired robotics.
The concept of creating machines that can operate autonomously dates back to classical times, but research into the functionality and potential uses of robots did not grow substantially until the 20th century. Throughout history, it has been frequently assumed that robots will one day be able to mimic human behavior and manage tasks in a human - like fashion. Today, robotics is a rapidly growing field, as technological advances continue; researching, designing, and building new robots serve various practical purposes, whether domestically, commercially, or militarily. Many robots are built to do jobs that are hazardous to people such as defusing bombs, finding survivors in unstable ruins, and exploring mines and shipwrecks. Robotics is also used in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) as a teaching aid.
Robotics is a branch of engineering that involves the conception, design, manufacture, and operation of robots. This field overlaps with electronics, computer science, artificial intelligence, mechatronics, nanotechnology and bioengineering.
Science - fiction author Isaac Asimov is often given credit for being the first person to use the term robotics in a short story composed in the 1940s. In the story, Asimov suggested three principles to guide the behavior of robots and smart machines. Asimov 's Three Laws of Robotics, as they are called, have survived to the present:
The word robotics was derived from the word robot, which was introduced to the public by Czech writer Karel Čapek in his play R.U.R. (Rossum 's Universal Robots), which was published in 1920. The word robot comes from the Slavic word robota, which means labour. The play begins in a factory that makes artificial people called robots, creatures who can be mistaken for humans -- very similar to the modern ideas of androids. Karel Čapek himself did not coin the word. He wrote a short letter in reference to an etymology in the Oxford English Dictionary in which he named his brother Josef Čapek as its actual originator.
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word robotics was first used in print by Isaac Asimov, in his science fiction short story "Liar! '', published in May 1941 in Astounding Science Fiction. Asimov was unaware that he was coining the term; since the science and technology of electrical devices is electronics, he assumed robotics already referred to the science and technology of robots. In some of Asimov 's other works, he states that the first use of the word robotics was in his short story Runaround (Astounding Science Fiction, March 1942). However, the original publication of "Liar! '' predates that of "Runaround '' by ten months, so the former is generally cited as the word 's origin.
In 1942, the science fiction writer Isaac Asimov created his Three Laws of Robotics.
In 1948, Norbert Wiener formulated the principles of cybernetics, the basis of practical robotics.
Fully autonomous only appeared in the second half of the 20th century. The first digitally operated and programmable robot, the Unimate, was installed in 1961 to lift hot pieces of metal from a die casting machine and stack them. Commercial and industrial robots are widespread today and used to perform jobs more cheaply, more accurately and more reliably, than humans. They are also employed in some jobs which are too dirty, dangerous, or dull to be suitable for humans. Robots are widely used in manufacturing, assembly, packing and packaging, mining, transport, earth and space exploration, surgery, weaponry, laboratory research, safety, and the mass production of consumer and industrial goods.
There are many types of robots; they are used in many different environments and for many different uses, although being very diverse in application and form they all share three basic similarities when it comes to their construction:
As more and more robots are designed for specific tasks this method of classification becomes more relevant. For example, many robots are designed for assembly work, which may not be readily adaptable for other applications. They are termed as "assembly robots ''. For seam welding, some suppliers provide complete welding systems with the robot i.e. the welding equipment along with other material handling facilities like turntables etc. as an integrated unit. Such an integrated robotic system is called a "welding robot '' even though its discrete manipulator unit could be adapted to a variety of tasks. Some robots are specifically designed for heavy load manipulation, and are labelled as "heavy duty robots ''.
Current and potential applications include:
At present, mostly (lead -- acid) batteries are used as a power source. Many different types of batteries can be used as a power source for robots. They range from lead -- acid batteries, which are safe and have relatively long shelf lives but are rather heavy compared to silver -- cadmium batteries that are much smaller in volume and are currently much more expensive. Designing a battery - powered robot needs to take into account factors such as safety, cycle lifetime and weight. Generators, often some type of internal combustion engine, can also be used. However, such designs are often mechanically complex and need a fuel, require heat dissipation and are relatively heavy. A tether connecting the robot to a power supply would remove the power supply from the robot entirely. This has the advantage of saving weight and space by moving all power generation and storage components elsewhere. However, this design does come with the drawback of constantly having a cable connected to the robot, which can be difficult to manage. Potential power sources could be:
Actuators are the "muscles '' of a robot, the parts which convert stored energy into movement. By far the most popular actuators are electric motors that rotate a wheel or gear, and linear actuators that control industrial robots in factories. There are some recent advances in alternative types of actuators, powered by electricity, chemicals, or compressed air.
The vast majority of robots use electric motors, often brushed and brushless DC motors in portable robots or AC motors in industrial robots and CNC machines. These motors are often preferred in systems with lighter loads, and where the predominant form of motion is rotational.
Various types of linear actuators move in and out instead of by spinning, and often have quicker direction changes, particularly when very large forces are needed such as with industrial robotics. They are typically powered by compressed and oxidized air (pneumatic actuator) or an oil (hydraulic actuator).
A flexure is designed as part of the motor actuator, to improve safety and provide robust force control, energy efficiency, shock absorption (mechanical filtering) while reducing excessive wear on the transmission and other mechanical components. The resultant lower reflected inertia can improve safety when a robot is interacting with humans or during collisions. It has been used in various robots, particularly advanced manufacturing robots and walking humanoid robots.
Pneumatic artificial muscles, also known as air muscles, are special tubes that expand (typically up to 40 %) when air is forced inside them. They are used in some robot applications.
Muscle wire, also known as shape memory alloy, Nitinol ® or Flexinol ® wire, is a material which contracts (under 5 %) when electricity is applied. They have been used for some small robot applications.
EAPs or EPAMs are a new plastic material that can contract substantially (up to 380 % activation strain) from electricity, and have been used in facial muscles and arms of humanoid robots, and to enable new robots to float, fly, swim or walk.
Recent alternatives to DC motors are piezo motors or ultrasonic motors. These work on a fundamentally different principle, whereby tiny piezoceramic elements, vibrating many thousands of times per second, cause linear or rotary motion. There are different mechanisms of operation; one type uses the vibration of the piezo elements to step the motor in a circle or a straight line. Another type uses the piezo elements to cause a nut to vibrate or to drive a screw. The advantages of these motors are nanometer resolution, speed, and available force for their size. These motors are already available commercially, and being used on some robots.
Elastic nanotubes are a promising artificial muscle technology in early - stage experimental development. The absence of defects in carbon nanotubes enables these filaments to deform elastically by several percent, with energy storage levels of perhaps 10 J / cm for metal nanotubes. Human biceps could be replaced with an 8 mm diameter wire of this material. Such compact "muscle '' might allow future robots to outrun and outjump humans.
Sensors allow robots to receive information about a certain measurement of the environment, or internal components. This is essential for robots to perform their tasks, and act upon any changes in the environment to calculate the appropriate response. They are used for various forms of measurements, to give the robots warnings about safety or malfunctions, and to provide real - time information of the task it is performing.
Current robotic and prosthetic hands receive far less tactile information than the human hand. Recent research has developed a tactile sensor array that mimics the mechanical properties and touch receptors of human fingertips. The sensor array is constructed as a rigid core surrounded by conductive fluid contained by an elastomeric skin. Electrodes are mounted on the surface of the rigid core and are connected to an impedance - measuring device within the core. When the artificial skin touches an object the fluid path around the electrodes is deformed, producing impedance changes that map the forces received from the object. The researchers expect that an important function of such artificial fingertips will be adjusting robotic grip on held objects.
Scientists from several European countries and Israel developed a prosthetic hand in 2009, called SmartHand, which functions like a real one -- allowing patients to write with it, type on a keyboard, play piano and perform other fine movements. The prosthesis has sensors which enable the patient to sense real feeling in its fingertips.
Computer vision is the science and technology of machines that see. As a scientific discipline, computer vision is concerned with the theory behind artificial systems that extract information from images. The image data can take many forms, such as video sequences and views from cameras.
In most practical computer vision applications, the computers are pre-programmed to solve a particular task, but methods based on learning are now becoming increasingly common.
Computer vision systems rely on image sensors which detect electromagnetic radiation which is typically in the form of either visible light or infra - red light. The sensors are designed using solid - state physics. The process by which light propagates and reflects off surfaces is explained using optics. Sophisticated image sensors even require quantum mechanics to provide a complete understanding of the image formation process. Robots can also be equipped with multiple vision sensors to be better able to compute the sense of depth in the environment. Like human eyes, robots ' "eyes '' must also be able to focus on a particular area of interest, and also adjust to variations in light intensities.
There is a subfield within computer vision where artificial systems are designed to mimic the processing and behavior of biological system, at different levels of complexity. Also, some of the learning - based methods developed within computer vision have their background in biology.
Other common forms of sensing in robotics use lidar, radar, and sonar.
Robots need to manipulate objects; pick up, modify, destroy, or otherwise have an effect. Thus the "hands '' of a robot are often referred to as end effectors, while the "arm '' is referred to as a manipulator. Most robot arms have replaceable effectors, each allowing them to perform some small range of tasks. Some have a fixed manipulator which can not be replaced, while a few have one very general purpose manipulator, for example, a humanoid hand. Learning how to manipulate a robot often requires a close feedback between human to the robot, although there are several methods for remote manipulation of robots.
One of the most common effectors is the gripper. In its simplest manifestation, it consists of just two fingers which can open and close to pick up and let go of a range of small objects. Fingers can for example, be made of a chain with a metal wire run through it. Hands that resemble and work more like a human hand include the Shadow Hand and the Robonaut hand. Hands that are of a mid-level complexity include the Delft hand. Mechanical grippers can come in various types, including friction and encompassing jaws. Friction jaws use all the force of the gripper to hold the object in place using friction. Encompassing jaws cradle the object in place, using less friction.
Vacuum grippers are very simple astrictive devices that can hold very large loads provided the prehension surface is smooth enough to ensure suction.
Pick and place robots for electronic components and for large objects like car windscreens, often use very simple vacuum grippers.
Some advanced robots are beginning to use fully humanoid hands, like the Shadow Hand, MANUS, and the Schunk hand. These are highly dexterous manipulators, with as many as 20 degrees of freedom and hundreds of tactile sensors.
For simplicity, most mobile robots have four wheels or a number of continuous tracks. Some researchers have tried to create more complex wheeled robots with only one or two wheels. These can have certain advantages such as greater efficiency and reduced parts, as well as allowing a robot to navigate in confined places that a four - wheeled robot would not be able to.
Balancing robots generally use a gyroscope to detect how much a robot is falling and then drive the wheels proportionally in the same direction, to counterbalance the fall at hundreds of times per second, based on the dynamics of an inverted pendulum. Many different balancing robots have been designed. While the Segway is not commonly thought of as a robot, it can be thought of as a component of a robot, when used as such Segway refer to them as RMP (Robotic Mobility Platform). An example of this use has been as NASA 's Robonaut that has been mounted on a Segway.
A one - wheeled balancing robot is an extension of a two - wheeled balancing robot so that it can move in any 2D direction using a round ball as its only wheel. Several one - wheeled balancing robots have been designed recently, such as Carnegie Mellon University 's "Ballbot '' that is the approximate height and width of a person, and Tohoku Gakuin University 's "BallIP ''. Because of the long, thin shape and ability to maneuver in tight spaces, they have the potential to function better than other robots in environments with people.
Several attempts have been made in robots that are completely inside a spherical ball, either by spinning a weight inside the ball, or by rotating the outer shells of the sphere. These have also been referred to as an orb bot or a ball bot.
Using six wheels instead of four wheels can give better traction or grip in outdoor terrain such as on rocky dirt or grass.
Tank tracks provide even more traction than a six - wheeled robot. Tracked wheels behave as if they were made of hundreds of wheels, therefore are very common for outdoor and military robots, where the robot must drive on very rough terrain. However, they are difficult to use indoors such as on carpets and smooth floors. Examples include NASA 's Urban Robot "Urbie ''.
Walking is a difficult and dynamic problem to solve. Several robots have been made which can walk reliably on two legs, however, none have yet been made which are as robust as a human. There has been much study on human inspired walking, such as AMBER lab which was established in 2008 by the Mechanical Engineering Department at Texas A&M University. Many other robots have been built that walk on more than two legs, due to these robots being significantly easier to construct. Walking robots can be used for uneven terrains, which would provide better mobility and energy efficiency than other locomotion methods. Hybrids too have been proposed in movies such as I, Robot, where they walk on two legs and switch to four (arms + legs) when going to a sprint. Typically, robots on two legs can walk well on flat floors and can occasionally walk up stairs. None can walk over rocky, uneven terrain. Some of the methods which have been tried are:
The zero moment point (ZMP) is the algorithm used by robots such as Honda 's ASIMO. The robot 's onboard computer tries to keep the total inertial forces (the combination of Earth 's gravity and the acceleration and deceleration of walking), exactly opposed by the floor reaction force (the force of the floor pushing back on the robot 's foot). In this way, the two forces cancel out, leaving no moment (force causing the robot to rotate and fall over). However, this is not exactly how a human walks, and the difference is obvious to human observers, some of whom have pointed out that ASIMO walks as if it needs the lavatory. ASIMO 's walking algorithm is not static, and some dynamic balancing is used (see below). However, it still requires a smooth surface to walk on.
Several robots, built in the 1980s by Marc Raibert at the MIT Leg Laboratory, successfully demonstrated very dynamic walking. Initially, a robot with only one leg, and a very small foot could stay upright simply by hopping. The movement is the same as that of a person on a pogo stick. As the robot falls to one side, it would jump slightly in that direction, in order to catch itself. Soon, the algorithm was generalised to two and four legs. A bipedal robot was demonstrated running and even performing somersaults. A quadruped was also demonstrated which could trot, run, pace, and bound. For a full list of these robots, see the MIT Leg Lab Robots page.
A more advanced way for a robot to walk is by using a dynamic balancing algorithm, which is potentially more robust than the Zero Moment Point technique, as it constantly monitors the robot 's motion, and places the feet in order to maintain stability. This technique was recently demonstrated by Anybots ' Dexter Robot, which is so stable, it can even jump. Another example is the TU Delft Flame.
Perhaps the most promising approach utilizes passive dynamics where the momentum of swinging limbs is used for greater efficiency. It has been shown that totally unpowered humanoid mechanisms can walk down a gentle slope, using only gravity to propel themselves. Using this technique, a robot need only supply a small amount of motor power to walk along a flat surface or a little more to walk up a hill. This technique promises to make walking robots at least ten times more efficient than ZMP walkers, like ASIMO.
A modern passenger airliner is essentially a flying robot, with two humans to manage it. The autopilot can control the plane for each stage of the journey, including takeoff, normal flight, and even landing. Other flying robots are uninhabited and are known as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). They can be smaller and lighter without a human pilot on board, and fly into dangerous territory for military surveillance missions. Some can even fire on targets under command. UAVs are also being developed which can fire on targets automatically, without the need for a command from a human. Other flying robots include cruise missiles, the Entomopter, and the Epson micro helicopter robot. Robots such as the Air Penguin, Air Ray, and Air Jelly have lighter - than - air bodies, propelled by paddles, and guided by sonar.
Several snake robots have been successfully developed. Mimicking the way real snakes move, these robots can navigate very confined spaces, meaning they may one day be used to search for people trapped in collapsed buildings. The Japanese ACM - R5 snake robot can even navigate both on land and in water.
A small number of skating robots have been developed, one of which is a multi-mode walking and skating device. It has four legs, with unpowered wheels, which can either step or roll. Another robot, Plen, can use a miniature skateboard or roller - skates, and skate across a desktop.
Several different approaches have been used to develop robots that have the ability to climb vertical surfaces. One approach mimics the movements of a human climber on a wall with protrusions; adjusting the center of mass and moving each limb in turn to gain leverage. An example of this is Capuchin, built by Dr. Ruixiang Zhang at Stanford University, California. Another approach uses the specialized toe pad method of wall - climbing geckoes, which can run on smooth surfaces such as vertical glass. Examples of this approach include Wallbot and Stickybot. China 's Technology Daily reported on November 15, 2008, that Dr. Li Hiu Yeung and his research group of New Concept Aircraft (Zhuhai) Co., Ltd. had successfully developed a bionic gecko robot named "Speedy Freelander ''. According to Dr. Li, the gecko robot could rapidly climb up and down a variety of building walls, navigate through ground and wall fissures, and walk upside - down on the ceiling. It was also able to adapt to the surfaces of smooth glass, rough, sticky or dusty walls as well as various types of metallic materials. It could also identify and circumvent obstacles automatically. Its flexibility and speed were comparable to a natural gecko. A third approach is to mimic the motion of a snake climbing a pole..
It is calculated that when swimming some fish can achieve a propulsive efficiency greater than 90 %. Furthermore, they can accelerate and maneuver far better than any man - made boat or submarine, and produce less noise and water disturbance. Therefore, many researchers studying underwater robots would like to copy this type of locomotion. Notable examples are the Essex University Computer Science Robotic Fish G9, and the Robot Tuna built by the Institute of Field Robotics, to analyze and mathematically model thunniform motion. The Aqua Penguin, designed and built by Festo of Germany, copies the streamlined shape and propulsion by front "flippers '' of penguins. Festo have also built the Aqua Ray and Aqua Jelly, which emulate the locomotion of manta ray, and jellyfish, respectively.
In 2014 iSplash - II was developed by PhD student Richard James Clapham and Prof. Huosheng Hu at Essex University. It was the first robotic fish capable of outperforming real carangiform fish in terms of average maximum velocity (measured in body lengths / second) and endurance, the duration that top speed is maintained. This build attained swimming speeds of 11.6 BL / s (i.e. 3.7 m / s). The first build, iSplash - I (2014) was the first robotic platform to apply a full - body length carangiform swimming motion which was found to increase swimming speed by 27 % over the traditional approach of a posterior confined waveform.
Sailboat robots have also been developed in order to make measurements at the surface of the ocean. A typical sailboat robot is Vaimos built by IFREMER and ENSTA - Bretagne. Since the propulsion of sailboat robots uses the wind, the energy of the batteries is only used for the computer, for the communication and for the actuators (to tune the rudder and the sail). If the robot is equipped with solar panels, the robot could theoretically navigate forever. The two main competitions of sailboat robots are WRSC, which takes place every year in Europe, and Sailbot.
Though a significant percentage of robots in commission today are either human controlled or operate in a static environment, there is an increasing interest in robots that can operate autonomously in a dynamic environment. These robots require some combination of navigation hardware and software in order to traverse their environment. In particular, unforeseen events (e.g. people and other obstacles that are not stationary) can cause problems or collisions. Some highly advanced robots such as ASIMO and Meinü robot have particularly good robot navigation hardware and software. Also, self - controlled cars, Ernst Dickmanns ' driverless car, and the entries in the DARPA Grand Challenge, are capable of sensing the environment well and subsequently making navigational decisions based on this information. Most of these robots employ a GPS navigation device with waypoints, along with radar, sometimes combined with other sensory data such as lidar, video cameras, and inertial guidance systems for better navigation between waypoints.
The state of the art in sensory intelligence for robots will have to progress through several orders of magnitude if we want the robots working in our homes to go beyond vacuum - cleaning the floors. If robots are to work effectively in homes and other non-industrial environments, the way they are instructed to perform their jobs, and especially how they will be told to stop will be of critical importance. The people who interact with them may have little or no training in robotics, and so any interface will need to be extremely intuitive. Science fiction authors also typically assume that robots will eventually be capable of communicating with humans through speech, gestures, and facial expressions, rather than a command - line interface. Although speech would be the most natural way for the human to communicate, it is unnatural for the robot. It will probably be a long time before robots interact as naturally as the fictional C - 3PO, or Data of Star Trek, Next Generation.
Interpreting the continuous flow of sounds coming from a human, in real time, is a difficult task for a computer, mostly because of the great variability of speech. The same word, spoken by the same person may sound different depending on local acoustics, volume, the previous word, whether or not the speaker has a cold, etc... It becomes even harder when the speaker has a different accent. Nevertheless, great strides have been made in the field since Davis, Biddulph, and Balashek designed the first "voice input system '' which recognized "ten digits spoken by a single user with 100 % accuracy '' in 1952. Currently, the best systems can recognize continuous, natural speech, up to 160 words per minute, with an accuracy of 95 %.
Other hurdles exist when allowing the robot to use voice for interacting with humans. For social reasons, synthetic voice proves suboptimal as a communication medium, making it necessary to develop the emotional component of robotic voice through various techniques.
One can imagine, in the future, explaining to a robot chef how to make a pastry, or asking directions from a robot police officer. In both of these cases, making hand gestures would aid the verbal descriptions. In the first case, the robot would be recognizing gestures made by the human, and perhaps repeating them for confirmation. In the second case, the robot police officer would gesture to indicate "down the road, then turn right ''. It is likely that gestures will make up a part of the interaction between humans and robots. A great many systems have been developed to recognize human hand gestures.
Facial expressions can provide rapid feedback on the progress of a dialog between two humans, and soon may be able to do the same for humans and robots. Robotic faces have been constructed by Hanson Robotics using their elastic polymer called Frubber, allowing a large number of facial expressions due to the elasticity of the rubber facial coating and embedded subsurface motors (servos). The coating and servos are built on a metal skull. A robot should know how to approach a human, judging by their facial expression and body language. Whether the person is happy, frightened, or crazy - looking affects the type of interaction expected of the robot. Likewise, robots like Kismet and the more recent addition, Nexi can produce a range of facial expressions, allowing it to have meaningful social exchanges with humans.
Artificial emotions can also be generated, composed of a sequence of facial expressions and / or gestures. As can be seen from the movie Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within, the programming of these artificial emotions is complex and requires a large amount of human observation. To simplify this programming in the movie, presets were created together with a special software program. This decreased the amount of time needed to make the film. These presets could possibly be transferred for use in real - life robots.
Many of the robots of science fiction have a personality, something which may or may not be desirable in the commercial robots of the future. Nevertheless, researchers are trying to create robots which appear to have a personality: i.e. they use sounds, facial expressions, and body language to try to convey an internal state, which may be joy, sadness, or fear. One commercial example is Pleo, a toy robot dinosaur, which can exhibit several apparent emotions.
The Socially Intelligent Machines Lab of the Georgia Institute of Technology researches new concepts of guided teaching interaction with robots. The aim of the projects is a social robot that learns task and goals from human demonstrations without prior knowledge of high - level concepts. These new concepts are grounded from low - level continuous sensor data through unsupervised learning, and task goals are subsequently learned using a Bayesian approach. These concepts can be used to transfer knowledge to future tasks, resulting in faster learning of those tasks. The results are demonstrated by the robot Curi who can scoop some pasta from a pot onto a plate and serve the sauce on top.
The mechanical structure of a robot must be controlled to perform tasks. The control of a robot involves three distinct phases -- perception, processing, and action (robotic paradigms). Sensors give information about the environment or the robot itself (e.g. the position of its joints or its end effector). This information is then processed to be stored or transmitted and to calculate the appropriate signals to the actuators (motors) which move the mechanical.
The processing phase can range in complexity. At a reactive level, it may translate raw sensor information directly into actuator commands. Sensor fusion may first be used to estimate parameters of interest (e.g. the position of the robot 's gripper) from noisy sensor data. An immediate task (such as moving the gripper in a certain direction) is inferred from these estimates. Techniques from control theory convert the task into commands that drive the actuators.
At longer time scales or with more sophisticated tasks, the robot may need to build and reason with a "cognitive '' model. Cognitive models try to represent the robot, the world, and how they interact. Pattern recognition and computer vision can be used to track objects. Mapping techniques can be used to build maps of the world. Finally, motion planning and other artificial intelligence techniques may be used to figure out how to act. For example, a planner may figure out how to achieve a task without hitting obstacles, falling over, etc.
Control systems may also have varying levels of autonomy.
Another classification takes into account the interaction between human control and the machine motions.
Much of the research in robotics focuses not on specific industrial tasks, but on investigations into new types of robots, alternative ways to think about or design robots, and new ways to manufacture them. Other investigations, such as MIT 's cyberflora project, are almost wholly academic.
A first particular new innovation in robot design is the open sourcing of robot - projects. To describe the level of advancement of a robot, the term "Generation Robots '' can be used. This term is coined by Professor Hans Moravec, Principal Research Scientist at the Carnegie Mellon University Robotics Institute in describing the near future evolution of robot technology. First generation robots, Moravec predicted in 1997, should have an intellectual capacity comparable to perhaps a lizard and should become available by 2010. Because the first generation robot would be incapable of learning, however, Moravec predicts that the second generation robot would be an improvement over the first and become available by 2020, with the intelligence maybe comparable to that of a mouse. The third generation robot should have the intelligence comparable to that of a monkey. Though fourth generation robots, robots with human intelligence, professor Moravec predicts, would become possible, he does not predict this happening before around 2040 or 2050.
The second is evolutionary robots. This is a methodology that uses evolutionary computation to help design robots, especially the body form, or motion and behavior controllers. In a similar way to natural evolution, a large population of robots is allowed to compete in some way, or their ability to perform a task is measured using a fitness function. Those that perform worst are removed from the population and replaced by a new set, which have new behaviors based on those of the winners. Over time the population improves, and eventually a satisfactory robot may appear. This happens without any direct programming of the robots by the researchers. Researchers use this method both to create better robots, and to explore the nature of evolution. Because the process often requires many generations of robots to be simulated, this technique may be run entirely or mostly in simulation, then tested on real robots once the evolved algorithms are good enough. Currently, there are about 10 million industrial robots toiling around the world, and Japan is the top country having high density of utilizing robots in its manufacturing industry.
The study of motion can be divided into kinematics and dynamics. Direct kinematics refers to the calculation of end effector position, orientation, velocity, and acceleration when the corresponding joint values are known. Inverse kinematics refers to the opposite case in which required joint values are calculated for given end effector values, as done in path planning. Some special aspects of kinematics include handling of redundancy (different possibilities of performing the same movement), collision avoidance, and singularity avoidance. Once all relevant positions, velocities, and accelerations have been calculated using kinematics, methods from the field of dynamics are used to study the effect of forces upon these movements. Direct dynamics refers to the calculation of accelerations in the robot once the applied forces are known. Direct dynamics is used in computer simulations of the robot. Inverse dynamics refers to the calculation of the actuator forces necessary to create a prescribed end - effector acceleration. This information can be used to improve the control algorithms of a robot.
In each area mentioned above, researchers strive to develop new concepts and strategies, improve existing ones, and improve the interaction between these areas. To do this, criteria for "optimal '' performance and ways to optimize design, structure, and control of robots must be developed and implemented.
Bionics and biomimetics apply the physiology and methods of locomotion of animals to the design of robots. For example, the design of BionicKangaroo was based on the way kangaroos jump.
Robotics engineers design robots, maintain them, develop new applications for them, and conduct research to expand the potential of robotics. Robots have become a popular educational tool in some middle and high schools, particularly in parts of the USA, as well as in numerous youth summer camps, raising interest in programming, artificial intelligence, and robotics among students. First - year computer science courses at some universities now include programming of a robot in addition to traditional software engineering - based coursework.
Universities offer bachelors, masters, and doctoral degrees in the field of robotics. Vocational schools offer robotics training aimed at careers in robotics.
The Robotics Certification Standards Alliance (RCSA) is an international robotics certification authority that confers various industry - and educational - related robotics certifications.
Several national summer camp programs include robotics as part of their core curriculum. In addition, youth summer robotics programs are frequently offered by celebrated museums and institutions.
There are lots of competitions all around the globe. One of the most important competitions is the FLL or FIRST Lego League. The idea of this specific competition is that kids start developing knowledge and getting into robotics while playing with Legos since they are 9 years old. This competition is associated with Ni or National Instruments.
Many schools across the country are beginning to add robotics programs to their after school curriculum. Some major programs for afterschool robotics include FIRST Robotics Competition, Botball and B.E.S.T. Robotics. Robotics competitions often include aspects of business and marketing as well as engineering and design.
The Lego company began a program for children to learn and get excited about robotics at a young age.
Robotics is an essential component in many modern manufacturing environments. As factories increase their use of robots, the number of robotics -- related jobs grow and have been observed to be steadily rising. The employment of robots in industries has increased productivity and efficiency savings and is typically seen as a long term investment for benefactors. A paper by Michael Osborne and Carl Benedikt Frey found that 47 per cent of US jobs are at risk to automation "over some unspecified number of years ''. These claims have been criticized on the ground that social policy, not AI, causes unemployment.
A discussion paper drawn up by EU - OSHA highlights how the spread of robotics presents both opportunities and challenges for occupational safety and health (OSH).
The greatest OSH benefits stemming from the wider use of robotics should be substitution for people working in unhealthy or dangerous environments. In space, defence, security, or the nuclear industry, but also in logistics, maintenance, and inspection, autonomous robots are particularly useful in replacing human workers performing dirty, dull or unsafe tasks, thus avoiding workers ' exposures to hazardous agents and conditions and reducing physical, ergonomic and psychosocial risks. For example, robots are already used to perform repetitive and monotonous tasks, to handle radioactive material or to work in explosive atmospheres. In the future, many other highly repetitive, risky or unpleasant tasks will be performed by robots in a variety of sectors like agriculture, construction, transport, healthcare, firefighting or cleaning services.
Despite these advances, there are certain skills to which humans will be better suited than machines for some time to come and the question is how to achieve the best combination of human and robot skills. The advantages of robotics include heavy - duty jobs with precision and repeatability, whereas the advantages of humans include creativity, decision - making, flexibility and adaptability. This need to combine optimal skills has resulted in collaborative robots and humans sharing a common workspace more closely and led to the development of new approaches and standards to guarantee the safety of the "man - robot merger ''. Some European countries are including robotics in their national programmes and trying to promote a safe and flexible co-operation between robots and operators to achieve better productivity. For example, the German Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (BAuA) organises annual workshops on the topic "human - robot collaboration ''.
In future, co-operation between robots and humans will be diversified, with robots increasing their autonomy and human - robot collaboration reaching completely new forms. Current approaches and technical standards aiming to protect employees from the risk of working with collaborative robots will have to be revised.
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what kind of dog is santa's little helper on the simpsons | Santa 's Little Helper - wikipedia
Santa 's Little Helper is a recurring character in the American animated television series The Simpsons. He is the pet greyhound of the Simpson family. The dog was introduced in the first episode of the show, the 1989 Christmas special "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire '', in which his owner abandons him for finishing last in a greyhound race. Homer Simpson and his son Bart, who are at the race track in hope of winning some money for Christmas presents, see this and decide to adopt the dog.
Santa 's Little Helper has since appeared frequently on The Simpsons and is the center of the plots of many episodes. During the course of the show, he has fathered litters of puppies, passed obedience school, had surgery for bloat, replaced Duffman as the mascot for Duff Beer, and been trained as a police dog at Springfield 's Animal Police Academy. Some of the episodes that focus on Santa 's Little Helper have been inspired by popular culture or real experiences that staff members of the show have gone through.
Although cartoon animals are often anthropomorphized, Santa 's Little Helper generally exhibits canine behavior. Cast member Dan Castellaneta currently provides the dog 's sounds on the show, but voice artist Frank Welker has also voiced him. Santa 's Little Helper has become a popular character following his appearances on The Simpsons. He ranked 27th in Animal Planet 's 2003 television special 50 Greatest TV Animals that was based on popularity, name recognition, and the longevity of the shows. He has also been featured in merchandise relating to The Simpsons, such as video games, board games, and comics.
Santa 's Little Helper is a hound that appears on the animated television series The Simpsons and is the pet dog of the Simpson family. He can often be seen on the show in minor appearances, although there have been some episodes that feature him heavily, including the first episode of The Simpsons. In that episode, "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire '' (season one, 1989), Homer discovers that he has no money to buy Christmas presents for the family. Desperate for a miracle, he and Bart go to the greyhound racing track on Christmas Eve in hopes of winning some money. Although Homer has inside information on which dog is the most likely to win, he instead bets on a last - minute entry, Santa 's Little Helper (here despite being brown), believing the dog 's Christmas - inspired name to be a sign. However, the greyhound finishes last. As Homer and Bart leave the track, they watch the dog 's owner abandon him for losing the race. Bart pleads with Homer to keep the dog as a pet and he agrees after it affectionately licks him on the cheek. When Bart and Homer return home, Santa 's Little Helper is assumed by the rest of the family to be a Christmas present.
In various episodes, Santa 's Little Helper can be seen chewing on newspapers and other objects in the Simpsons ' household, destroying furniture, and digging holes in the backyard. In "Bart 's Dog Gets an F '' (season two, 1991), he manages to infuriate the entire family by destroying valued items in the home. As a result, Homer and Marge want to get rid of the dog, but Bart and Lisa convince them that he can be trained at an obedience school. Santa 's Little Helper does not do well there as Bart is unwilling to use a choke chain suggested by the instructor. The night before the final exam, Bart and Santa 's Little Helper play, thinking it will be their last few hours together. This bonding breaks down the communication barrier, allowing the dog to understand Bart 's commands, and consequently pass the obedience school.
Santa 's Little Helper has fathered several puppies. In "Two Dozen and One Greyhounds '' (season six, 1995), he runs away to the dog racing track where he mates with a female hound named She 's the Fastest. She later gives birth to 25 puppies and when the Simpsons can not take care of them any longer, they decide to sell them; however, Mr. Burns steals the puppies and decides to make a tuxedo out of them. Before he does this, however, he becomes emotionally touched by them. This convinces him to never wear fur again and instead raise the puppies to be world - class racing dogs. Santa 's Little Helper sires another litter of puppies with Dr. Hibbert 's poodle in the episode "Today I Am a Clown '' (season 15, 2003). These puppies are given away to townspeople.
The dog has been neglected or treated unfavorably by the family in some episodes. In "Dog of Death '' (season three, 1992), he nearly dies of bloat and they decide to make budget cuts in order to pay for the required operation. Although the dog 's life is saved, the family begins to feel the strain of their sacrifices and starts treating him badly, causing him to run away. He ends up in the possession of Mr. Burns, who trains him to become a vicious attack dog. Several days later, Bart stumbles upon the trained Santa 's Little Helper and is attacked, but the greyhound eventually recognizes his old friend and stops. In "The Canine Mutiny '' (season eight, 1997), Bart uses a fake charge card to buy a well - trained rough collie named Laddie from a mail - order catalog. Laddie learns many tricks that Santa 's Little Helper is completely unable to perform, and the Simpson family nearly forgets about their old pet. Bart eventually gives Santa 's Little Helper away instead of Laddie when repo men take back everything he fraudulently purchased. Feeling guilty about this disloyalty and bored with his too perfect new dog, Bart tries to get him back. When he finally finds him, Santa 's Little Helper is serving as a seeing - eye dog for a blind man, but eventually decides to return to the family.
In "Stop or My Dog Will Shoot '' (season 18, 2007), Santa 's Little Helper becomes a local hero after finding a lost Homer, and the Simpsons decide to enroll him in the Animal Police Academy. However, his new crime - fighting job makes him jaded and one day at home he bites Bart. The Simpsons must therefore send the dog away to live with officer Lou. However, he gets to return after saving Bart from a toxic smoke cloud at school and then leaving the police force. In "How Munched is That Birdie in the Window? '' (season 22, 2010), after Santa 's Little Helper devours a pigeon with a broken leg that Bart was nursing, Bart gets mad at the dog and is unable to forgive him. The Simpsons therefore give him away to an ostrich farm. There, Bart says goodbye to him and explains that he should never, ever devour a bird. Bart then gets into a fight with an angry ostrich. After remembering that he was told that it 's wrong to kill birds, he ceases to aid Bart in the fight, confused at his own loyalty (for Bart 's sake or his orders) leaving Bart to strangle the ostrich to death. Bart then realizes that he could not help killing the pigeon and apologizes. Afterwards, the family goes back home with the dog.
The dog once replaced Duffman as the mascot for Duff Beer in the episode "Old Yeller Belly '' (season 14, 2003), after he was seen drinking from a can of beer by balancing it on his nose. He becomes known as Suds McDuff and boosts sales of Duff Beer, making the family 's fortunes explode. However, this prompts his original sleazy owner and racing trainer to visit the Simpsons and prove that he 's the owner of the dog. The family later figures that if they can get Duffman to replace Suds as the Duff mascot, they can get their dog back. They plan to turn Duffman into a hero at a Duff Beer - sponsored beach volleyball event; however, their plan fails and a drunk shark that 's discovered at the event becomes the new mascot instead. Santa 's Little Helper gladly returns to the Simpson family.
Santa 's Little Helper 's initial appearance on The Simpsons was in the first episode of the series, "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire '', which aired on Dec. 17, 1989. Since then, he has become a recurring character. The Simpsons creator Matt Groening told TV Guide in 2000 that "we (the staff) painted ourselves into a corner with our Christmas episode. Once we wrote the dog into the show, we were stuck with him. '' The name "Santa 's Little Helper '' was chosen because, according to writer Al Jean in the same TV Guide article, "we needed a name that would inspire Homer to bet on him, an omen, a Christmas name since he was betting on Christmas Eve. But, at that point, nobody was thinking long - term. We were n't considering what might happen in ten years, when we 've got to use this name. '' Although "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire '' was the first episode of the series to air on TV, it was the eighth episode produced by the staff. It was chosen to air first because there were animation problems with the others. Jean told the Houston Chronicle in 2001 that after the first episode was broadcast and "the next seven did n't have the dog, people wondered why. '' He also said in 2003 that the staff enjoyed the first episodes that centered on him, particularly "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire '', which is the reason that more episodes about him were written.
Writer John Swartzwelder has noted that the staff members of the show write the character Homer in the same way that they write Santa 's Little Helper: "Both are loyal. Both have the same emotional range. And both will growl and possibly snap if you try to take their food. '' Although animals in cartoons often behave with "semi-human awareness '', Groening said on the DVD audio commentary for the episode "Two Dozen and One Greyhounds '' that he prefers animals in cartoons to behave exactly the way they do in real life. As a result, Santa 's Little Helper is depicted in this way on the show. There have, however, been some exceptions for gags, but most of the time the staff of The Simpsons tries to keep animals acting realistically. Several journalists have commented on the greyhound 's lack of intelligence. In an article that compared The Simpsons to the animated series Family Guy, Todd Camp of the Fort Worth Star - Telegram noted that "though Santa 's Little Helper may be the only Simpson who 's dumber than Homer, the Griffins ' pooch (Brian Griffin) is the brainiest member of the household ''. In 1991, Copley News Service 's Alison Ashton described Santa 's Little Helper as a "sweet and stupid dog ''. Tom Coombe of The Morning Call wrote in 2002 that "fans of The Simpsons will tell you that the cartoon family 's dog (...) is often dumb, disobedient and skittish. Fans of the real - life breed will paint a different picture -- of dogs that are peaceful, affectionate, (and) not given to drooling, panting ''.
Some ideas for episodes featuring Santa 's Little Helper come from reality. The plot of "Dog of Death '' was based on Swartzwelder 's experiences with his own dog, which had also suffered from bloat. However, unlike the events in the episode, Swartzwelder 's dog did not receive treatment as the operation was too expensive and the dog was too old. The Gold Coast Bulletin 's Ryan Ellem commented in 2005 that the Simpson family 's dilemma with the cost of the veterinary procedure is a realistic dilemma faced by many families who own dogs. Other episode ideas come from popular culture. For example, Santa 's Little Helper fathering 25 puppies in "Two Dozen and One Greyhounds '' is a parody of the Disney film One Hundred and One Dalmatians, and Mr. Burns ' technique of brainwashing him into an attack dog in "Dog of Death '' parodies A Clockwork Orange. Susan McHugh, who teaches theories of animals, literature, and culture at the University of New England, wrote in her 2004 book Dog that, "remaining loyal to his unlikely saviours, the boy Bart and his father Homer, this greyhound has prompted satires of contemporary dog culture, from Barbara Woodhouse 's authoritarian training methods (in "Bart 's Dog Gets an F '') to Lassie 's flawless service to the status quo (in "The Canine Mutiny ''). ''
Although cast member Dan Castellaneta occasionally voiced Santa 's Little Helper for bit parts, American voice artist Frank Welker most often provided the sounds of the dog and other animals on the show from "Bart 's Dog Gets an F '', which aired on March 7, 1991, to "Home Sweet Homediddly - Dum - Doodily '', which aired on October 1, 1995. He said on his official website in 2007 that he liked portraying Santa 's Little Helper because the dog was a "sympathetic '' character. Welker has been praised by staff members for his performances on the show. David Mirkin has noted that "he can do anything, and it fits perfectly. You forget you 're listening to a guy, and he 's a pleasure to work with. '' Groening has commented that he was "unbelievably good '' at doing animal noises. After 1995, Castellaneta voiced Santa 's Little Helper on his own while Welker performed other animal noises until his full departure in 2002, when he was denied a pay raise. In the "questions and answers '' section on his website, Welker revealed that the reason he stopped performing as Santa 's Little Helper was because "The producers thought... ' Hmmm, Dan barks pretty good, and we are already paying him and he seems to like doing the dog thing... why do we need to pay Welker who comes in here, spends less than an hour, eats all the doughnuts, refuses to come to rehearsals... let 's just give the damn dog to Dan! ' ''
Santa 's Little Helper has become a well - known dog because of his appearances in the series. A writer for The Grand Rapids Press wrote in 2002 that "we all know who Homer, Marge, Bart, Lisa and Maggie are -- heck, most Americans probably recognize their pets, Santa 's Little Helper and Snowball II ''. McHugh wrote in Dog that while Master McGrath was the most famous greyhound of the 19th century, "the most popular greyhound a hundred years later '' is Santa 's Little Helper. In the television special 50 Greatest TV Animals that was hosted by Mario Lopez and aired on Animal Planet in 2003, the dog ranked 27th. Other dogs featured on the list were Lassie (first), Eddie (fifth), Snoopy (sixth), Scooby - Doo (13th), Rin Tin Tin (14th), Max (20th), Triumph, the Insult Comic Dog (24th), Buck (29th), Chipper (44th), and Tiger (50th). According to a writer for McClatchy News Service, the rankings were "determined by popularity, name recognition and how long the show lasted. ''
Among fans and critics, Santa 's Little Helper has been mostly well received. He ranked seventh in a 2008 poll by Dog Whisperer 's Cesar Millan that determined the "best - loved television dog of all time. '' Lassie ranked first in the poll. In addition, he was voted the tenth favorite Simpsons character by readers of Simpsons Comics in the United Kingdom in 2010. In a list of their top twelve favorite dogs from cartoons, comics, and animation, writers for The Tampa Tribune listed Santa 's Little Helper at number six, writing: "We admire his upbeat nature even after having his legs broken by Mr. Burns and being abandoned by Bart for another dog, Laddie. '' He also ranked 75th on Retrocrush author Robert Berry 's list of "The 100 Greatest Dogs of Pop Culture History '' in 2006. The character has attracted some criticism too, though. While reviewing the episode "Bart 's Dog Gets an F '' in 2010, Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club wrote:
"As cartoon dogs go, Santa 's Little Helper is spectacularly unspectacular. In a realm of aggressively anthropomorphic canines, some of whom, admittedly, have strong speech impediments, he does n't talk or wisecrack or engage in shenanigans. His abilities and powers begin and end with masticating, defecating, and regular napping. You know, just like a real dog. Consequently, episodes devoted to Santa 's Little Helper tend to be a little on the sleepy side, even the Simpsons Christmas special that launched the series. ''
Since his first appearance on The Simpsons, Santa 's Little Helper has appeared in merchandise relating to the show. On the board art of The Simpsons Clue, a 2000 board game by USAopoly based on Clue, he is shown drinking Duff Beer that has been spilled on the floor. In another board game published by USAopoly called The Simpsons Monopoly, based on Monopoly and released in 2001, the dog is featured as one of the six pewter playing pieces. Santa 's Little Helper has also appeared in issues of Simpsons Comics, in the 2007 film The Simpsons Movie, and in video games based on The Simpsons such as Night of the Living Treehouse of Horror and The Simpsons Game. In addition, the dog has been made into action figures by McFarlane Toys, action figures by Playmates Toys in the World of Springfield series, and plush toys.
Santa 's Little Helper has made an impact on real life in that an espresso - based drink has been named after him at the award - winning restaurant and bar Bambara in Salt Lake City 's Hotel Monaco. Bartender Ethan Moore told The Salt Lake Tribune in 2004 that it is "one of the most popular holiday drinks '' at Bambara. In addition, a dog walking and pet sitting company in New York City, called "Santa 's Little Helper Dog Walking and Pet Sitting '', has been named after him. The greyhound has also appeared by himself on the cover of the October 16, 2000 issue of TV Guide. This issue was released with 24 different covers, all featuring different characters from The Simpsons.
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when did hawthorn last win the wooden spoon | List of Australian Football League wooden spoons - wikipedia
The wooden spoon is the imaginary and ironic "award '' which is said to be won by the team finishing in last place in the Australian Football League. No physical wooden spoon award exists, other than those brought by opposition fans to taunt struggling teams, nor is such an award officially sanctioned by the VFL / AFL. However, most betting agencies will take wagers on the wooden spoon.
The team which finishes on the bottom of the ladder wins the wooden spoon. This is determined by:
No countback exists if teams finish equal on points but with a different number of wins.
From 1901 -- 1907, the VFL season was set up such that each team played fourteen regular season games: two games against each opponent. Based upon regular season ladder positions, teams were divided into pools A (1st, 3rd, 5th and 7th) and B (2nd, 4th, 6th and 8th), and each team played the opponents from its pool once each in the "sectional round. ''
Following the sectional round, the results of these matches were added to the ladder to give a final ladder based on seventeen matches per team. As such, the wooden spooner is considered to be the team which finishes last after all seventeen matches.
The three sectional games changed the outcome of the wooden spoon twice in the seven seasons of this format: in 1905, St Kilda beat Geelong in their last game, relegating Melbourne to last, and in 1907, Fitzroy won all three of their games, relegating Essendon to last.
In the war - time season of 1916, only four teams (Carlton, Collingwood, Fitzroy and Richmond) competed. Fitzroy finished last after the home - and - away season with a record of 2 -- 9 -- 1 (10 pts), and Richmond finished third with a record of 5 -- 7 -- 0 (20 pts).
All four teams competed in the finals under the amended Argus system in place at the time. Richmond lost their Semi-Final and finished in overall last place as the lowest placed Semi-Final loser, while Fitzroy won their Semi-Final, the Final and the Grand Final to claim the premiership.
There is hence some uncertainty regarding which team should lay claim to the wooden spoon in that season; by analogy with the minor and major premierships, it could be said that Fitzroy won the "minor wooden spoon '' and Richmond won the "major wooden spoon ''.
The official AFL season guide recognises Richmond as the wooden spooners for the 1916 VFL season.
current clubs are shown in bold
* See 1916 explanation above
See discussion on 1916 wooden spoon.
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who won oscar for whatever happened to baby jane | What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962 film) - wikipedia
What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? is a 1962 American psychological thriller -- horror film produced and directed by Robert Aldrich, starring Bette Davis and Joan Crawford, about an aging former actress who holds her paraplegic ex-movie star sister captive in an old Hollywood mansion. The screenplay by Lukas Heller is based on the novel What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? by Henry Farrell. Upon the film 's release, it was met with widespread critical and box office acclaim and was later nominated for five Academy Awards, winning one for Best Costume Design, Black and White.
The intensely bitter Hollywood rivalry between the film 's two stars, Davis and Crawford, was heavily important to the film 's initial success. This in part led to the revitalization of the then - waning careers of the two stars. In the years after release, critics continued to acclaim the film for its psychologically driven black comedy, camp, and creation of the psycho - biddy subgenre. The film 's then - unheard of and controversial plot meant that it originally received an X rating in the UK. Because of the appeal of the film 's stars, Dave Itzkoff in The New York Times has identified it as being a "cult classic ''. In 2003 the character of Baby Jane Hudson was ranked No. 44 on the American Film Institute 's list of the 50 Best Villains of American Cinema.
In 1917, "Baby Jane '' Hudson is an adored yet ill - tempered vaudevillian child star while her older sister Blanche lives in her shadow. By 1935, their fortunes have reversed: Blanche is a successful film actress and Jane lives in obscurity, her films having failed. One night, Jane mocks Blanche at a party, prompting Blanche to run away in tears. That same night, Blanche is paralyzed from the waist down in a mysterious car accident that is unofficially blamed on Jane, who is found three days later in a drunken stupor.
In 1962, Blanche (Joan Crawford) and Jane (Bette Davis) are living together in Blanche 's mansion, purchased with Blanche 's movie earnings. Blanche now uses a wheelchair. By now, Jane has become a heavy alcoholic, mentally ill and treats Blanche with cruelty to punish her for stealing her spotlight. Later, when Blanche informs Jane she will be selling the house, Jane 's mental health begins to deteriorate further. During an argument, she removes the telephone from Blanche 's bedroom, cutting Blanche off from the outside world. Later, Jane begins denying Blanche food, until she serves Blanche her dead parakeet on a platter -- and, at a later meal, a rat that she killed in the cellar.
Jane becomes obsessed with recapturing her childhood stardom and puts an advertisement in the paper for a pianist to accompany her singing. When Jane leaves the house, Blanche tries to get the attention of her neighbor, Mrs. Bates (Anna Lee), by writing a note pleading for help and throwing it out her bedroom window. Jane returns in time to notice the note and prevents Mrs. Bates from seeing it. When Jane reads the note, the two sisters quarrel again.
When Blanche 's caretaker Elvira Stitt (Maidie Norman) comes to clean the house, Jane pays her and gives her the day off, but when Elvira returns later on, Jane abruptly fires her and sends her away. After Jane goes to the bank to get some cash, Elvira comes back and finds that Jane has locked Blanche in her room. When Jane returns, Mrs. Bates tells her she saw Elvira go into the house. Jane confronts Elvira. Meanwhile, eccentric and cash - strapped Edwin Flagg (Victor Buono) sees Jane 's newspaper advertisement and arrives at the mansion, where Jane hires him as her accompanist. Desperate for cash, Edwin insincerely flatters Jane and encourages her to revive her act. While Jane drives Edwin home, Blanche searches the house for food and discovers Jane has been forging her signature on checks. Desperate for help, Blanche crawls down the stairs and calls their doctor, telling him of Jane 's erratic behavior and begging him to come to the house. Jane returns in time to find Blanche on the phone and beats her unconscious before imitating her voice over the phone and telling the doctor not to come. She then binds and gags Blanche and locks her back in her upstairs bedroom. Elvira, still suspicious of Jane, returns the next day and discovers Blanche in a starved state and threatens to go to the police. Before she can rescue her, however, Jane beats Elvira to death with a hammer and disposes of her body.
Days later, the police call upon the Hudson house and tell Jane that her maid 's cousin has reported her missing. The panicked Jane prepares to leave, taking Blanche with her. Before they can leave, Edwin shows up uninvited and drunk, and discovers Blanche in her bed, bound, gagged, and emaciated. Edwin flees to a drugstore where he notifies the authorities.
Jane drives Blanche to the beach and reverts to her childhood self. Near death, Blanche confesses that the accident that caused her paralysis is her own fault: on the night of the accident, she had tried to run Jane over because she was angry at her sister for mocking her, and ever since she has let Jane believe she was to blame for her spine being severed when the car struck the iron gate of their house. Pathetically, Jane asks, "You mean all this time we could have been friends? '' With childlike joy, Jane goes to a beachside snack bar to get ice - cream cones for herself and her sister, and then dances before a crowd of horrified onlookers, believing she is once again "Baby Jane '', performing for her adoring fans. Two police officers, who have come to arrest Jane for Elvira 's murder, see Blanche lying motionless in the sand and rush to her. The film ends here, without revealing whether Blanche has survived her ordeal.
Bette Davis came up with her own makeup for her role. The house exterior of the Hudson mansion is located at 172 South McCadden Place in the neighborhood of Hancock Park, Los Angeles. Other residential exteriors show cottages on DeLongpre Avenue near Harvard Avenue in Hollywood without their current gated courtyards. The scene on the beach was shot in Malibu, reportedly the same site where Aldrich filmed the final scene of Kiss Me Deadly (1955).
Footage from the Bette Davis films Parachute Jumper and Ex-Lady (both 1933) and the Joan Crawford film Sadie McKee (1934) was used to represent the film acting of Baby Jane and Blanche respectively.
The neighbor 's daughter was played by Davis ' daughter B.D. Merrill who, following in the footsteps of Crawford 's daughter Christina, later wrote a memoir that depicted her mother in an unfavorable light.
Crawford was scheduled to appear alongside Davis on a publicity tour of Baby Jane but cancelled at the last minute. Davis claimed that Crawford backed out because she did n't want to share the stage with her. In a 1972 telephone conversation, Crawford related to future author Shaun Considine that after seeing a screening of the film she urged Davis to go and have a look. When she did n't hear back from her co-star, Crawford called Davis and asked her what she thought of the film to which Davis replied, "You were so right, Joan. The picture is good. And I was terrific. '' Crawford replied, "That was it. She never said anything about my performance. Not a word. '' Considine alleges that this denial from Davis (with regard to Joan 's talent as an actress) prompted Crawford to cancel the publicity tour and upstage Davis at the Oscars.
Prior to the Oscars ceremony, Crawford contacted the Best Actress nominees who were unable to attend the ceremonies and offered to accept the award on their behalf should they win. Davis claimed that Crawford lobbied against her among Academy voters. When Anne Bancroft was declared the winner for The Miracle Worker, she was in New York performing in a play, and had agreed to have Crawford accept her award if she won. Crawford triumphantly swept on - stage to pick up the trophy. Davis later commented, "It would have meant a million more dollars to our film if I had won. Joan was thrilled I had n't. '' As both Davis and Crawford had accepted lower salaries in exchange for a share of the film 's profits, Davis considered it especially foolish of Crawford to have worked against their common interests, especially at a time when roles for actresses of their generation were hard to find.
During the filming of Hush... Hush, Sweet Charlotte (1964), Crawford acknowledged to visiting reporter / author Lawrence J. Quirk the difficulty she was having with Davis because of the Oscar incident but added, "She acted like Baby Jane was a one - woman show after they nominated her. What was I supposed to do, let her hog all the glory, act like I had n't even been in the movie? She got the nomination. I did n't begrudge her that, but it would have been nice if she 'd been a little gracious in interviews and given me a little credit. I would have done it for her. ''
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 92 % based on 48 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads, "What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? combines powerhouse acting, rich atmosphere, and absorbing melodrama in service of a taut thriller with thought - provoking subtext. '' In his review in The New York Times, Bosley Crowther observed, "(Davis and Crawford) do get off some amusing and eventually blood - chilling displays of screaming sororal hatred and general monstrousness... The feeble attempts that Mr. Aldrich has made to suggest the irony of two once idolized and wealthy females living in such depravity, and the pathos of their deep - seated envy having brought them to this, wash out very quickly under the flood of sheer grotesquerie. ''
Variety stated, "Although the results heavily favor Davis (and she earns the credit), it should be recognized that the plot, of necessity, allows her to run unfettered through all the stages of oncoming insanity... Crawford gives a quiet, remarkably fine interpretation of the crippled Blanche, held in emotionally by the nature and temperament of the role. ''
In a retrospective review, TV Guide awarded the film four stars, calling it "Star wars, trenchantly served '' and adding, "If it sometimes looks like a poisonous senior citizen show with over-the - top spoiled ham, just try to look away... As in the best Hitchcock movies, suspense, rather than actual mayhem, drives the film. ''
The film was nominated for five Academy Awards, winning one for Best Costume Design.
The film was a box office hit, grossing $9 million at the worldwide box office and $4,050,000 in theatrical rentals in North America. Its estimated budget was only $980,000. (1)
In the United Kingdom, the film was given an X certificate by the BBFC in 1962, with a few minor cuts. These cuts were waived for a video submission, which was given an 18 certificate in 1988, meaning no - one under 18 years of age could purchase a copy of the film. However, in 2004, the film was re-submitted for a theatrical re-release, and it was given a 12A certificate, now meaning persons under 12 years of age could view it if accompanied by an adult. It remains at this category.
The film 's success spawned a succession of horror / thriller films featuring psychotic older women, later dubbed the psycho - biddy subgenre, among them Aldrich 's Hush... Hush, Sweet Charlotte, What Ever Happened to Aunt Alice?, and director Curtis Harrington 's Whoever Slew Auntie Roo? and What 's the Matter with Helen?. It was parodied by the Italian comedy film What Ever Happened to Baby Toto?
Shaun Considine 's 1989 book Bette and Joan: The Divine Feud chronicles the actresses ' rivalry, including their experience shooting this film.
Comedy duo French and Saunders (Jennifer Saunders and Dawn French) did a BBC episode called "Whatever Happened to Baby Dawn '' on 22 March 1990.
The film was remade in 1991 as a television film starring real - life sisters Vanessa and Lynn Redgrave.
In 2006, Christina Aguilera adopted a new alter ego called Baby Jane after Bette Davis ' character in the film.
In episode 4 of RuPaul 's Drag Race: All Stars (season 2), the queens ' acting chops are tested in parody movie sequels of RuPaul 's favourite movies. A parody of ' ' What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? ' ' called ' ' Wha ' Ha ' Happened To Baby JJ? ' ' was made by Alaska and Alyssa Edwards.
The backstage battle between Crawford and Davis during the production of the film is the basis for Feud: Bette and Joan, the 2017 first season of the Ryan Murphy television series Feud. It stars Jessica Lange as Crawford and Susan Sarandon as Davis. It premiered on March 5, 2017.
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who did the cubs play in the playoffs in 2016 | 2016 Chicago Cubs season - wikipedia
The 2016 Chicago Cubs season was the 145th season of the Chicago Cubs franchise, the 141st in the National League and the Cubs ' 101st season at Wrigley Field. To celebrate their 100 years at Wrigley, the Cubs wore a patch on their home uniforms and wore 1916 throwback uniforms on July 6.
They began the season on April 4, 2016 at the Los Angeles Angels and finished the regular season on October 2, 2016 at the Cincinnati Reds. The Cubs finished with the best record in Major League Baseball and won their first National League Central title since the 2008 season, winning by 171⁄2 games. The team also reached the 100 - win mark for the first time since 1935 and won 103 total games, the most wins for the franchise since 1910.
The Cubs defeated the San Francisco Giants in the National League Division Series and returned to the National League Championship Series for the second year in a row, where they defeated the Los Angeles Dodgers in six games.
The Cubs defeated the Cleveland Indians in seven games in the 2016 World Series, their first appearance since the 1945 World Series and first win since the 1908 World Series. In the World Series, the Cubs came back from a three - games - to - one deficit, winning the final three games. The last time a team came back from a three - games - to - one deficit to win the World Series was the Kansas City Royals in 1985. The Cubs were also the first team to win Games 6 and 7 on the road in a World Series since the Pittsburgh Pirates had done so against the Baltimore Orioles in 1979. The World Series victory put an end to the so - called Curse of the Billy Goat and the longest World Series championship drought in history.
After just one year broadcasting on WBBM (780), the Cubs announced the move of their play - by - play to CBS Radio sister station WSCR (670) for the 2016 season, taking advantage of a contract clause allowing the move to WSCR after CBS let their rights to White Sox play - by - play lapse.
Monday, April 4, 2016 at Los Angeles Angels
Starting Pitcher: Jake Arrieta
The Cubs won their first three games and eight of their first nine to begin the season 8 -- 1, their best start since 1969.
Infielders
Coaches
The Cubs began postseason play with starter Jon Lester on the mound facing Johnny Cueto for the Wild Card Game - winning Giants. In the pitching duel, Lester scattered five hits in eight innings of work, shutting out the Giants. Cueto also blanked the Cubs allowing only two hits prior to the eighth inning. In the eighth, Javier Báez hit a solo home run into the left field basket to put the Cubs up 1 -- 0. Aroldis Chapman appeared for the save in the ninth and gave up a double to Buster Posey, but shut the Giants down as the Cubs took a 1 -- 0 series lead.
In game two of the series, the Cubs scored a run in the first inning on a Ben Zobrist single off former Cub Jeff Samardzija. Starting pitcher Kyle Hendricks had the key hit in the second inning, driving in two runs on a single up the middle. Kris Bryant drove in the Cubs ' fourth run of the game two batters later and the Cubs led 4 -- 0, forcing Samardzija from the game. In the top of the third, the Giants answered, scoring two runs on back - to - back doubles by Joe Panik and pinch - hitter Gregor Blanco and a sacrifice fly by Brandon Belt. Hendricks was hit in the arm by an Ángel Pagán line drive, forcing him to leave the game. Reliever Travis Wood ended the Giants ' rally and, in the bottom half of the inning, hit a solo home run to put the Cubs up 5 -- 2. The home run was the first by a relief pitcher in a postseason game since 1924. The Cub bullpen of Carl Edwards Jr., Mike Montgomery, and Héctor Rondón shut down the Giants for the remainder of the game with Aroldis Chapman getting the save.
The Cubs looked to finish the series sweep with Jake Arrieta facing the Giants ' Madison Bumgarner in game three. The Giants looked to extend their streak to 10 -- 0 in their last 10 elimination games. Arrieta hit a three - run homer in the top of the second, putting the Cubs up 3 -- 0. The Cubs threatened to chase Bumgarner from the game in the third inning putting runners on first and second with only one out following singles by Ben Zobrist and Addison Russell. However, the Cubs failed to score and the Giants scored a run in the third following a Denard Span double and added a second run in the fifth following Span 's triple. In the eighth inning, Travis Wood gave up a single and Héctor Rondón walked a batter. Closer Aroldis Chapman came in early to get a six - out save, but Chapman gave up a two - run triple to Conor Gillaspie to give the Giants ' their first lead of the series. Chapman was lifted shortly thereafter, getting only one out. The Giants added another run on a single by Brandon Crawford. In the ninth, trailing 5 -- 3, Dexter Fowler led off with a walk and Kris Bryant hit a two - run home run off Giants ' closer Sergio Romo to tie the game. Mike Montgomery took over in the ninth for the Cubs and held the Giants scoreless for four innings. In the 13th inning, the Giants ' Brandon Crawford doubled to lead off the inning and Joe Panik doubled him home to send the series to a game four.
The Giants looked to continue their streak of wins in elimination games to 11 as the Cubs sent John Lackey to the mound against the Giants ' Matt Moore. Lackey started off slow, allowing a leadoff double to Denard Span and a sacrifice fly by Buster Posey to give the Giants an early 1 -- 0 lead. David Ross answered for the Cubs in the third with a solo home run to tie the game. The home run made Ross the oldest catcher ever to homer in a postseason game. However, Lackey got in trouble again in the fourth, giving up a run - scoring to single to Moore with the bases loaded and a force - out grounder by Span to put the Giants up 3 -- 1. The Cubs bounced back with a run in the top of the fifth on a sacrifice fly by Ross. Justin Grimm relieved Lackey in the bottom of the fifth and surrendered a single to Posey and double that just missed being a home run by Brandon Crawford. Travis Wood entered and gave up a single to Conor Gillaspie and sacrifice fly to Joe Panik as the Giants surged to a 5 -- 2 lead. Moore cruised through the next three innings, retiring the Cubs in order in the eighth before being lifted for the Giants ' bullpen to start the ninth as it appeared a Game 5 was inevitable. However, the Giants ended up using five pitchers in the inning as Kris Bryant singled, Anthony Rizzo walked, and Ben Zobrist doubled to score Bryant and tighten the game at 5 -- 3. Cubs manager Joe Maddon decided to pinch hit for Addison Russell and his 95 RBIs with Chris Coghlan. Giants manager Bruce Bochy countered with lefty reliever Will Smith and Maddon used rookie catcher Willson Contreras instead. Contreras promptly singled up the middle to tie the game at five. Jason Heyward 's attempted sacrifice bunt was too hard and Contreras was forced out at second, but gold - glove winner Crawford 's throw to first ended up in the dugout allowing Heyward to reach second with one out. Javier Báez then singled up the middle to complete the comeback and give the Cubs the 6 -- 5 lead. Aroldis Chapman struck out the side in the bottom of the ninth as the Cubs eliminated the Giants and moved on to the NLCS. The Cubs ' comeback marked the biggest comeback in postseason - clinching history.
2016 NLDS (3 -- 1): Chicago Cubs defeated San Francisco Giants.
Infielders
Coaches
The NLCS opened at Wrigley Field with the Cubs ' Jon Lester facing Kenta Maeda for the Dodgers. The Cubs moved on top early, scoring in the first on a lead - off single by Dexter Fowler and a Kris Bryant double to score him. The Cubs added to their lead in the second when Jason Heyward tripled to start the inning and Javier Báez doubled him home, putting the lead at 2 -- 0. Báez advanced to third on a wild pitch by Maeda and stole home on a late throw by Dodgers catcher Carlos Ruiz. Lester cruised until the fifth inning when he allowed a pinch - hit home run by Andre Ethier, batting for Maeda, pulling the Dodgers within two at 3 -- 1. Lester was lifted for a pinch hitter in the bottom of the sixth with a runner on second and two out, but the Cubs could not cash in on the scoring opportunity. In the top of the eighth, the Dodgers loaded the bases off Cubs relievers Mike Montgomery and Pedro Strop, bringing Aroldis Chapman into the game with no outs. Chapman struck out the first two batters he faced and appeared to be on the verge of escaping the inning, but Adrian Gonzalez singled up the middle scoring two runs and tying the game at three. The Dodgers brought in reliever Joe Blanton in the bottom of the eighth to try to keep the game tied. However, Ben Zobrist doubled to lead off the inning. Blanton struck out Addison Russell and the Dodgers chose to walk the left hand - hitting Heyward to face Báez. Báez could not come through, flying out softly to right field. Left hander Chris Coghlan pinch hit for David Ross and was also intentionally walked to load the bases. Batting for the pitcher, Miguel Montero, also a left hander, forced the Dodgers to choose to bring in a lefty reliever to face him and possibly see Willson Contreras instead or face Montero. The Dodgers chose to face Montero and on an 0 -- 2 pitch, Montero hit a grand slam, putting the Cubs up 7 -- 3. Fowler followed with a solo home run and Héctor Rondón gave up a run in the ninth as the Cubs won 8 -- 4 and took the series lead 1 -- 0.
Game 2 of the series featured the Dodgers ' Clayton Kershaw off of his Division Series heroics and the Cubs ' Kyle Hendricks. Kershaw was dominant from the start, pitching a perfect four innings before giving up a single to Javier Báez. However, the Cubs could get no further. Hendricks also pitched well, allowing a solo home run to Adrian Gonzalez in the top of the second inning. That would be all Kershaw needed as he pitched seven scoreless innings, scattering two hits. Dodgers ' closer Kenley Jansen came in the eighth to attempt a six out save. Jansen shut down the Cubs and the Dodgers tied the series at one game apiece heading back to Los Angeles. Cubs batters Addison Russell and Anthony Rizzo continued their struggles, each going 0 -- 3 in the game. Combined, Ben Zobrist, Rizzo, and Russell were 6 -- 60 in the playoffs. The game also marked the Cubs first 1 -- 0 loss in the postseason since Babe Ruth and the Boston Red Sox blanked them in the 1918 World Series opener at Comiskey Park (borrowed by the Cubs because of its larger seating capacity).
As the series shifted to Los Angeles, the Cubs looked to break out of their hitting slump and sent Jake Arrieta to the mound, the Dodgers countered with Rich Hill. However, the Cubs ' hitting problems continued as Hill shut them down, allowing only two hits in six innings of work. The Dodgers scored first in the third with a run - scoring single by Corey Seager. The Dodger offense also homered twice off of Arrieta: a two - run homer by Yasmani Grandal in the fourth and a solo homer by Justin Turner in the sixth. The Dodger bullpen continued where Hill left off and the Dodger offense added two more runs in the bottom of the eighth to take a 6 -- 0 lead. Kenley Jansen pitched the final four outs give the Dodgers a two games to one lead in the series. The back - to - back shutouts were the Dodgers first ever consecutive shutouts in postseason history. The back - to - back shutouts also marked the first time the Cubs had been shutout in back - to - back games since May 27 -- 28, 2014. The Cubs hitting slump continued as the 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 hitters went 3 -- 27 in the two shutouts.
As the Cubs entered Game 4, they looked to break their two - game scoring drought. Playoff veteran John Lackey took the mound for the Cubs as the Dodgers sent Julio Urías, the youngest pitcher to start a game in postseason history. The Cubs struggles continued as Urías held the Cubs without a hit through three innings. In the bottom of the second, the Dodgers had a scoring chance denied as Adrian Gonzalez was thrown out at the plate by Jason Heyward after an Andrew Toles single. In the fourth, the Cubs bats began to awaken. Ben Zobrist notched the first Cub hit of the game as he bunted to lead off. Javier Báez and Willson Contreras followed with singles to score Zobrist. The run marked the first scored by the Cubs in 21 innings. A Heyward groundout pushed home another run and left Contreras at third for Addison Russell. On an 0 -- 2 pitch, Russell broke out of his slump with a two - run homer to put the Cubs up 4 -- 0. Urías was lifted one batter later. In the top of the fifth, the Cubs breakout continued with Anthony Rizzo hitting a home run on a full count and pushing the lead to 5 -- 0. Back - to - back walks to lead off the bottom of the fourth forced Lackey from the game. Reliever Mike Montgomery gave up a single to load the bases before striking out Corey Seager. A single off of Montgomery 's glove by Justin Turner brought in two runs and the Dodgers closed the lead to 5 -- 2. Montgomery retired the next two batters to end the threat. In the top of the sixth, the Cubs blew the game open. Russell singled and reached second on a throwing error. Montgomery singled, moving Russell to third. Dexter Fowler singled to score Russell. Following a Kris Bryant walk, Rizzo notched his second hit of the game as he singled to score two runs and up the lead to 8 -- 2. Following a single by Zobrist to load the bases, Báez hit a sacrifice fly to center fielder Joc Pedersen. Pedersen 's throw to home got by the catcher as Bryant scored and Rizzo came home on the wild throw as well ballooning the lead to 10 -- 2. The Cub bullpen shut down the Dodgers for the remainder of the game as the series was tied at two games apiece.
With the series tied at two games apiece, the Cubs looked to Jon Lester to keep up his strong playoff performance. The Dodgers also went with their Game 1 starter, Kenta Maeda. The Cubs started the scoring in the first inning on a single by Dexter Fowler and an RBI double by Anthony Rizzo, but could muster nothing further in the first. The Cubs left runners on base in the first, second, fourth, and fifth innings, but could not get another run in. The Dodgers tied the game in the bottom of the fourth following a Howie Kendrick double and steal of third. Adrian Gonzalez hit the ball to Rizzo who could not field it cleanly and the run scored as a result. The Dodgers lifted Maeda from the game in the fourth and turned it over to the bullpen. In the sixth, Javier Báez continued his strong postseason play by singling to start the inning. Following a strikeout of Jason Heyward, Addison Russell homered to center field to break the deadlock and put the Cubs up 3 -- 1. After stranding two more runners in the seventh, the Cubs offense broke the game open in the eighth. Russell reached on error and pinch hitter Willson Contreras singled to put runners at first and second. Pinch hitter Albert Almora, Jr. bunted the runners over and Dexter Fowler followed with an infield singled to score the Cubs ' fourth run of the game. An infield single by Kris Bryant scored Contreras and a walk by Ben Zobrist loaded the bases for Báez. Báez, as he had done all postseason, came through with a bases - clearing double to put the Cubs up 8 -- 1. The Dodgers added a run in the bottom of the eighth off of Pedro Strop on a double Carlos Ruiz. Cub closer Aroldis Chapman pitched the ninth and allowed a run - scoring single by Josh Reddick and a sacrifice fly by Andrew Toles to make the score 8 -- 4. Chapman induced Justin Turner to ground out to end the game. The win put the Cubs on the brink of the World Series with a three games to two lead as the series moved back to Wrigley Field. The Cubs took advantage of the Dodgers bullpen in the series, scoring 26 runs in 26.2 inning pitched by Maeda and the Dodger bullpen.
As the series returned to Wrigley Field, the Cubs looked to earn a trip to the World Series for the first time since 1945. The Cubs sent ERA - leader Kyle Hendricks to the mound while the Dodgers countered with Clayton Kershaw. On the first pitch of the game, Andrew Toles singled for the Dodgers and the game appeared to be off to a good start for the Dodgers. However, Corey Seager swung at the next pitch and grounded to Javier Báez who tagged Toles and threw to first to complete the double play. In the bottom of the first, the Cubs jumped out quickly on Kershaw who had blanked them in Game 2. Dexter Fowler doubled and Kris Bryant singled him home to give the Cubs a 1 -- 0 lead. Anthony Rizzo reached on an error by Toles and with runners at second and third, Ben Zobrist hit a sacrifice fly to extend the lead to 2 -- 0. In the top of the second, Josh Reddick reached on an error by Báez, but Hendricks picked him off of first to end the inning. The Cubs added another run in the bottom of the second when Addison Russell doubled to left and scored on Fowler 's single. In the bottom of the fourth, Willson Contreras led off the inning by homering on a line drive to left field to extend the lead to 4 -- 0. In the fifth, Rizzo continued his hot hitting by homering to right - center field and to put the Cubs up 5 -- 0. Kershaw was lifted after that inning, but Hendricks continued his gem on the mound, retiring the side and facing the minimum batters through seven innings. In the eighth, after a flyout by Adrian Gonzalez, Reddick singled, only the second hit allowed by Hendricks. That ended the night for Hendricks as Cub manager Joe Maddon went to the bullpen and brought in closer Aroldis Chapman. Chapman induced Howie Kendrick into an inning - ending double play. In the top of the ninth, Chapman walked the second batter, but Yasiel Puig grounded into a game - ending double play as Wrigley Field erupted in celebration. The Cubs advanced to their first World Series since 1945 with the 5 -- 0 win and the four games to two series win. In the game, the Cubs faced the minimum amount of batters, 27, in a game. The only other time that had occurred in a postseason game was Don Larsen 's 1956 perfect game for the Yankees. Jon Lester and Javier Báez were named co-MVPs of the NLCS.
2016 NLCS (4 -- 2): Chicago Cubs defeated Los Angeles Dodgers.
Infielders
Coaches
To begin the historic World Series, the teams sent their number one starters to the mound in Cleveland: Corey Kluber for the Indians and Jon Lester for the Cubs. The Cubs altered their lineup a bit, batting Kyle Schwarber, making his first appearance in six months, as their DH. Things started well for Lester as he retired the first two batters he faced. However, Francisco Lindor singled and stole second with two outs. Lester then walked Mike Napoli and Carlos Santana. With the bases loaded, José Ramírez hit an infield single to drive in a run and Lester hit the next batter, Brandon Guyer, to give the Indians a 2 -- 0 lead. Kluber started hot as well, striking out eight of the first nine batters he faced, a World Series record. In the bottom of the fourth, Roberto Pérez homered to left off of Lester increasing the lead. Kluber continued his excellent performance, striking out nine before giving up a double to Ben Zobrist in the top of the seventh which ended Kluber 's night and brought Andrew Miller to the mound. Schwarber walked and Javier Baéz singled to load the bases. However, Miller induced a shallow fly ball by pinch hitter Willson Contreras and struck out Addison Russell and David Ross to end the Cub threat. With Justin Grimm pitching for the Cubs in the bottom of the eighth, the Indians put runners on first and second and Héctor Rondón gave up another home run to Pérez to put the game out of reach 6 -- 0. The win put the Indians up one game and Terry Francona 's World Series winning streak reached nine with this victory.
Dexter Fowler, Addison Russell, Jason Heyward, and Carl Edwards Jr. became the first African - Americans on a Cubs roster in a World Series. Additionally, Fowler (batting as the lead - off hitter) was the first African - American to appear and to bat for the Cubs in a World Series game. Both Fowler and Russell were the first African - Americans to start for the Cubs in a World Series.
Looking to tie the series at one game apiece, the Cubs sent Jake Arrieta to the mound against the Indians ' Trevor Bauer. The Cubs also featured six players age 24 or younger in the starting lineup, a postseason record. The Cubs started things off early as Kris Bryant singled in the first inning and Anthony Rizzo doubled to score Bryant and give the Cubs an early 1 -- 0 lead. Arrieta started well too, retiring the first two batters before walking back - to - back batters in the bottom of the first. However, Arrieta got a strikeout to end the inning. The Cubs struck again in the third following a two - out walk by Rizzo and a single by Ben Zobrist. A single by Kyle Schwarber scored Rizzo from second and pushed the Cub lead to 2 -- 0. Bauer was forced from the game in the fourth and the Cubs struck again in the fifith. Rizzo walked again and Zobrist tripled to plate Rizzo. Another run - scoring single by Schwarber and a bases loaded walk by Addison Russell pushed the lead to 5 -- 0. Arrieta continued to cruise, walking three batters but holding the Indians without a hit into the sixth inning. In the sixth, a double by Jason Kipnis ended the no - hitter and a wild pitch by Arrieta two batters later scored the first Indians run. Arrieta allowed another single and was lifted for reliever Mike Montgomery. Both teams threatened in the seventh but could not score and, following a single by Mike Napoli in the bottom of the eighth, Aroldis Chapman entered to finish the game for the Cubs. The win marked the Cubs first World Series win since 1945 as they evened up the series at one game apiece.
The series shifted to Wrigley Field for the first World Series game at Wrigley since 1945 and the first World Series night game at Wrigley. Josh Tomlin went to the mound for Cleveland and Kyle Hendricks for Chicago. Both pitchers pitched well, but Hendricks was in and out of trouble frequently giving up six hits, and walking two in just 4 1 / 3 innings. Following a single by Tyler Naquin, a bunt by Tomlin, a walk to Carlos Santana, Hendricks hit Jason Kipnis with a pitch to load the bases in the fifth. Justin Grimm relieved Hendricks and got Francsico Lindor to hit into an inning - ending double play escaping with the score still 0 -- 0. The Cubs chased Tomlin from the game in the bottom of the fifth, but Andrew Miller replaced him and retired pinch - hitter Miguel Montero. Leading off the seventh, Roberto Pérez singled to right off reliever Carl Edwards Jr. Pinch runner Michael Martinez replaced him at first. Naquin advanced Martinez to second with a bunt and Martinez moved to third on a wild pitch by Edwards. After Rajai Davis walked, pinch - hitter Coco Crisp hit a broken bat single to right to score Martinez. Mike Montgomery replaced Edwards and escaped the inning without any further damage. In the bottom of the seventh, the Cubs threatened to tie it with a two - out triple by Jorge Soler, but Javier Báez grounded out to end the inning. In the ninth, the Cubs again threatened to tie it, putting runners on second and third following singles by Anthony Rizzo and Jason Heyward. However, with two outs, Báez struck out swinging to end the game. The win gave the Indians a 2 -- 1 lead in the series. Cody Allen earned his sixth save of the postseason.
With the series lead, the Indians sent Corey Kluber to the mound on short rest against John Lackey to try to extend the series lead to three games to one. The Cubs opened the scoring in the first inning with a double by lead - off man Dexter Fowler and a run - scoring single by Anthony Rizzo. However, the Indians quickly answered in the top of the second as Carlos Santanta homered to tie it. Following an error by Kris Bryant and an intentional walk of Tyler Naquin, Kluber singled home the go - ahead run giving the Indians the 2 -- 1 lead. The Indians added another run in the third when Francisco Lindor singled home Jason Kipnis to increase the lead to 3 -- 1. Kluber continued to shut down the Cubs as he did in Game 1. Lackey was lifted after five innings, but reliever Mike Montgomery gave up another run in the sixth as the Indians lead moved to 4 -- 1. Cleveland put the game away in the seventh on a three - run homer by Kipnis off of Travis Wood, pushing the lead to 7 -- 1. Fowler hit a consolation eighth inning solo home run off of reliever Andrew Miller, but that was it as the Cubs lost 7 -- 2 and fell behind in the series three games to one.
Facing elimination and the last game at Wrigley Field for the season, the Cubs sent ace Jon Lester to the mound while the Indians countered with Trevor Bauer. Lester surrendered a second inning homer to Jos é Ramírez as the Cubs fell behind 1 -- 0. However, Kris Bryant answered in the fourth, homering to left to lead off the inning. Anthony Rizzo doubled following Bryant 's homer and Ben Zobrist singled. Addison Russell followed with an infield single to score Rizzo and put the Cubs up 2 -- 1. Following a Jason Heyward strikeout, Javier Báez singled on a bunt to load the bases with one out. David Ross hit a sacrifice fly to score Zobrist, but Lester struck out to end the inning. Bauer was removed from the game after pitching four innings, but the Cubs could do no further damage. Leading 3 -- 1, Lester allowed a run in the sixth following a single and stolen base by Rajai Davis and a Francisco Lindor single. Lester was lifted with the 3 -- 2 lead after six innings. Carl Edwards Jr. replaced Lester in the seventh and gave up a single. Following a flyout, Cub manager Joe Maddon went to closer Aroldis Chapman for an eight - out save. Chapman closed out the seventh and gave up a single to Davis in the eighth. Davis stole second and third, but Chapman stranded him there. In the ninth, Chapman retired the side, striking out José Ramírez to end the game and extend the series to a Game 6 in Cleveland.
The series returned to Cleveland with the Cubs looking to force a seventh game while the Indians looked to win the series. Cubs starter Jake Arrieta took the mound for the Cubs while Josh Tomlin took the hill for the Indians. The game started well for the Indians as Tomlin retired the first two batters easily and moved to an 0 -- 2 count on Kris Bryant. However, Bryant drove Tomlin 's next pitch over the left field wall to give the Cubs an early 1 -- 0 lead. Anthony Rizzo followed the homer with a single and Ben Zobrist singled to move Rizzo to third. Addison Russell hit a fly ball to right - center that looked to end the inning, but ended up falling between the Indians outfielders and scoring Rizzo. Zobrist also scored on the play knocking over Indians catcher Roberto Pérez to give the Cubs an early 3 -- 0 lead. Arrieta cruised through the first two innings for the Cubs. In the third, Kyle Schwarber led off the inning with a walk. Bryant flied out and Rizzo singled. Zobrist singled again to load the bases and chase Tomlin from the game. Dan Otero, replacing Tomlin, pushed Russell to an 0 -- 2 count before Russell belted a homer to deep left - center field for a grand slam. The Cubs lead ballooned to 7 -- 0 and a seventh game seemed likely. In the fifth, Arrieta allowed a double to Jason Kipnis and he scored on a Mike Napoli single to reduce the lead by one. In the fifth, Kipnis further reduced the lead with a solo home run to left putting the Cubs up 7 -- 2. Following a walk by Arrieta in the sixth, Mike Montgomery replaced him on the mound to induce a groundout to end the inning. In the seventh, Montgomery walked Pérez and gave up a Kipnis single with two outs. Cubs manager Joe Maddon again called on Cub closer Aroldis Chapman and he induced a groundout by Francisco Lindor to end the inning. Chapman gave up a single in the eighth, but got a double play to end the inning. In the ninth, with two outs, Bryant singled for his fourth hit of the game. Rizzo homered to push the Cub lead back to seven at 9 -- 2. On the verge of pushing the series to a seventh game, Chapman walked the first batter and was replaced by Pedro Strop. After giving up a run - scoring single to Pérez and walking Carlos Santana, Travis Wood entered to get the final out and force a game seven in the series.
With the series tied at three games apiece, the Cubs sent regular season ERA leader Kyle Hendricks to the mound. The Indians countered with Corey Kluber, winner of Games 1 and 4. Things started well for the Cubs as Dexter Fowler led off the game with a home run to straight away center to give the Cubs an early 1 -- 0 lead. Hendricks held the Indians scoreless until the third when Coco Crisp doubled, was moved to third on a sacrifice bunt by Roberto Pérez, and scored on a single by Carlos Santana. The Cubs jumped back out in front in the fourth when Kris Bryant singled, Anthony Rizzo was hit by a pitch, and Ben Zobrist forced Rizzo at second. Addison Russell hit a shallow fly ball to left field which allowed Bryant to tag and score to put the Cubs up 2 -- 1. Willson Contreras followed the sacrifice fly with a double to right - center field to score Zobrist and the Cubs were up 3 -- 1. The lead increased in the fifth when Javier Báez homered on the first pitch of the inning to drive Kluber from the game. Andrew Miller, who had dominated the postseason, entered the game. Following a single by Fowler, Kyle Schwarber grounded in to a double play and Miller looked to have escaped the inning. But, Bryant coaxed a walk on a nine - pitch at bat and scored from first on a single to right by Rizzo to make the lead 5 -- 1. Hendricks, who had seemingly settled down, got the first two outs in the bottom of the fifth, but walked Santana. Cub manager Joe Maddon pulled Hendricks to be replaced by Games 1 and 5 starter, Jon Lester. Lester allowed a dribbler in front of the plate by Jason Kipnis, but David Ross, who had entered the game with Lester and was playing in his final major league game, threw wildly to first allowing runners to advance to second and third. Lester uncorked a wild pitch that bounced off Ross 's mask and scored both runners, tightening the lead to 5 -- 3. Ross partially atoned for the error in the sixth with a homer to center field to bring the lead to 6 -- 3. Lester allowed runners in the sixth and the seventh, but held the Indians without a run. In the eighth, after retiring the first two batters, Lester allowed a single up the middle to José Ramírez. Maddon had seen enough and brought Aroldis Chapman, pitching in his third straight game, into the contest. Brandon Guyer promptly doubled to score Ramirez and reduce the lead to two. Rajai Davis then stunned the Cubs by homering to left to tie the game at six. In the ninth, Ross walked and was pinch run for by Chris Coghlan. Jason Heyward grounded into a force play, but then stole second and advanced on a bad throw by Yan Gomes. With two strikes, Báez attempted to bunt, but fouled out. Fowler grounded out to end the threat. Surprisingly, Chapman returned to the mound in the ninth and retired the Indians in order to force extra innings.
However, before the tenth inning could start, rain delayed the game for 17 minutes. During this rain delay, Heyward called a player 's meeting in the visiting clubhouse 's weight room to rally the team. Schwarber singled upon resumption of play and was pinch run for by Albert Almora Jr. Almora advanced to second on a sacrifice fly by Bryant and the Indians chose to walk Rizzo to face Zobrist. Zobrist responded by doubling down the left field line off Bryan Shaw to score Almora. Shaw then intentionally walked Russell to load the bases. Miguel Montero, in the game after Ross was lifted for a pinch runner, scored Rizzo on a single up the middle to move the lead to 8 -- 6. Game 2 and 5 starter Trevor Bauer then retired Heyward and Báez to end the inning. Carl Edwards, Jr. was called on by Maddon to end the Cubs World Series drought in the bottom of the tenth. Edwards retired the first two batters with ease, but walked Guyer. Davis followed up his game - tying homer by singling to score Guyer and reduce the lead to one. With the Indians out of position players, Michael Martínez, who had entered the game as a defensive replacement, came to the plate with two outs. Maddon countered with Mike Montgomery. On the second pitch by Montgomery, Martínez hit a soft grounder to Bryant who threw to first to end the game and the World Series. The win broke the Cubs ' 108 - year World Series drought. Zobrist, who batted. 357 in the series and led all players with 10 hits, was named World Series MVP. Many baseball sources have called this game "one of the greatest Game 7 's ever played. ''
2016 World Series (4 - 3): Chicago Cubs beat Cleveland Indians.
Infielders
Coaches
N.B.: Tommy La Stella had been on the roster for the 2016 National League Division Series, but was replaced by Rob Zastryzny for the 2016 National League Championship Series. Zastryzny was replaced by Kyle Schwarber on the roster for the 2016 World Series.
(final regular season stats)
Note: G = Games played; AB = At bats; R = Runs; H = Hits; 2B = Doubles; 3B = Triples; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in; BB = Walks; SO = Strikeouts; Avg. = Batting average; OBP = On Base Percentage; SLG = Slugging Percentage; SB = Stolen bases
(final regular season stats)
Note: W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; G = Games pitched; GS = Games started; SV = Saves; IP = Innings pitched; R = Runs allowed; ER = Earned runs allowed; BB = Walks allowed; K = Strikeouts
Buchanan, Jake Jake Buchanan
(final postseason statistics)
Note: G = Games played; AB = At bats; R = Runs; H = Hits; 2B = Doubles; 3B = Triples; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in; BB = Walks; SO = Strikeouts; Avg. = Batting average; OBP = On Base Percentage; SLG = Slugging Percentage; SB = Stolen bases
(final postseason statistics)
Note: W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; G = Games pitched; GS = Games started; SV = Saves; IP = Innings pitched; R = Runs allowed; ER = Earned runs allowed; BB = Walks allowed; K = Strikeouts
Baseball America Organization of the Year
Sporting News Executive of the Year Award
Most Valuable Player Award
Rawlings Gold Glove Award
Rawlings Platinum Glove Award
Silver Slugger Award
Hank Aaron Award
World Series Most Valuable Player Award
National League Championship Series - Most Valuable Player Award
Major League Baseball All - Star Game
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what is the king of england net worth | Charles, Prince of Wales - wikipedia
Charles, Prince of Wales (Charles Philip Arthur George; born 14 November 1948) is the heir apparent to the British throne as the eldest child of Queen Elizabeth II. He has been Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay since 1952, and is the oldest and longest - serving heir apparent in British history. He is also the longest - serving Prince of Wales, having held that title since 1958.
Charles was born at Buckingham Palace as the first grandchild of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. He was educated at Cheam and Gordonstoun Schools, which his father, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, had attended as a child, as well as the Timbertop campus of Geelong Grammar School in Victoria, Australia. After earning a bachelor of arts degree from Trinity College, Cambridge, Charles served in the Royal Air Force and Royal Navy from 1971 to 1976.
In 1981, he married Lady Diana Spencer and they had two sons: Prince William (b. 1982) -- later to become Duke of Cambridge -- and Prince Harry (b. 1984) -- later to become Duke of Sussex. In 1996, the couple divorced following well - publicised extramarital affairs by both parties. Diana was killed in a car crash in Paris the following year. In 2005, Charles married long - time girlfriend Camilla Parker Bowles.
Charles founded The Prince 's Trust in 1976, sponsors The Prince 's Charities, and is patron of many other charities and the arts. He is an environmentalist who raises awareness of organic farming and climate change and has received awards and recognition from environmental groups. His support for alternative medicine, including homeopathy, has been criticised by some in the medical community. Charles has been outspoken on the role of architecture in society and the conservation of historic buildings. He created Poundbury, an experimental new town based on his preferences. He has authored a number of books, including A Vision of Britain: A Personal View of Architecture in 1989 and the children 's book The Old Man of Lochnagar in 1980.
Prince Charles was born at Buckingham Palace in London on 14 November 1948, at 9: 14 pm (GMT), the first child of Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh, and Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, and first grandchild of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. He was baptised in the palace 's Music Room by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Geoffrey Fisher, on 15 December 1948.
The death of his grandfather and the accession of his mother as Queen Elizabeth II in 1952 made Charles her heir apparent. As the monarch 's eldest son, he automatically took the titles Duke of Cornwall, Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles and Prince and Great Steward of Scotland. Charles attended his mother 's coronation at Westminster Abbey on 2 June 1953. As was customary for upper - class children at the time, a governess, Catherine Peebles, was appointed and undertook his education between the ages of five and eight. Buckingham Palace announced in 1955 that Charles would attend school rather than have a private tutor, making him the first heir apparent ever to be educated in that manner.
Charles attended Hill House School in west London. He did not receive preferential treatment from the school 's founder and then - head, Stuart Townend, who advised the Queen to have Charles train in football because the boys were never deferential to anyone on the football field. Charles then attended two of his father 's former schools, Cheam Preparatory School in Berkshire, England, followed by Gordonstoun in the north - east of Scotland. Though he reportedly characterised the latter school, noted for its especially rigorous curriculum, as "Colditz in kilts '', Charles subsequently praised Gordonstoun, stating it had taught him "a great deal about myself and my own abilities and disabilities. It taught me to accept challenges and take the initiative. '' In a 1975 interview, he said he was "glad '' he had attended Gordonstoun and that the "toughness of the place '' was "much exaggerated ''. He spent two terms in 1966 at the Timbertop campus of Geelong Grammar School in Victoria, Australia, during which time he visited Papua New Guinea on a school trip with his history tutor, Michael Collins Persse. In 1973, Charles described his time at Timbertop as the most enjoyable part of his whole education.
Upon his return to Gordonstoun, Charles emulated his father in becoming Head Boy. He left in 1967, with six GCE O - levels and two A-levels in history and French, at grades B and C respectively. On his early education, Charles later remarked, "I did n't enjoy school as much as I might have, but that was only because I 'm happier at home than anywhere else. '' Charles broke royal tradition a second time when he proceeded straight to university after his A-levels, rather than joining the British Armed Forces. In October 1967, he was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he read anthropology, archaeology, and history. During his second year, Charles attended the University College of Wales in Aberystwyth, studying Welsh history and language for a term. He graduated from Cambridge with a 2: 2 Bachelor of Arts on 23 June 1970, the first heir apparent to earn a university degree. On 2 August 1975, he was awarded a Master of Arts degree from Cambridge, in accordance with the university 's practice.
Charles was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester on 26 July 1958, though his investiture was not held until 1 July 1969, when he was crowned by his mother in a televised ceremony held at Caernarfon Castle. He took his seat in the House of Lords in 1970, and he made his maiden speech at a debate in June 1974, becoming the first royal to speak in the Lords since his great - great - grandfather, later Edward VII, also speaking as Prince of Wales, in 1884. Charles began to take on more public duties, founding The Prince 's Trust in 1976, and travelling to the United States in 1981. In the mid-1970s, the prince expressed an interest in serving as Governor - General of Australia, at the suggestion of Australian prime minister Malcolm Fraser, but because of a lack of public enthusiasm nothing came of the proposal. Charles accepted the decision, if not without some regret; he said: "So, what are you supposed to think when you are prepared to do something to help and you are just told you 're not wanted? ''
Charles is the longest serving Prince of Wales, having surpassed the record held by Edward VII on 9 September 2017. He is the oldest and longest - serving British heir apparent, the longest - serving Duke of Cornwall, and the longest - serving Duke of Rothesay. If he became monarch at present he would be the oldest person to do so; the record holder is William IV, who was 64 when he became king in 1830.
Charles followed family tradition when he served in the Royal Air Force and Royal Navy. During his second year at Cambridge, he requested and received Royal Air Force training. On 8 March 1971, he flew himself to the Royal Air Force College Cranwell to train as a jet pilot. After the passing - out parade that September, he embarked on a naval career and enrolled in a six - week course at the Royal Naval College Dartmouth. He then served on the guided missile destroyer HMS Norfolk (1971 -- 1972) and the frigates HMS Minerva (1972 -- 1973) and HMS Jupiter (1974). In 1974, he qualified as a helicopter pilot at RNAS Yeovilton, and then joined 845 Naval Air Squadron, operating from HMS Hermes.
On 9 February 1976, he took command of the coastal minehunter HMS Bronington for his last ten months of active service in the navy. He learned to fly on a Chipmunk basic pilot trainer, a BAC Jet Provost jet trainer, and a Beagle Basset multi-engine trainer; he then regularly flew the Hawker Siddeley Andover, Westland Wessex and BAe 146 aircraft of The Queen 's Flight until he gave up flying after crashing the BAe 146 in the Hebrides in 1994.
In his youth, Charles was amorously linked to a number of women. His great - uncle Lord Mountbatten advised him:
In a case like yours, the man should sow his wild oats and have as many affairs as he can before settling down, but for a wife he should choose a suitable, attractive, and sweet - charactered girl before she has met anyone else she might fall for... It is disturbing for women to have experiences if they have to remain on a pedestal after marriage.
Charles 's girlfriends included Georgiana Russell, the daughter of the British Ambassador to Spain; Lady Jane Wellesley, the daughter of the 8th Duke of Wellington; Davina Sheffield; Lady Sarah Spencer; and Camilla Shand, who later became his second wife and Duchess of Cornwall.
Early in 1974, Mountbatten began corresponding with Charles about a potential marriage to Amanda Knatchbull, who was Mountbatten 's granddaughter. Charles wrote to Amanda 's mother -- Lady Brabourne, who was also his godmother -- expressing interest in her daughter, to which she replied approvingly, though she suggested that a courtship with the not yet 17 - year - old girl was premature. Four years later, Mountbatten arranged for Amanda and himself to accompany Charles on his 1980 tour of India. Both fathers, however, objected; Philip feared that Charles would be eclipsed by his famous uncle (who had served as the last British Viceroy and first Governor - General of India), while Lord Brabourne warned that a joint visit would concentrate media attention on the cousins before they could decide on becoming a couple. However, in August 1979, before Charles would depart alone for India, Mountbatten was killed by the IRA. When Charles returned, he proposed to Amanda, but in addition to her grandfather, she had lost her paternal grandmother and youngest brother Nicholas in the bomb attack and was now reluctant to join the royal family. In June 1980, Charles officially turned down Chevening House, placed at his disposal since 1974, as his future residence. Chevening, a stately home in Kent, was bequeathed, along with an endowment, to the Crown by the last Earl Stanhope, Amanda 's childless great - uncle, in the hope that Charles would eventually occupy it. In 1977, a newspaper report mistakenly announced his engagement to Princess Marie - Astrid of Luxembourg.
Charles first met Lady Diana Spencer in 1977 while he was visiting her home, Althorp. He was the companion of her elder sister, Sarah, and did not consider Diana romantically until mid-1980. While they were sitting together on a bale of hay at a friend 's barbecue in July, he mentioned Mountbatten 's death, to which Diana replied that Charles had looked forlorn and in need of care during his uncle 's funeral. Soon, according to Charles 's chosen biographer, Jonathan Dimbleby, "without any apparent surge in feeling, he began to think seriously of her as a potential bride '', and she accompanied Charles on visits to Balmoral Castle and Sandringham House.
Charles 's cousin Norton Knatchbull and his wife told Charles that Diana appeared awestruck by his position and that he did not seem to be in love with her. Meanwhile, the couple 's continuing courtship attracted intense attention from the press and paparazzi. When Prince Philip told him that the media speculation would injure Diana 's reputation if Charles did not come to a decision about marrying her soon, and realising that she was a suitable royal bride (according to Mountbatten 's criteria), Charles construed his father 's advice as a warning to proceed without further delay.
Prince Charles proposed to Diana in February 1981; she accepted and they married in St Paul 's Cathedral on 29 July of that year. Upon his marriage, Charles reduced his voluntary tax contribution from the profits generated by the Duchy of Cornwall from 50 % to 25 %. The couple lived at Kensington Palace and at Highgrove House, near Tetbury, and had two children: Princes William (b. 1982) and Henry (known as "Harry '') (b. 1984). Charles set a precedent by being the first royal father to be present at his children 's births. Persistent suggestions that Harry 's father is not Charles but James Hewitt, with whom Diana had an affair, have been based on a physical similarity between Hewitt and Harry. However, Harry had already been born by the time the affair between Hewitt and Diana began.
Within five years, the marriage was in trouble due to the couple 's incompatibility and near thirteen - year age difference Diana 's concern about Charles 's previous girlfriend, Camilla Shand (later Camilla Parker Bowles), was also visible and damaging to their marriage. Their evident discomfort in each other 's company led to them being dubbed "The Glums '' by the press. Diana exposed Charles 's affair with Camilla in a book by Andrew Morton, Diana, Her True Story. Audio tapes of her own extramarital flirtations also surfaced.
In December 1992, British Prime Minister John Major announced the couple 's formal separation in Parliament. Earlier that year, the British press had published transcripts of a passionate bugged telephone conversation between Charles and Camilla from 1989. Prince Charles sought public understanding via a televised interview with Jonathan Dimbleby on 29 June 1994. In the interview, he confirmed his own extramarital affair with Camilla, saying that he had rekindled their association in 1986 only after his marriage to Diana had "irretrievably broken down ''. Charles and Diana divorced on 28 August 1996. Diana was killed in a car crash in Paris on 31 August of the following year; Charles flew to Paris with Diana 's sisters to accompany her body back to Britain.
The engagement of Charles and Camilla Parker Bowles was announced on 10 February 2005; he presented her with an engagement ring that had belonged to his grandmother. The Queen 's consent to the marriage (as required by the Royal Marriages Act 1772) was recorded in a Privy Council meeting on 2 March. In Canada, the Department of Justice announced its decision that the Queen 's Privy Council for Canada was not required to meet to give its consent to the marriage, as the union would not result in offspring and would have no impact on the succession to the Canadian throne.
Charles was the only member of the Royal Family to have a civil rather than a church wedding in England. Government documents from the 1950s and 1960s, published by the BBC, stated that such a marriage was illegal, though these were dismissed by Charles 's spokesman, and explained to be obsolete by the sitting government.
The marriage was scheduled to take place in a civil ceremony at Windsor Castle, with a subsequent religious blessing at St George 's Chapel. The venue was subsequently changed to Windsor Guildhall, because a civil marriage at Windsor Castle would oblige the venue to be available to anyone who wished to be married there. Four days before the wedding, the originally scheduled date of 8 April was postponed until the following day in order to allow Charles and some of the invited dignitaries to attend the funeral of Pope John Paul II.
Charles 's parents did not attend the civil marriage ceremony; the Queen 's reluctance to attend probably arose from her position as Supreme Governor of the Church of England. The Queen and Duke of Edinburgh did attend the service of blessing and later held a reception for the newlyweds at Windsor Castle. The blessing, by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams, at St George 's Chapel, Windsor Castle, was televised.
Since founding The Prince 's Trust in 1976, Charles has established sixteen more charitable organisations, and now serves as president of all of those. Together, these form a loose alliance called The Prince 's Charities, which describes itself as "the largest multi-cause charitable enterprise in the United Kingdom, raising over £ 100 million annually... (and is) active across a broad range of areas including education and young people, environmental sustainability, the built environment, responsible business and enterprise and international. ''
In 2010, The Prince 's Charities Canada was established in a similar fashion to its namesake in the UK. Charles is also patron of over 350 other charities and organisations, and carries out duties related to these throughout the Commonwealth realms; for example, he uses his tours of Canada as a way to help draw attention to youth, the disabled, the environment, the arts, medicine, the elderly, heritage conservation, and education. In Canada, Charles has supported humanitarian projects. Along with his two sons, he took part in ceremonies that marked the 1998 International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. Charles has also set up The Prince 's Charities Australia, which is based in Melbourne, Victoria. The Prince 's Charities Australia is to provide a coordinating presence for the Prince of Wales 's Australian and international charitable endeavours
Charles was one of the first world leaders to express strong concerns about the human rights record of Romanian dictator Nicolae Ceaușescu, initiating objections in the international arena, and subsequently supported the FARA Foundation, a charity for Romanian orphans and abandoned children. In 2013, Charles donated an unspecified sum of money to the British Red Cross Syria Crisis appeal and DEC Syria appeal, which is run by 14 British charities to help victims of the Syrian civil war. According to The Guardian, It is believed that after turning 65 years old in 2013, Charles donated his state pension to an unnamed charity that supports elderly people. In March 2014, Charles arranged for five million measles - rubella vaccinations for children in the Philippines on the outbreak of measles in South - East Asia. According to Clarence House, Charles was affected by news of the damage caused by Typhoon Yolanda in 2013. International Health Partners, of which he has been Patron since 2004, sent the vaccines, which are believed to protect five million children below the age of five from measles.
The Prince of Wales has openly expressed his views on architecture and urban planning; he fostered the advancement of New Classical Architecture and asserted that he "care (s) deeply about issues such as the environment, architecture, inner - city renewal, and the quality of life. '' In a speech given for the 150th anniversary of the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) on 30 May 1984, he memorably described a proposed extension to the National Gallery in London as a "monstrous carbuncle on the face of a much - loved friend '' and deplored the "glass stumps and concrete towers '' of modern architecture. He asserted that "it is possible, and important in human terms, to respect old buildings, street plans and traditional scales and at the same time not to feel guilty about a preference for facades, ornaments and soft materials, '' called for local community involvement in architectural choices, and asked:
Why ca n't we have those curves and arches that express feeling in design? What is wrong with them? Why has everything got to be vertical, straight, unbending, only at right angles -- and functional?
His book and BBC documentary A Vision of Britain (1987) was also critical of modern architecture, and he has continued to campaign for traditional urbanism, human scale, restoration of historic buildings, and sustainable design, despite criticism in the press. Two of his charities (The Prince 's Regeneration Trust and The Prince 's Foundation for Building Community) promote his views, and the village of Poundbury was built on land owned by the Duchy of Cornwall to a master plan by Léon Krier under the guidance of Prince Charles and in line with his philosophy.
Charles helped establish a national trust for the built environment in Canada after lamenting, in 1996, the unbridled destruction of many of the country 's historic urban cores. He offered his assistance to the Department of Canadian Heritage in creating a trust modelled on Britain 's National Trust, a plan that was implemented with the passage of the 2007 Canadian federal budget. In 1999, the Prince agreed to the use of his title for the Prince of Wales Prize for Municipal Heritage Leadership, awarded by the Heritage Canada Foundation to municipal governments that have shown sustained commitment to the conservation of historic places. While visiting the United States and surveying the damage caused by Hurricane Katrina, Charles received the National Building Museum 's Vincent Scully Prize in 2005, for his efforts in regard to architecture; he donated $25,000 of the prize money towards restoring storm - damaged communities.
From 1997, the Prince of Wales has visited Romania to view and highlight the destruction of Orthodox monasteries and Transylvanian Saxon villages during the Communist rule of Nicolae Ceaușescu. Charles is patron of the Mihai Eminescu Trust, a Romanian conservation and regeneration organisation, and has purchased a house in Romania. Historian Tom Gallagher wrote in the Romanian newspaper România Liberă in 2006 that Charles had been offered the Romanian throne by monarchists in that country; an offer that was reportedly turned down, but Buckingham Palace denied the reports. Charles also has "a deep understanding of Islamic art and architecture '', and has been involved in the construction of a building and garden at the Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies that combine Islamic and Oxford architectural styles.
Charles has occasionally intervened in projects that employ architectural styles such as modernism and functionalism. In 2009, Charles wrote to the Qatari royal family, the developers of the Chelsea Barracks site, labelling Lord Rogers 's design for the site "unsuitable ''. Subsequently, Rogers was removed from the project and The Prince 's Foundation for the Built Environment was appointed to propose an alternative. Rogers claimed the Prince had also intervened to block his designs for the Royal Opera House and Paternoster Square, and condemned Charles 's actions as "an abuse of power '' and "unconstitutional ''. Lord Foster, Zaha Hadid, Jacques Herzog, Jean Nouvel, Renzo Piano, and Frank Gehry, among others, wrote a letter to The Sunday Times complaining that the Prince 's "private comments '' and "behind - the - scenes lobbying '' subverted the "open and democratic planning process ''. Piers Gough and other architects condemned Charles 's views as "elitist '' in a letter encouraging colleagues to boycott a speech given by Charles to RIBA in 2009.
In 2010, The Prince 's Foundation for the Built Environment decided to help reconstruct and redesign buildings in Port - au - Prince, Haiti after the capital was destroyed by the 2010 Haiti earthquake. The foundation is known for refurbishing historic buildings in Kabul, Afghanistan and in Kingston, Jamaica. The project has been called the "biggest challenge yet '' for the Prince 's Foundation for the Built Environment. For his work as patron of New Classical Architecture, in 2012 he was awarded the Driehaus Architecture Prize for patronage. The prize, awarded by the University of Notre Dame, is considered the highest architecture award for New Classical Architecture and urban planning.
The Worshipful Company of Carpenters installed Charles as an Honorary Liveryman "in recognition of his interest in London 's architecture. '' The Prince of Wales is also Permanent Master of the Worshipful Company of Shipwrights, a Freeman of the Worshipful Company of Drapers, an Honorary Freeman of the Worshipful Company of Musicians, an Honorary Member of the Court of Assistants of the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths, and a Royal Liveryman of the Worshipful Company of Gardeners.
Since the early 1980s, Charles has promoted environmental awareness. Upon moving into Highgrove House, he developed an interest in organic farming, which culminated in the 1990 launch of his own organic brand, Duchy Originals, which now sells more than 200 different sustainably produced products, from food to garden furniture; the profits (over £ 6 million by 2010) are donated to The Prince 's Charities. Documenting work on his estate, Charles co-authored (with Charles Clover, environment editor of The Daily Telegraph) Highgrove: An Experiment in Organic Gardening and Farming, published in 1993, and offers his patronage to Garden Organic. Along similar lines, the Prince of Wales became involved with farming and various industries within it, regularly meeting with farmers to discuss their trade. Although the 2001 foot - and - mouth epidemic in England prevented Charles from visiting organic farms in Saskatchewan, he met the farmers at Assiniboia town hall. In 2004, he founded the Mutton Renaissance Campaign, which aims to support British sheep farmers and make mutton more attractive to Britons. His organic farming has attracted media criticism: According to The Independent in October 2006, "the story of Duchy Originals has involved compromises and ethical blips, wedded to a determined merchandising programme. ''
In 2007, he received the 10th annual Global Environmental Citizen Award from the Harvard Medical School 's Center for Health and the Global Environment, the director of which, Eric Chivian, stated: "For decades the Prince of Wales has been a champion of the natural world... He has been a world leader in efforts to improve energy efficiency and in reducing the discharge of toxic substances on land, and into the air and the oceans ''. Charles 's travels by private jet drew criticism from Plane Stupid 's Joss Garman. In 2007, Charles launched The Prince 's May Day Network, which encourages businesses to take action on climate change. Speaking to the European Parliament on 14 February 2008, he called for European Union leadership in the war against climate change. During the standing ovation that followed, Nigel Farage, the leader of the United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP), remained seated and went on to describe Charles 's advisers as "naive and foolish at best. '' In a speech to the Low Carbon Prosperity Summit in a European Parliament chamber on 9 February 2011, Charles said that climate change sceptics are playing "a reckless game of roulette '' with the planet 's future and are having a "corrosive effect '' on public opinion. He also articulated the need to protect fisheries and the Amazon rain forest, and to make low - carbon emissions affordable and competitive. In 2011, Charles received the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds Medal for his engagement with the environment, such as the conservation of rainforests.
On 27 August 2012, the Prince of Wales addressed the International Union for Conservation of Nature -- World Conservation Congress, supporting the view that grazing animals are needed to keep soils and grassland productive:
I have been particularly fascinated, for example, by the work of a remarkable man called Allan Savory, in Zimbabwe and other semi arid areas, who has argued for years against the prevailing expert view that is the simple numbers of cattle that drive overgrazing and cause fertile land to become desert. On the contrary, as he has since shown so graphically, the land needs the presence of feeding animals and their droppings for the cycle to be complete, so that soils and grassland areas stay productive. Such that, if you take grazers off the land and lock them away in vast feedlots, the land dies.
In February 2014, Charles visited the Somerset levels to meet residents affected by winter flooding. During his visit, Charles remarked that "There 's nothing like a jolly good disaster to get people to start doing something. The tragedy is that nothing happened for so long. '' He pledged a £ 50,000 donation, provided by the Prince 's Countryside Fund, to help families and businesses.
Charles has controversially championed alternative medicine. The Prince 's Foundation for Integrated Health attracted opposition from the scientific and medical community over its campaign encouraging general practitioners to offer herbal and other alternative treatments to National Health Service patients, and in May 2006, Charles made a speech at the World Health Assembly in Geneva, urging the integration of conventional and alternative medicine and arguing for homeopathy.
In April 2008, The Times published a letter from Edzard Ernst, Professor of Complementary Medicine at the University of Exeter, which asked the Prince 's Foundation to recall two guides promoting alternative medicine, saying "the majority of alternative therapies appear to be clinically ineffective, and many are downright dangerous. '' A speaker for the foundation countered the criticism by stating: "We entirely reject the accusation that our online publication Complementary Healthcare: A Guide contains any misleading or inaccurate claims about the benefits of complementary therapies. On the contrary, it treats people as adults and takes a responsible approach by encouraging people to look at reliable sources of information... so that they can make informed decisions. The foundation does not promote complementary therapies. '' That year, Ernst published a book with Simon Singh, mockingly dedicated to "HRH the Prince of Wales '' called Trick or Treatment: Alternative Medicine on Trial. The last chapter is highly critical of Charles 's advocacy of complementary and alternative treatments.
The Prince 's Duchy Originals produce a variety of complementary medicinal products including a "Detox Tincture '' that Edzard Ernst has denounced as "financially exploiting the vulnerable '' and "outright quackery ''. In 2009, the Advertising Standards Authority criticised an email that Duchy Originals had sent out to advertise its Echina - Relief, Hyperi - Lift and Detox Tinctures products saying that it was misleading. The Prince personally wrote at least seven letters to the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) shortly before they relaxed the rules governing labelling of such herbal products, a move that has been widely condemned by scientists and medical bodies. In October 2009, it was reported that Charles had personally lobbied the Health Secretary, Andy Burnham, regarding greater provision of alternative treatments in the NHS. In 2016 Charles said in a speech that he used homeopathic veterinary medicines to reduce antibiotic use at his farm.
In Ernst 's book More Good Than Harm? The Moral Maze of Complementary and Alternative Medicine he and ethicist Kevin Smith call Charles "foolish and immoral '' and "conclude that it is not possible to practice alternative medicine ethically ''. Ernst further claims that the private secretary of the Prince contacted the vice chancellor of Exeter University to investigate Ernst 's complaints against the "Smallwood Report '' which the Prince had commissioned in 2005. While Ernst was "found not to be guilty of any wrong - doing, all local support at Exeter stopped, which eventually led to my early retirement. '' In April 2010, following accounting irregularities, a former official at the foundation and his wife were arrested for fraud believed to total £ 300,000. Four days later, the foundation announced its closure, claiming that it "has achieved its key objective of promoting the use of integrated health. '' The charity 's finance director, accountant George Gray, was convicted of theft totalling £ 253,000 and sentenced to three years in prison. The Prince 's Foundation was re-branded and re-launched later in 2010 as The College of Medicine.
Prince Charles was confirmed at age 16 by Archbishop of Canterbury Michael Ramsey at Easter 1965, in St George 's Chapel, Windsor Castle. He attends services at various Anglican churches close to Highgrove, and attends the Church of Scotland 's Crathie Kirk with the rest of the royal family when staying at Balmoral Castle. In 2000, he was appointed as Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. Charles has visited (amid some secrecy) Orthodox monasteries several times on Mount Athos as well as in Romania. Charles is also patron of the Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies at the University of Oxford, and in the 2000s, he inaugurated of the Markfield Institute of Higher Education, which is dedicated to Islamic studies in a plural multicultural context.
Sir Laurens van der Post became a friend of Charles in 1977; he was dubbed his "spiritual guru '' and was godfather to Charles 's son, Prince William. From Van der Post, Prince Charles developed a focus on philosophy, especially that of Asian and Middle Eastern nations. He has praised Kabbalistic artworks, and wrote a memorial for Kathleen Raine, the Neoplatonist poet who died in 2003.
Charles expressed his philosophical views in his 2010 book, Harmony: A New Way of Looking at Our World, which won a Nautilus Book Award. Although it had been rumoured that Charles would vow to be "Defender of the Faiths '' or "Defender of Faith '' as king, he stated in 2015 that he would retain the monarch 's traditional title of "Defender of the Faith '', whilst "ensuring that other people 's faiths can also be practised '', which he sees as a duty of the Church of England.
In 2008, The Daily Telegraph declared Charles the "hardest - working member of the royal family. '' He carried out 560 official engagements in 2008, 499 in 2010, and over 600 in 2011.
As Prince of Wales, Charles undertakes official duties on behalf of the Queen and the Commonwealth realms. He officiates at investitures and attends the funerals of foreign dignitaries. Prince Charles makes regular tours of Wales, fulfilling a week of engagements each summer, and attending important national occasions, such as opening the Senedd. The six trustees of the Royal Collection Trust meet three times a year under his chairmanship. Prince Charles travels abroad on behalf of the United Kingdom. Charles has been regarded as an effective advocate of the country. In 1983, Christopher John Lewis, who had fired a shot with a. 22 rifle at the Queen in 1981, attempted to escape a psychiatric hospital in order to assassinate Charles, who was visiting New Zealand with Diana and William. While visiting Australia in January 1994, two shots from a starting pistol were fired at him on Australia Day by David Kang in protest of the treatment of several hundred Cambodian asylum seekers held in detention camps. In 1995, Charles became the first member of the royal family to visit the Republic of Ireland in an official capacity.
In 2000, Charles revived the tradition of the Prince of Wales having an official harpist, in order to foster Welsh talent at playing the harp, the national instrument of Wales. He and the Duchess of Cornwall also spend one week each year in Scotland, where he is patron of several Scottish organisations. His service to the Canadian Armed Forces permits him to be informed of troop activities, and allows him to visit these troops while in Canada or overseas, taking part in ceremonial occasions. For instance, in 2001 he placed a specially commissioned wreath, made from vegetation taken from French battlefields, at the Canadian Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, and in 1981 he became the patron of the Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum. At the funeral of Pope John Paul II in 2005, Charles unintentionally caused controversy when he shook hands with Robert Mugabe, the President of Zimbabwe, who had been seated next to him. Charles 's office subsequently released a statement saying: "The Prince of Wales was caught by surprise and not in a position to avoid shaking Mr Mugabe 's hand. The Prince finds the current Zimbabwean regime abhorrent. He has supported the Zimbabwe Defence and Aid Fund, which works with those being oppressed by the regime. The Prince also recently met Pius Ncube, the Archbishop of Bulawayo, an outspoken critic of the government. ''
In 2010, Charles represented the Queen at the opening ceremony of the 2010 Commonwealth Games in Delhi, India. He attends official events in the United Kingdom in support of Commonwealth countries, such as the Christchurch earthquake memorial service at Westminster Abbey in 2011. From 15 to 17 November 2013, he represented the Queen for the first time at a Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, in Colombo, Sri Lanka. Letters sent by Prince Charles to government ministers during 2004 and 2005 -- the so - called black spider memos -- have presented potential embarrassment following a challenge by The Guardian newspaper to release the letters under the Freedom of Information Act 2000. In March 2015, the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom decided that the Prince 's letters must be released. The letters were published by the Cabinet Office on 13 May 2015.
The Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall made their first joint trip to the Republic of Ireland in May 2015. The trip was called an important step in "promoting peace and reconciliation '' by the British Embassy. During the trip, Charles shook hands with Sinn Féin and supposed IRA leader Gerry Adams in Galway, which was described by the media as a "historic handshake '' and a "significant moment for Anglo - Irish relations ''. In the run up to the Prince 's visit, two Irish republican dissidents were arrested for planning a bomb attack. Semtex and rockets were found at the Dublin home of suspect Donal O'Coisdealbha, member of a self - styled Óglaigh na hÉireann organisation, who was later jailed for five and a half years. He was connected to a veteran republican, Seamus McGrane of County Louth, a member of the Real IRA, who was jailed for 11 and a half years. In 2015, it was revealed that Prince Charles had access to confidential UK cabinet papers.
Charles has made frequent visits to Saudi Arabia in order to promote arms exports for companies such as BAE Systems. In 2013, 2014, and 2015, he met with the commander of Saudi Arabia 's National Guard Mutaib bin Abdullah. In February 2014, he took part in a traditional sword dance with members of the Saudi royal family at the Janariyah festival in Riyadh. At the same festival, British arms company BAE Systems was honoured by Prince Salman bin Abdulaziz. Charles was criticised by Scottish MP Margaret Ferrier in 2016 over his role in the sale of Typhoon fighter jets to Saudi Arabia. According to Charles 's biographer Catherine Mayer, a Time magazine journalist who claims to have interviewed several sources from Prince Charles 's inner circle, he "does n't like being used to market weaponry '' in deals with Saudi Arabia and other Arab Gulf states. According to Mayer, Charles has only raised his objections to being used to sell weapons abroad in private. Commonwealth heads of government decided at their 2018 meeting, that the Prince of Wales will be the next Head of the Commonwealth after the Queen. The head is chosen and therefore not hereditary.
From his youth until 1992, Prince Charles was an avid player of competitive polo. He continued to play informally, including for charity, until 2005. Charles also frequently took part in fox hunting until the sport was banned in the United Kingdom in 2005. By the late 1990s, opposition to the activity was growing when Charles 's participation was viewed as a "political statement '' by those who were opposed to it. The League Against Cruel Sports launched an attack against Charles after he took his sons on the Beaufort Hunt in 1999. At that time, the government was trying to ban hunting with hounds.
Charles has been a keen salmon angler since youth and supports Orri Vigfússon 's efforts to protect the North Atlantic salmon. He frequently fishes the River Dee in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, while he claims his most special angling memories are from his time in Vopnafjörður, Iceland. Charles is a supporter of Burnley Football Club.
Prince Charles is president or patron of more than twenty performing arts organisations, which include the Royal College of Music, the Royal Opera, the English Chamber Orchestra, the Philharmonia Orchestra, Welsh National Opera, and the Purcell School. In 2000, he revived the tradition of appointing harpists to the Royal Court, by appointing an Official Harpist to the Prince of Wales. As an undergraduate at Cambridge he played cello, and has sung with the Bach Choir twice. Charles founded The Prince 's Foundation for Children and The Arts in 2002, to help more children experience the arts first - hand. He is president of the Royal Shakespeare Company and attends performances in Stratford - Upon - Avon, supports fundraising events and attends the company 's annual general meeting. He enjoys comedy, and is interested in illusionism, becoming a member of The Magic Circle after passing his audition in 1975 by performing the "cups and balls '' effect.
Charles is a keen and accomplished watercolourist who has exhibited and sold a number of his works and also published books on the subject. In 2001, 20 lithographs of his watercolour paintings illustrating his country estates were exhibited at the Florence International Biennale of Contemporary Art. Charles was awarded the 2011 Montblanc de la Culture Arts Patronage Award by the Montblanc Cultural Foundation for his support and commitment to the arts, particularly in regard to young people. On 23 April 2016, Charles appeared in a comedy sketch for the Royal Shakespeare Company 's Shakespeare Live! at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre, to commemorate the 400th anniversary of William Shakespeare 's death in 1616. The event was televised live by the BBC. Charles made a surprise entrance to settle the disputed delivery of Hamlet 's celebrated line, "To be or not to be, that is the question ''.
Prince Charles is an author of several books that reflect his own interests. He has also contributed a foreword or preface to books by other writers and has also written, presented and has been featured in documentary films.
Since his birth, Prince Charles has undergone close media attention, which increased as he matured. It has been an ambivalent relationship, largely impacted by his marriages to Diana and Camilla and its aftermath, but also centred on his future conduct as king, such as the 2014 play King Charles III.
Described as the "world 's most eligible bachelor '' in the late 1970s, Prince Charles was subsequently overshadowed by Diana. After her death, the media regularly breached Charles 's privacy and printed exposés.
In 2006, the prince filed a court case against the Mail on Sunday, after excerpts of his personal journals were published, revealing his opinions on matters such as the transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong to China in 1997, in which Charles described the Chinese government officials as "appalling old waxworks ''. Mark Bolland, his ex-private secretary, declared in a statement to the High Court that Charles "would readily embrace the political aspects of any contentious issue he was interested in... He carried it out in a very considered, thoughtful and researched way. He often referred to himself as a ' dissident ' working against the prevailing political consensus. '' Jonathan Dimbleby reported that the prince "has accumulated a number of certainties about the state of the world and does not relish contradiction. ''
Other people who were formerly connected with the prince have betrayed his confidence. An ex-member of his household handed the press an internal memo in which Charles commented on ambition and opportunity, and which was widely interpreted as blaming meritocracy for creating a combative atmosphere in society. Charles responded: "In my view, it is just as great an achievement to be a plumber or a bricklayer as it is to be a lawyer or a doctor ''.
Charles 's anguish was recorded in his private comments to Prince William, caught on a microphone during a press photo - call in 2005 and published in the national press. After a question from the BBC 's royal correspondent, Nicholas Witchell, Charles muttered: "These bloody people. I ca n't bear that man. I mean, he 's so awful, he really is. ''
In 2002, Charles, "so often a target of the press, got his chance to return fire '' when addressing "scores of editors, publishers and other media executives '' gathered at St Bride 's Fleet Street to celebrate 300 years of journalism. Defending public servants from "the corrosive drip of constant criticism '', he noted that the press had been "awkward, cantankerous, cynical, bloody - minded, at times intrusive, at times inaccurate and at times deeply unfair and harmful to individuals and to institutions. '' But, he concluded, regarding his own relations with the press, "from time to time we are probably both a bit hard on each other, exaggerating the downsides and ignoring the good points in each. ''
The Prince of Wales has occasionally appeared on television. In 1984, he read his children 's book The Old Man of Lochnagar for the BBC 's Jackanory series. The UK soap opera Coronation Street featured an appearance by Charles during the show 's 40th anniversary in 2000, as did the New Zealand young adult cartoon series bro'Town (2005), after he attended a performance by the show 's creators during a tour of the country. Charles was interviewed with Princes William and Harry by Ant & Dec to mark the 30th anniversary of The Prince 's Trust in 2006 and in 2016 was interviewed by them again along with his sons and the Duchess of Cornwall to mark the 40th anniversary.
His saving of the Scottish stately home Dumfries House was the subject of Alan Titchmarsh 's documentary Royal Restoration, which aired on TV in May 2012. Also in May 2012, Charles tried his hand at being a weather presenter for the BBC, reporting the forecast for Scotland as part of their annual week at Holyrood Palace alongside Christopher Blanchett. He injected humour in his report, asking, "Who the hell wrote this script? '' as references were made to royal residences. In December 2015 Channel 4 News revealed that interviews with Charles were subject to a contract that restricts questions to those previously approved, and gives his staff oversight of editing and the right to "remove the contribution in its entirety from the programme ''. Channel 4 News decided not to proceed with an interview on this basis, which some journalists believed would put them at risk of breaching the Ofcom Broadcasting Code on editorial independence and transparency.
Clarence House in London is Charles 's official residence. Previously, he had an apartment at St James 's Palace. Charles also has two private homes: Highgrove House in Gloucestershire and Birkhall near Balmoral Castle. Both Clarence House and Birkhall were previously the residences of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother. His primary source of income is generated from the Duchy of Cornwall, which owns 133,658 acres of land (around 54,090 hectares), including farming, residential, and commercial properties, as well as an investment portfolio. Highgrove is owned by the Duchy of Cornwall, having been purchased for his use in 1980, and which Prince Charles rents for £ 336,000 per annum. The Public Accounts Committee published its 25th report into the Duchy of Cornwall accounts in November 2013 noting that the duchy performed well in 2012 -- 13, increasing its total income and producing an overall surplus of £ 19.1 million.
In 2007 the prince purchased a 192 - acre property (150 acres of grazing and parkland, and 40 acres of woodland) in Carmarthenshire, and applied for permission to convert the farm into a Welsh home for him and the Duchess of Cornwall, to be rented out as holiday flats when the couple is not in residence. A neighbouring family said the proposals flouted local planning regulations, and the application was put on hold temporarily while a report was drafted on how the alterations would affect the local bat population. Charles and Camilla first stayed at the new property, called Llwynywermod, in June 2008.
In 2016 it was reported that his estates receive £ 100,000 a year in European Union agricultural subsidies. Starting in 1993, the Prince of Wales has paid tax voluntarily under the Memorandum of Understanding on Royal Taxation, updated 2013. In December 2012, Her Majesty 's Revenue and Customs were asked to investigate alleged tax avoidance by the Duchy of Cornwall. The Duchy of Cornwall is named in the Paradise Papers, a set of confidential electronic documents relating to offshore investment that were leaked to the German newspaper Süddeutsche Zeitung. The papers show that the Duchy invested in a Bermuda - based carbon credits trading company run by one of Charles 's Cambridge contemporaries. The investment was kept secret but there is no suggestion that Charles or the estate avoided UK tax.
The Prince 's full title is: His Royal Highness Prince Charles Philip Arthur George, Prince of Wales, KG, KT, GCB, OM, AK, QSO, PC, ADC, Earl of Chester, Duke of Cornwall, Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles and Prince and Great Steward of Scotland.
Charles has held titles throughout his life: the grandson of the monarch, the son of the monarch and in his own right. He has been a British prince since birth and was created Prince of Wales in 1958. There has been speculation as to what regnal name the prince would choose upon his succession to the throne. If he uses his first name, he would be known as Charles III. However, it was reported in 2005 that Charles has suggested he may choose to reign as George VII in honour of his maternal grandfather, and to avoid association with the Stuart kings Charles I (who was beheaded) and Charles II (who was known for his promiscuous lifestyle), as well as to be sensitive to the memory of Bonnie Prince Charlie, who was called "Charles III '' by his supporters. Charles 's office responded that "no decision has been made ''.
Charles has held substantive ranks in the armed forces of a number of countries since he was made a flight lieutenant in the Royal Air Force in 1972. Charles 's first honorary appointment in the armed forces was as Colonel - in - Chief of the Royal Regiment of Wales in 1969; since then, the prince has also been installed as Colonel - in - Chief, Colonel, Honorary Air Commodore, Air Commodore - in - Chief, Deputy Colonel - in - Chief, Royal Honorary Colonel, Royal Colonel, and Honorary Commodore of at least 32 military formations throughout the Commonwealth, including the Royal Gurkha Rifles, which is the only foreign regiment in the British army. Since 2009, Charles holds the second - highest ranks in all three branches of the Canadian Forces and, on 16 June 2012, the Queen awarded the Prince of Wales honorary five - star rank in all three branches of the British Armed Forces, "to acknowledge his support in her role as Commander - in - Chief '', installing him as Admiral of the Fleet, Field Marshal and Marshal of the Royal Air Force.
He has been inducted into seven orders and received eight decorations from the Commonwealth realms, and has been the recipient of 20 different honours from foreign states, as well as nine honorary degrees from universities in the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand.
The banners used by the prince vary depending upon location. His Personal Standard is the Royal Standard of the United Kingdom differenced as in his arms with a label of three points Argent, and the escutcheon of the arms of the Principality of Wales in the centre. It is used outside Wales, Scotland, Cornwall, and Canada, and throughout the entire United Kingdom when the prince is acting in an official capacity associated with the UK Armed Forces.
The personal flag for use in Wales is based upon the Royal Badge of Wales (the historic arms of the Kingdom of Gwynedd), which consist of four quadrants, the first and fourth with a red lion on a gold field, and the second and third with a gold lion on a red field. Superimposed is an escutcheon Vert bearing the single - arched coronet of the Prince of Wales.
In Scotland the personal banner used since 1974 is based upon three ancient Scottish titles: Duke of Rothesay (heir apparent to the King of Scots), High Steward of Scotland and Lord of the Isles. The flag is divided into four quadrants like the arms of the Chief of Clan Stewart of Appin; the first and fourth quadrants comprise a gold field with a blue and silver checkered band in the centre; the second and third quadrants display a black galley on a silver field. The arms are differenced from those of Appin by the addition of an inescutcheon bearing the tressured lion rampant of Scotland; defaced by a plain label of three points Azure to indicate the heir apparent.
In Cornwall, the banner is the arms of the Duke of Cornwall: "Sable fifteen bezants Or '', that is, a black field bearing fifteen gold coins.
In 2011, the Canadian Heraldic Authority introduced a personal heraldic banner for the Prince of Wales for use in Canada, consisting of the shield of the Arms of Canada defaced with both a blue roundel of the Prince of Wales 's feathers surrounded by a wreath of gold maple leaves, and a white label of three points.
Banner of arms
Standard for Wales
Standard for Scotland
Banner of arms of the Duke of Cornwall
Flag of the Prince of Wales for personal use in Canada
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when was krypton added to the periodic table | Krypton - wikipedia
Krypton (from Ancient Greek: κρυπτός, translit. kryptos "the hidden one '') is a chemical element with symbol Kr and atomic number 36. It is a member of group 18 (noble gases) elements. A colorless, odorless, tasteless noble gas, krypton occurs in trace amounts in the atmosphere and is often used with other rare gases in fluorescent lamps. With rare exceptions, krypton is chemically inert.
Krypton, like the other noble gases, is used in lighting and photography. Krypton light has many spectral lines, and krypton plasma is useful in bright, high - powered gas lasers (krypton ion and excimer lasers), each of which resonates and amplifies a single spectral line. Krypton fluoride also makes a useful laser. From 1960 to 1983, the official length of a meter was defined by the 605 nm wavelength of the orange spectral line of krypton - 86, because of the high power and relative ease of operation of krypton discharge tubes.
Krypton was discovered in Britain in 1898 by Sir William Ramsay, a Scottish chemist, and Morris Travers, an English chemist, in residue left from evaporating nearly all components of liquid air. Neon was discovered by a similar procedure by the same workers just a few weeks later. William Ramsay was awarded the 1904 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discovery of a series of noble gases, including krypton.
In 1960, the International Conference on Weights and Measures defined the meter as 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of light emitted by the krypton - 86 isotope. This agreement replaced the 1889 international prototype meter located in Paris, which was a metal bar made of a platinum - iridium alloy (one of a series of standard meter bars, originally constructed to be one ten - millionth of a quadrant of the Earth 's polar circumference). This also obsoleted the 1927 definition of the ångström based on the red cadmium spectral line, replacing it with 1 Å = 10 m. The krypton - 86 definition lasted until the October 1983 conference, which redefined the meter as the distance that light travels in a vacuum during 1 / 299,792,458 s.
Krypton is characterized by several sharp emission lines (spectral signatures) the strongest being green and yellow. Krypton is one of the products of uranium fission. Solid krypton is white and has a face - centered cubic crystal structure, which is a common property of all noble gases (except helium, which has a hexagonal close - packed crystal structure).
Naturally occurring krypton in Earth 's atmosphere is composed of five stable isotopes, plus one isotope (Kr) with such a long half - life (9.2 × 10 years) that it can be considered stable. (This isotope has the second - longest known half - life among all isotopes for which decay has been observed; it undergoes double electron capture to Se). In addition, about thirty unstable isotopes and isomers are known. Kr, the product of atmospheric reactions, is produced with the other naturally occurring isotopes of krypton. Being radioactive, it has a half - life of 230,000 years. Krypton is highly volatile and does not stay in solution in near - surface water, but Kr has been used for dating old (50,000 -- 800,000 years) groundwater.
Kr is an inert radioactive noble gas with a half - life of 10.76 years. It is produced by the fission of uranium and plutonium, such as in nuclear bomb testing and nuclear reactors. Kr is released during the reprocessing of fuel rods from nuclear reactors. Concentrations at the North Pole are 30 % higher than at the South Pole due to convective mixing.
Like the other noble gases, krypton is highly chemically unreactive. The rather restricted chemistry of krypton in its only known nonzero oxidation state of + 2 parallels that of the neighboring element bromine in the + 1 oxidation state; due to the scandide contraction it is difficult to oxidize the 4p elements to their group oxidation states. Before the 1960s, no noble gas compounds had been synthesized.
However, following the first successful synthesis of xenon compounds in 1962, synthesis of krypton difluoride (KrF 2) was reported in 1963. In the same year, KrF 4 was reported by Grosse, et al., but was subsequently shown to be a mistaken identification. Under extreme conditions, krypton reacts with fluorine to form KrF according to the following equation:
Compounds with krypton bonded to atoms other than fluorine have also been discovered. There are also unverified reports of a barium salt of a krypton oxoacid. Ar Kr and Kr H polyatomic ions have been investigated and there is evidence for Kr Xe or KrXe.
The reaction of KrF 2 with B (OTeF 5) 3 produces an unstable compound, Kr (OTeF 5) 2, that contains a krypton - oxygen bond. A krypton - nitrogen bond is found in the cation (HC ≡ N -- Kr -- F) +, produced by the reaction of KrF 2 with (HC ≡ NH) + (AsF − 6) below − 50 ° C. HKrCN and HKrC ≡ CH (krypton hydride - cyanide and hydrokryptoacetylene) were reported to be stable up to 40 K.
Krypton hydride (Kr (H)) crystals can be grown at pressures above 5 GPa. They have a face - centered cubic structure where krypton octahedra are surrounded by randomly oriented hydrogen molecules.
Earth has retained all of the noble gases that were present at its formation except helium. Krypton 's concentration in the atmosphere is about 1 ppm. It can be extracted from liquid air by fractional distillation. The amount of krypton in space is uncertain, because measurement is derived from meteoric activity and solar winds. The first measurements suggest an abundance of krypton in space.
Krypton 's multiple emission lines make ionized krypton gas discharges appear whitish, which in turn makes krypton - based bulbs useful in photography as a brilliant white light source. Krypton is used in some photographic flashes for high speed photography. Krypton gas is also combined with other gases to make luminous signs that glow with a bright greenish - yellow light.
Krypton is mixed with argon in energy efficient fluorescent lamps, reducing the power consumption, but also reducing the light output and raising the cost. Krypton costs about 100 times as much as argon. Krypton (along with xenon) is also used to fill incandescent lamps to reduce filament evaporation and allow higher operating temperatures. A brighter light results with more blue color than conventional incandescent lamps.
Krypton 's white discharge is often used to good effect in colored gas discharge tubes, which are simply painted or stained to create the desired color (for example, "neon '' type multi-colored advertising signs are often entirely krypton - based). Krypton produces much higher light power than neon in the red spectral line region, and for this reason, red lasers for high - power laser light - shows are often krypton lasers with mirrors that select the red spectral line for laser amplification and emission, rather than the more familiar helium - neon variety, which could not achieve the same multi-watt outputs.
The krypton fluoride laser is important in nuclear fusion energy research in confinement experiments. The laser has high beam uniformity, short wavelength, and the spot size can be varied to track an imploding pellet.
In experimental particle physics, liquid krypton is used to construct quasi-homogeneous electromagnetic calorimeters. A notable example is the calorimeter of the NA48 experiment at CERN containing about 27 tonnes of liquid krypton. This usage is rare, since liquid argon is less expensive. The advantage of krypton is a smaller Molière radius of 4.7 cm, which provides excellent spatial resolution with little overlapping. The other parameters relevant for calorimetry are: radiation length of X = 4.7 cm, and density of 2.4 g / cm.
The sealed spark gap assemblies in ignition exciters in some older jet engines contain a small amount of krypton - 85 to produce consistent ionization levels and uniform operation.
Krypton - 83 has application in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for imaging airways. In particular, it enables the radiologist to distinguish between hydrophobic and hydrophilic surfaces containing an airway.
Although xenon has potential for use in computed tomography (CT) to assess regional ventilation, its anesthetic properties limit its fraction in the breathing gas to 35 %. A breathing mixture of 30 % xenon and 30 % krypton is comparable in effectiveness for CT to a 40 % xenon fraction, while avoiding the unwanted effects of a high partial pressure of xenon gas.
Krypton - 85 in the atmosphere has been used to detect clandestine nuclear fuel reprocessing facilities in North Korea and Pakistan. Those facilities were detected in the early 2000s and were believed to be producing weapons - grade plutonium.
Krypton is considered to be a non-toxic asphyxiant. Krypton has a narcotic potency seven times greater than air, and breathing an atmosphere of 50 % krypton and 50 % natural air (as might happen in the locality of a leak) causes narcosis in humans similar to breathing air at four times atmospheric pressure. This is comparable to scuba diving at a depth of 30 m (100 ft) (see nitrogen narcosis) and could affect anyone breathing it. At the same time, that mixture would contain only 10 % oxygen (rather than the normal 20 %) and hypoxia would be a greater concern.
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what is the highest grossing movie in the philippines | List of highest - grossing films in the Philippines - wikipedia
Films in the Philippines derive income mainly from theatrical exhibitions as revenues from home video, television broadcast rights and merchandising share a small portion of the studio earnings. Even more, unlike in the United States and other territories, gross receipts of movies in the country were not officially disclosed in detail through the years. Third - party organizations that focus on box - office statistics were not present in the industry until the website Box Office Mojo started providing comprehensive weekly performance of releases in 2007. Although the website is a reliable source, it does not summarize the highest grosses of all time for the reason that its scope is limited to the Metro Manila Film Festival, an annual event during December to January.
The table below shows the top 20 highest - grossing local and foreign films in the Philippines - based from data gathered by Box Office Mojo:
Note: All figures are in Philippine Peso.
The table below shows the top 13 highest - grossing Filipino films in the Philippines based from data gathered by Box Office Mojo and other reliable sources:
Note: All figures are in Philippine Peso.
The following are the highest - grossing box - office films (local and foreign films combined) per year:
The following are the highest - grossing Filipino films per year:
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the first european colonizers who came from the americas were | European colonization of the Americas - wikipedia
The European colonization of the Americas describes the history of the settlement and establishment of control of the continents of the Americas by most of the naval powers of Europe.
Systematic European colonization began in 1492, when a Spanish expedition headed by the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus sailed west to find a new trade route to the Far East but inadvertently landed in what came to be known to Europeans as the "New World ''. Running aground on the northern part of Hispaniola on 5 December 1492, which the Taino people had inhabited since the 7th century, the site became the first European settlement in the Americas. European conquest, large - scale exploration and colonization soon followed. Columbus 's first two voyages (1492 -- 93) reached the Bahamas and various Caribbean islands, including Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and Cuba. In 1498, John Cabot, on behalf of England, landed on the North American coast, and a year later, Columbus 's third voyage reached the South American coast. As the sponsor of Christopher Columbus 's voyages, Spain was the first European power to settle and colonize the largest areas, from North America and the Caribbean to the southern tip of South America.
The Spanish began building up their American empire in the Caribbean, using islands such as Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Hispaniola as bases. The North and South American mainland fell to the conquistadors. Florida fell to Juan Ponce de León after 1513. From 1519 to 1521, Hernán Cortés waged a brutal campaign against the Aztec Empire, ruled by Moctezuma II. The Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, became Mexico City, the chief city of what the Spanish were now calling "New Spain. '' Later, the areas that are today California, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Texas, Missouri, Louisiana, and Alabama were taken over by other conquistadors, such as Hernando de Soto, Francisco Vázquez de Coronado, and Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca. Farther to the south, Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire during the 1530s.
Other powers such as France also founded colonies in the Americas: in eastern North America, a number of Caribbean islands and small coastal parts of South America. Portugal colonized Brazil, tried colonizing the eastern coasts of present - day Canada and settled for extended periods northwest (on the east bank) of the River Plate. The Age of Exploration was the beginning of territorial expansion for several European countries. Europe had been preoccupied with internal wars and was slowly recovering from the loss of population caused by the Black Death; thus the rapid rate at which it grew in wealth and power was unforeseeable in the early 15th century.
Eventually, most of the Western Hemisphere came under the control of European governments, leading to changes to its landscape, population, and plant and animal life. In the 19th century over 50 million people left Europe for the Americas. The post-1492 era is known as the period of the Columbian Exchange, a dramatically widespread exchange of animals, plants, culture, human populations (including slaves), ideas and communicable disease between the American and Afro - Eurasian hemispheres following Columbus 's voyages to the Americas.
Norse journeys to Greenland and Canada are supported by historical and archaeological evidence. A Norse colony in Greenland was established in the late 10th century, and lasted until the mid 15th century, with court and parliament assemblies (þing) taking place at Brattahlíð and a bishop located at Garðar. The remains of a Norse settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, Canada, were discovered in 1960 and were dated to around the year 1000 (carbon dating estimate 990 -- 1050 CE). L'Anse aux Meadows is the only site widely accepted as evidence of pre-Columbian trans - oceanic contact. It was named a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1978. It is also notable for its possible connection with the attempted colony of Vinland, established by Leif Erikson around the same period or, more broadly, with the West Norse colonization of the Americas.
Early explorations and conquests were made by the Spanish and the Portuguese immediately following their own final reconquest of Iberia in 1492. In the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas, ratified by the Pope, these two kingdoms divided the entire non-European world into two areas of exploration and colonization, with a north to south boundary that cut through the Atlantic Ocean and the eastern part of present - day Brazil. Based on this treaty and on early claims by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa, discoverer of the Pacific Ocean in 1513, the Spanish conquered large territories in North, Central and South America.
Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés took over the Aztec Kingdom and Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire. As a result, by the mid-16th century, the Spanish Crown had gained control of much of western South America, and southern North America, in addition to its earlier Caribbean territories. Over this same timeframe, Portugal claimed lands in North America (Canada) and colonized much of eastern South America, naming it Santa Cruz and Brazil.
Other European nations soon disputed the terms of the Treaty of Tordesillas. England and France attempted to plant colonies in the Americas in the 16th century, but these failed. England and France succeeded in establishing permanent colonies in the following century, along with the Dutch Republic. Some of these were on Caribbean islands, which had often already been conquered by the Spanish or depopulated by disease, while others were in eastern North America, which had not been colonized by Spain north of Florida.
Early European possessions in North America included Spanish Florida, Spanish New Mexico, the English colonies of Virginia (with its North Atlantic offshoot, Bermuda) and New England, the French colonies of Acadia and Canada, the Swedish colony of New Sweden, and the Dutch New Netherland. In the 18th century, Denmark -- Norway revived its former colonies in Greenland, while the Russian Empire gained a foothold in Alaska. Denmark - Norway would later make several claims in the Caribbean, starting in the 1600s.
As more nations gained an interest in the colonization of the Americas, competition for territory became increasingly fierce. Colonists often faced the threat of attacks from neighboring colonies, as well as from indigenous tribes and pirates.
The first phase of well - financed European activity in the Americas began with the Atlantic Ocean crossings of Christopher Columbus (1492 -- 1504), sponsored by Spain, whose original attempt was to find a new route to India and China, known as "the Indies ''. He was followed by other explorers such as John Cabot, who was sponsored by England and reached Newfoundland. Pedro Álvares Cabral reached Brazil and claimed it for Portugal.
Amerigo Vespucci, working for Portugal in voyages from 1497 to 1513, established that Columbus had reached a new set of continents. Cartographers still use a Latinized version of his first name, America, for the two continents. Other explorers included Giovanni da Verrazzano, sponsored by France in 1524; the Portuguese João Vaz Corte - Real in Newfoundland; João Fernandes Lavrador, Gaspar and Miguel Corte - Real and João Álvares Fagundes, in Newfoundland, Greenland, Labrador, and Nova Scotia (from 1498 to 1502, and in 1520); Jacques Cartier (1491 -- 1557), Henry Hudson (1560s -- 1611), and Samuel de Champlain (1567 -- 1635), who explored the region of Canada he reestablished as New France.
In 1513, Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and led the first European expedition to see the Pacific Ocean from the west coast of the New World. In an action with enduring historical import, Balboa claimed the Pacific Ocean and all the lands adjoining it for the Spanish Crown. It was 1517 before another expedition, from Cuba, visited Central America, landing on the coast of Yucatán in search of slaves.
These explorations were followed, notably in the case of Spain, by a phase of conquest: The Spaniards, having just finished the Reconquista of Spain from Muslim rule, were the first to colonize the Americas, applying the same model of governing their European holdings to their territories of the New World.
Ten years after Columbus 's discovery, the administration of Hispaniola was given to Nicolás de Ovando of the Order of Alcántara, founded during the Reconquista. As in the Iberian Peninsula, the inhabitants of Hispaniola were given new landmasters, while religious orders handled the local administration. Progressively the encomienda system, which granted tribute (access to indigenous labor and taxation) to European settlers, was set in place.
A relatively common misconception is that a small number of conquistadores conquered vast territories, aided only by disease epidemics and their powerful caballeros. In fact, recent archaeological excavations have suggested a vast Spanish - Indian alliance numbering in the hundreds of thousands. Hernán Cortés eventually conquered Mexico with the help of Tlaxcala in 1519 -- 1521, while the conquest of the Incas was carried out by some 40,000 Incan renegades led by Francisco Pizarro in between 1532 and 1535.
Over the 1st century and a half after Columbus 's voyages, the native population of the Americas plummeted by an estimated 80 % (from around 50 million in 1492 to eight million in 1650), mostly by outbreaks of Old World diseases.
In 1532, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor sent a vice-king to Mexico, Antonio de Mendoza, in order to prevent Cortes ' independentist drives, who definitively returned to Spain in 1540. Two years later, Charles V signed the New Laws (which replaced the Laws of Burgos of 1512) prohibiting slavery and the repartimientos, but also claiming as his own all the American lands and all of the indigenous people as his own subjects.
When in May 1493, the Pope Alexander VI issued the Inter caetera bull granting the new lands to the Kingdom of Spain, he requested in exchange an evangelization of the people. Thus, during Columbus 's second voyage, Benedictine friars accompanied him, along with twelve other priests. As slavery was prohibited between Christians, and could only be imposed in non-Christian prisoners of war or on men already sold as slaves, the debate on Christianization was particularly acute during the 16th century. In 1537, the papal bull Sublimis Deus definitively recognized that Native Americans possessed souls, thus prohibiting their enslavement, without putting an end to the debate. Some claimed that a native who had rebelled and then been captured could be enslaved nonetheless.
Later, the Valladolid debate between the Dominican priest Bartolomé de Las Casas and another Dominican philosopher Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda was held, with the former arguing that Native Americans were beings doted with souls, as all other human beings, while the latter argued to the contrary and justified their enslavement.
The process of Christianization was at first violent: when the first Franciscans arrived in Mexico in 1524, they burned the places dedicated to pagan cult, alienating much of the local population. In the 1530s, they began to adapt Christian practices to local customs, including the building of new churches on the sites of ancient places of worship, leading to a mix of Old World Christianity with local religions. The Spanish Roman Catholic Church, needing the natives ' labor and cooperation, evangelized in Quechua, Nahuatl, Guaraní and other Native American languages, contributing to the expansion of these indigenous languages and equipping some of them with writing systems. One of the first primitive schools for Native Americans was founded by Fray Pedro de Gante in 1523.
To reward their troops, the Conquistadores often allotted Indian towns to their troops and officers. Black African slaves were introduced to substitute for Native American labor in some locations -- including the West Indies, where the indigenous population was nearing extinction on many islands.
During this time, the Portuguese gradually switched from an initial plan of establishing trading posts to extensive colonization of what is now Brazil. They imported millions of slaves to run their plantations. The Portuguese and Spanish royal governments expected to rule these settlements and collect at least 20 % of all treasure found (the quinto real collected by the Casa de Contratación), in addition to collecting all the taxes they could. By the late 16th century American silver accounted for one - fifth of Spain 's total budget. In the 16th century perhaps 240,000 Europeans entered American ports.
Inspired by the Spanish riches from colonies founded upon the conquest of the Aztecs, Incas, and other large Native American populations in the 16th century, the first Englishmen to settle permanently in America hoped for some of the same rich discoveries when they established their first permanent settlement in Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. They were sponsored by common stock companies such as the chartered Virginia Company financed by wealthy Englishmen who exaggerated the economic potential of this new land. The main purpose of this colony was the hope of finding gold.
It took strong leaders, like John Smith, to convince the colonists of Jamestown that searching for gold was not taking care of their immediate needs for food and shelter and the biblical principle that "he who will not work shall not eat '' (see 2 Thessalonians 3). The lack of food security leading to extremely high mortality rate was quite distressing and cause for despair among the colonists. To support the Colony, numerous supply missions were organized. Tobacco later became a cash crop, with the work of John Rolfe and others, for export and the sustaining economic driver of Virginia and the neighboring colony of Maryland.
From the beginning of Virginia 's settlements in 1587 until the 1680s, the main source of labor and a large portion of the immigrants were indentured servants looking for new life in the overseas colonies. During the 17th century, indentured servants constituted three - quarters of all European immigrants to the Chesapeake region. Most of the indentured servants were teenagers from England with poor economic prospects at home. Their fathers signed the papers that gave them free passage to America and an unpaid job until they became of age. They were given food, clothing, housing and taught farming or household skills. American landowners were in need of laborers and were willing to pay for a laborer 's passage to America if they served them for several years. By selling passage for five to seven years worth of work they could then start out on their own in America. Many of the migrants from England died in the first few years.
Economic advantage also prompted the Darien Scheme, an ill - fated venture by the Kingdom of Scotland to settle the Isthmus of Panama in the late 1690s. The Darien Scheme aimed to control trade through that part of the world and thereby promote Scotland into a world trading power. However, it was doomed by poor planning, short provisions, weak leadership, lack of demand for trade goods, and devastating disease. The failure of the Darien Scheme was one of the factors that led the Kingdom of Scotland into the Act of Union 1707 with the Kingdom of England creating the united Kingdom of Great Britain and giving Scotland commercial access to English, now British, colonies.
In the French colonial regions, the focus of economy was on sugar plantations in Caribbean. In Canada the fur trade with the natives was important. About 16,000 French men and women became colonizers. The great majority became subsistence farmers along the St. Lawrence River. With a favorable disease environment and plenty of land and food, their numbers grew exponentially to 65,000 by 1760. Their colony was taken over by Britain in 1760, but social, religious, legal, cultural and economic changes were few in a society that clung tightly to its recently formed traditions.
Roman Catholics were the first major religious group to immigrate to the New World, as settlers in the colonies of Portugal and Spain (and later, France) belonged to that faith. English and Dutch colonies, on the other hand, tended to be more religiously diverse. Settlers to these colonies included Anglicans, Dutch Calvinists, English Puritans and other nonconformists, English Catholics, Scottish Presbyterians, French Huguenots, German and Swedish Lutherans, as well as Quakers, Mennonites, Amish, Moravians and Jews of various nationalities.
Many groups of colonists went to the Americas searching for the right to practice their religion without persecution. The Protestant Reformation of the 16th century broke the unity of Western Christendom and led to the formation of numerous new religious sects, which often faced persecution by governmental authorities. In England, many people came to question the organization of the Church of England by the end of the 16th century. One of the primary manifestations of this was the Puritan movement, which sought to "purify '' the existing Church of England of its many residual Catholic rites that they believed had no mention in the Bible.
A strong believer in the notion of rule by divine right, Charles I, King of England and Scotland, persecuted religious dissenters. Waves of repression led to the migration of about 20,000 Puritans to New England between 1629 and 1642, where they founded multiple colonies. Later in the century, the new Pennsylvania colony was given to William Penn in settlement of a debt the king owed his father. Its government was set up by William Penn in about 1682 to become primarily a refuge for persecuted English Quakers; but others were welcomed. Baptists, Quakers, German and Swiss Protestants and Anabaptists flocked to Pennsylvania. The lure of cheap land, religious freedom and the right to improve themselves with their own hand was very attractive.
Slavery was a common practice in the Americas prior to the arrival of Europeans, as different American Indian groups captured and held other tribes ' members as slaves. Many of these captives were forced to undergo human sacrifice in Amerindian civilizations such as the Aztecs. In response to some enslavement of natives in the Caribbean during the early years, the Spanish Crown passed a series of laws prohibiting slavery as early as 1512. A new stricter set of laws was passed in 1542, called the New Laws of the Indies for the Good Treatment and Preservation of Indians, or simply New Laws. These were created to prevent the exploitation of the indigenous peoples by the encomenderos or landowners, by strictly limiting their power and dominion. This helped curb Indian slavery considerably, though not completely. Later, with the arrival of other European colonial powers in the New World, the enslavement of native populations increased, as these empires lacked legislation against slavery until decades later. The population of indigenous peoples declined (mostly from European diseases, but also from forced exploitation and atrocities). Later, native workers were replaced by Africans imported through a large commercial slave trade.
By the 18th century, the overwhelming number of black slaves was such that Amerindian slavery was less commonly used. Africans, who were taken aboard slave ships to the Americas, were primarily obtained from their African homelands by coastal tribes who captured and sold them. Europeans traded for slaves with the slave capturers of the local native African tribes in exchange for rum, guns, gunpowder, and other manufactures.
The total slave trade to islands in the Caribbean, Brazil, Mexico and to the United States is estimated to have involved 12 million Africans. The vast majority of these slaves went to sugar colonies in the Caribbean and to Brazil, where life expectancy was short and the numbers had to be continually replenished. At most about 600,000 African slaves were imported into the U.S., or 5 % of the 12 million slaves brought across from Africa. Life expectancy was much higher in the U.S. (because of better food, less disease, lighter work loads, and better medical care) so the numbers grew rapidly by excesses of births over deaths, reaching 4 million by the 1860 Census. Slaves were a valuable commodity both for work and for sale in slave markets and so the policy of actively encouraging or forcing slaves to breed developed, especially after the ending of the Atlantic slave trade. From 1770 until 1860, the rate of growth of North American slaves was much greater than for the population of any nation in Europe, and was nearly twice as rapid as that of England.
Slaves imported to the Thirteen colonies / United States by time period:
The European lifestyle included a long history of sharing close quarters with domesticated animals such as cows, pigs, sheep, goats, horses, dogs and various domesticated fowl, from which many diseases originally stemmed. Thus, in contrast to the indigenous people, Europeans had developed a richer endowment of antibodies. The large - scale contact with Europeans after 1492 introduced novel germs to the indigenous people of the Americas.
Epidemics of smallpox (1518, 1521, 1525, 1558, 1589), typhus (1546), influenza (1558), diphtheria (1614) and measles (1618) swept the Americas subsequent to European contact, killing between 10 million and 100 million people, up to 95 % of the indigenous population of the Americas. The cultural and political instability attending these losses appears to have been of substantial aid in the efforts of various colonists in New England and Massachusetts to acquire control over the great wealth in land and resources of which indigenous societies had customarily made use.
Such diseases yielded human mortality of an unquestionably enormous gravity and scale -- and this has profoundly confused efforts to determine its full extent with any true precision. Estimates of the pre-Columbian population of the Americas vary tremendously.
Others have argued that significant variations in population size over pre-Columbian history are reason to view higher - end estimates with caution. Such estimates may reflect historical population maxima, while indigenous populations may have been at a level somewhat below these maxima or in a moment of decline in the period just prior to contact with Europeans. Indigenous populations hit their ultimate lows in most areas of the Americas in the early 20th century; in a number of cases, growth has returned.
Geographic differences between the colonies played a large determinant in the types of political and economic systems that later developed. In their paper on institutions and long - run growth, economists Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson argue that certain natural endowments gave rise to distinct colonial policies promoting either smallholder or coerced labor production. Densely settled populations, for example, were more easily exploitable and profitable as slave labor. In these regions, landowning elites were economically incentivized to develop forced labor arrangements such as the Peru mit'a system or Argentinian latifundias without regard for democratic norms. French and British colonial leaders, conversely, were incentivized to develop capitalist markets, property rights, and democratic institutions in response to natural environments that supported smallholder production over forced labor.
James Mahoney, a professor at Northwestern University, proposes that colonial policy choices made at critical junctures regarding land ownership in coffee - rich Central America fostered enduring path dependent institutions. Coffee economies in Guatemala and El Salvador, for example, were centralized around large plantations that operated under coercive labor systems. By the 19th century, their political structures were largely authoritarian and militarized. In Colombia and Costa Rica, conversely, liberal reforms were enacted at critical junctures to expand commercial agriculture, and they ultimately raised the bargaining power of the middle class. Both nations eventually developed more democratic and egalitarian institutions than their highly concentrated landowning counterparts.
In 2007, the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History and the Virginia Historical Society (VHS) co-organized a traveling exhibition to recount the strategic alliances and violent conflict between European empires (English, Spanish, French) and the Native people living in North America. The exhibition was presented in three languages and with multiple perspectives. Artifacts on display included rare surviving Native and European artifacts, maps, documents, and ceremonial objects from museums and royal collections on both sides of the Atlantic. The exhibition opened in Richmond, Virginia on March 17, 2007, and closed at the Smithsonian International Gallery on October 31, 2009.
The related online exhibition explores the international origins of the societies of Canada and the United States and commemorates the 400th anniversary of three lasting settlements in Jamestown (1607), Québec (1608), and Santa Fe (1609). The site is accessible in three languages.
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character analysis of the squire in canterbury tales | The Squire (Canterbury Tales) - wikipedia
The Squire is a fictional character in the framing narrative of Geoffrey Chaucer 's Canterbury Tales. He is squire to (and son of) the Knight and is the narrator of The Squire 's Tale or Cambuscan.
The Squire is one of the secular pilgrims, of the military group (The Squire, The Knight and The Yeoman). The Knight and the Squire are the pilgrims with the highest social status. However his tale, interrupted as it is, is paired with that of the Franklin. The Squire (along with The Shipman and The Summoner) is a candidate for the interrupter of The Host in the epilogue of the Man of Law 's Tale.
The Squire is the second pilgrim described in the General Prologue. His tale is told eleventh, after the Merchant and before the Franklin - the first of group F, and considered by modern scholars one of the marriage tales.
The Squire is described in the General Prologue lines 79 - 100:
With hym ther was his sone, a yong SQUIER, A lovyere and a lusty bacheler; With lokkes crulle, as they were leyd in presse. Of twenty yeer of age he was, I gesse. Of his stature he was of evene lengthe, And wonderly delyvere, and of greet strengthe. And he hadde been somtyme in chyvachie In Flaundres, in Artoys, and Pycardie, And born hym weel, as of so litel space, In hope to stonden in his lady grace. Embrouded was he, as it were a meede, Al ful of fresshe floures, whyte and reede; Syngynge he was, or floytynge, al the day, He was as fressh as is the monthe of May. Short was his gowne, with sleves longe and wyde. Wel koude he sitte on hors, and faire ryde. He koude songes make, and wel endite, Juste, and eek daunce, and weel purtreye and write. So hoote he lovede, that by nyghtertale He slepte namoore than dooth a nyghtyngale. Curteis he was, lowely, and servysable, And carf biforn his fader at the table.
The squire is the nominally the knight 's servant. He travels everywhere with the knight and does what is asked of him. Nonetheless he is also the Knight 's son and represents, with the knight, the noble class, and the warrior class. Chaucer was familiar with both, having fought in the Hundred Years ' War, and been active as a courtier and diplomat, and indeed having served as a squire.
For a young man "as fresh as the month of May, '' the squire has quite extensive military experience. He has been on chevauchée with his father in Flanders, Artois and Picardy; a chevauchée was a fast, aggressive raiding campaign undertaken by mounted soldiers which could last anywhere from a month to two years. Chaucer notes that the squire has done good service for one so young ("born hym weel, as of so litel space ''), in hope to "stonden in his lady grace '' (win his lady 's favour).
In regards to being fashionable, the Squire is not only dressed in the finest clothes but also mounted on his horse rather well. "He was embroidered like a meadow bright '' which (at the time) was a sign of highest class. In addition, his clothes are described in further detail in that "short was his gown, the sleeves were long and wide, '' which again was the fashion of the day.
His clothes are in contrast to the Knight 's which are stained by his armour.
Even the Squire 's horsemanship was fashionable: "He knew the way to sit a horse and ride. '' In addition, he had skills fashionable for a courtlie young man at the time: jousting, dancing, singing, writing and drawing.
The young Squire is in love with love. Within the first couple of lines we are told that he is A lovyere and a lusty bacheler, fighting only to "win his lady 's grace. '' This amorous concept is taken further at the end of the Squire 's description: "So hoote he lovede, that by nyghtertale He slepte namoore than dooth a nyghtyngale. '' ("Nyghtertale '' - the duration of night.)
Donald Roy Howard describes him as "endearing in his earnest but unsuccessful attempt to match his father 's accomplishments as a storyteller ''. The Squire is exceedingly long - winded, taking some four hundred lines to come to the start for his tale proper. Despite his disclaimers he uses many rhetorical flourishes. Presumably the slow pace is the reason the Franklin interrupts him.
The Franklin is doubtless poking gentle fun with his tale of the naive squire Aurelias.
The springtime imagery from the beginning of the General Prologue re-emerges in the description of the Squire.
Susan Schibanoff asserts that the Squire 's feminization should make him a prime target for patriarchal disapprobation. The apparent inability to perceive the Squire 's enslavement to females, and consequent emasculation, she says, is contrary to the model (Hansen 's) which opposes courtliness to patriarchy as diametrical opposites.
Further Schibanoff contends that the Squire 's feminization is exonerated not because of the lack of homoerotic overtones, but because it is alibied by the Pardoner. Thus Chaucer "appropriates the queer other '' of the Pardoner to authorise the Squire 's "feminized markers of power. ''
The Romance of the Rose is widely considered to be a major source for the Squire, meeting all the requirements the god set out for his lover. Other possible sources include the Roman de Troie of Benoit de Ste. Maure.
Chaucer 's memory of his younger self as a page and squire, is a natural source, this identification may be extended by considering the Squire as a personification of Chaucer. He is indeed, the only poet in the group, and his protestations of his own limited poetical powers, mirror and indeed self - parody Chaucer 's own.
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who won the gold medal in men's hockey 2014 | Ice hockey at the 2014 Winter Olympics -- men 's tournament - wikipedia
The men 's tournament in ice hockey at the 2014 Winter Olympics was held in Sochi, Russia between 12 -- 23 February 2014. For the fifth consecutive Olympics, players from the National Hockey League participated. Twelve countries qualified for the tournament; nine of them did so automatically by virtue of their ranking by the International Ice Hockey Federation, while the other three took part in a qualification tournament.
In the semi-finals, Canada won over the United States, and Sweden won over Finland. In the final, Canada defeated Sweden to win the tournament for the ninth time, and avenge their 1994 gold medal loss. Finland finished with the bronze medal, defeating the US, with captain Teemu Selänne awarded as the MVP of the tournament, scoring twice in the bronze - medal game.
With the gold medal, Canada became the first men 's team to successfully defend an Olympic title since the Soviet Union in 1988, the first team to finish the tournament undefeated since 1984 and the first to do both with the full NHL participation.
Canada surrendered only three goals in six games, the fewest allowed by a gold medallist since 1928 when Canada shut out the opposition in a three - game tournament. Canada also scored only seventeen goals, the fewest by a gold medal - winning team in Olympic history, although Great Britain averaged fewer goals per game at the 1936 Winter Olympics (nineteen goals in eight games).
Canada, Czech Republic, Finland, Norway, Russia, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States qualified as the top nine teams in the IIHF World Ranking in 2012. Austria, Latvia, and Slovenia qualified by winning the qualification tournament.
The IIHF selected 14 referees and 14 linesmen to work the 2014 Winter Olympics. They were the following:
In each group, teams will be ranked according to the following criteria:
All times are local (UTC + 4).
Following the completion of the preliminary round, all teams were ranked 1D through 12D. To determine this ranking, the following criteria were used in the order presented:
The four highest - ranked teams (1D -- 4D) received byes and were deemed the home team in the quarterfinals as they are seeded to advance, with the remaining eight teams (5D -- 12D) playing qualification playoff games as follows.
Teams seeded D1 to D4 are the home teams.
Following the quarterfinal games, the winning teams will be re-ranked F1 through F4, with the winner of 1D vs. E4 re-ranked as F1, the winner of 2D vs. E3 re-ranked as F2, the winner of 3D vs. E2 re-ranked as F3, and the winner of 4D vs. E1 re-ranked as F4. The losers of the quarterfinal round games will receive a final ranking of 5 through 8 based on their preliminary round ranking.
Canada won the game 3 - 0 with goals from Jonathan Toews, Sidney Crosby, and Chris Kunitz, each scoring their first goal of the tournament. Canada shut Sweden out with an overpowering defense limiting them to 24 shots, and Canada 's goaltender Carey Price played well when needed. The Canadian team 's executive director Steve Yzerman called the performance in Sochi the finest defensive effort ever for a Canadian team. Canada shut out its opponents in the semifinals and final and allowed only three goals in six games. It was also the first time since 1928 that a Canadian team won all its games.
The win represented Canada 's second consecutive men 's gold in ice hockey, and the third time in four Olympics that Canada won both men 's and women 's gold in hockey. Canada had not won back - to - back men 's golds since 1948 and 1952, and no nation had done it since the Soviet Union in 1984 and 1988.
The game was a national phenomenon in Canada, with more than 15 million Canadians watching at least part of the game. Several provinces and cities relaxed their liquor laws to allow bars to open as early as 4 am.
The final standings of the tournament according to the IIHF:
Rankings based upon points, and sorted by goals.
Hat trick scorers
Goalkeepers with 40 % or more of their team 's total minutes, ranked by save percentage.
Shutout posters
Source: IIHF.com
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when will madden 18 be added to ea access vault | EA Access - wikipedia
EA Access (stylized as EA access) is a subscription - based gaming service by Electronic Arts. Initially pitched to both Microsoft for use on the Xbox One and Sony for use on the Playstation 4. Because Sony declined the offer, EA Access launched only on Xbox One on August 11, 2014. The service allows access to selected games published by Electronic Arts, along with additional incentives.
Upon downloading the EA Access hub from the Xbox Games Store, users purchase a membership in either one - or 12 - month increments. Memberships can be purchased through the Games Store or from select retailers. During the membership period, users have unlimited access to the full versions of a selection of games published by EA, dubbed "the Vault ''. The games are downloaded to the console 's storage device and remain available as long as users continue their membership. If membership is suspended, access to the games is restricted, but all progress and game saves are retained. Users may purchase games available in EA Access outright, along with other EA games, at a discounted price. EA Access members can purchase DLC for Access or other EA titles at the same discount. Games offered in the initial beta launch include Battlefield 4, Madden NFL 25, FIFA 14 and Peggle 2. More games will be added in the future, with additions occurring at EA 's discretion as opposed to timed availability, such as making a title available on Access a set number of days after its retail launch.
When a game is added to the Vault, EA has pledged that it will not be removed at a later date. However, the Terms of Service do state that EA does retain the right to remove titles with 30 days ' notice. On July 20, 2017, EA announced that FIFA 14 would be removed from the Vault on October 18, 2017 due to their decision to end online support for the title. The game will remain playable in offline modes only, and users who install it through EA Access prior to its removal date can continue to play it through their subscription; if the game is removed from the console after the removal date, it can not be recovered. EA officials called the removal a "unique circumstance specific to the title '' and that it was not representative of their future plans for EA Access.
Users interested in select upcoming titles and who pre-order them through Access will be able to download special limited versions of the games that are released five days prior to the retail launch. Any progress earned within the limited versions carries over to the full retail version. EA describes these early - release versions as not being more traditional demos, but instead full - featured versions that are time limited, with the exact extent of content varying from game to game. Games confirmed for this program include Madden NFL 15, NHL 15, NBA Live 15, FIFA 15, Dragon Age: Inquisition and Mass Effect: Andromeda. In the case of Madden NFL 15, the Access early - release version will be the only planned way to sample the game prior to release.
EA Access does not require users to have a paid Xbox Live membership, although a Gold - level membership is required for use of any multiplayer features that are included in Access - enabled games.
Additionally, games published on the EA Partners and / or EA Originals labels are not eligible for EA Access benefits. However, Titanfall was added to the Vault in June 2015, as part of an E3 2015 promotion that also enabled a free trial for all Xbox One owners. Titanfall 2 was also added to the vault on July 2017.
Additionally, EA Access subscribers are also able to receive downloadable content for games in the Vault free at during various limited time periods, such as the Naval Strike and Second Assault DLCs for Battlefield 4. Subscribers who download the free DLCs offered during the free period are able to keep them regardless of subscription status. On May 3, 2016, Premium access for Battlefield 4 and Hardline were offered free for a limited period of time, enabling subscribers to download all released expansions for both games at no cost. While Battlefield 4 Premium content can be accessed with an active subscription, subscribers were allowed to keep Hardline Premium features regardless of subscription status. The season pass for Star Wars Battlefront was made available at no cost for subscribers on July 7, 2017.
On February 29, 2016, EA Access has expanded to include Xbox 360 titles via the Xbox One 's backward compatibility feature, starting with the original Plants vs. Zombies. Dead Space was added (without any official announcement) on March 31. On January 17, 2018, Black, released for the Xbox in 2006, was added to the Vault.
EA Access debuted in beta form exclusively on Xbox One on July 29, 2014, and was officially launched on August 11, 2014. Electronic Arts approached both Sony and Microsoft with the service, but Sony declined to make it available on their PlayStation 4 console. A similar version called Origin Access launched in January 12, 2016 on PC.
Shares of video game retailer GameStop, which sells both new and used games, fell over five percent after Electronic Arts ' announcement. A similar price drop occurred after PlayStation Now was first announced and that the stock price subsequently recovered. GameStop will be one of the retailers selling EA Access memberships.
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actor who plays hal munson on as the world turns | Benjamin Hendrickson - wikipedia
Benjamin Hendrickson (August 26, 1950 -- July 3, 2006) was an American actor known for playing Harold "Hal '' Munson, Jr., the Chief of Detectives for the mythical town of Oakdale on the daytime soap opera As the World Turns.
Hendrickson was born in Huntington, New York. He studied at the prestigious Juilliard School as part of the institution 's first drama division class and was a founding member of John Houseman 's The Acting Company.
Prior to his television appearances, Hendrickson acted in theatre. From 1973 to 1984, he appeared in a host of productions that included The Elephant Man (taking over the title part in 1981 after serving as David Bowie 's understudy), Awake and Sing and Strider.
Hendrickson also acted in feature films. His credits include Dreams Do n't Die (1982), Manhunter (1986), Russkies (1987), Regarding Henry (1991), Consenting Adults (1992) and Spanking the Monkey (1994).
Hendrickson made appearances on daytime television in the early 1980s; his credits included Another World, Texas, and a notable role on Guiding Light as the villainous Silas Crocker. Years later, he also appeared as a judge on Boston Legal.
However, Hendrickson was best known for playing Harold "Hal '' Munson Jr., the Chief of Detectives for the mythical town of Oakdale on the long - running daytime soap opera As the World Turns.
He played Hal for over 20 years, from October 1985 to September 2004 and from June 2005 to July 2006. Hal was initially a short - term role, but as Hendrickson joked, when he "impregnated the leading lady '' (the character of Margo, then played by Hillary B. Smith), he signed a contract with a longer term.
Hendrickson won the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor for playing Hal in 2003. During his acceptance speech, he honored his source of moral support with a joke: "To my mother, who scrimped and saved to send me to Juilliard to study the classics... I 'm sorry. ''
Hendrickson 's body was discovered on July 3, 2006 at his Huntington, New York home. The Suffolk County Police labeled his death a suicide; his body had been found with a gunshot wound to the head.
Since daytime soap operas follow tape - ahead shooting schedules, Hendrickson 's final scenes on As the World Turns were broadcast July 12, 2006, nine days after his death. The July 12 episode featured a brief dedication at the end alerting viewers to his death.
A July 5, 2006 TV Guide article indicated that the role would not be recast; the show addressed the fate of the character onscreen in October 2006, and had Hal Munson die in the line of duty.
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when do the playoffs start for the super bowl | 2017 -- 18 NFL playoffs - wikipedia
The 2017 -- 18 NFL playoffs began on January 6, 2018, after the 2017 season, and concluded with Super Bowl LII on Sunday, February 4, 2018, when the Philadelphia Eagles defeated the New England Patriots at U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis, Minnesota.
These playoffs were notable for several teams snapping long playoff droughts, as the Buffalo Bills, Los Angeles Rams, Jacksonville Jaguars, and Tennessee Titans each qualified for the playoffs for the first time since 1999, 2004, 2007, and 2008, respectively.
The playoffs were also notable for the Patriots reaching a seventh consecutive AFC Championship Game, extending their own NFL record.
Within each conference, the four division winners and the two wild card teams (the top two non-division winners with the best overall regular season records) qualified for the playoffs. The four division winners are seeded 1 through 4 based on their overall won - lost - tied record, and the wild card teams are seeded 5 and 6. The NFL does not use a fixed bracket playoff system, and there are no restrictions regarding teams from the same division matching up in any round. In the first round, dubbed the wild - card playoffs or wild - card weekend, the third - seeded division winner hosts the sixth seed wild card, and the fourth seed hosts the fifth. The 1 and 2 seeds from each conference then receive a bye in the first round. In the second round, the divisional playoffs, the number 1 seed hosts the worst surviving seed from the first round (seed 4, 5 or 6), while the number 2 seed will play the other team (seed 3, 4 or 5). The two surviving teams from each conference 's divisional playoff games then meet in the respective AFC and NFC Conference Championship games, hosted by the higher seed. Although the Super Bowl, the fourth and final round of the playoffs, is played at a neutral site, the designated home team is based on an annual rotation by conference.
Source:
at Arrowhead Stadium, Kansas City, Missouri
The Tennessee Titans overcame an 18 - point halftime deficit to defeat the Kansas City Chiefs 22 -- 21 and won their first playoff game since the 2003 season.
Kansas City opened the scoring on their second possession of the game. After Alex Smith connected with Tyreek Hill for 45 yards and Travis Kelce for a 27 - yard completion, Kareem Hunt ran in for a one - yard touchdown. On their next drive the Chiefs drove 76 yards in five plays, with Smith completing a 26 - yard pass to Hill and an 18 - yard pass to receiver Albert Wilson. Following an 18 - yard run by Hunt, Smith hit Kelce for a 13 - yard touchdown. Smith finished the quarter with 154 passing yards, a career high.
In the second quarter, Tennessee advanced to Kansas City 's 21 - yard line before Marcus Mariota was intercepted by Marcus Peters, who returned the ball 28 yards to the Chiefs ' 37 - yard line. Following a punt, tight end Delanie Walker 's 22 - yard reception sparked a drive to the Chiefs ' 22 - yard line; but on third - and - 4, linebacker Derrick Johnson sacked Mariota and forced the team to settle for a 49 - yard Ryan Succop field goal. The Chiefs increased their lead to 18 points by the end of the half, however, with a nine - play, 79 - yard drive that culminated in a 14 - yard pass from Smith to Demarcus Robinson with three seconds left in the half. Kansas City went into halftime with a 21 -- 3 lead, with more total yards (284 to 127) and more first downs (16 to 3). Kelce did not return to the game due to an injury, while catching a 12 - yard pass on the final drive.
Tennessee opened the second half with a 15 - play, 91 - yard drive that consumed 8: 29 off the clock. On a third - down play from the Kansas City 6 - yard line, Mariota attempted a pass, which was deflected by Darrelle Revis, back to Mariota, who promptly ran it in for a touchdown, making him the first quarterback to complete a touchdown pass to himself in a postseason game. The Chiefs were forced to punt on their next drive, but Adoree ' Jackson muffed the catch and Keith Reaser recovered for Kansas City. They were unable to capitalize on the turnover, however, as they lost two yards over their next three plays and Harrison Butker hit the upright from a 48 - yard field goal attempt. Tennessee took the ball back and drove 62 yards in six plays, scoring on a 35 - yard run by Derrick Henry on the second play of the fourth quarter to cut the score to 21 -- 16 after a failed two - point conversion.
Again forcing a Kansas City punt, Tennessee drove 81 yards in 11 plays to take their first lead of the game. Mariota converted three third downs on the drive, completing a 9 - yard pass to Walker on third - and - 3, scrambling 17 yards for a first down on third - and - 8, and then connecting a 10 - yard pass to tight end Jonnu Smith on third - and - 2. Eventually, Mariota finished the drive by throwing to Eric Decker for a 22 - yard touchdown, giving Tennessee a 22 -- 21 lead following another failed two - point conversion with 6: 06 remaining. Kansas City then drove into Tennessee territory, but Alex Smith was sacked on third down by Derrick Morgan and then missed a pass to Wilson on fourth down with 2: 09 left. On the second play of Tennessee 's drive, Johnson recovered a Henry fumble and returned it 56 yards for a touchdown, but Henry was ruled down by contact upon review. One play later, Kansas City had one last chance to get the ball back on a third - and - 10 situation. Mariota handed the ball off to Henry, who started to run to the middle, but then switched direction and ran to the left. Aided by a key block from Mariota against linebacker Frank Zombo, Henry raced 22 yards down the left sideline for a game - clinching first down, and the Titans ran out the rest of the clock, having held the Chiefs to 41 yards and three first downs in the second half.
Alex Smith finished as the leading passer with 264 yards and two touchdowns, but only 110 yards after the first quarter. Mariota threw for 205 yards, two touchdowns and an interception in his first playoff start; his self - caught touchdown pass made him the first player since at least 1950 ever to throw and catch a touchdown pass in the same playoff game. Henry gained 156 yards on 23 carries and 191 total yards from scrimmage, while Hunt, the league 's leading rusher during the regular season, gained just 42 yards on 11 carries. Chiefs coach Andy Reid faced criticism for not relying on Hunt to protect their lead in the second half, as Hunt only carried the ball five times after halftime.
Tennessee became the first road team to erase an 18 - point deficit to win a postseason game since the 1972 playoffs. The loss was Kansas City 's sixth consecutive home playoff loss, extending a league record.
at Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, Los Angeles, California
This was the first NFL postseason contest held in Los Angeles since the end of the 1993 season, when the Raiders defeated the Denver Broncos in an AFC Wild Card game at the Coliseum. The win was the Falcons ' first road playoff victory since 2002.
Atlanta got an early scoring opportunity when Blake Countess muffed a punt that Falcons linebacker LaRoy Reynolds recovered on the Rams ' 17 - yard line, leading to Matt Bryant 's 29 - yard field goal. Then, after a punt, Atlanta receiver Julio Jones caught a 27 - yard pass and rushed for 13 yards on an end - around play as the team drove 57 yards in nine plays to go up 6 -- 0 on Bryant 's 51 - yard field goal. Damontae Kazee forced a fumble from Pharoh Cooper on the ensuing kickoff, which Kemal Ishmael recovered for Atlanta on the Rams ' 32 - yard line. This time, the Falcons were able to take the ball to the end zone, scoring on a 3 - yard touchdown run by Devonta Freeman as a result of center Alex Mack literally dragging him across the goal line.
Late in the second quarter, the Rams finally managed to get on the board, sparked by a 26 - yard run by Todd Gurley. Jared Goff finished the drive with passes to Cooper Kupp, the first for 15 yards, and the second a 14 - yard touchdown completion that made the score 13 -- 7. The next time they had the ball, only 1: 15 remained in the half, but they were able to convert a 38 - yard completion from Goff to Robert Woods into a 35 - yard Sam Ficken field goal, making the score 13 -- 10 at halftime.
The Falcons took up more than half the third quarter with their opening drive, moving the ball 76 yards in 16 plays. Freeman carried the ball six times for 42 yards, while quarterback Matt Ryan converted a fourth - and - 1 with a 1 - yard sneak. Bryant finished the possession with his third field goal, this one from 25 yards, increasing their lead to 16 -- 10. After a Rams punt, Ryan 's completions to Jones for gains of 12 and 16 yards set up Bryant 's fourth field goal, a 51 - yard kick, to put the team up 19 -- 10. The Rams quickly struck back, with Gurley rushing twice for gains of 14 and 33 yards, along with Goff completing an 18 - yard pass to Woods. Ficken 's 32 - yard field goal at the end of the drive cut the deficit to 19 -- 13 with just over 10 minutes left. However, Atlanta came back with an eight - play, 83 - yard drive featuring a 52 - yard completion from Ryan to Mohamed Sanu. On the last play, Ryan 's 8 - yard touchdown pass to Jones put his team up 26 -- 13. The Rams responded with one last drive to try and get back in the game, moving the ball to a third - and - goal situation on Atlanta 's 5 - yard line. Goff then threw a touchdown pass to tight end Tyler Higbee, but the call was reversed by a review, as replays showed the ball hit the ground as Higbee was going to the turf. On the next play, Goff threw an incomplete pass, causing a turnover on downs with 2: 05 left. The Rams received the ball one more time, but this resulted in another turnover on downs.
Ryan completed 21 of 30 passes for 213 yards and a touchdown, while Jones caught nine passes for 94 yards and a touchdown. Goff finished the day 24 - for - 45 for 259 yards and a touchdown. His top target was Woods, who caught nine passes for 142 yards. Gurley was the game 's top rusher with 101 yards on 14 carries, while also catching four passes for 10 yards.
at EverBank Field, Jacksonville, Florida
This was the Jaguars ' first playoff appearance since 2007, and their first home playoff game since the 1999 AFC Championship, which they lost to the Tennessee Titans. It was also Buffalo 's first playoff game since they also lost to the Titans in the same season, ending the longest playoff drought among any team in the four major professional leagues in North America. In the lowest scoring NFL postseason game since the 1997 season, Jacksonville 's 15 - play, 86 - yard touchdown drive in the third quarter was enough to propel them to victory. the Bills playoff drought lasted Eighteen seasons, that drought is over, but the Bills not winning a playoff game drought is not over yet.
Every drive in the first quarter ended in a punt. Early in the second quarter, Jacksonville got a chance to score when Aaron Colvin intercepted a pass from Bills quarterback Tyrod Taylor on the Buffalo 35 - yard line. However, the team lost three yards over the next three plays and decided to punt rather than risk a long field goal. From there, Buffalo took up nearly all the remaining time in the quarter, driving all the way to the Jaguars ' 1 - yard line. However, an offensive pass interference penalty against receiver Kelvin Benjamin pushed them back 10 yards and they ended up settling for a 31 - yard Steven Hauschka field goal to take a 3 -- 0 lead with 1: 49 left in the half. After an exchange of punts, Jacksonville got the ball on their own 47 - yard line with 40 seconds left, and quarterback Blake Bortles scrambled twice for gains of 20 and 12 yards to set up Josh Lambo 's 44 - yard field goal, tying the score at halftime.
On the Jaguars ' second possession of the second half, they drove 86 yards in 15 plays to take a 10 -- 3 lead. The key player of the drive was running back Leonard Fournette, who carried the ball eight times for 33 yards and caught a pass for 12 yards. Eventually the team faced fourth - and - goal on the 1 - yard line, and decided to go for the touchdown, which paid off as Bortles threw a pass to tight end Ben Koyack for the score with 42 seconds left in the third quarter. Jacksonville 's defense then locked the Bills down in the fourth quarter, forcing three punts and an interception by Jalen Ramsey on the Jaguars ' 48 - yard line with 26 seconds left.
Bortles completed only 12 of 23 passes for 87 yards and a touchdown, but was also the game 's leading rusher with 88 yards on the ground. Bills running back LeSean McCoy rushed for 75 yards and caught six passes for 44 yards.
at Mercedes - Benz Superdome, New Orleans, Louisiana
This was the first postseason meeting between the Panthers and Saints. This was also the Panthers ' first loss in the Wildcard Round, as they were previously 3 -- 0 in this round. The Saints last appeared in the 2014 playoffs, where they lost to eventual Super Bowl XLVIII champions, the Seattle Seahawks, while it was the Panthers ' first playoff appearance since losing in Super Bowl 50.
Carolina had a chance to score on their second possession of the game, driving to a third - and - goal on the Saints ' 7 - yard line. But over the next two plays, Kaelin Clay dropped a potential touchdown catch in the end zone and then Graham Gano missed a 25 - yard field goal attempt. On the second play after the missed field goal, New Orleans quarterback Drew Brees threw a deep pass down the middle of the field to Ted Ginn Jr., who evaded a tackle attempt by James Bradberry and ran all the way to the end zone for an 80 - yard touchdown reception. This gave New Orleans a 7 -- 0 lead with less than two minutes left in the first quarter.
Carolina responded on their next drive, converting a 22 - yard completion from Cam Newton to Greg Olsen and a 39 - yard pass interference penalty against defensive back Ken Crawley into a 27 - yard Gano field goal that cut the score to 7 -- 3. However, New Orleans responded immediately, with Brees completing passes to Michael Thomas for gains of 19, 8, and 13 yards, as well as passes to running backs Mark Ingram and Alvin Kamara for gains of 13 and 10 yards. On the last play of the drive, Brees put the Saints up 14 -- 3 with a 9 - yard touchdown pass to tight end Josh Hill. Carolina struck back, with Newton completing a 19 - yard pass to Brenton Bersin and converting a fourth - and - 1 with a quarterback sneak. Gano finished the 54 - yard drive with a 39 - yard field goal to make the score 14 -- 6 with 2: 47 left in the half. Brees responded by completing 4 of 6 passes for 67 yards on the way to a 1 - yard touchdown run by fullback Zach Line, increasing the Saints ' lead to 21 -- 6. Taking the ball back with just over 40 seconds left, Newton completed a 24 - yard pass to Devin Funchess. A few more plays moved the ball to the Saints ' 40 - yard line, where Gano barely managed to squeeze a 58 - yard field goal inside the left upright, tying the NFL record for the longest field goal in postseason history.
The Panthers continued to chip away at their deficit with their first drive of the second half, as they moved the ball 64 yards in nine plays on a possession that featured a 29 - yard run by Jonathan Stewart. Gano finished the drive with his fourth field goal, making the score 21 -- 12. But New Orleans was able to respond, with Ginn catching two passes for 30 yards on a 36 - yard drive that ended with Wil Lutz kicking a 57 - yard field goal, bringing their lead back up to 24 -- 12. With less than two minutes left in the third quarter, the Panthers started a 68 - yard drive in which Olsen caught three passes for 54 total yards, the last one a 14 - yard touchdown catch that cut the score to 24 -- 19 after the two - point conversion failed.
Following a few punts, Brees ' 46 - yard completion to Thomas gave the Saints a first down on the Carolina 5 - yard line, where they went on to score with Kamara 's 2 - yard touchdown run and go up 31 -- 19 with 5: 08 left. On the third play of the Panthers ' next drive, Newton completed a short pass to running back Christian McCaffrey, who raced 56 yards for a touchdown, cutting the score to 31 -- 26. New Orleans took the ball back and drove to a fourth - and - 2 situation on the 47 - yard line at the two - minute warning. Deciding to go for the first down, Brees threw a pass that was intercepted by safety Mike Adams, giving the ball back to the Panthers, though Adams ' decision to intercept the ball instead of knocking the pass down ended up costing his team 16 yards. Carolina then drove to the Saints ' 21 - yard line. On second down, Newton was flagged for intentional grounding while throwing a pass to avoid a sack, bringing up third - and - 23. Then after an incompletion, safety Vonn Bell sacked Newton, forcing a turnover on downs with four seconds left.
Newton finished the game 24 - of - 40 for 349 yards and two touchdowns, along with 37 yards on the ground. His top target was Olsen (eight receptions for 107 yards and a touchdown), who was one of four players in this game to have over 100 receiving yards. The others were McCaffrey (six for 101 yards and a touchdown), Thomas (eight receptions for 131 yards) and Ginn (four receptions for 115 yards and a touchdown). Brees was 23 - of - 33 for 376 yards with two touchdowns and one interception. Bell had nine tackles -- seven solo -- and a sack.
at Lincoln Financial Field, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Philadelphia 's defense recorded three sacks, held Atlanta to 281 yards -- 83 below their season average -- and stopped the Falcons on four consecutive plays after a first - and - goal on their own 9 - yard line in the final minutes to preserve a 15 -- 10 win.
The Eagles seemed primed to score on their opening drive when a 42 - yard pass interference penalty on Falcons defensive back Brian Poole gave them the ball on the Falcons ' 33 - yard line. But on the next play, Ricardo Allen forced a fumble from Jay Ajayi that was recovered by safety Keanu Neal. Atlanta then drove 59 yards in 12 plays to score on Matt Bryant 's 33 - yard field goal, giving them a 3 -- 0 lead. After the teams exchanged punts, Ajayi rushed four times for 26 yards on one drive and receiver Nelson Agholor ran for 21 yards on an end - around play as the team drove to a fourth - and - goal on the Atlanta 1 - yard line. On the next play, LeGarrette Blount finished the 86 - yard drive with a rush for the touchdown, putting the team up 6 -- 3 with 10: 28 left in the half; Jake Elliott hit the upright on his extra point attempt.
Atlanta had to punt on their next drive, but the ball bounced into Eagles blocker Bryan Braman and was recovered by Falcons linebacker LaRoy Reynolds on the Philadelphia 18 - yard line, where they went on to go up 10 -- 6 with Matt Ryan 's six - yard touchdown pass to running back Devonta Freeman. Following a punt from each team, Philadelphia got the ball on their own 28 - yard line with 46 seconds left in the half. Quarterback Nick Foles then completed passes to Corey Clement, Torrey Smith and Alshon Jeffery for gains of 7, 20 and 15 yards, setting up Elliott 's 53 - yard field goal, which cut the score to 10 -- 9 at halftime.
With just under six minutes left in the third quarter, the Eagles got the ball on their own 7 - yard line due to a 39 - yard punt by Matt Bosher. From there, Foles completed 5 of 7 passes for 70 yards -- Jeffery caught three of them for 46 -- on a 74 - yard, 12 - play drive to take the lead at 12 -- 10 with Elliott 's 37 - yard field goal. Elliott 's ensuing kickoff went out of bounds, giving Atlanta good field position on their own 40 - yard line. On the next play, the last of the third quarter, Ryan was sacked for a 10 - yard loss by safety Rodney McLeod. The Falcons ended up going three - and - out, and their defense was soon back on the field trying to contain another long Eagles drive. This one went for 14 plays and 80 yards, 32 of them on a reception by Ajayi, taking 7: 57 off the clock. Desmond Trufant managed to end the drive on the Falcons ' 3 - yard line by tackling Clement a yard short of a first down on third - and - 3. However, Elliott kicked his third field goal on the next play, giving Philadelphia a 15 -- 10 lead with 6: 02 remaining. Atlanta took the ball back and drove to a first down on the Eagles ' 9 - yard line, featuring a 20 - yard reception by Julio Jones on fourth - and - 6. After throwing incomplete passes on the next two plays, Ryan threw a seven - yard pass to Jones on the 2 - yard line. Then with 1: 05 left, Ryan tried to connect with Jones in the end zone, but the pass went just through his hands, enabling the Eagles to get the ball and run out the clock.
Filling in for injured starter Carson Wentz, Foles completed 23 of 30 passes for 246 yards. Ajayi rushed for 54 yards and caught three passes for 44 yards. Ryan completed 22 of 36 passes for 210 yards and a touchdown. Jones caught nine passes for 101 yards, and rushed for 21 yards, while Tevin Coleman was the top rusher of the game with 10 carries for 79 yards, while also catching a pass for 14 yards.
With the win, the Eagles won their first playoff game and advanced to their first NFC Championship appearance since 2008, and their first at home since 2004.
at Gillette Stadium, Foxborough, Massachusetts
New England racked up eight sacks, 438 yards, and 31 first downs as they advanced to their seventh consecutive AFC Championship game.
Midway through the first quarter, Tennessee drove 95 yards in 11 plays, featuring a 36 - yard completion from Marcus Mariota to tight end Delanie Walker. Mariota finished the drive with a 15 - yard touchdown pass to Corey Davis, who made a running one - handed catch in the back corner of the end zone to put the Titans up 7 -- 0. However, the Patriots stormed right back, with Tom Brady completing five consecutive passes for 67 yards, the longest a 32 - yard completion to Dion Lewis and the last a five - yard shovel pass to James White for a touchdown that tied the score. After a Tennessee punt, Brady completed three consecutive passes for 28 yards as the team drove 48 yards in six plays to go up 14 -- 7 on White 's six - yard touchdown run with 9: 20 left in the half.
The next time New England got the ball, they had to punt after three plays, but a neutral zone infraction penalty on Titans defensive back Brynden Trawick gave them a first down. Taking advantage of their second chance, they ended up driving 91 yards in 16 plays to take a 21 -- 7 lead on Brady 's six - yard touchdown pass to Chris Hogan. Tennessee then drove to the Patriots ' 46 - yard line; on fourth - and - 1, Derrick Henry tried to run for a first down, but defensive backs Malcolm Butler and Stephon Gilmore tackled him for no gain. With 17 seconds left, the Patriots were able to get to the Titans ' 35 - yard line with time remaining, but Stephen Gostkowski missed a 53 - yard field goal attempt as time expired. In the first half alone, Brady completed 21 of 31 passes for 206 yards and two touchdowns.
In the third quarter, Brett Kern 's 40 - yard punt from his own 16 - yard line gave the Patriots good field position on their 44 - yard line. On the next play, Brady completed a 27 - yard pass to tight end Rob Gronkowski, and the team went on to increase their lead to 28 -- 7 with Brandon Bolden 's two - yard touchdown run. The next time New England got the ball, they went on a 15 - play, 90 - yard drive in which they only faced two third downs. Brady completed seven passes for 78 yards on the drive, the longest a 25 - yard throw to Danny Amendola, and finished it off with a four - yard touchdown toss to Gronkowski, making the score 35 -- 7 with 10: 22 left. Before the end of the quarter, the Titans were able to make it 35 -- 14 with Mariota 's 11 - yard touchdown pass to Davis on fourth down at the end of an 80 - yard, 16 - play drive.
At 40 years, 163 days, Brady became the oldest quarterback ever to lead his team to victory in a postseason game, finishing the day 35 - of - 53 for 337 yards and three touchdowns. Amendola caught 11 passes for 112 yards, while also returning three punts for 18 yards. Lewis rushed for 62 yards, caught nine passes for 79 yards, and returned a kickoff for 27 yards. Linebacker Geneo Grissom and defensive tackle Deatrich Wise Jr. each had two sacks for New England. Mariota completed 22 of 37 passes for 225 yards and two touchdowns.
This game set the NFL postseason record for largest the age difference between opposing quarterbacks: Brady was 40 and Mariota was 24.
at Heinz Field, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Jacksonville built up a 28 -- 7 first - half lead and held off a second - half Steelers comeback to win the fourth highest scoring NFL playoff game.
The Jaguars drove 66 yards in eight plays on their opening drive, with Blake Bortles completing passes to tight ends Ben Koyack and James O'Shaughnessy for gains of 21 and 19 yards on the way to a one - yard fourth - down touchdown run by Leonard Fournette. Later in the first quarter, linebacker Myles Jack intercepted a pass from Steelers quarterback Ben Roethlisberger on the Pittsburgh 18 - yard line, and Fournette increased Jacksonville 's lead to 14 -- 0 with a touchdown run on the next play. The Steelers responded with a drive to the Jacksonville 21 - yard line, but on fourth - and - 1, running back Le'Veon Bell was tackled by Jalen Ramsey and Malik Jackson for a four - yard loss. The Jaguars then drove 75 yards in 11 plays and scored on T.J. Yeldon 's 4 - yard touchdown run, increasing their lead to 21 -- 0 with just over 11 minutes left in the half.
This time, the Steelers responded with a 64 - yard scoring drive, featuring a 21 - yard run by Bell and ending on Roethlisberger 's 23 - yard touchdown pass to Antonio Brown. But the next time Pittsburgh got the ball, Roethlisberger lost a fumble while being sacked by Yannick Ngakoue. Linebacker Telvin Smith recovered the ball and returned it 50 yards for a touchdown, making the score 28 -- 7 with less than two minutes left until halftime. However, the Jaguars were penalized 15 yards for excessive celebration, and then Cameron Sutton returned the ensuing kickoff 22 yards to the Jacksonville 49 - yard line. Pittsburgh went on to drive 51 yards and cut their deficit to 28 -- 14 on Roethlisberger 's 36 - yard touchdown completion to Martavis Bryant with 25 seconds remaining.
The Steelers drove 77 yards in 10 plays on their opening drive of the second half, cutting their deficit to 28 -- 21 with Roethlisberger 's 19 - yard touchdown pass to Bell. Early in the final period, the Steelers got the ball on the Jaguars ' 48 - yard line due to a deflected punt, but ended up turning the ball over with an incomplete pass on fourth - and - 1. On the ensuing Jacksonville drive, Bortles ' 45 - yard completion to Keelan Cole put them on the Steelers ' 3 - yard line, and Fournette ran the ball in for a touchdown on the next play, giving the Jaguars a 35 -- 21 lead. This was the start of a scoring run from both teams, cumulatively totaling 38 points in the fourth quarter. After Fournette 's score, Roethlisberger started the next drive with a 21 - yard completion to Brown, and eventually ended it with a 43 - yard touchdown pass to Brown that cut the score to 35 -- 28. Jacksonville stormed right back, moving the ball 75 yards in eight plays, one of them a 40 - yard completion from Bortles to Yeldon on third - and - 5. Fullback Tommy Bohanon caught a 14 - yard touchdown pass from Bortles with 4: 19 left, giving the Jaguars a 42 -- 28 lead. The Steelers responded by moving the ball 75 yards in 12 plays, the longest a 22 - yard reception from Bell. Bell finished the drive with an eight - yard touchdown run, reducing his team 's deficit to 42 -- 35 with 2: 19 to play. However, Pittsburgh failed to recover their ensuing onside kick attempt, resulting in Jacksonville getting the ball back on the Steelers ' 36 - yard line and leading to a 45 - yard Josh Lambo field goal that put the Jaguars up 45 -- 35. Pittsburgh then drove 75 yards in 10 plays, including a 42 - yard completion from Roethlisberger to Brown. He ended up throwing a four - yard touchdown pass to JuJu Smith - Schuster, but by then, one second remained.
Bortles completed 14 of 26 passes for 214 yards and a touchdown. Fournette was the top rusher of the game with 25 carries for 109 yards and three touchdowns, along with two receptions for 10 yards. Setting several franchise playoff records, Roethlisberger completed 37 of 58 passes for 469 yards -- the second highest total in NFL postseason history, behind Bernie Kosar 's 489 - yard tally, from January 1987 -- with five touchdowns and an interception. Bell rushed for 67 yards and a touchdown, while also catching nine passes for 88 yards, while Brown caught seven passes for 132 yards and two touchdowns. Tight end Vance McDonald also went over 100 yards receiving, making 10 receptions for 112 yards. The Steelers lost despite gaining 545 yards of total offense, the most yards gained by a losing team in a playoff game (this record would later be surpassed by the Patriots in Super Bowl LII).
at U.S. Bank Stadium, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Vikings quarterback Case Keenum 's 61 - yard pass to Stefon Diggs on the game 's final play sent them to the NFC title game for the first time since the 2009 season and marked the first time in the NFL postseason that a game was won with a touchdown on the final play of regulation. The game has been referred to as the "Minneapolis Miracle. ''
Minnesota dominated the first half, building up a 17 -- 0 lead. The Saints had to punt on their opening drive, and Marcus Sherels returned the ball 19 yards to the Vikings ' 45 - yard line before being tackled by punter Thomas Morstead. The Vikings then drove 55 yards in eight plays, including a 22 - yard catch by Jarius Wright on third - and - 3, to score on Jerick McKinnon 's 14 - yard touchdown run. The next time they got the ball, two pass interference penalties on defensive back Ken Crawley gave the Vikings 54 yards on a 79 - yard drive that ended with Kai Forbath 's 20 - yard field goal, increasing their lead to 10 -- 0. Following two more possessions, Vikings safety Andrew Sendejo intercepted a pass from Drew Brees, giving Minnesota the ball on their own 42 - yard line with 1: 06 left in the first quarter. Keenum went 5 - of - 7 for 54 yards on a 58 - yard drive that ended with Latavius Murray 's one - yard touchdown run, giving the Vikings a 17 -- 0 lead.
New Orleans responded with a drive to the Vikings ' 14 - yard line, but lost their chance to score when Brees threw a pass that was tipped at the line by Everson Griffen and intercepted by linebacker Anthony Barr. Then after a punt, Brees led the team to the Minnesota 30 - yard line. But after two incompletions, Brees was sacked by safety Harrison Smith for a 10 - yard loss, and Wil Lutz missed a 58 - yard field goal attempt with 26 seconds left in the half. The Vikings would also get a field goal try before halftime, which resulted in Forbath missing from 49 yards out.
Minnesota took the opening kickoff and drove to the Saints ' 30 - yard line. However, in what turned out to be a crucial turning point, Keenum was sacked by Sheldon Rankins for a 10 - yard loss on third down, pushing the team out of field goal range. New Orleans took the ball back and drove 80 yards in 12 plays, featuring a 23 - yard reception by receiver Michael Thomas. Brees finished the drive with a 14 - yard touchdown pass to Thomas, putting New Orleans on the board at 17 -- 7. Then on the first play after the kickoff, Keenum threw a pass that was intercepted by rookie safety Marcus Williams, who returned it 12 yards to the Vikings ' 30 - yard line. New Orleans then drove for another touchdown, scoring on Brees ' three - yard pass to Thomas that narrowed the gap to 17 -- 14 with 13: 09 left in the game.
Minnesota responded with a seven - play, 44 - yard drive that included a 27 - yard completion from Keenum to Wright and ended on Forbath 's 49 - yard field goal that increased the Vikings ' lead to 20 -- 14. Furthermore, Saints coach Sean Payton lost two timeouts on the drive as a result of failed replay challenges. After forcing the Saints to punt, the Vikings ran the clock under six minutes before having to kick the ball back to New Orleans. Saints lineman George Johnson blocked the punt, enabling his team to take over on the Vikings ' 40 - yard line. From there, Brees completed four consecutive passes, the last one a 14 - yard touchdown completion to running back Alvin Kamara, giving them their first lead of the game at 21 -- 20 with 3: 01 left. Undaunted, the Vikings stormed back, mainly on the strength of a 24 - yard Adam Thielen reception, moving the ball to the Saints 35 - yard line, where Forbath made a 53 - yard field goal that gave the team a 23 -- 21 lead with 1: 29 remaining. Brees was able to answer, throwing an 18 - yard pass to tight end Josh Hill, an 11 - yard pass to Ted Ginn Jr. and a 13 - yard completion to Willie Snead on fourth - and - 10. Minnesota eventually halted the drive on their own 25 - yard line, where Lutz kicked a 43 - yard field goal.
The Vikings were now down 24 -- 23 with 25 seconds and one timeout left. After a touchback and a false start penalty put the ball on the 20 - yard line, Keenum completed a 19 - yard pass to Diggs on the 39 - yard line, where the team promptly called their last timeout. Following two incomplete passes, they faced third - and - 10 with 10 seconds left. On the next play, Keenum threw a deep pass to Diggs near the right sideline, who made a leaping catch near the Saints ' 35 - yard line. Williams was in front of Diggs when he made the catch, but while trying to make a tackle, he completely missed Diggs and instead collided with Crawley, leaving the receiver with no one around him. Diggs nearly fell over at this point, but was able to stay on his feet by using his off - hand and stay in bounds as he ran all the way to the end zone for a 61 - yard touchdown completion to give the Vikings a 29 -- 24 win. After several minutes of pandemonium, the Vikings knelt on the extra point try to close out the victory.
Keenum completed 25 of 40 passes for 318 yards, a touchdown and an interception. Diggs was the game 's leading receiver with six receptions for 137 yards and a touchdown. Like Keenum, Brees also finished the game 25 - of - 40, but for 294 yards, three touchdowns and two interceptions. Kamara rushed for 43 yards, while also catching six passes for 72 yards and a touchdown.
at Gillette Stadium, Foxborough, Massachusetts
This was the first conference championship game to feature a team from Florida in 15 years (the Super Bowl XXXVII champion Tampa Bay Buccaneers won the 2002 NFC championship game). New England overcame a 10 - point deficit in the fourth quarter to earn the franchise 's 10th Super Bowl appearance.
On the opening drive of the game, Patriots quarterback Tom Brady completed a 31 - yard pass to Brandin Cooks and a 20 - yard pass to wide receiver Danny Amendola on fourth - and - 1 as the team drove 62 yards in 10 plays to score on Stephen Gostkowski 's 31 - yard field goal. Following a pair of punts, Jacksonville quarterback Blake Bortles completed two passes to running back Corey Grant for 44 total yards as the team drove 76 yards in seven plays to take a 7 -- 3 lead on a four - yard touchdown pass to tight end Marcedes Lewis on the second play of the second quarter. The next time they got the ball, Bortles completed all four pass attempts for 47 yards, one of them a 27 - yard completion to Allen Hurns, as the team drove 77 yards in 10 plays to score on Leonard Fournette 's four - yard touchdown run, increasing their lead to 14 -- 3.
On the Jaguars ' next drive, they moved the ball to a third - and - 7 on the Patriots ' 47 - yard line. Bortles completed a 12 - yard pass to Lewis that would have picked up a first down, but the team was flagged for a delay of game and Bortles was sacked by Adam Butler on the next play. New England got the ball on their own 15 - yard line with 2: 02 left in the half, and proceeded to drive 85 yards in six plays -- 47 yards from Jaguars penalties -- to score on James White 's 1 - yard touchdown run, cutting the score to 14 -- 10. However, Jacksonville safety Barry Church delivered a helmet - to - helmet hit on Patriots tight end Rob Gronkowski. Church drew a 15 - yard penalty, and Gronkowski was escorted off for medical testing that determined that he had suffered a concussion. Jacksonville got the ball back with 55 seconds and all three timeouts remaining, but chose to run out the clock and go to halftime, a choice that would later earn them criticism, as no team had deliberately run the first half clock out with more than 50 seconds left during the season.
Jacksonville received the second half kickoff and drove 39 yards in nine plays, with 20 yards from a reception by fullback Tommy Bohanon. Josh Lambo finished the drive with a 54 - yard field goal, increasing his team 's lead to 17 -- 10. Later in the period, the Jaguars advanced 66 yards in 11 plays, including 18 yards on a completion from Bortles to Marqise Lee on third - and - 3. On the second play of the fourth quarter, Lambo scored with a 43 - yard field goal, making the score 20 -- 10. The game seemed to be slipping away from New England, particularly on their ensuing drive when linebacker Myles Jack forced and recovered a fumble from Dion Lewis on a trick play in which Amendola completed a forward pass to Lewis on the Jacksonville 33 - yard line. However, the New England defense rose to the occasion and forced a three - and - out. Taking the ball back on the Patriots ' 15 - yard line, Brady started the drive with an 18 - yard pass to Cooks, and then converted a third - and - 18 with a 21 - yard completion to Amendola on the 46 - yard line. From there, Brady completed passes to Phillip Dorsett for 31 yards and Amendola for 14 yards before finishing the drive with a nine - yard touchdown pass to Amendola, making the score 20 -- 17.
Following a pair of punts, Ryan Allen 's 35 - yard kick pinned the Jaguars back at their own 10 - yard line. The Jaguars lost one yard over their next three plays, and then Amendola returned Brad Nortman 's 41 - yard punt 20 yards to the Jacksonville 30 - yard line with 4: 58 left. From there, New England drove 30 yards in five plays, scoring on Brady 's four - yard touchdown pass to Amendola to take a 24 -- 20 lead with 2: 48 left. After taking the ball back, Bortles ' 29 - yard completion to Dede Westbrook gave the Jaguars a first down on the Patriots ' 38 - yard line. But over the next two plays, Bortles threw an incompletion and then fumbled the ball while being sacked by linebacker Kyle Van Noy. Jacksonville tackle Cam Robinson recovered the fumble, but the team lost nine yards on the play, bringing up third - and - 19. After a four - yard pass to James O'Shaughnessy, Bortles ' next pass was swatted away by Stephon Gilmore, causing a turnover on downs with 1: 47 left. New England got a key first down on third - and - 10 with an 18 - yard run by Lewis that let them run out the clock.
Brady completed 26 of 38 passes for 290 yards and two touchdowns, Cooks was the top receiver of the game with six receptions for 100 yards, while Amendola caught seven passes for 84 yards and two touchdowns, and also returning two punts for 24 yards. Van Noy had nine tackles -- including five solo tackles -- a sack and a forced fumble. Bortles completed 23 of 36 passes for 293 yards and a touchdown, while Fournette was the leading rusher of the game with 76 yards and a touchdown and Hurns was the Jaguars ' leading receiver with six receptions for 80 yards.
at Lincoln Financial Field, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
This was the first time a Super Bowl host team had appeared in the conference championship. Although the Vikings scored with their opening drive, they were soon buried by Philadelphia, who racked up 456 total yards and 38 unanswered points. Meanwhile, the Vikings ' seven drives after their game - opening touchdown would result in three punts, two interceptions, two turnovers on downs, and one lost fumble.
Minnesota drove 75 yards in nine plays on their first possession, taking a 7 -- 0 lead with Case Keenum 's 25 - yard touchdown pass to tight end Kyle Rudolph. The Eagles had to punt on their next drive, but after moving the ball to the 43 - yard line, Keenum threw a pass that was intercepted by cornerback Patrick Robinson and returned 50 yards for a touchdown. Following a Vikings punt, Philadelphia drove 75 yards in 12 plays to take a 14 -- 7 lead. Jay Ajayi started the drive with two carries for 20 yards, while Nick Foles converted a third - and - 10 with an 11 - yard completion to Zach Ertz and LeGarrette Blount finished the drive with an 11 - yard rushing score on the third play of the second quarter. Later on, the Vikings drove to a third - and - 5 on the Eagles ' 16 - yard line. But on the next play, Derek Barnett forced a fumble while sacking Keenum and defensive end Chris Long recovered the ball. Philadelphia then drove 76 yards in six plays, scoring on Foles ' 53 - yard touchdown pass to Alshon Jeffery to go up 21 -- 7 with 3: 16 left in the half. Following a punt, the Eagles got the ball on their 20 - yard line with 29 seconds on the clock. Foles started the drive with an 11 - yard pass to Ajayi, who managed to get out of bounds, before throwing a 36 - yard completion on Ertz on the Vikings ' 33 - yard line. On the next play, Foles ' 13 - yard completion to Ajayi moved the ball to the 20 yard line with four seconds left, where Jake Elliott kicked a 38 - yard field goal, making the score 24 -- 7 at halftime.
The Eagles increased their lead to 31 -- 7 less than five minutes into the second half, scoring with Foles ' 41 - yard touchdown pass to Torrey Smith on a flea - flicker play. The Vikings responded with a drive to a first - and - goal on the Eagles ' seven - yard line. After three incomplete passes, Keenum threw a pass to Adam Thielen that was initially ruled a touchdown, but overturned to an incomplete pass after replays showed the ball had hit the ground, causing a turnover on downs. The Eagles took over and drove 92 yards in 12 plays, including a 42 - yard completion from Foles to Nelson Agholor on third - and - 5. Foles finished the drive with a five - yard touchdown pass to Jeffery on the second play of the fourth quarter, making the score 38 -- 7. The Vikings had only two drives on the final period, one of them ending with a turnover on downs and another with an interception by Eagles defensive back Corey Graham.
Foles completed 26 of 33 passes for 352 yards and three touchdowns, Ertz was the leading receiver of the game with eight receptions for 93 yards, while Jeffery caught five passes for 85 yards and two touchdowns. Ajayi rushed for 73 yards and caught three passes for 26 yards. Keenum finished the game 28 - of - 48 for 271 yards and a touchdown, with two interceptions, while Jerick McKinnon was the Vikings ' leading rusher with 40 yards, and their leading receiver with 11 receptions for 86 yards.
at U.S. Bank Stadium, Minneapolis, Minnesota
All playoff games were broadcast nationally on network television.
ABC and ESPN simulcast 1 AFC Wild Card game, while CBS broadcast all other AFC playoff games. Coverage of the NFC Wild Card and Divisional rounds was split between Fox and NBC, with each network having coverage of one game in each of those two rounds. CBS had exclusive coverage of the AFC Championship Game. Fox had exclusive coverage of the NFC Championship Game. NBC had exclusive coverage of Super Bowl LII.
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who sang papa was a rolling stone first | Papa Was a Rollin ' Stone - wikipedia
"Papa Was a Rollin ' Stone '' is a psychedelic soul song, written by Motown songwriters Norman Whitfield and Barrett Strong as a single for Motown act The Undisputed Truth in 1971. This version of "Papa '' was released as a single in early 1972 and peaked at # 63 on the Pop Charts and # 24 on the R&B Charts, and was included on The Undisputed Truth 's 1973 album Law of the Land.
Later that year, Whitfield, who also produced the song, took "Papa Was a Rollin ' Stone '' and remade it as a 12 - minute record for The Temptations, which was a number - one hit on the Billboard Hot 100 and won three Grammy Awards in 1973. While the original Undisputed Truth version of the song has been largely forgotten, The Temptations ' version of the song has been an enduring and influential soul classic. It was ranked number 168 on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, one of the group 's three songs on the list. In retrospect, The Temptations ' Otis Williams considers "Papa '' to be the last real classic the group recorded (it would be the Temptations ' last number one hit and would win them their second and final Grammy Award in a competitive category).
Beginning with an extended instrumental introduction (3: 53 in length), each of the song 's three verses is separated by extended musical passages, in which Whitfield brings various instrumental textures in and out of the mix. A solo plucked bass guitar part, backed by hi - hat cymbals drumming, establishes the musical theme, a simple three - note figure; the bass is gradually joined by other instruments, including a blues guitar, wah - wah guitar, Wurlitzer Electric Piano notes, handclaps, horns, and strings; all are tied together by the ever - present bass guitar line and repeating hi - hat rhythm. A very unusual thing about this song is that it uses only one chord throughout -- B - flat minor.
Vocal jobs are performed in a true ensemble style: Temptations singers Dennis Edwards, Melvin Franklin, Richard Street (who was a frequent fill - in for Paul Williams and his eventual replacement) and Damon Harris (who had replaced Eddie Kendricks as the group 's falsetto singer the previous year) alternate vocal lines, taking the role of siblings questioning their mother about their now - deceased father; their increasingly pointed questions, and the mother 's repeated response ("Papa was a rollin ' stone / wherever he laid his hat was his home / and when he died, all he left us was alone '') paint a somber picture for the children who have never seen their father and have "never heard nothing but bad things about him. ''
Friction arose during the recording of "Papa Was a Rollin ' Stone '' for a number of reasons. The Temptations did not like the fact that Whitfield 's instrumentation had been getting more emphasis than their vocals on their songs at the time, and that they had to press Whitfield to get him to produce ballads for the group. Norman Whitfield forced Dennis Edwards to re-record his parts dozens of times until he finally got the angered, bitter grumble he desired out of the usually fiery - toned Edwards. Whitfield 's treatment of the group eventually led to his dismissal as their producer. Although legend was that Edwards was angered by the song 's first verse: "It was the third of September / That day I 'll always remember / ' cause that was the day / that my daddy died '', as his father was said to have died on that date. It actually was on the third of October, however.
The guitar parts were played by a young Paul Warren and Melvin "Wah - Wah Watson '' Ragin The Temptations ' version of "Papa Was a Rollin ' Stone '' followed in the extended - length "cinematic soul '' tradition of the work of Isaac Hayes and others, and future songs like Donna Summer 's fourteen - minute "Love to Love You Baby '' and the instrumentals of MFSB expanded upon the concept in the mid-1970s.
A seven - minute edited version of "Papa Was a Rollin ' Stone '' was released as a single in September 1972. For this mix, congas were added to bolster the song 's sparse percussion; this version appeared on the 1973 Anthology triple LP. The Temptations ' box set Emperors of Soul has the edited version in stereo, but without the congas. The B - side was the instrumental backing by The Funk Brothers without the Temptations ' vocals (except for a single "Unngh! '' at the end of the second verse). "Papa '' rose to number one on the U.S. pop charts and number five on the U.S. R&B charts, becoming the Temptations ' final pop number - one hit. The song, the anchor of the 1972 Temptations album All Directions, won three 1973 Grammys: its a-side won for Best R&B Vocal Performance by a Group; its B - side won for Best R&B Instrumental (awarded to Whitfield and arranger / conductor Paul Riser); and Whitfield and Barrett Strong won for Best R&B Song as the song 's composers.
A number of notable covers of "Papa Was a Rollin ' Stone '' have been recorded:
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what's the difference between black pudding and white pudding | White pudding - wikipedia
White pudding or oatmeal pudding is a meat dish popular in Ireland, Scotland, Northumberland, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland. White pudding is similar to black pudding, but does not include blood; it consists of pork meat and fat, suet, bread and oatmeal formed into a large sausage. Hog 's pudding, made in Somerset, Cornwall and Devon, is similar, although it is much spicier as it contains black pepper, cumin, basil and garlic.
White pudding may be cooked whole or cut into slices and fried or grilled. It is an important feature of the traditional Irish breakfast.
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who sings i can't drink you away | Drink You Away - wikipedia
"Drink You Away '' is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Justin Timberlake for his fourth studio album, The 20 / 20 Experience -- 2 of 2 (2013). It was written and produced by Timberlake, Timothy "Timbaland '' Mosley and Jerome "J - Roc '' Harmon, with additional writing from James Fauntleroy. It was sent to US country radio stations on November 23, 2015 as the fourth and final single from the album. Musically, it was defined by critics as a multi-genre song including classic rock, country pop, gospel blues and Memphis soul. Lyrically, on the track, Timberlake compares love to alcoholism while making references to several alcoholic brands including Jack Daniel 's and Jim Beam. As of May 2016, the song has sold over 600,000 copies in the US.
"Drink You Away '' received generally positive response from contemporary critics, with some of them labeling the song as a highlight and one of the most impressive moments on the album. Timberlake performed the song at the 2013 American Music Awards and it was part of the set list of The 20 / 20 Experience World Tour (2013 -- 15). In November 2015, the singer together with Chris Stapleton gave a rendition of track at the 2015 Country Music Association Awards; following it, "Drink You Away '' sold 76,000 digital copies and debuted at number five on the US Hot Digital Songs chart. It also peaked at number 85 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart.
"Drink You Away '' was written by Timberlake, Timothy "Timbaland '' Mosley, Jerome "J - Roc '' Harmon and James Fauntleroy. The song was produced by Timbaland, Timberlake and Harmon while Jones provided additional production. It was recorded the Larrabee Studios in North Hollywood, Los Angeles. Timberlake arranged and produced his vocals. Harmon provided keyboards for the song, while Ives played the guitar. The track was engineered by Chris Godbey and mixed by Jimmy Douglass, Godbey and Timberlake; for the process they were assisted by Alejandro Baima. The keyboards were provided by Harmon. It was sent to country radio in the United States on November 23, 2015, as the fourth and final single from The 20 / 20 Experience -- 2 of 2 (2013). Regarding the single release, Sony Music Nashville executive vice president, promotion / artist development Steve Hodges stated, "we received several requests from key programmers and we decided to get them a shortened version (of "Drink You Away '') so they did n't have to air the longer cut from the album, '' adding "our promotion staffs will not be actively working the single, we simply wanted to make the song easily accessible for country radio. Now they have it and can play it if they 'd like '' in an interview for Billboard.
"Drink You Away '' runs for a duration of five minutes and thirty - one seconds, while its radio edit lasts for four minutes and fifteen seconds. Chris Bosman of Time magazine described the track as a country - pop. On the other hand, Greg Kot of Chicago Tribune thought that it was a gospel - blues song, while according to The A.V. Club 's Annie Zaleski it is a classic - rock "homage ''. Kira Willis of Starpulse.com noted that "Drink You Away '' is an "unabashed '' Memphis soul song, "steeped in a gritty country riff. '' Its instrumentation includes organ and acoustic guitar; elements of pop and rock music can be heard in the song 's guitar.
Lyrically, the song features references to several alcoholic drinks which can be seen in the lyrics, "I ca n't drink you away. I 've tried Jack, I 've tried Jim... Now, tell me baby, do they make a medicine for heartbreak. '' Brad Stern of MTV News described it as a "plethora of alcohol references, and a whole lot of bluesy sorrow. '' According to Stacy - Ann Ellis of Vibe magazine, the song 's lyrics continue the "druggy love analogy '' which Timberlake started with some of the lyrical themes on The 20 / 20 Experience (2013) most particularly on, "Pusher Love Girl ''; she noted that he is "trying to drown a bitter memory of her by opening up a bar tab and taking Tennessee whiskies to the head. '' Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine described "Drink You Away '' as a "honky - tonking '' song on which the singer compares his love to alcoholism.
HitFix 's Melinda Newman gave "Drink You Away '' an A grade and called it "the best '' and "the most captivating track '' on The 20 / 20 Experience -- 2 of 2, "with potential to be ' 2 of 2 's ' '' "Mirrors ''. Similarly, Stern of MTV News thought that the song was one of the biggest surprises and one of the most impressive tracks on the album. Lewis Corner of Digital Spy labeled it as a "highlight '' on the album and encouraged Timberlake to further explore the "Tennessee swagger '' present on the track.
PopMatters ' Brice Ezell called the song a "hat trick '' on the album and also described it as one of its most "weirdest '' and "successful '' moments. According to him, the way Timberlake lists the beverages in the lyrics it 's an unorthodox style for the singer and in addition it differs musically from the rest of the material on the album, however, "for whatever reason, though, it works ''. He also noted that the song would suit better on a Montgomery Gentry LP. Kory Grow of Rolling Stone described it as a "a big genre - bending, feel - good sing - along that really actually does feels good. '' Jason King for Spin called the song "organ - laced '' and thought it was "a surefire hit, a country twanger lifted to heaven by Timberlake 's quilted, hermetic harmonies. ''
Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork Media thought that "his heartbrokenness falls flat '' on the song which he further described as "plastic blues '' and compared it to the works of the American country singer, Kid Rock. Variety 's Andrew Barker described "Drink You Away '' as one of the "lows '' on the album and compared it to the music of Rock and Lynyrd Skynyrd. Stephen Carlick of Exclaim! concluded that the track, "relies too heavily on repetition ''.
Following Timberlake 's performance at the Country Music Association Awards, for the issue dated November 21, 2015, the song sold 76,000 digital copies and appeared at number five on the US Hot Digital Songs chart. It has since peaked at number 5. For the chart dated February 6, 2016, the song debuted at number 60 on Billboard 's Country Airplay chart and climbed 38 - 36 on the Mainstream Top 40 radio airplay chart. The single is his 26th entry on the latter as a solo artist. It has also peaked at number 17 on the US Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart. As of May 2016, it has sold 609,085 copies in the United States.
"Drink You Away '' also peaked at number 85 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart. In South Korea, following the release of the parent album, the song sold 2,358 digital copies and peaked at number 96 on the Gaon Digital Chart.
Timberlake performed "Drink You Away '' for the first time at the 2013 American Music Awards held at the Nokia Theatre in Los Angeles; Rolling Stone 's Grow ranked the performance at number five out of 16 performances that night. The song was part of the setlist of The 20 / 20 Experience World Tour (2013 -- 15). Timberlake and Chris Stapleton performed the song together along with the latter 's "Tennessee Whiskey '' at the Country Music Association Awards on November 4, 2015. Rolling Stone magazine praised it as "the best performance of the entire show '', while The New York Times editor Katie Rogers highlighted Timberlake 's crossover appeal. Entertainment Weekly declared it as one of the best performances of 2015 and wrote, "In an unapologetic display of talent, Nashville met Motown during country music 's biggest night for a hands - in - the - air, take - us - to - church mash - up that was everything you hope for from an all - star duet. ''
American country music artist Craig Morgan has performed the song at several of his concerts. David Fanning 's cover of "Drink You Away '' peaked at number 58 on the Country Airplay chart.
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The 20 / 20 Experience -- 2 of 2.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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which of the following is not a package in the java api | List of Java APIs - wikipedia
There are two types of Java programming language application programming interfaces (APIs):
The following is a partial list of application programming interfaces (APIs) for Java.
Following is a very incomplete list, as the number of APIs available for the Java platform is overwhelming.
Real time Java is a catch - all term for a combination of technologies that allows programmers to write programs that meet the demands of real - time systems in the Java programming language.
Java 's sophisticated memory management, native support for threading and concurrency, type safety, and relative simplicity have created a demand for its use in many domains. Its capabilities have been enhanced to support real time computational needs:
To overcome typical real time difficulties, the Java Community introduced a specification for real - time Java, JSR001. A number of implementations of the resulting Real - Time Specification for Java (RTSJ) have emerged, including a reference implementation from Timesys, IBM 's WebSphere Real Time, Sun Microsystems 's Java SE Real - Time Systems, Aonix PERC or JamaicaVM from aicas.
The RTSJ addressed the critical issues by mandating a minimum (only two) specification for the threading model (and allowing other models to be plugged into the VM) and by providing for areas of memory that are not subject to garbage collection, along with threads that are not preemptable by the garbage collector. These areas are instead managed using region - based memory management.
The Real - Time Specification for Java (RTSJ) is a set of interfaces and behavioral refinements that enable real - time computer programming in the Java programming language. RTSJ 1.0 was developed as JSR 1 under the Java Community Process, which approved the new standard in November, 2001. RTSJ 2.0 is being developed under JSR 282. A draft version is available at JSR 282 JCP Page. More information can be found at RTSJ 2.0
The windowing library is a set of classes available in the Streams Processing Language (SPL) Runtime C++ API and the SPL Java TM Operator API. The library is used to implement primitive operators that need windows following the SPL window semantics. Using the windowing library provides a consistent window policy semantic across operators, and simplifies the operator implementation.
SPL offers both tumbling and sliding windows. Both types of windows keep all the incoming data in memory until its tuple eviction policy triggers. Use the SPL support for windows when the functionality required by the primitive operator can be built using the semantics provided by SPL window constructs.
One example operator from the SPL Standard Toolkit that uses the windowing library and syntax is the Aggregate operator. An example operator that buffers recently received tuples but that does not use the windowing library and syntax is the DeDuplicate operator. This action occurs because this operator has different eviction and trigger semantics than the ones provided by SPL. This operator needs to maintain only unique tuples and discards all repeated tuples that are received within a time window.
With the windowing library, developers can specify different eviction and trigger policies but can implement the event handling actions independently of the window policy details. There are a few differences when implementing primitive operators in C++ and Java that take advantage of the SPL window clause.
In the C++ implementation, developers have no obligation to use the window library (the preferred practice is to use library). They are free to use the SPL Operator Code Generation API just to get the specified window policy for a given operator instance. Then, they can generate code using other containers. In addition, developers can check for valid window configurations during code generation time.
In the Java implementation, developers must use the window library. This action can be achieved by registering a class that implements com. ibm. streams. operator. window. StreamWindowListener < T > that handles events generated by a window (com. ibm. streams. operator. window. StreamWindow < T >). This use is required because Java operators are not based on code generation. As a result, windows are automatically managed by the runtime to guarantee SPL window semantics. Developers can check for valid window configurations during runtime by checking the window policy associated to a given input port.
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ripened part of a flowering plant that contains seeds | Ovary (botany) - wikipedia
In the flowering plants, an ovary is a part of the female reproductive organ of the flower or gynoecium. Specifically, it is the part of the pistil which holds the ovule (s) and is located above or below or at the point of connection with the base of the petals and sepals. The pistil may be made up of one carpel or of several fused carpels (e.g. dicarpel or tricarpel), and therefore the ovary can contain part of one carpel or parts of several fused carpels. Above the ovary is the style and the stigma, which is where the pollen lands and germinates to grow down through the style to the ovary, and, for each individual pollen grain, to fertilize one individual ovule. Some wind pollinated flowers have much reduced and modified ovaries.
A fruit is the ripened ovary or ovaries -- together with seeds -- from one or more flowers. The fruits of a plant are responsible for dispersing the seeds that contain the embryo and protecting the seeds as well. In many species, the fruit incorporates some surrounding tissues, or is dispersed with some non-fruit tissues.
Locules are chambers within the ovary of the flower and fruits. The locules contain the ovules (seeds), and may or may not be filled with fruit flesh. Depending on the number of locules in the ovary, fruits can be classified as uni-locular (unilocular), bi-locular, tri-locular or multi-locular. Some plants have septa between the carpels; the number of locules present in a gynoecium may be equal to or less than the number of carpels, depending on whether septa are present.
The ovules are attached to parts of the interior ovary walls called the placentae. Placental areas occur in various positions, corresponding to various parts of the carpels that make up the ovary. See Ovule # Location within the plant. An obturator is present in the ovary of some plants, near the micropyle of each ovule. It is an outgrowth of the placenta, important in nourishing and guiding pollen tubes to the micropyle.
The ovary of some types of fruit is dehiscent; the ovary wall splits into sections called valves. There is no standard correspondence between the valves and the position of the septa; the valves may separate by splitting the septa (septicidal dehiscence) or by spitting between them (loculicidal dehiscence), or the ovary may open in other ways such as through pores or because a cap falls off.
The syncarpous ovary of this melon is made up of four carpels, and has one locule.
In this Peganum harmala, the ovary of a fruit has split into valves.
The seeds in a tomato fruit grow from placental areas at the interior of the ovary. (This is axile placentation in a bi-locular fruit.)
The placentae in Lunaria are along the margins of the fruit, where two carpels fuse. (This is parietal placentation in a bi-locular fruit.)
The valves of Lunaria fruit fall to reveal a septum that was between the two carpels of the ovary.
The terminology of the positions of ovaries is determined by the insertion point, where the other floral parts (perianth and androecium) come together and attach to the surface of the ovary. If the ovary is situated above the insertion point, it is superior; if below, inferior.
A superior ovary is an ovary attached to the receptacle above the attachment of other floral parts. A superior ovary is found in types of fleshy fruits such as true berries, drupes, etc. A flower with this arrangement is described as hypogynous. Examples of this ovary type include the legumes (beans and peas and their relatives).
A half - inferior ovary (also known as "half - superior '', "subinferior, '' or "partially inferior, '') is embedded or surrounded by the receptacle. This occurs in flowers of the Lythraceae family, which includes the Crape Myrtles. Such flowers are termed perigynous or half - epigynous. In some classifications, half - inferior ovaries are not recognized and are instead grouped with either the superior or inferior ovaries.
More specifically, a half - inferior ovary has nearly equal portions of ovary above and below the insertion point. Other varying degrees of inferiority can be described by other fractions. For instance, a "one - fifth inferior ovary '' has approximately one fifth of its length under the insertion point. Likewise, only one quarter portion of a "three - quarters inferior ovary '' is above the insertion.
An inferior ovary lies below the attachment of other floral parts. A pome is a type of fleshy fruit that is often cited as an example, but close inspection of some pomes (such as Pyracantha) will show that it is really a half - inferior ovary. Flowers with inferior ovaries are termed epigynous. Some examples of flowers with an inferior ovary are orchids (inferior capsule), Fuchsia (inferior berry), banana (inferior berry), Asteraceae (inferior achene - like fruit, called a cypsela) and the pepo of the squash, melon and gourd (Cucurbitaceae) family.
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who is ramsay snow on game of thrones | Ramsay Bolton - Wikipedia
Ramsay Bolton, formerly known as Ramsay Snow, is a fictional character in the A Song of Ice and Fire series of fantasy novels by American author George R.R. Martin, and its television adaptation Game of Thrones.
Introduced in 1998 's A Clash of Kings, Ramsay is the eldest son of Roose Bolton, the lord of the Dreadfort, an ancient fortress in the North of the kingdom of Westeros. He is subsequently mentioned in A Storm of Swords (2000) and A Feast for Crows (2005). He later appears in Martin 's A Dance with Dragons (2011).
Ramsay is portrayed by Welsh actor Iwan Rheon in the HBO television adaptation.
Ramsay Snow is the bastard son of Lord Roose Bolton, known as the Bastard of Bolton or the Bastard of the Dreadfort. A depraved sadist, he is renowned for his savage cruelty: he openly rapes and kills peasant women for sport, tortures prisoners, and enthusiastically engages in the Bolton custom of flaying their enemies alive. Roose suspects that Ramsay murdered Roose 's legitimate heir Domeric and expects that Ramsay will kill all of Roose 's future children. He is described as ugly, with blotchy skin and dry, dark hair.
Ramsay Bolton is not a point of view character in the novels, so his actions are witnessed and interpreted through the eyes of other people, such as Theon Greyjoy / Reek. Ramsay is mostly a background character in the novels.
Ramsay was portrayed in the HBO TV series by Welsh actor Iwan Rheon, who received positive reviews for his performance. Rheon had previously auditioned for the role of Jon Snow, which he lost to Kit Harington.
While his father is at war in A Clash of Kings, Ramsay is named castellan of the Dreadfort. After Lord Hornwood and his heir are killed fighting for Robb Stark, Ramsay forcibly marries Lady Hornwood to claim her lands, before starving her to death. He escapes justice by switching places with his servant Reek, who is killed instead; Rodrik Cassel brings Ramsay, in the guise of Reek, back to Winterfell, intending to have him testify to Ramsay 's crimes before being executed. However, Theon Greyjoy and the Ironborn capture Winterfell and release Ramsay in exchange for a vow of service to Theon. When Theon 's hostages escape, Ramsay murders two peasant boys and convinces Theon to present the corpses as those of Bran and Rickon Stark. As the Northerners move to take back Winterfell, Ramsay persuades Theon to let him ride to the Dreadfort to gather reinforcements. He returns with an army of Bolton soldiers and massacres the Northern relief force, but then proceeds to kill the Ironborn, burn Winterfell, and take Theon prisoner.
Prior to the Red Wedding, Roose Bolton presents Robb Stark with a piece of Theon 's skin, revealing that Ramsay has been flaying him; though disgusted, Robb acquiesces to Theon 's further captivity, as Theon 's father Balon has recently died and Theon 's absence presents a succession crisis for the Ironborn. Following Robb Stark 's death, King Tommen Baratheon legitimizes Ramsay as a Bolton. The Lannisters pass off Jeyne Poole as Arya Stark and send her north to be betrothed to Ramsay, with only the Lannisters and Boltons aware she is not the real Arya Stark.
In the dungeons of the Dreadfort, Ramsay has savagely tortured and mutilated Theon until he is so broken and in fear of Ramsay that he has adopted the identity of Reek. Ramsay coerces him to assist in lifting the Ironborn siege of Moat Cailin, subsequently reneging on his promise of safe passage to the Ironborn by having the garrison flayed. After Stannis Baratheon 's capture of Deepwood Motte, Ramsay 's wedding to "Arya '' is moved from Barrowton to a rebuilt Winterfell. Following the wedding, Ramsay repeatedly abuses Jeyne. Shortly after the wedding, Jeyne and Theon escape with the help of Mance Rayder. Jon Snow later receives a letter from Ramsay claiming that he has captured Mance and killed Stannis Baratheon (who was besieging Winterfell), threatening to destroy the Night 's Watch if Jon does not deliver Theon, Jeyne, and several other members of Stannis ' court to Ramsay as captives. It is not revealed how much of the letter is true or if Ramsay was its actual author.
Ramsay Bolton was played by Welsh actor Iwan Rheon in the HBO television adaption of the series of books. Ramsay is first mentioned in the show 's second season and first appears onscreen in the third, though Rheon is credited as "Boy '' until his true identity is revealed in the third - season finale "Mhysa ''.
Ramsay 's dog appears to be Cane Corso.
The circumstances of Ramsay 's conception and acknowledgement do not change in the show, although in the show Ramsay 's mother dies soon after his birth. Ramsay is raised at the Dreadfort, knowing nothing of his mother. At the age of eleven, he first encounters the Dreadfort kennelmaster 's daughter, Myranda, and is drawn to her fearlessness, eventually taking her as his mistress. He tells her that he plans on wedding her but after his legitimization, he dismisses such promises.
After Theon Greyjoy and his forces capture Winterfell, Roose Bolton offers to Robb Stark to have Ramsay and the men left at the Dreadfort lift the occupation. Robb agrees, with orders to spare the Ironborn if they surrender, but to bring Theon to Robb alive. The Ironborn subdue Theon and present him to Ramsay, who takes Theon prisoner, but Ramsay then proceeds to sack Winterfell and flay the Ironborn garrison for his own amusement.
Ramsay sends word to the Stark forces at Harrenhal claiming that the Ironborn sacked Winterfell and fled before the Bolton forces arrived. In the Dreadfort dungeons, Ramsay 's men gruesomly torture Theon while Ramsay watches on in the guise of a cleaning boy. Claiming to be a servant of Theon 's sister Yara, he sets Theon free before sending his men after Theon, only to follow and kill them when they recapture Theon. Theon confesses that during his conquest of Winterfell he used two farmer 's boys to fake the murders of Bran and Rickon Stark, as Ramsay pretends to lead Theon to Deepwood Motte, the castle Yara holds. In reality, Ramsay leads Theon in a circle back to the dungeon and reimprisons him, tormenting Theon with the revelation that he was the architect of his suffering all along.
After severing Theon 's pinky, he has Myranda and another servant seduce him; however, this is only intended to taunt Theon before Ramsay severs his genitals. He sends Theon 's penis to his father Balon, threatening to further mutilate him and to flay the other Ironborn invaders unless they flee the North; Balon refuses, as he now has no use for Theon. Theon begs Ramsay to kill him, but Ramsay states that Theon is more useful alive. Noting Theon 's stench, he dubs him "Reek '' and beats him until he responds to his new name.
When Roose Bolton returns to the Dreadfort, he reprimands Ramsay for having overstepped his boundaries as castellan by mutilating a valuable hostage and sending terms of surrender to the Greyjoys. Infuriated, Ramsay demonstrates his brainwashing of Reek by having him reveal that Bran and Rickon Stark are still alive, and having Reek shave him without harming him, even after revealing Roose 's murder of Robb Stark. Impressed, Roose orders Ramsay and Reek to lift the Ironborn occupation of Moat Cailin. Yara and her men infiltrate the Dreadfort and try to rescue Theon, but he refuses to go with her, fearing another of Ramsay 's tricks, and Ramsay chases the Greyjoy soldiers away with his hounds. Pleased with Reek 's loyalty, Ramsay has him pose as Theon to convince the Ironborn holding Moat Cailin to surrender, with promise of safe passage, though Ramsay reneges on his word and flays the entire garrison. As reward for his success, Ramsay is legitimised as a Bolton. He then accompanies the rest of House Bolton in moving to Winterfell.
Ramsay draws the ire of Roose after flaying the family of a Northern lord who refuses to pledge fealty. In order to placate the other Northern houses and to solidify the Boltons ' hold on the North, Ramsay is betrothed to Sansa Stark, publicly believed to be the last living Stark. Though he initially feigns kindness to Sansa, after Myranda shows her Reek in the kennels, Ramsay uses Sansa 's contempt for Reek as psychological torment, by having him apologise for "killing '' Bran and Rickon, having him give Sansa away at the wedding, and ultimately forcing Reek to watch as he rapes Sansa on their wedding night. When Sansa begs Reek to signal for help, Reek instead warns Ramsay, who flays a maid who had tried to help Sansa.
With Stannis Baratheon 's forces camped and ready to march on Winterfell, Ramsay persuades Roose to let him and twenty men infiltrate his camp and destroy his supplies. The plan succeeds, ultimately causing most of Stannis ' army to desert him. The remnants of the Baratheon army march on Winterfell, but Ramsay leads the Bolton cavalry to defeat them with ease. In the chaos of the battle, Theon kills Myranda and flees with Sansa.
After mourning Myranda, Ramsay is warned by Roose that he faces being disinherited if Sansa is not recovered and Roose 's unborn child is a son. Ramsay sends his best hunters after Sansa and Theon, though they are all killed by Brienne of Tarth. After Roose 's wife Walda gives birth to a boy, Ramsay promptly murders his father and has his hounds maul Walda and his newborn half - brother to death, securing his position as Lord Bolton and the official ruler of Winterfell.
Ramsay is approached by Smalljon Umber, who asks for his help in defending the North against the wildlings Jon Snow has offered refuge to at the Wall. To secure their alliance, Smalljon presents Ramsay with Osha and Rickon Stark, who were previously under the protection of Smalljon 's now - deceased father, the Greatjon. Ramsay kills Osha when she tries to assassinate him, and throws Rickon in Winterfell 's dungeons. He then sends a letter to Jon Snow at Castle Black, threatening to exterminate the wildlings and have Rickon and Jon killed if Sansa is not returned to him.
Jon Snow responds by leading an army of Wildlings and assorted Stark loyalists on a march towards Winterfell. As the Stark and Bolton armies prepare for battle, Ramsay releases Rickon and tells him to run to his half - brother before killing him with an arrow. With Jon having charged out in a futile attempt to save Rickon, his forces follow behind and are drawn out of their position. The Bolton phalanx quickly surrounds the Starks, but the Knights of the Vale arrive and overwhelm the Boltons. Ramsay flees to Winterfell, and kills the giant Wun Wun when he breaches Winterfell 's gate, but is attacked and brutally beaten by Jon. Locked in the kennels, Ramsay is visited by Sansa, who watches as his hungry hounds eat Ramsay alive. Ramsay 's death marks the end of House Bolton and its rule in the North.
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who rode the motorcycle in the great escape | Bud Ekins - wikipedia
James Sherwin "Bud '' Ekins (May 11, 1930 -- October 6, 2007) was an American professional stuntman in the U.S. film industry. He is considered to be one of the film industry 's most accomplished stuntmen with a body of work that includes classic films such as The Great Escape and Bullitt. Ekins, acting as stunt double for Steve McQueen while filming The Great Escape, was the rider who performed what is considered to be one of the most famous motorcycle stunts ever performed in a movie. He was recognized for his stunt work by being inducted into the Stuntmen 's Hall of Fame.
Ekins was also an accomplished off - road motorcycle racer in motocross and enduro events, and helped pioneer the sport of desert racing. He was inducted into the Off - road Motorsports Hall of Fame in 1980, and the AMA Motorcycle Hall of Fame in 1999.
Born in Hollywood, California, Ekins began riding off - road motorcycles daily in the hills above his Hollywood home. As a result of his diligence, he developed into a highly talented motorcyclist and started entering local off - road races in 1949. By the mid-1950s, Ekins was the top motocross and desert racers in Southern California, winning the AMA District 37 championship seven times.
His successful race results led the Matchless motorcycle factory to offer him the opportunity to compete in the 1952 European Motocross Championship against the best motocross racers in the world. Despite riding on muddy circuits that were much rougher than he was accustomed to, he managed to earn his senior license and turned in some respectable results to finish the season in ranked 15th in the world.
In 1955 Ekins won the Catalina Grand Prix, and in 1959 became the third three - time winner of the prestigious Big Bear Hare & Hound desert race, which at the time was the largest off - road event in the country. Ekins 1959 Big Bear victory was made notable when his motorcycle suffered a flat tire and a broken wheel while he was leading the race at the halfway point of the 153 - mile course. After his race team repaired the tire and wheel, Ekins rejoined the race and recaptured the lead to win the race 30 minutes ahead of his nearest competitor. By the mid-1960s, Ekins owned a Triumph motorcycle dealership in Hollywood which became a popular destination for many young film actors including Steve McQueen, Paul Newman and Clint Eastwood. Ekins helped McQueen learn off - road racing and the actor became an accomplished motorcycle racer.
Ekins also represented the United States at the International Six Days Trial, a form of off - road motorcycle Olympics. It was as an enduro competitor that Ekins achieved his greatest international racing success. He received a gold medal at the 1962 International Six Days Trials in East Germany, and was part of the 1964 U.S. ISDT team with his brother, Dave Ekins, John Steen, Cliff Coleman and McQueen. He rode a 650cc Triumph TR6 Trophy alongside teammate Steve McQueen in the 1964 International Six Days Trial. In 1965, again on Triumphs, the team competed at the ISDT on the Isle of Man. Ekins won four gold medals and a silver during his seven years of competing in the ISDT during the 1960s.
Ekins helped pioneer the sport of desert racing in 1964 when he and his brother Dave rode a motorcycle almost the entire length of Mexico 's Baja California Peninsula in 39 hours and 48 minutes under grueling conditions to set the Tijuana - to - La Paz, Mexico record. Their speed record provided a challenge for other off - road competitors with both, motorcycles and four wheeled vehicles. One of these challengers to Ekins ' record run was Ed Pearlman, who decided to organize a yearly off - road race that became known as the Baja 1000.
He participated in many of the early off - road racing events including the Mint 400 and the Stardust 7 - 11 in Las Vegas, Nevada. In addition to racing motorcycles, Ekins raced four wheeled off - road vehicles. He raced alongside Steve McQueen in the inaugural Baja 500 in 1969 and subsequently won overall. He worked with fellow Off - Road Hall of Fame Inductee, Vic Hickey for five years, helping him to build the Baja Boot racer. He drove three races for Steve McQueen and Drino Miller, another Off - Road Hall of Fame Inductee.
Through his association with McQueen, Ekins began a career as a film stuntman. Ekins is best known as the actor who jumped the fence on a motorcycle in the 1963 film The Great Escape, and one of the stuntmen who drove the Ford Mustang 390 GT in the car chase scene in the 1968 film Bullitt. The chase scene led by stunt coordinator Carey Loftin and filmed on the streets of San Francisco, is regarded as one of the most influential in movie history.
He also coordinated the stunts for the popular 1970s motorcycle cop show CHiPs. Ekins eventually became one of the best stuntmen in Hollywood. He continued doing stunt work until he was in his mid-60s, his stunt career spanned 30 years. Throughout the 1990s Ekins was on screen in movies and TV as a character actor, and can be seen in films such as Pacific Heights, Mac and Me, The Karate Kid series, The Specialist (1994), and Vegas Vacation (1997).
After retiring from the film industry, Ekins continued to operate his motorcycle shop in Hollywood which featured his impressive collection of vintage motorcycles. During the 1980s, Ekins became one of the top collectors of vintage motorcycles in the country. Ekins was inducted into the Off - road Motorsports Hall of Fame in 1980 and into the Motorcycle Hall of Fame in 2009. Ekins died at the age of 77 on October 6, 2007 in Los Angeles, California.
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where can i get a border crossing card | Border Crossing card - wikipedia
A Border Crossing Card (BCC) is an identity document as well as a B1 / B2 visa that allows entry into the United States by Mexican citizens. As a standalone document, the BCC allows Mexican citizens to visit the border areas of the U.S. when entering by land or sea directly from Mexico for less than 72 hours. The document also functions as a full B1 / B2 visa when presented with a valid Mexican passport. Section 104 of the United States Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 (IIRIRA) serves as the legal basis for the issuance of Border Crossing Cards.
The BCC is issued only to Mexican citizens residing in Mexico and by the U.S. diplomatic missions in Mexico.
The first generation of machine readable BCC 's, known as "laser visas '', was produced from April 1, 1998, until September 30, 2008. The laminated, credit card - size document is both a BCC and a B1 / B2 visitor 's visa. The cards are valid for travel until the expiration date on the front of the card, usually ten years after issuance. They are nearly identical to the previous generation Permanent Resident Card.
October 1, 2008, marked the beginning of production of a second generation B1 / B2 visa / BCC. The new card is similar in size to the old BCC, but contains enhanced graphics and technology. The original BCC was produced by the now defunct Immigration and Naturalization Service but the current card is produced by the Department of State. It is virtually identical to the Passport Card, which is issued to citizens and nationals of the United States for the purposes of land and sea border crossings, in its general design layout. The card includes an RFID chip and Integrated Contactless Circuit and is part of the same PASS System that the Passport Card belongs to.
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where did bruno live in the boy in the striped pajamas | The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas - wikipedia
The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas is a 2006 Holocaust novel by Irish novelist John Boyne. Unlike the months of planning Boyne devoted to his other books, he said that he wrote the entire first draft of The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas in two and a half days, barely sleeping until he got to the end. As of March 2010, the novel had sold more than five million copies around the world. In both 2007 and 2008, it was the best selling book of the year in Spain, and it has also reached number one on the New York Times bestseller list, as well as in the UK, Ireland, and Australia. The book was adapted in 2008 as a film of the same name.
Bruno is a 9 - year - old boy growing up during World War II in Berlin. He lives with his parents, his 12 - year - old sister Gretel and maids, one of whom is called Maria. After a visit by Adolf Hitler, Bruno 's father is promoted to Commandant, and the family has to move to "Out - With '' because of the orders of "The Fury '' (Bruno 's naïve interpretation of the word ' Führer '). Bruno is initially upset about moving to Out - With (in actuality, Auschwitz) and leaving his friends, Daniel, Karl, and Martin. From the house at Out - With, Bruno sees a camp in which the prisoners wear striped pyjamas. One day, Bruno decides to explore the strange wire fence. As he walks along the fence, he meets a Jewish boy named Shmuel, who he learns shares his birthday. Shmuel says that his father, grandfather, and brother are with him on this side of the fence, but he is separated from his mother. Bruno and Shmuel talk and become very good friends, although Bruno still does not understand very much about Shmuel and his side of the fence. Nearly every day, unless it 's raining, Bruno goes to see Shmuel and sneaks him food. As the meetings go on, and Shmuel gets more and more skinny, Bruno 's naïveté is proved, as he never realizes he is living beside a concentration camp.
When lice eggs are discovered in Bruno 's hair he is forced to get all of his hair shaved off. Bruno comments that he looks like Shmuel, and Shmuel agrees, except that Bruno is fatter. Bruno 's mother eventually persuades his father to take them back to Berlin and stay at Out - With without them.
The next day Bruno concocts a plan with Shmuel to sneak into the camp to look for Shmuel 's father. Shmuel brings a set of prison clothes (which look to Bruno like striped pyjamas), and Bruno leaves his own clothes outside the fence. As they search the camp, both children are rounded up along with a group of prisoners on a "march ''. They are forced to remove their clothing and are led into a gas chamber. In the gas chamber, Bruno apologizes to Shmuel for not finding his father and tells Shmuel that he is Bruno 's best friend for life. Shmuel does not answer, as at that moment the door of the gas chamber is closed, it becomes dark, and all is chaos.
Kathryn Hughes, writing in The Guardian, calls the novel "a small wonder of a book ''. While she comments on "the oddness of Auschwitz security being so lax that a child prisoner could make a weekly date with the commandant 's son without anyone noticing '', she describes the novel as "something that borders on fable '', arguing that "Bruno 's innocence comes to stand for the willful refusal of all adult Germans to see what was going on under their noses ''.
Nicholas Tucker, writing in The Independent, calls the novel "a fine addition to a once taboo area of history, at least where children 's literature is concerned. It provides an account of a dreadful episode short on actual horror but packed with overtones that remain in the imagination. Plainly and sometimes archly written, it stays just ahead of its readers before delivering its killer punch in the final pages. ''
Ed Wright, writing in The Age of Melbourne, calls the novel "a touching tale of an odd friendship between two boys in horrendous circumstances and a reminder of man 's capacity for inhumanity. '' He felt that "Bruno 's friendship with Shmuel is rendered with neat awareness of the paradoxes between children 's naive egocentricity, their innate concept of fairness, familial loyalty and obliviousness to the social conventions of discrimination. '' He concludes by observing that "The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas is subtitled A Fable and, as in other modern fables such as Antoine de St Exupery 's The Little Prince, Boyne uses Bruno to reveal the flaws in an adult world. ''
A.O. Scott, writing in The New York Times, questioned the author and publisher 's choice to intentionally keep the Holocaust setting of the book vague in both the dust jacket summary and the early portion of the novel, writing: "Boyne 's reluctance to say as much can certainly be defended, not least on the grounds that the characters in a story about the Holocaust are themselves most likely unaware of the scale and historical importance of their experiences. To recreate those experiences faithfully might require undoing some of the readers ' preconceptions. '' However Scott felt this undermined the work, saying: "A young reader who knows little or nothing about the mass murder of European Jews by the Nazis will not know much more after reading "The Boy in the Striped Pajamas, '' while one who has read other books on the topic -- Jerry Spinelli 's "Milkweed, '' say, or Anne Frank 's diary -- may be irritated by the book 's evasions and euphemisms. There is something awkward about the way Boyne manages to disguise, and then to disclose, the historical context. '' Scott concludes that "To mold the Holocaust into an allegory, as Boyne does here with perfectly benign intent, is to step away from its reality. ''
Rabbi Benjamin Blech offered a historical criticism, contending that the premise of the book and subsequent film -- that there could be a child of Shmuel 's age in Auschwitz -- was impossible, writing of the book: "Note to the reader: There were no 9 - year - old Jewish boys in Auschwitz -- the Nazis immediately gassed those not old enough to work. '' Rabbi Blech affirmed the opinion of a Holocaust survivor friend that the book is "not just a lie and not just a fairytale, but a profanation ''. Blech acknowledges the objection that a "fable '' need not be factually accurate; he counters that the book trivializes the conditions in and around the death camps and perpetuates the "myth that those (...) not directly involved can claim innocence '', and thus undermines its moral authority. Students who read it, he warns, may believe the camps "were n't that bad '' if a boy could conduct a clandestine friendship with a Jewish captive of the same age, unaware of "the constant presence of death ''.
Holocaust scholar Henry Gonashk rebuts Blech 's historical contention in his book "Hollywood and the Holocaust '', writing that "The rabbi found implausible Shmuel 's very existence in the camp, '' but stating that "Blech is factually incorrect. In fact, there were male (though apparently not female) children at Auschwitz. In 1944, for example, according to the Nazis ' meticulous records, there were 619 male children at the camp, ranging in age from one month to fourteen years old. Some of the boys were employed by the Nazis as camp messengers, while others were simply kept around as mascots and curiosities. Probably some of these children were sexually abused by the guards. Of course, thousands of other children at Auschwitz (including all the girls who arrived at the camp) were gassed. ''
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where does the euro star stop in paris | Eurostar - Wikipedia
Eurostar is a high - speed railway service connecting London with Avignon, Brussels, Lille, Lyon, Marseille and Paris. All its trains traverse the Channel Tunnel between the United Kingdom and France, owned and operated separately by Eurotunnel.
The London terminus is St Pancras International, with the other British calling points being Ebbsfleet International and Ashford International in Kent. Calling points in France are Calais - Fréthun and Lille - Europe, with trains to Paris terminating at Gare du Nord. Trains to Belgium terminate at Midi / Zuid station in Brussels. In addition, there are limited services from London to Disneyland Paris at Marne - la - Vallée -- Chessy, services to southern France as of 1 May 2015 and seasonal services to the Alps in winter.
The service is operated by eighteen - car Class 373 / 1 trains and sixteen - car Class 374 trains which run at up to 300 kilometres per hour (186 mph) on a network of high - speed lines. The LGV Nord line in France opened before Eurostar services began in 1994, and newer lines enabling faster journeys were added later -- HSL 1 in Belgium and High Speed 1 in southern England. The French and Belgian parts of the network are shared with Paris -- Brussels Thalys services and also with TGV trains. In the United Kingdom the two - stage Channel Tunnel Rail Link project was completed on 14 November 2007 and renamed High Speed 1, when the London terminus of Eurostar transferred from Waterloo International to St Pancras International.
Eurostar was until 2010 operated jointly by the national railway companies of France and Belgium, SNCF and SNCB / NMBS, and Eurostar (UK) Ltd (EUKL), a subsidiary of London and Continental Railways (LCR), which also owned the high - speed infrastructure and stations on the British side. Eurostar has become the dominant operator on the routes that it operates, carrying more passengers than all airlines combined. Other operators have expressed an interest in starting competing services following deregulation in 2010. On 1 September 2010, Eurostar was incorporated as a single corporate entity called Eurostar International Limited (EIL), replacing the joint operation between EUKL, SNCF and SNCB / NMBS. EIL is owned by SNCF (55 %), Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec (CDPQ) (30 %), Hermes Infrastructure (10 %) and NMBS (5 %).
In June 2014, the UK shareholding in Eurostar International Limited was transferred from London and Continental Railways / Department for Transport to HM Treasury. In October 2014, it was announced that the UK government planned to raise £ 300 million by selling that stake. In March 2015, the UK government announced that it would be selling its 40 % share to an Anglo - Canadian consortium made up of Caisse de Depot et Placement du Quebec (CDPQ) and Hermes Infrastructure. This sale was completed in May 2015.
The history of Eurostar can be traced to the 1986 choice of a rail tunnel to provide a cross-channel link between Britain and France. A previous attempt at constructing a tunnel between the two nations had begun in 1974, but was quickly aborted. In 1988 construction began on a new basis. Eurotunnel was created to manage and own the tunnel, which was finished in 1993, the official opening taking place in May 1994.
In addition to the tunnel 's shuttle trains carrying cars and lorries between Folkestone and Calais, the decision to build a railway tunnel opened up the possibility of through passenger and freight train services between places further afield. British Rail and SNCF contracted with Eurotunnel to use half the tunnel 's capacity for this purpose. In 1987 Britain, France and Belgium set up an International Project Group to specify a train to provide an international high - speed passenger service through the tunnel. France had been operating high - speed TGV services since 1981, and had begun construction of a new high - speed line between Paris and the Channel Tunnel, LGV Nord; French TGV technology was chosen as the basis for the new trains. An order for 30 trainsets, to be manufactured in France but with some British and Belgian components, was placed in December 1989. On 20 June 1993, the first Eurostar test train travelled through the tunnel to the UK. Various technical difficulties in running the new trains on British tracks were quickly overcome.
On 14 November 1994, Eurostar services began between Waterloo International station in London, Gare du Nord in Paris and Brussels - South railway station in Brussels. In 1995 Eurostar was achieving an average end - to - end speed of 171.5 km / h (106.6 mph) between London and Paris. On 8 January 1996 Eurostar launched services from a second railway station in the UK when Ashford International was opened. Journey times between London and Brussels were reduced by the opening of HSL 1 on 14 December 1997.
On 23 September 2003 passenger services began running on the first completed section of High Speed 1. Following a high - profile glamorous opening ceremony and a large advertising campaign, on 14 November 2007 Eurostar services in London transferred from Waterloo to the extended and extensively refurbished St Pancras International.
The Channel Tunnel used by Eurostar services holds the record for having the longest undersea section anywhere in the world, and it is the second longest rail tunnel in the world. A Eurostar train set a new British speed record of 334.7 km / h (208.0 mph) on the first section of High Speed 1 on 30 July 2003, two months before services began running upon the first section of High Speed 1.
On 16 May 2006 Eurostar set a new record for the longest non-stop high - speed journey, a distance of 1,421 kilometres (883 mi) from London to Cannes taking 7 hours 25 minutes. On 4 September 2007 a record - breaking train left Paris Gare du Nord at 10: 44 (09: 44 BST) and reached London St Pancras in 2 hours 3 minutes 39 seconds; carrying journalists and railway workers. The train was the first passenger - carrying arrival at St Pancras International station. On 20 September 2007, Eurostar broke another record when it completed the journey from Brussels to London in 1 hour, 43 minutes.
The original proposals for Eurostar included direct services to Paris and Brussels from cities north of London (NoL): Manchester via Birmingham on the West Coast Main Line and Glasgow via Edinburgh, Newcastle and York on the East Coast Main Line. Seven shorter NoL Eurostar trains for these Regional Eurostar services were built, but these services never ran. Predicted journey times of almost nine hours for Glasgow to Paris at the time of growth of low - cost air travel during the 1990s made the plans commercially unviable against the cheaper and quicker airlines. Other reasons that have been suggested for these services having never been run were both government policies and the disruptive privatisation of British Rail. Three of the Regional Eurostar units were leased by Great North Eastern Railway (GNER) to increase domestic services from London King 's Cross to York and later Leeds. The leases ended in December 2005, and most of the NoL sets have since been transferred to SNCF for TGV services in northern France.
An international Nightstar sleeper train was also planned; this would have travelled the same routes as Regional Eurostar, plus the Great Western Main Line to Cardiff. These were also deemed commercially unviable, and the scheme was abandoned with no services ever operated. In 2000 the coaches were sold to Via Rail in Canada.
Ashford International station was the original station for Eurostar services in Kent. Once Ebbsfleet International railway station, also designed to serve the Kent region, had opened, only three trains a day to Paris and one to Disneyland Paris called at Ashford for a considerable amount of time. There were fears that services at Ashford International might be further reduced or withdrawn altogether as Eurostar planned to make Ebbsfleet the new regional hub instead. However, after a period during which no Brussels trains served the station, to the dissatisfaction of the local communities, on 23 February 2009 Eurostar re-introduced a single daily Ashford - Brussels service.
By March 2016 onboard entertainment was provided by GoMedia, including Wi - Fi connectivity and up to 300 hours of movies and television kept on the train 's servers and accessed using the passenger 's own devices: mobile phones, tablets etc. A tracker app allows customers to see where they are.
LGV Nord is a French 333 - kilometre (207 mi) - long high - speed rail line that connects Paris to the Belgian border and the Channel Tunnel via Lille. It opened in 1993. Its extensions to Belgium and towards Paris, as well as connecting to the Channel Tunnel, have made LGV Nord a part of every Eurostar journey undertaken. A Belgian high - speed line, HSL 1, was added to the end of LGV Nord, at the Belgian border, in 1997. Of all French high - speed lines, LGV Nord sees the widest variety of high - speed rolling stock and is quite busy; a proposed cut - off bypassing Lille, which would reduce Eurostar journey times to Paris, is called LGV Picardie.
The Channel Tunnel is a crucial part of the route as it is the only rail connection between Great Britain and the European mainland. It joins LGV Nord in France with High Speed One in Britain. Tunnelling began in 1988, and the 50.5 - kilometre (31.4 mi) tunnel was officially opened by British sovereign Queen Elizabeth II and the French President François Mitterrand at a ceremony in Calais on 6 May 1994. It is owned by Eurotunnel, which charges a significant toll to Eurostar for its use. In 1996 the American Society of Civil Engineers identified the tunnel as one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World. Along the current route of the Eurostar service, line speeds are 300 kilometres per hour (186 mph) except within the Channel Tunnel, where a reduced speed of 160 kilometres per hour (100 mph) applies for safety reasons. Since the launch of Eurostar services, severe disruptions and cancellations have been caused by fires breaking out within the Channel Tunnel, such as in 1996, 2006 (minor), 2008 and 2015.
Journey times between London and Brussels were improved when an 88 - kilometre (55 mi) Belgian high - speed line, HSL 1, opened on 14 December 1997. It links with LGV Nord on the border with France, allowing Eurostar trains heading to Brussels to make the transition between the two without having to reduce speed. A further four - minute improvement for London -- Brussels trains was achieved in December 2006 with the opening of the 435 - metre (1,427 ft) Brussels South Viaduct. Linking the international platforms of Brussels - South railway station with the high - speed line, the viaduct separates Eurostar (and Thalys) from local services.
High Speed 1 (HS1), formerly known as the Channel Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL), is a 108 - kilometre (67 mi) high - speed railway line running from London through Kent to the British end of the Channel Tunnel. It was built in two stages. The first section between the tunnel and Fawkham Junction in north Kent opened in September 2003, cutting London -- Paris journey times by 21 minutes to 2 hours 35 minutes, and London -- Brussels to 2 hours 20 minutes. On 14 November 2007, commercial services began over the whole of the new HS1 line. The redeveloped St Pancras International station became the new London terminus for all Eurostar services. The completion of High Speed 1 has brought the British part of Eurostar 's route up to the same standards as the French and Belgian high - speed lines. Non-stop journey times were reduced by a further 20 minutes to 2 hours 15 minutes for London -- Paris and 1 hour 51 minutes for London -- Brussels.
Eurostar offers up to sixteen weekday London -- Paris services (eighteen on Fridays) including ten non-stop (twelve on Fridays). There used to be ten London -- Lille and Brussels services, including five running non-stop as far as Lille, but this has now been reduced to seven each way. In addition, there is a return trip from London to Marne - la - Vallée - Chessy for Disneyland Paris which runs at least 4 times a week with increased frequency during school holidays and an up to 5 times a week service to Marseille via Lyon and Avignon. There are also seasonal services in the winter. "Snow trains '', aimed at skiers, to Bourg - Saint - Maurice, Aime - la - Plagne and Moûtiers in the Alps; these run twice - weekly, one overnight and one during the daytime. Intermediate stations are Ebbsfleet International in northwest Kent, Ashford International in southeast Kent, and Calais - Fréthun and Lille - Europe in Nord - Pas - de-Calais.
Since 14 November 2007, all Eurostar trains have been routed via High Speed 1 to or from the redeveloped London terminus at St Pancras International, which at a cost of £ 800 million was extensively rebuilt and extended to cope with 394 - metre (431 yd) long Eurostar trains. It had originally been intended to retain some Eurostar services at Waterloo International, but this was ruled out on cost grounds. Completion of High Speed 1 has increased the potential number of trains serving London. Separation of Eurostar from British domestic services through Kent meant that timetabling was no longer affected by peak - hour restrictions.
Eurostar 's fares were significantly higher in its early years; the cheapest fare in 1994 was £ 99 return. In 2002, Eurostar was planning cheaper fares, an example of which was an offer of £ 50 day returns from London to Paris or Brussels. By March 2003, the cheapest fare from the UK was £ 59 return, available all year around. In June 2009 it was announced that one - way single fares would be available at £ 31 at the cheapest. Competition between Eurostar and airline services was a large factor in ticket prices being reduced from the initial levels. Business Premier fares also slightly undercut air fares on similar routes, targeted at regular business travellers. In 2009, Eurostar greatly increased its budget ticket availability to help maintain and grow its dominant market share. The Eurostar ticketing system is very complex, being distributed through no fewer than 48 individual sales systems. Eurostar is a member of the Amadeus CRS distribution system, making its tickets available alongside those of airlines worldwide.
First class on Eurostar is called Business Premier; benefits include guaranteed faster checking - in and meals served at - seat, as well as the improved furnishings and interior of Business Premier carriages. The rebranding is part of Eurostar 's marketing drive to attract more business professionals. Increasingly, business people in a group have been chartering private carriages as opposed to individual seats on the train.
Without the operation of Regional Eurostar services using the North of London trainsets across the rest of Britain, Eurostar has developed its connections with other transport services instead, such as integrating effectively with traditional UK rail operators ' schedules and routes, making it possible for passengers to use Eurostar as a quick connection to further destinations on the continent. All three main terminals used by the Eurostar service -- St Pancras International, Paris Gare du Nord, and Brussels Midi / Zuid -- are served by domestic trains and by local urban transport networks such as the London Underground and the Paris Metro. Standard Eurostar tickets no longer include free onward connections to or from any other station in Belgium: this is now available for a flat - rate supplement, currently £ 5.50.
Eurostar has announced several partnerships with other rail services, most notably Thalys connections at Lille and Brussels for passengers to go beyond current Eurostar routes towards the Netherlands and Germany. In 2002, Eurostar initiated the Eurostar - Plus program, offering connecting tickets for onward journeys from Lille and Paris to dozens of destinations in France. Through fares are also available from 68 British towns and cities to destinations in France and Belgium. In May 2009 Eurostar announced that a formal connection to Switzerland had been established in a partnership between Eurostar and Lyria, which will operate TGV services from Lille to the Swiss Alps for Eurostar connection.
Because the UK is not part of the Schengen Area, and because Belgium and France are not part of the Common Travel Area, all Eurostar passengers must go through border controls. Both the British Government and the Schengen governments concerned (Belgium and France) have legal obligations to check the travel documents of those entering their respective countries (as well as those leaving, in the case of Belgium and France).
To allow passengers to walk off the train without arrival checks in most cases, juxtaposed controls ordinarily take place at the embarkation station.
In order to comply with special UK legislation, there are full security checks similar to those at airports, scanning both bags and people 's pockets. Security checks at Eurostar are comparable to those at a small airport and generally much quicker than at London Heathrow. The recommended check - in time is 30 minutes except for business class where it is 10 minutes.
Eurostar passengers travelling inside the Schengen Area (Brussels - Lille or Brussels - Calais; Lille - Calais trips are not allowed) pass through a separate corridor in Brussels bypassing border checks, and enter carriage 18 of the train, which is reserved for these passengers. This arrangement was set up after numerous illegal immigrants entered the UK without the right to do so, by buying a ticket from Brussels to Lille or Calais but remaining on the train until London -- an issue exacerbated by Belgian police threatening to arrest UK Border Agency staff at Brussels - Midi if they tried to prevent passengers whom they suspected of attempting to exploit this loophole from boarding Eurostar trains.
When the tripartite agreements were signed, the Belgian Government said that it had serious questions about the compatibility of this agreement with the Schengen Convention and the principle of free movement of people enshrined in various European Treaties. On 30 June 2009 Eurostar raised concerns at the UK House of Commons Home Affairs Select Committee that it was illegal under French law for the collection of information desired by the UK government under the e-Borders scheme, and they would be unable to cooperate.
On the northbound Marne la Vallée - Chessy - London train, the security check and French passport check take place at Marne la Vallée - Chessy, while the UK passport check takes place at the UK arrival stations - this is the only route where passengers are not cleared by UK border officials before crossing the channel.
On the northbound Marseille - London train, there is no facility for security or passport checks at the southern French stations, so passengers must leave the train at Lille - Europe, taking all their belongings with them, and undergo security and border checks there before rejoining the train which waits at the station for just over an hour.
On several occasions, people have illegally tried to stow away on board the train, sometimes in large groups, trying to enter the UK; border monitoring and security is therefore extremely tight. Eurostar claims to have good and well - funded security measures.
Eurostar 's punctuality has fluctuated from year to year, but usually remains over 90 %; in the first quarter of 1999, 89 % of services operated were on time, and in the second quarter it reached 92 %. Eurostar 's best punctuality record was 97.35 %, between 16 and 22 August 2004. In 2006, it was 92.7 %, and in 2007, 91.5 % were on time. In the first quarter of 2009, 96 % of Eurostar services were punctual compared with rival air routes ' 76 %.
An advantage held by Eurostar is the convenience and speed of the service: with shorter check - in times than at most airports and hence quicker boarding and less queueing and high punctuality, it takes less time to travel between central London and central Paris by high - speed rail than it does by air. Eurostar now has a dominant share of the combined rail -- air market on its routes to Paris and Brussels. In 2004, it had a 66 % share of the London -- Paris market, and a 59 % share of the London -- Brussels market. In 2007, it achieved record market shares of 71 % for London -- Paris and 65 % for London -- Brussels routes.
Eurostar 's passenger numbers initially failed to meet predictions. In 1996, London and Continental Railways forecast that passenger numbers would reach 21.4 million annually by 2004, but only 7.3 million was achieved. 82 million passengers used Waterloo International Station from its opening in 1994 to its closure in 2007. 2008 was a record year for Eurostar, with a 10.3 % rise in passenger use, which was attributed to the use of High Speed 1 and the move to St Pancras. The following year, Eurostar saw an 11.5 % fall in passenger numbers during the first three months of 2009, attributed to the 2008 Channel Tunnel fire and the 2009 recession.
As a result of the poor economic conditions, Eurostar received state aid in May 2009 to cancel out some of the accumulated debt from the High Speed 1 construction programme. Later that year, during snowy conditions in the run - up to Christmas, thousands of passengers were left stranded as several trains broke down and many more were cancelled. In an independent review commissioned by Eurostar, the company came in for serious criticism about its handling of the incident and lack of plans for such a scenario.
In 2006, the Department for Transport predicted that, by 2037, annual cross-channel passenger numbers would probably reach 16 million, considerably less optimistic than London and Continental Railways 's original 1996 forecast. In 2007 Eurostar set a target of carrying 10 million passengers by 2010. The company cited several factors to support this objective, such as improved journey times, punctuality and station facilities. Passengers in general, it stated, are becoming increasingly aware of the environmental effects of air travel, and Eurostar services emit much less carbon dioxide. and that its remaining carbon emissions are now offset, making its services carbon neutral. Further expansion of the high - speed rail network in Europe, such as the HSL - Zuid line between Belgium and the Netherlands, continues to bring more destinations within rail - competitive range, giving Eurostar the possibility of opening up new services in future.
The following chart presents the estimated number of passengers annually transported by the Eurostar service since 1995, in millions:
Eurostar has been hailed as having set new standards in international rail travel and has won praise several times over, recognising its high standards. Eurostar won the Train Operator of the Year award in the HSBC Rail Awards for 2005. It was declared the Best Train Company in the joint Guardian / Observer Travel Awards 2008. Eurostar had previously struggled with its reputation and brand image. One commentator had defined the situation at the time as:
In June 2003, Eurostar was battling to recover from the worst period in its 10 - year history. Negative media coverage combined with poor sales and the general public 's low opinion of the British rail industry, created a major challenge... Eurostar was finding it difficult to pick itself up from one of the worst periods in its decade - long history. The period post 9 / 11 had sent the business into a downturn. Passenger numbers were drying up due to worries over international travel. Several management changes had led to a pause in strategy. Punctuality had suffered badly because of wider problems with the UK 's rail infrastructure.
By 2008, Eurostar 's environmental credentials had become highly developed and promoted. In 2006 Eurostar 's Environment Group was set up, with the aim of making changes in the Eurostar services ' daily running to decrease the environmental impact, the organisation setting itself a target of reducing carbon emissions per passenger journey by 25 % by 2012. Drivers are trained in techniques to achieve maximum energy efficiency, and lighting has been minimised; the provider of the bulk of the energy for the Channel Tunnel has been switched to nuclear power stations in France.
Eurostar 's current target is to reduce emissions by 35 percent per passenger journey by 2012, putting itself beyond the efforts of other railway companies in this field and thereby winning the 2007 Network Rail Efficiency Award. In the grand opening ceremony of St Pancras International, one of the Eurostar trains was given the name ' Tread Lightly ', said to symbolise their smaller impact on the environment compared to planes.
Since 2010, Eurostar is owned by Eurostar International Limited, a company jointly owned by SNCF (55 %), Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec (CDPQ) (30 %), Hermes Infrastructure (10 %) and SNCB (5 %).
Eurostar is a member of Railteam, a marketing alliance formed in July 2007 of seven European high - speed rail operators, including Thalys. The alliance plans to allow tickets to be booked from one end of Europe to the other on a single website. In June 2009 London and Continental Railways, and the Eurostar UK operations they held ownership of, became fully nationalised by the UK government.
In addition to its multiple unit fleet units, Eurostar operates a single Class 08 diesel shunter as the pilot at Temple Mills depot.
Built between 1992 and 1996, Eurostar 's fleet consists of 38 EMU trains, designated Class 373 in the United Kingdom and TGV TMST in France. The units have also been branded as the Eurostar e300 by Eurostar since 2015. There are two variants:
The trains are essentially modified TGV sets, and can operate at up to 300 kilometres per hour (186 mph) on high - speed lines, and 160 kilometres per hour (99 mph) in the Channel Tunnel. It is possible to exceed the 300 - kilometre - per - hour speed limit, but only with special permission from the safety authorities in the respective country. Speed limits in the Channel Tunnel are dictated by air - resistance, energy (heat) dissipation and the need to fit in with other, slower trains. The trains were designed with Channel Tunnel safety in mind, and consist of two independent "half - sets '' each with its own power car. In the event of a serious fire on board while travelling through the tunnel, passengers would be transferred into the undamaged half of the train, which would then be detached and driven out of the tunnel to safety. If the undamaged part were the rear half of the train, this would be driven by the Chef du Train, who is a fully authorised driver and occupies the rear driving cab while the train travels through the tunnel for this purpose.
As 27 of the 31 Inter-Capital sets are sufficient to operate the service, four are currently used by SNCF for domestic TGV services; one of these regularly operates a Paris -- Lille shuttle. The Eurostar logos have been removed from these sets, but the base colours of white, black, and yellow remain. SNCF 's lease of the sets is scheduled to last until 2011, with an option for a further two years.
Each train has a unique four - digit number starting with "3 '' (3xxx). This designates the train as a Mark 3 TGV (Mark 1 being SNCF TGV Sud - Est; Mark 2 being SNCF TGV Atlantique). The second digit denotes the country of ownership:
In 2004 -- 2005 the "Inter-Capital '' sets still in daily use for international services were refurbished with a new interior designed by Philippe Starck. The original grey - yellow scheme in Standard class and grey - red of First / Premium First were replaced with a grey - brown look in Standard and grey - burnt - orange in First class. Power points were added to seats in First class and coaches 5 and 14 in Standard class. Premium First class was renamed BusinessPremier.
In 2008, Eurostar announced that it would be carrying out a mid-life refurbishment of its Class 373 trains to allow the fleet to remain in service beyond 2020. This will include the 28 units making up the Eurostar fleet, but not the three Class 373 / 1 units used by SNCF or the seven Class 373 / 2 "North of London '' sets. As part of the refurbishment, the Italian company Pininfarina was contracted to redesign the interiors, and The Yard Creative was selected to design the new buffet cars. On 11 May 2009 Eurostar revealed the new look for its first - class compartments. The first refurbished train was due in service in 2012, and Eurostar plans to have completed the entire process by 2014.
On 13 November 2014 Eurostar announced the first refurbished trains would not re-enter the fleet until the 3rd or 4th quarter of 2015 due to delays at the completion centre.
In addition to the announced mid-life update of the existing Class 373 fleet, Eurostar in 2009 reportedly entered prequalification bids for eight new trainsets to be purchased. Any new trains would need to meet the same safety rules governing passage through the Channel Tunnel as the existing Class 373 fleet. The replacement to the Class 373 trains has been decided jointly between the French Transport Ministry and the UK Department for Transport. The new trains will be equipped to use the new ERTMS in - cab signalling system, due to be fitted to High Speed 1 around 2040.
On 7 October 2010, it was reported that Eurostar had selected Siemens as preferred bidder to supply 10 Siemens Velaro e320 trainsets at a cost of € 600 million (and a total investment of more than £ 700 million with the refurbishment of the existing fleet included) to operate an expanded route network, including services from London to Cologne and Amsterdam. These would be sixteen - car, 400 - metre (1,312 ft) long trainsets built to meet current Channel Tunnel regulations. The top speed will be 320 km / h (199 mph) and they will have 894 -- 950 seats, unlike the current fleet built by the French company Alstom, which has a top speed of 300 km / h (186 mph) and a seating capacity of 750. Total traction power will be rated at 16 MW.
The nomination of Siemens would see it break into the French high - speed market for the first time, as all French and French subsidiary high - speed operators use TGV derivatives produced by Alstom. Alstom attempted legal action to prevent Eurostar from acquiring German - built trains, claiming that the Siemens sets ordered would breach Channel Tunnel safety rules, but this was thrown out of court. Alstom said, after its High Court defeat, that it would "pursue alternative legal options to uphold its position ''. On 4 November 2010, the company lodged a complaint with the European Commission over the tendering process, which then asked the British government for "clarification ''. Alstom then announced it had started legal action against Eurostar, again in the High Court in London. In July 2011, the High Court rejected Alstom 's claim that the tender process was "ineffective '', and in April 2012 Alstom said it would call off pending court actions against Siemens. This effectively freed the way for Siemens to build the new Eurostar trains, the first of which are expected to enter service in late 2015.
On 13 November 2014 Eurostar announced the purchase of an additional seven e320s for delivery in the second half of 2016. At the same time, Eurostar announced the first five e320s from the original order of ten would be available by December 2015, with the remaining five entering service by May 2016. Of the five sets ready by December 2015, three of them were planned to be used on London - Paris and London - Brussels routes.
In 2005, the chief executive of Eurostar, Richard Brown, suggested that existing Eurostar trains could be replaced by double - deck trains similar to the TGV Duplex units when they are withdrawn from service. According to Brown, a double - deck fleet could carry 40 million passengers per year from Britain to Continental Europe, equivalent to adding an extra runway at a London airport.
A number of technical incidents have affected Eurostar services over the years, but up to the present there has only been one major accident involving a service operated by Eurostar, a derailment in June 2000. Other incidents in the Channel Tunnel -- such as the 1996 and 2008 Channel Tunnel fires -- have affected Eurostar services but were not directly related to Eurostar 's operations. However, the breakdowns in the tunnel, which resulted in cessation of service and inconvenience to thousands of passengers, in the run - up to Christmas 2009, proved a public - relations disaster.
There have been several minor incidents with a few Eurostar services. In October 1994 there were teething problems relating to the start of operations. The first preview train, carrying 400 members of the press and media, was delayed for two hours by technical problems. On 29 May 2002 a Eurostar train was initially sent down a wrong line -- towards London Victoria railway station instead of London Waterloo -- causing the service to arrive 25 minutes late. A signalling error that led to the incorrect routeing was stated to have caused "no risk '' as a result.
On 11 April 2006, a house collapsed next to a railway line near London which caused Eurostar services to have to terminate and start from Ashford International instead of London Waterloo. Passengers waiting at Waterloo International were initially directed on to local trains towards Ashford leaving from the adjacent London Waterloo East railway station, until overcrowding occurred at Ashford.
Approximately 1000 passengers were trapped in darkness for several hours inside two Eurostar trains on the night of 19 / 20 February 1996. The trains stopped inside the tunnels due to electronic failures caused by snow and ice. Questions were raised at the time about the ability of the train and tunnel electronics to withstand the mix of snow, salt and ice which collect in the tunnels during periods of extreme cold.
On 5 June 2000 a Eurostar train travelling from Paris to London derailed on the LGV Nord high - speed line while traveling at 290 km / h (180 mph). Fourteen people were treated for light injuries or shock, with no fatalities or major injuries. The articulated nature of the trainset was credited with maintaining stability during the incident and all of the train stayed upright. The incident was caused by a traction link on the second bogie of the front power car coming loose, leading to components of the transmission system on that bogie impacting the track.
The first departures from St Pancras on 14 November 2007 coincided with an open - ended strike by French rail unions as part of general strike actions over proposed public - sector pension reforms. The trains were operated by uninvolved British employees and service was not interrupted.
On 23 September 2009 an overhead power line dropped on to a Class 373 train arriving at St Pancras station, activating a circuit breaker and delaying eleven other trains. Two days later, on 25 September 2009, electrical power via the overhead lines was lost on a section of high - speed line outside Lille, delaying passengers on two evening Eurostar - operated services.
During the December 2009 European snowfall, four Eurostar trains broke down inside the Channel Tunnel, after leaving France, and one in Kent on 18 December. Although the trains had been winterised, the systems had not coped with the conditions. Over 2,000 passengers were stuck inside failed trains inside the tunnel, and over 75,000 had their services disrupted. All Eurostar services were cancelled from Saturday 19 December to Monday 21 December 2009. An independent review, published on 12 February 2010, was critical of the contingency plans in place for assisting passengers stranded by the delays, calling them "insufficient ''.
On 7 January 2010 a Brussels - London train broke down in the Channel Tunnel, resulting in three other trains failing to complete their journeys. The cause of the failure was the onboard signalling system. Due to the severe weather, a limited service was operated in the next few days.
On 15 February 2010, services between Brussels and London were interrupted following the Halle train collision, this time after the dedicated HSL 1 lines in the suburbs of the Belgian capital were blocked by debris from a serious train crash on the suburban commuter lines alongside. No efforts were made to reroute trains around the blockage; Eurostar instead terminated services to Brussels at Lille, directing passengers to continue their journey on local trains. Brussels services resumed on a limited scale on 22 February.
On 21 February 2010 the 21: 43 service from Paris to London broke down just outside Ashford International, stranding 740 passengers for several hours while a rescue train was called in.
On 15 April 2010 air traffic in Western Europe closed because of the eruption of the Eyjafjallajökull volcano. Many travellers between the UK and the European mainland instead took the Eurostar train, all tickets between Brussels and London on 15 and 16 April being sold out within 31⁄2 hours after the closure of British airspace. Between 15 and 20 April, Eurostar put on 33 additional trains and carried 165,000 passengers -- 50,000 more than had been scheduled to travel during this period.
On 20 December 2010, the Channel Tunnel was closed off for a day due to snowy weather. Eurostar Trains were suspended that day with thousands of passengers stranded in the run up to Christmas
On 17 October 2011 a man fell at approximately 17: 40 or 17: 50 from the 17: 04 service from London to Brussels as it passed through Westenhanger and Cheriton in Folkestone, near the entry to the Channel Tunnel. The individual was an Albanian who had been refused entry to the United Kingdom and was voluntarily returning to Brussels. The line was handed back at 22: 09 after being closed for several hours following the incident. The train itself returned north to Ashford International, where passengers were transferred to a Eurostar service operating from Marne - la - Vallée to London, where passengers arrived again at approximately 22: 30.
In 2015 Eurostar threatened to require that cyclists dismantle bicycles before they could be transported on trains. Following criticism from Boris Johnson and cycling groups Eurostar reversed the edict.
Eurostar trains do not currently call at Stratford International, originally intended to be the London stop for the regional Eurostars. This was to be reviewed following the 2012 Olympics. However, in 2013, Eurostar claimed that its ' business would be hit ' by stopping trains there.
Although the original plan for Regional Eurostar services to destinations north of London was abandoned, the significantly improved journey times available since the opening of High Speed 1 -- which is physically connected to both the East Coast Main Line and the North London Line (for the West Coast Main Line) at St Pancras -- and the recently increased maximum speeds on the West Coast Main Line may make potential Regional Eurostar services more commercially viable. This would be even more likely if proposals are adopted for a new high - speed line from London to the north of Britain. Simon Montague, Eurostar 's Director of Communications, commented that: "... International services to the regions are only likely once High Speed 2 is built. '' However, as of 2014 the current plans for High Speed 2 do not allow for a direct rail link between that new line, and High Speed 1, meaning passengers would still be required to change at Euston and take some form of transportation to St Pancras International.
Key pieces of infrastructure still belong to LCR via its subsidiary London & Continental Stations and Property, such as the Manchester International Depot, and Eurostar (UK) still owns several track access rights and the rights to paths on both the East Coast and West Coast Main Lines. While no announcement has been made of plans to start Regional Eurostar services, it remains a possibility for the future. In the meantime, the closest equivalent to Regional Eurostar services are same - station connections with East Midlands Trains and Thameslink, changing at St Pancras. The recent construction of a new concourse at adjacent King 's Cross Station has improved interchange with St Pancras and provided Virgin Trains East Coast, Great Northern, Hull Trains and Grand Central services with easier connections to Eurostar.
Eurostar has already been involved in reviewing and publishing reports into High Speed 2 for the British Government and looks favourably upon such an undertaking. The operation of Regional Eurostar services will not be considered until such time as High Speed 2 has been completed. Alternatively, future loans of the North of London sets to other operators would enable the trains to operate at their full speed, unlike GNER 's previous loan between 2000 and 2005, where the trains were limited to 175 km / h (109 mph) on regular track. A separate company called High Speed Two (HS2) Ltd has been set up to investigate the feasibility and viability of a new line likely serving a similar route to the West Coast Main Line.
LGV Picardie is a proposed high - speed line between Paris and Calais via Amiens. By cutting off the corner of the LGV Nord at Lille, it would enable Eurostar trains to save 20 minutes on the journey between Paris and Calais, bringing the London -- Paris journey time under 2 hours. In 2008 the French Government announced its future investment plans for new LGVs to be built up to 2020; LGV Picardie was not included but was listed as planned in the longer term. It has later been confirmed that LGV Picardie is intended to be built between 2020 and 2030.
The reduced journey times offered by the opening of High Speed 1 and the opening of the LGV Est and HSL - Zuid bring more continental destinations within a range from London where rail is competitive with air travel. By Eurostar 's estimates a train would then take 3 hours 30 minutes from London to Amsterdam. At present Eurostar is concentrating on developing its connections with other services, but direct services to other destinations would be possible. However, the routes that any potential services are likely to take would include infrastructure that Eurostar 's rolling stock has not been built to use -- German railways mostly have 15 kV AC electrification, while the Netherlands uses 1.5 kV DC (except on HSL Zuid and the Betuweroute). To operate on these lines would require new or heavily modified rolling stock designed to operate at these different voltages, in addition to those already in use. Signalling systems also differ. In addition to the infrastructure difficulties, any potential Eurostar services beyond Paris and Brussels would also require the installation of stringent security measures, due to the UK 's not having signed up to the Schengen Agreement, which allows unrestricted movement across borders of member countries.
The difficulties that Eurostar faces in expanding its services would also be faced by any potential competitors to Eurostar. As the UK is outside the Schengen Agreement, London - bound trains must use platforms that are physically isolated, a constraint which other international operators such as Thalys do not face. In addition, the British authorities are required to make passenger security and passport checks before they board the train, which might deter domestic passengers. Compounding the difficulties in providing a similar service are the Channel Tunnel safety rules, the major ones being the "half - train rule '' and the "length rule ''. The "half - train rule '' stipulated that passenger trains had to be able to split in the case of emergency. Class 373 trains were designed as two half - sets, which when coupled form a complete train, enabling them to be split easily in the event of an emergency while in the tunnel, with the unaffected set able to be driven out. The half - train rule was finally abolished in May 2010. However, the "length rule '', which states that passenger trains must be at least 375 metres long with a through corridor (to match the distance between the safety doors in the tunnel), was retained, preventing any potential operators from applying to run services with existing fleets (the majority of both TGV and ICE trains are only 200m long).
In October 2009 the President of SNCF, Guillaume Pepy, outlined plans to expand TGV services around Paris as well as for fleet renewal. A plan to connect LGV Nord, the line used by Eurostar into Paris, with La Défense, a large commercial and business centre in the west of Paris, was described as the "top priority ''. Pepy estimated that the connection (which would also allow interchange to the proposed Paris -- Rouen -- Le Havre LGV line) would allow a journey time from central London to La Défense of 2hrs 15mins. Guillaume Pepy defined SNCF 's priorities for the future as:
Our dream is to have 12 TGV stations for the 12 million inhabitants of Île de France. Grand Paris would be linked with the European high speed network, to challenge London or Frankfurt.
At the same time as Pepy 's announcement, Richard Brown announced that Eurostar 's plans for expanding its network potentially included Amsterdam and Rotterdam as destinations, using the HSL Zuid line. This would require either equipment upgrades of the existing fleet, or a new fleet equipped for both ERTMS and the domestic signalling systems used by Nederlandse Spoorwegen. Following the December 2009 opening of HSL Zuid, a London -- Amsterdam journey is estimated to take 4hrs 16mins.
In an interview with Eurostar 's Chief Executive Nicolas Petrovic in the Financial Times in May 2012, an intention for Eurostar to serve ten new destinations was expressed, including Amsterdam, Frankfurt, Cologne, Lyon, Marseille and Geneva, along with a likely second hub to be created in Brussels.
In March 2016 in an interview with Bloomberg, Eurostar 's Chief Executive expressed interest in operating a direct train service between London and Bordeaux, but not before 2019. Journey time was said to be around four and a half hours using the new LGV Sud Europe Atlantique.
In December 2012 Eurostar announced that on Saturdays during May 2013 -- June 2013 a new seasonal service would be introduced to Aix - en - Provence, also serving Lyon Part - Dieu and Avignon TGV on the way (the latter being 6 kilometres (4 miles) from central Avignon). This is in addition to the long - standing seasonal summer service on Saturdays during July and August and the first week of September travelling to Avignon Centre. The Aix - en - Provence services did not run in 2014 but was replaced along with the seasonal Avignon Centre services with the new year - round service to Lyon and Marseille as of 1 May 2015.
In September 2013, Eurostar announced an agreement with the Government of Netherlands and NS, the Dutch railway company to start twice daily services between London and Amsterdam Centraal starting in December 2016. The service will use the newly bought Siemens Velaro trainsets and will also call at Brussels, Antwerp, and Rotterdam. The journey time will be around four hours. In November 2014, Eurostar announced the service to Amsterdam would start in "2016 - 2017 '', and would include a stop at Schiphol Airport in addition to the previously announced destinations. Eurostar have indicated that the calling pattern ' is not set in stone ' and if a business case supports it the service might be extended to additional cities such as Utrecht.
In October 2016, Eurostar published details about its forthcoming Amsterdam service. They have since said it will start operating from Easter 2018. Trains will stop in Brussels for half an hour for a security check. It now seems that passengers for London from Amsterdam and Rotterdam will undertake all security checks before boarding and will not need to get off in Brussels. The train will also convey passengers from the Netherlands on journeys to Brussels who wo n't need to pass through security and they will be allocated half the train which will be kept separate from the London - bound passengers by locking the intermediate door. This half of the train will be security swept on arrival at Brussels before Brussels to London passengers can board. The journey from London to Amsterdam Centraal will take 3hrs 50mins and trains will call at Brussels, Antwerp, Rotterdam and Schipol Airport. From Amsterdam Centraal to London trains will take 4hrs 9mins to include the 25 minutes approx stop at Brussels. Amsterdam to London trains will not call at Antwerp.
In 2010, international rail travel was liberalised by new European Union directives, designed to break up monopolies in order to encourage competition for services between countries. This sparked interest among other companies in providing services in competition to Eurostar and new services to destinations beyond Paris and Brussels. The only rail carrier to formally propose and secure permission for such a service up to now is Deutsche Bahn, which intends to run services between London and Germany and the Netherlands. The sale of High Speed One by the British Government having effectively nationalised LCR in June 2009 is also likely to stimulate competition on the line.
In March 2010, it was announced that Eurotunnel was in discussions with the Intergovernment Commission, which oversees the tunnel, with the aim of amending elements of the safety code governing the tunnel 's usage. Most saliently, the requirement that trains be able to split within the tunnel and each part of the train be driven out to opposite ends has been removed. However, the proposal to allow shorter trains was not passed. Eurotunnel Chairman & Chief Executive Jacques Gounon said that he hoped the liberalisation of rules would allow entry into the market of competitors such as Deutsche Bahn. Sources at Eurotunnel suggested that Deutsche Bahn could have entered the market at the timetable change in December 2012. This, however, did not happen.
In July 2010 Deutsche Bahn (DB) announced that it intended to make a test run with a high - speed ICE - 3MF train through the Channel Tunnel in October 2010 in preparation for possible future operations. The trial ran on 19 October 2010 with a Class 406 ICE train specially liveried with a British "Union flag '' decal. The train was then put on display for the press at St Pancras International. However, this is not the class of train that would be used for the proposed service. At the St Pancras ceremony, DB revealed that it planned to operate from London to Frankfurt and Amsterdam (two of the biggest air travel markets in Europe), with trains ' splitting & joining ' in Brussels. It hoped to begin these services in 2013 using Class 407 ICE units, with three trains per day each way -- morning, midday and afternoon. Initially the only calling points would be Rotterdam on the way to Amsterdam, and Cologne on the way to Frankfurt. Amsterdam and Cologne would be under four hours from London, Frankfurt around five hours. DB decided to put this on hold mainly due to advance passport check requirements. DB had hoped that immigration checks could be done on board, but British authorities required immigration and security checks to be done at Lille Europe station, taking at least 30 minutes.
In August 2010, Trenitalia announced its desire to eventually run high - speed trains from Italy to the United Kingdom, using its newly ordered high - speed trains. The trains will be delivered from 2013.
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who was the ahom king in assam during the mutiny of 1857 | Purandar Singha - wikipedia
Purandar Singha (1818 -- 19, 1833 -- 1838) was the last king of Ahom kingdom in Assam. He was installed as king twice. First time, he was installed by Ruchinath Burhagohain in 1818 CE, after the latter deposed Chandrakanta Singha from the throne. His first reign ended in 1819 CE, during the second Burmese invasion of Assam, when his forces were defeated and the Burmese reinstalled Chandrakanta Singha on the throne. He along with Ruchinath Burhagohain continued their efforts to expel Burmese invaders, by seeking help from British and through armed struggle. After First Anglo - Burmese War, the British East India Company occupied Assam from Bumese invaders. Finding it difficult to administer an unfamiliar region and sensing discontent among the local inhabitants to foreign rule, the British authorities decided to restore Upper Assam to one prince of Ahom Dynasty. Purander Singha was found suitable for this post and therefore, in April 1833 CE, except Sadiya and Matak region, the entire Upper Assam was formally made over to him, on the condition of yearly tribute of 50,000 rupees. Later, in 1838 CE, finding him incompetent and defaulter in payments of revenue, the British formally annexed his kingdom, putting an end to 600 years reign of Ahom Dynasty.
Purandar Singha was the son of Brajanath Gohain, son of Bijoy Barmura Gohain, grandson of Ratneswar Saru - gohain, and great grandson of Swargadeo Rajeswar Singha. Ratneswar Saru - gohain had joined the ranks of rebels against his uncle Swargadeo Lakshmi Singha during the first phase of Moamoria rebellion. But after the Moamoria rebels achieved success, they treacherously murdered him, by administering poison on his food. Later Lakshmi Singha regained his throne, by defeating the Moamoria rebels. Bijoy Barmura Gohain, son of Ratneswar Saru - gohain also got involved in conspiracy against the regime of Swargadeo Lakshmi Singha. He was caught and was punished by inflicting mutilation on his ears. He again conspired against the king, only to be caught and suffered mutilation. His young son Brajanath Gohain also suffered mutilation on his ears by royal orders. During the reign of next monarch Gaurinath Singha, Bijoy Barmura plotted against the king, in association with Hangsa Narayan, the tributary ruler of Darrang. The plot was discovered and Hangsa Narayan was seized and put to death. Bijoy Barmura with his family escaped to Kachari kingdom. In 1803 CE, during the reign of Kamaleswar Singha, Bijoy Barmura joined some fugitive Moamoria rebels in Kachari kingdom and planned an uprising against Ahom kingdom. They were aided by Kachari king Krishna Chandra, and a large numbers of Kacharis joined their rank. The Kachari - Moamoria coalition rose against Ahom authority in present day, Nagaon and Morigaon districts, which resulted in a full scale war with Ahoms. The Kachari - Moamoria coalition was defeated and many rebel leaders were either killed or captured. Kamaleswar Singha demanded Kachari king Krishna Chandra to hand over Bijoy Bormura Gohain to Ahom authorities, but Bijoy Bormura Gohain escaped with his son Brajanath Gohain to British ruled Bengal. Bijoy Barmura stayed his rest of his life in Silmari in Bengal. In 1809 CE, Brajanath Gohain went to Calcutta, interviewed with the Governor - General and tried to procure military aid to fulfill his ambition to become king, in exchange of acknowledging British supremacy, but in vain.
Purandar Singha was born in 1807 CE, at Silmari, located in British ruled Bengal. His grandfather Bijoy Barmura Gohain and his father Brajanath Gohain was living in Silmari as exiled princes, after their attempts to become king of Ahom kingdom failed. The family faced economic hardships during their exile, and life in Silmari was very hard for them. Purandar Singha also spent his early life amidst economic hardships.
In 1815 CE, Purnananda Burhagohain, the Prime Minister of Ahom kingdom, sent a deputation to arrest Badan Chandra Borphukan, the Ahom viceroy at Guwahati, who was charged for atrocities committed on the people of Lower Assam, but, being warned in time by his daughter, Pijou Gabharu, who had married one of the Premier 's sons, he escaped to Bengal. He proceeded to Calcutta, and alleging that Purnananda Burhagohain was subverting the Ahom Government and ruining the country, endeavored to persuade the Governor - General Lord Hastings to dispatch an expedition against Purnananda Burhagohain. Lord Hasting, however, refused to interfere in any way. Meanwhile Badan Chandra had stuck up a friendship with the Calcutta Agent of the Burmese government and he went with this man to the Court of Amarapura, where he was accorded an interview with the Burmese king, Bodawpaya. He repeated his misrepresentations regarding the conduct of Purnananda Burhagohain, alleging that he had usurped the King 's authority, and that owing to his misgovernment, the lives of all, both high and low, were in danger. At last he obtained a promise of help. Towards the end of the year 1816 an army of about eight thousand men under the command of General Maha Minhla Minkhaung was dispatch from Burma with Badan Chandra Borphukan. It was joined en route by the chiefs of Mungkong, Hukong and Manipur, and, by the time Namrup was reached, its number had swollen to about sixteen thousand. Purnananda Burhagohain sent an army to oppose the invaders. A battle was fought at Ghiladhari in which the Assamese army was routed. At this juncture Purnananda Burhagohain died or some say, committed suicide by swallowing diamonds, leaving the entire Ahom government leaderless. His eldest son, Ruchinath was appointed as Burhagohain. The Ahom war council decided to continue the war; and a fresh army was hastily equipped and sent to resist the Burmese. Like the former one, it was utterly defeated, near Kathalbari east of Dihing. The Burmese continued their advance pillaging and burning the villages along their line of march. Ruchinath Burhagohain endeavored in vain to induce the reigning Ahom monarch Chandrakanta Singha to retreat to Guwahati, and then, perceiving that the latter intended to sacrifice him, in order to conciliate Badan Chandra and his Burmese allies, fled westwards to Guwahati. The Burmese occupied the capital Jorhat and Badan Chandra triumphantly entered the capital, interviewed Chandrakanta Singha and offered to run the affairs of the state as his capacity as Mantri - Phukan or Prime Minister. The young king, Chandrakanta had no alternative but to acquiesce in Badan Chandra 's proposal. Badan Chandra now became all powerful and he used his Burmese allies to plunder and slay all the relations and adherents of Purnananda Burhagohain. Meanwhile friendly overtures were made to Chandrakanta from the Burmese camp. An Ahom princess Hemo Aideo (also known as Bhamo Aideo) was offered to Burmese Monarch Bodawpaya for the royal harem along with fifty elephants. Hemo Aideo was accompanied by large retinue consisting of ladies and attendants. The Burmese were paid a large indemnity for the trouble and expense of the expedition, and in April 1817, the Burmese returned to their own country
Few months later, political scenario in Ahom kingdom changed drastically. Badan Chandra Borphukan was assassinated by his political rivals, aided by Queen - mother Numali Rajmao. The Queen - mother Numali Rajmao and other nobles called Ruchinath Burhagohain to return to the capital Jorhat. But Chandrakanta 's peace with the Burmese, his support for Badan Chandra and his refusal to go down to Guwahati at the approach of the Burmese army, had raised the suspicion of Ruchinath Burhagohain as being mainly responsible for the attempts made against his father Purnananda Burhagohain followed by the visit of the Burmese troops. Ruchinath took up the case of Brajanath Gohain, great - grandson of Ahom king Swargadeo Rajeswar Singha, who was leading an exiled life at Silmari in Bengal and invited him to become a candidate for the throne. Brajanath Gohain agreed and he came to Guwahati where he was joined by Ruchinath Burhagohain and his supporters. After gathering a force of Hindustani mercenaries and local levies, Ruchinath and his party proceeded up to Jorhat. Chandrakanta fled to Rangpur, leaving Luku Dekaphukan in charge of the capital. Luku Dekaphukan offered some resistance to Ruchinath Burhagohain 's forces but the resistance was easily repulsed and Luku Dekaphukan was killed. The victors succeeded in bringing over the royal troops to their interest. They then triumphantly entered Jorhat on February 17, 1818.
Brajanath at once caused coins to be struck in his own name, but it was now remembered that he was ineligible for the throne, as he had suffered mutilation of one of his ears. (The Ahom considered their king from divine origin and the person of the monarch, was sacred, and any noticeable sear or blemish, even a scratch received in play, a pit of small pox, or a wound received in action, operated as a bar to succession). Therefore, Brajanath 's son Purandar, then only ten years old, was brought from Silmari, who arrived in time and was acclaimed as sovereign of the Ahom kingdom of Assam, in February 1818 CE. A few days later Biswanath Marangikhowa Gohain, brother of Ruchinath Burhagohain effected the slicing off of Chandrakanta 's right ear in order to disqualify him from again sitting on the throne.
Since Purandar Singha was very young, the real authority lies with Brajanath Gohain and Ruchinath Burhagohain. They immediately made clean sweep of all the nobles and officers, including the Borgohain, Borpatrogohain and Borbarua, who were suspected of still bearing loyalty for Chandrakanta Singha. Being the father of the monarch, Brajanath Gohain exercised the virtual powers of a sovereign. He appointed himself as Charing Raja and Juvaraj or heir apparent. He also issued coins and grants lands to Brahmins in his own name, though it was the privilege of the king who could issue coins in his own name and also perform land grants to Brahmins.
Meanwhile, the friends of Badan Chandra Borphukan went to the court of Burmese monarch Bodawpaya and appealed for help. Bodawpaya, owing to his marriage to Hemo Aideo, had an alliance with Chandrakanta Singha, immediately dispatched a fresh army of 30,000 men under a general named Alungmingi, also known as Kiamingi Borgohain. The Assamese army resisted the Burmese in Phulpanichiga near the Janji River on February 17, 1819. Some sources stated that the battle took place in Machkhowa in Sibsagar district. Initially, the Assamese resisted Burmese with some spirit, but at a critical point in the engagement, their commander lost his nerve. They were defeated and beat a hasty retreat to Jorhat. Purandar Singha, his father Brajanath Gohain and Ruchinath Burhagohain fled to Guwahati taking with them all the valuables from the royal treasury, worth 3.5 million rupees. The triumphant Burmese now search for Chandrakanta Singha, led him from his retreat and properly installed him on the throne.
Purandar Singha and Ruchinath Burhagohain regrouped their troops in Guwahati. The Burmese commander Momai Barua marched towards Guwahati at the head of a large Burmese force. An Assamese force, under the leadership of Bhisma Gogoi Borphukan was dispatched by Purandar Singha to resist the invaders. Both sides fought a battle in Khagarijan (present day Nagaon) on 11 June 1819, in which the Assamese army was defeated. The Burmese occupied Guwahati and Purandar Singha and Ruchinath Burhagohain escaped to Bengal.
Purander Singha and Ruchinath Burhagohain appealed to British Governor - General Lord Hastings, to help recover their kingdom. The Governor - General replied that the British Government was not accustomed to interfere in the internal affairs of foreign states. Meanwhile Chandrakanta Singha and his Burmese allies also requested the British authorities for the extradition of the fugitives, but to these requests also a deaf ear was turned.
Purandar Singha and Ruchinth Burhagohain started recruiting soldiers and mercenaries from Goalpara, Bengal and Bhutan, and rallied his troops in Duars, an area located in the borders of Bhutan and Assam. With the aid of a British, Mr. Robert Bruce (he is credited for the discovery of tea in Assam), Purandar Singha 's army was supplied with guns and firearms. Meanwhile, Chandrakanta Singha tried to free himself from Burmese influence, which resulted in Third Burmese Invasion on Assam, in March, 1821 CE. Being defeated near Jorhat, Chandrakanta Singha retreated to Guwahati, and started gathering troops to fight against Burmese. The Burmese general installed Jogeswar Singha as the king of Ahom kingdom, after getting approval from Burmese monarch Bagyidaw. Meanwhile Purandar Singha learnt about the breakup of friendship between Chandrakanta Singha and the Burmese and he decided to take advantage of the situation. Considering Chandrakanta Singha 's position as weak, he sent his men under the leadership of Mr. Robert Bruce, to attack Chandrakanta Singha 's forces, located in Guwahati, in May, 1821 CE. Purandar Singha 's forces were defeated by Chandrakanta Singha and their commander Mr. Robert Bruce was taken prisoner. Robert Bruce was later released on his agreeing to enter under the service of Chandrakanta Singha and to supply his soldiers ' firearms and ammunitions. Purandar Singha retreated towards the border of Bhutan to rally his forces after his defeat in the hands of Chandrakanta Singha. Meanwhile, the Burmese marched against Chandrakanta Singha 's position in Guwahati. Alarmed by the huge size of the Burmese army, Chandrakanta Singha retreated to British ruled Bengal.
Towards the end of the 1821 A.D, Chandrakanta collected a force of about two thousand men, consisting of Sikhs and Hindustanis from British ruled Bengal. He rallied his men in the Goalpara district, and Mr. Robert Bruce obtained for him three hundred muskets and nine maunds of ammunition from Calcutta. The Burmese troops and their followers were so numerous that it was found impossible to provide them with supplies in any one place. They were, therefore, distributed about the country in a number of small detachments. Chandrakanta Singha, seeing his opportunity, returned to the attack and, after inflicting several defeats on the Burmese and recaptured Guwahati in January 1822 CE. Meanwhile, Purandar Singha and Ruchinath Burhagohain rallied their troops in Bhutan and also recruited new soldiers from Bhutan and Bijni. Encouraged by the defeats of Burmese at the hands of Chandrakanta Singha, Purandar Singha and Ruchinath Burhagohain also started to harassed Burmese troops especially, on the north bank of Brahmaputra. The Burmese commander Mingimaha Tilowa Baju sent a long letter to the British Governor - General at Calcutta, protesting against the facilities which had been accorded to the Ahom princes and demanded their extradition, but the British authority gave no reply.
Meanwhile news of Burmese reverses in Assam reached Burma. The Burmese monarch Bagyidaw sent his finest general Mingi Maha Bandula to reclaim Assam with reinforcements of 20,000 soldiers. Undaunted by enemy strength, Chandrakanta Singha marched upwards into Upper Assam with approximately 2000 men consisting of Sikhs and Hindustani mercenaries and some local Assamese people recruited around Guwahati. After pushing the enemy forces back, he pitched his camp in Mahgarh (presently known as Kokilamukh; located in Jorhat district near the capital Jorhat). On 19 April 1822 A.D. the 20,000 Burmese led by Mingi Maha Bandula and the 2000 mixed Assamese - Hindustani forces led by Chandrakanta Singha fought the decisive battle at Mahgarh. Chandrakanta Singha is said to have displayed unusual vigour and courage by himself present in the thick of battle; personally leading his soldiers; and engaged in hand - to - hand combat with enemy soldiers. For some time his troops held their own, but in the end their ammunition gave out and they were defeated with a loss of 1500 men. The Burmese won the battle due to their numerical superiority but sustained losses more than that of Chandrakanta 's forces. Chandrakanta Singha and his remaining forces managed to escape back to Guwahati as the Burmese, like Chandrakanta Singha 's forces run out of ammunitions and a lot of them were injured or dead after the battle. Mingi Maha Bandula sent Burmese Commander Mingi Maha Tilowa Baju in pursuit of Chandrakanta Singha. Unable to resist the Burmese with his small force, Chandrakanta Singha fall back to Hadirachowki (Assam chowki), where he made preparation to resist the Burmese with his mixed levies consisting of Sikh, Hindustanis and Assamese soldiers. On 21 June 1822, Chandrakanta Singha made his final stand against Mingi Maha Tilowa Baju and his Burmese forces in the battle of Hadirachowki. In the battle Chandrakanta Singha was finally defeated and his army totally eliminated. Chandrakanta Singha narrowly escaped to British ruled Goalpara district.
Meanwhile after receiving the news of Chandrakanta 's defeat and threatened by growing Burmese power, Purandar Singha and Ruchinath Burhagohain also withdraw their forces from Assam. The victorious Burmese assumed themselves as the undisputed Masters of Brahmaputra valley.
In 1824 CE, the First Anglo - Burmese War broke out. The Burmese was utterly defeated and were expelled from Assam, Cachar and Manipur. Finally the Burmese monarch sued for peace and the treaty of Yandabo was signed by both parties on 26 February 1826. According to the terms and conditions of the treaty, the Burmese monarch renounced all claims over Assam and British became the masters of the Brahmaputra valley.
After British occupation of Assam, many members of Ahom Dynasty, including former Ahom king Chandrakanta Singha appealed to the British Government to restore Ahom rule. Initially, the British choose to ignore these appeals, but as days passed, the British authorities sense the growing discontent to foreign rule among the people. Meanwhile certain members of former Ahom royal family and nobles conspired to overthrow the British rule from Assam. Though, the conspiracy was detected in time and the conspirators were duly punished, the British authorities were concern over the growing dissatisfaction among the people towards British rule. Therefore in an attempt to pacify the people, in 1832 A.D., the British Government considers restoring Upper Assam to the former Ahom royal family as a tributary prince. The two most suitable candidates for the throne were Chandrakanta Singha and Purandar Singha. After some interviews with the candidates and discussions among the British Officers, Purandar Singha was selected for the throne. In his report to British Government, Mr. T.C. Robertson, then Commissioner and Political Agent of Assam, wrote as follows regarding Purandar Singha 's qualifications: -
"I have had several interviews with Purandar Singh at Gauhati, and see no reason, from his outward appearance and manners, to doubt of his fitness for the dignity, for which all unite in preferring him to his only rival Chandrakant. Purandar Singh is a young man, apparently about 25 years of age. His countenance is pleasing, and his manners extremely good. His natural abilities seem respectable and his disposition mild and pacific... Major White and Lieutenants Mathie and Rutherford are all decidedly of opinion that Purandar Singh is the best person fitted to be at the head of the State which it has been decided to create. '' Political Proceedings of the Government of Bengal, dated 4 February 1833, No. 8, p - 123 - 4
Some historians are of the opinion that the selection of Purandar Singha over Chandrakanta Singha as a tributary ruler of Upper Assam was part of British political game. Since Chandrakanta Singha inherited the kingdom from his elder brother, the Ahom king Swargadeo Kamaleswar Singha, therefore the legal basis of Chandrakanta Singha was more firm than Purandar Singha. Purandar Singha lived most of his life in exile with his father; therefore if the British install Purandar Singha to the throne, he would be more grateful and will submit to British rule more readily than his rival candidate Chandrakanta Singha.
In April 1833, Purandar Singha was appointed as a protected prince in charge of Upper Assam, excluding Sadiya and Matak regions, on a stipulated tribute of 50,000 rupees. Jorhat was made the capital of the state. The entire civil administration was left in his hands and a detachment of Assam Light Infantry of British army, was left at Jorhat for the protection of Purandar Singha and the preservation of peace.
At the onset of his second reign, Purandar Singha appointed officials according to age old Ahom system of governance, but since his kingdom 's territory was very much less than the territories of Ahom kingdom, before 1826 CE, he left many official post vacant. Also owing to the depleted conditions of the kingdom 's economy, the state treasury could not have bore the burden of giving salaries to these officials. He appointed Mahidhar, the son of Ruchinath Burhagohain, on the post of Burhagohain. He created three Mels or estates, which are called "Maju Mel '', "Mahi Mel '' and "Saru Mel ''. He allotted Maju Mel or estate to his nephew, Narnarayan Gohain, Mahi Mel or estate to his cousin Ishwar Gohain, and Suru Mel or estate to his uncle, Brajanath Gohain 's younger brother, Indunath Gohain. Among his all officials, Maniram Dewan was the most powerful, with some real authority. Even though, Purandar Singha had appointed Burhagohain as his Prime Minister, it was actually Maniram Dewan, who look after all the administration of the state and monitor the collection of revenue.
After his accession as the tributary ruler of Upper Assam under British Government, Purandar Singha began well with his accounts of payments of revenue. But within three year, he began to make default in his payments. He begged for a considerable reduction in the amount of revenue, as he explained that the country was badly ravaged by the Burmese invaders, affecting all spheres of life of the people, which includes social and economical. Imposing taxation was also difficult because unlike other parts of India, common people in Assam did not use or very rarely use money for any business transaction or in daily business. Captain Jenkins, the new Commissioner and Political Agent, held an enquiry into Purandar Singh 's administration and found it a hot bed of corruption and misfeasance. His subjects were oppressed and misgoverned and his rule is very distasteful to the bulk of the population. Purandar Singha was himself found guilty of gathering personal fortune rather than concentrating on good governance for his people. In 1838, one British officer, McKoch gives descriptions about the conditions of Purandar Singha and his court officials: -
"The present representative of this once powerful dynasty (Svargadeo or Lord of Heaven, as he pleased to call himself) now resides in Jorhat in noisy pomp and tawdry splendor; his resources limited to that of a zamindar; his numerous nobility reduced to beggary or to exist upon bribery and corruption; and his kingly court (for he still maintains his regnal dignity) more resembling the parade of a company of strolling players than anything imposing or sovereign. ''
Purandar Singha having thus proved a failure, his kingdom was placed under direct British control, in September 1838 CE. With the deposal of Purandar Singha and the annexation of Upper Assam to the territories of the British East India Company, all vestiges of Ahom authority in Assam came to an end after a reign of approximately 600 years. His kingdom was divided into two districts, Sibsagar district and Lakhimpur district.
After the annexation of his kingdom by British, Purandar Singha continued to live in Jorhat. In October 1838 CE, a pension of 1000 rupees per month was granted to him but he declined to accept it as he hoped for the eventual restitution of his state as a result of his petition to the Governor - General. The petition of Purandar Singha was turn down by Governor - General, after consulting with the British officials serving in Assam. During that time, the British Government officials and many other adventurers dug the Royal Tombs or Maidams of Ahom kings in Charaideo, in search of treasures, as it was widely known that the material properties of the dead king, like swords, furniture, utensils, gold and silver jewellary, and other valuables were also entombed along with the dead king in the Maidam. Purandar Singha, at first protested the desecration of his ancestors ' tombs, but finding it hopeless to appeal, in a bid to preserve the treasure; he himself dug many Royal Tombs and recovered a large booty of treasures. Fearing outburst and reactions from other princes of Ahom Dynasty, he spread the news that he had dug the ancestral tombs to recover their bones and other remains, to take them to Ganges, for spiritual and religious purpose.
Purandar Singha lived the rest of his life in Jorhat along with his family. He died on October 1, 1846 CE, few days before Durga Puja celebrations. The former Ahom nobles attended his funeral and paid their respect to the departed king. His remains were entombed in a Maidam, constructed in Jorhat. Presently, that place is known as Raja Maidam, located in Jorhat Town.
Purandar Singha had numerous wives; prominent among them were Maharani Chandrakala, Chandrakanti Kunwari and Ambavati Kunwari. Maharani Chandrakala was the Parvatia Queen of Purandar Singha and she was a Manipuri princess. Purandar Singha was succeeded by his son Jubraj Kameswar Singha. In 1847 CE, Kameswar Singha was permitted by the British Government to use the title of Raja. Kameswar Singha died on June 10, 1852 CE, and his remains were entombed near his father 's tomb, in Raja Maidam, in Jorhat. Kameswar Singha leave behind three widows, Rani Lakhipriya, Padmahari Kunwari and Madhavi Maju Kunwari, as well as a concubine named Rupavati Khatania. Kandarpeswar Singha, Kameswar 's son through Lakhipriya, was born in 1840. In 1848 CE, the title of Charing Raja was conferred on Kandarpeswar. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, Kandarpeswar Singha was suspected of disloyal manoeuvres. He was placed under arrest as well as his agent Maniram Dewan Barbhandar Barua who was then in Calcutta petitioning the Governor - General for the restoration of the Ahom kingdom to Kandarpeswar Singha. As a result of the trial, Kandarpeswar Singha was sent to Alipur and then to Burdwan to be detained there as a state prisoner. Maniram Dewan was executed on February 26, 1858 CE. Kandarpeswar was afterwards released and granted a pension of 500 rupees per month and he died in Guwahati. His two sons, Kumudeswar and Nareswar, through his wife Rani Kamalapriya had died during their father 's lifetime, and his daughter Troilokyeswari Aideo survived her father.
Contemporary chroniclers are of the opinion that since Purandar Singha had passed his childhood through economic hardships during his father 's exile in Bengal, he was very much attracted to money and wealth. This explains the accusations which he had faced during both of his reigns. During his first reign, Purandar Singha and his father Brajanath Gohain, after being defeated by Burmese, fled to Guwahati taking all the valuables from the Royal treasury worth 3.5 million rupees, due to which the next ruler Chandrakanta Singha faced economic hardships in gathering mercenaries and maintaining the army to fight Burmese. During his second reign, as tributary prince under British, it was found that Purandar Singha was busy gathering personal wealth, instead of taking care of administration, which resulted in the growth of corruption among his officials. Some historians also stated his character as stubborn and firm from the fact that he refused to accept any pensions or grants from British Government. His son, Kameswar Singha also refused to accept pension from the British Government. Some sources said that it was actually Maniram Dewan who advised both father and son, not to accept any pension, as it might weaken their petition to restore their kingdom. After the fall of Ahom kingdom by Burmese invasion and subsequently by British occupation, Purandar Singha got an golden opportunity to restore Ahom rule in Upper Assam, but he ruined the chance by failing to pay the annual tribute of 50,000 rupees, resulted in the annexation of his kingdom by British, putting an end of 600 years of rule by Ahom dynasty.
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how many stars does the united states flag have | Flag of the United States - wikipedia
The flag of the United States of America, often referred to as the American flag, is the national flag of the United States. It consists of thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white, with a blue rectangle in the canton (referred to specifically as the "union '') bearing fifty small, white, five - pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows, where rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternate with rows of five stars. The 50 stars on the flag represent the 50 states of the United States of America, and the 13 stripes represent the thirteen British colonies that declared independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain, and became the first states in the U.S. Nicknames for the flag include the Stars and Stripes, Old Glory, and the Star - Spangled Banner.
The current design of the U.S. flag is its 27th; the design of the flag has been modified officially 26 times since 1777. The 48 - star flag was in effect for 47 years until the 49 - star version became official on July 4, 1959. The 50 - star flag was ordered by the then president Eisenhower on August 21, 1959, and was adopted in July 1960. It is the longest - used version of the U.S. flag and has been in use for over 57 years.
The Continental Colors (aka the "Grand Union Flag '')
Flag of the British East India Company, 1707 -- 1801
At the time of the Declaration of Independence in July 1776, the Continental Congress would not legally adopt flags with "stars, white in a blue field '' for another year. The flag contemporaneously known as "the Continental Colors '' has historically been referred to as the first national flag.
The Continental Navy raised the Colors as the ensign of the fledgling nation in the American War for Independence -- likely with the expedient of transforming their previous British red ensigns by adding white stripes -- and would use this flag until 1777, when it would form the basis for the subsequent de jure designs.
The name "Grand Union '' was first applied to the Continental Colors by George Preble in his 1872 history of the U.S. flag.
The flag closely resembles the British East India Company flag of the era, and Sir Charles Fawcett argued in 1937 that the company flag inspired the design. Both flags could have been easily constructed by adding white stripes to a British Red Ensign, one of the three maritime flags used throughout the British Empire at the time. However, an East India Company flag could have from nine to 13 stripes, and was not allowed to be flown outside the Indian Ocean. Benjamin Franklin once gave a speech endorsing the adoption of the Company 's flag by the United States as their national flag. He said to George Washington, "While the field of your flag must be new in the details of its design, it need not be entirely new in its elements. There is already in use a flag, I refer to the flag of the East India Company. '' This was a way of symbolising American loyalty to the Crown as well as the United States ' aspirations to be self - governing, as was the East India Company. Some colonists also felt that the Company could be a powerful ally in the American War of Independence, as they shared similar aims and grievances against the British government tax policies. Colonists therefore flew the Company 's flag, to endorse the Company.
However, the theory that the Grand Union Flag was a direct descendant of the flag of the East India Company has been criticised as lacking written evidence. On the other hand, the resemblance is obvious, and a number of the Founding Fathers of the United States were aware of the East India Company 's activities and of their free administration of India under Company rule. In any case, both the stripes (barry) and the stars (mullets) have precedents in classical heraldry. Mullets were comparatively rare in early modern heraldry, but an example of mullets representing territorial divisions predating the U.S. flag are those in the coat of arms of Valais of 1618, where seven mullets stood for seven districts.
On June 14, 1777, the Second Continental Congress passed the Flag Resolution which stated: "Resolved, That the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation. '' Flag Day is now observed on June 14 of each year. While scholars still argue about this, tradition holds that the new flag was first hoisted in June 1777 by the Continental Army at the Middlebrook encampment.
The first official U.S. flag flown during battle was on August 3, 1777, at Fort Schuyler (Fort Stanwix) during the Siege of Fort Stanwix. Massachusetts reinforcements brought news of the adoption by Congress of the official flag to Fort Schuyler. Soldiers cut up their shirts to make the white stripes; scarlet material to form the red was secured from red flannel petticoats of officers ' wives, while material for the blue union was secured from Capt. Abraham Swartwout 's blue cloth coat. A voucher is extant that Capt. Swartwout of Dutchess County was paid by Congress for his coat for the flag.
The 1777 resolution was most probably meant to define a naval ensign. In the late 18th century, the notion of a national flag did not yet exist, or was only nascent. The flag resolution appears between other resolutions from the Marine Committee. On May 10, 1779, Secretary of the Board of War Richard Peters expressed concern "it is not yet settled what is the Standard of the United States. '' However, the term, "Standard, '' referred to a national standard for the Army of the United States. Each regiment was to carry the national standard in addition to its regimental standard. The national standard was not a reference to the national or naval flag.
The Flag Resolution did not specify any particular arrangement, number of points, nor orientation for the stars and the arrangement or whether the flag had to have seven red stripes and six white ones or vice versa. The appearance was up to the maker of the flag. Some flag makers arranged the stars into one big star, in a circle or in rows and some replaced a state 's star with its initial. One arrangement features 13 five - pointed stars arranged in a circle, with the stars arranged pointing outwards from the circle (as opposed to up), the so - called Betsy Ross flag. This flag, however, is more likely a flag used for celebrations of anniversaries of the nation 's birthday. Experts have dated the earliest known example of this flag to be 1792 in a painting by John Trumbull.
Despite the 1777 resolution, the early years of American independence featured many different flags. Most were individually crafted rather than mass - produced. While there are many examples of 13 - star arrangements, some of those flags included blue stripes as well as red and white. Benjamin Franklin and John Adams, in a letter dated October 3, 1778, to Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies, described the American flag as consisting of "13 stripes, alternately red, white, and blue, a small square in the upper angle, next the flag staff, is a blue field, with 13 white stars, denoting a new Constellation. '' John Paul Jones used a variety of 13 - star flags on his U.S. Navy ships including the well - documented 1779 flags of the Serapis and the Alliance. The Serapis flag had three rows of eight - pointed stars with stripes that were red, white, and blue. The flag for the Alliance, however, had five rows of eight - pointed stars with 13 red and white stripes, and the white stripes were on the outer edges. Both flags were documented by the Dutch government in October 1779, making them two of the earliest known flags of 13 stars.
Francis Hopkinson of New Jersey, a naval flag designer, and a signer of the Declaration of Independence, designed the 1777 flag while he was the Chairman of the Continental Navy Board 's Middle Department, sometime between his appointment to that position in November 1776 and the time that the flag resolution was adopted in June 1777. The Navy Board was under the Continental Marine Committee. Not only did Hopkinson claim that he designed the U.S. flag, but he also claimed that he designed a flag for the U.S. Navy. Hopkinson was the only person to have made such a claim during his own lifetime, when he sent a letter and several bills to Congress for his work. These claims are documented in the Journals of the Continental Congress and George Hasting 's biography of Hopkinson. Hopkinson initially wrote a letter to Congress, via the Continental Board of Admiralty, on May 25, 1780. In this letter, he asked for a "Quarter Cask of the Public Wine '' as payment for designing the U.S. flag, the seal for the Admiralty Board, the seal for the Treasury Board, Continental currency, the Great Seal of the United States, and other devices. However, in three subsequent bills to Congress, Hopkinson asked to be paid in cash, but he did not list his U.S. flag design. Instead, he asked to be paid for designing the "great Naval Flag of the United States '' in the first bill; the "Naval Flag of the United States '' in the second bill; and "the Naval Flag of the States '' in the third, along with the other items. The flag references were generic terms for the naval ensign that Hopkinson had designed, that is, a flag of seven red stripes and six white ones. The predominance of red stripes made the naval flag more visible against the sky on a ship at sea. By contrast, Hopkinson 's flag for the United States had seven white stripes, and six red ones -- in reality, six red stripes laid on a white background. Hopkinson 's sketches have not been found, but we can make these conclusions because Hopkinson incorporated different stripe arrangements in the Admiralty (naval) Seal that he designed in the Spring of 1780 and the Great Seal of the United States that he proposed at the same time. His Admiralty Seal had seven red stripes; whereas, his second U.S. Seal proposal had seven white ones. Hopkinson 's flag for the Navy is the one that the Nation preferred as the national flag. Remnants of Hopkinson 's U.S. flag of seven white stripes can be found in the Great Seal of the United States and the President 's seal. When Hopkinson was chairman of the Navy Board, his position was like that of today 's Secretary of the Navy. The payment was not made, however, because it was determined he had already received a salary as a member of Congress. This contradicts the legend of the Betsy Ross flag, which suggests that she sewed the first Stars and Stripes flag by request of the government in the Spring of 1776. Furthermore, a letter from the War Board to George Washington on May 10, 1779, documents that there was still no design established for a national flag for the Army 's use in battle.
The origin of the stars and stripes design has been muddled by a story disseminated by the descendants of Betsy Ross. The apocryphal story credits Betsy Ross for sewing the first flag from a pencil sketch handed to her by George Washington. No evidence for this exists either in the diaries of George Washington nor in the records of the Continental Congress. Indeed, nearly a century passed before Ross ' grandson, William Canby, first publicly suggested the story in 1870. By her family 's own admission, Ross ran an upholstery business, and she had never made a flag as of the supposed visit in June 1776. Furthermore, her grandson admitted that his own search through the Journals of Congress and other official records failed to find corroboration of his grandmother 's story.
The family of Rebecca Young claimed that she sewed the first flag. Young 's daughter was Mary Pickersgill, who made the Star Spangled Banner Flag. According to rumor, the Washington family coat of arms, shown in a 15th - century window of Selby Abbey, was the origin of the stars and stripes.
In 1795, the number of stars and stripes was increased from 13 to 15 (to reflect the entry of Vermont and Kentucky as states of the Union). For a time the flag was not changed when subsequent states were admitted, probably because it was thought that this would cause too much clutter. It was the 15 - star, 15 - stripe flag that inspired Francis Scott Key to write "Defence of Fort M'Henry '', later known as "The Star Spangled Banner '', which is now the American national anthem. The flag is currently on display in the exhibition, "The Star - Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem '' at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History in a two - story display chamber that protects the flag while it is on view.
On April 4, 1818, a plan was passed by Congress at the suggestion of U.S. Naval Captain Samuel C. Reid in which the flag was changed to have 20 stars, with a new star to be added when each new state was admitted, but the number of stripes would be reduced to 13 so as to honor the original colonies. The act specified that new flag designs should become official on the first July 4 (Independence Day) following admission of one or more new states. The most recent change, from 49 stars to 50, occurred in 1960 when the present design was chosen, after Hawaii gained statehood in August 1959. Before that, the admission of Alaska in January 1959 prompted the debut of a short - lived 49 - star flag.
Prior to the adoption of the 48 - star flag in 1912, there was no official arrangement of the stars in the canton, although the U.S. Army and U.S. Navy used standardized designs. Throughout the 19th century there was an abundance of different star patterns, rectangular and circular.
On July 4, 2007, the 50 - star flag became the version of the flag in longest use, surpassing the 48 - star flag that was used from 1912 to 1959.
The U.S. flag was brought to the city of Canton (Guǎngzhōu) in China in 1784 by the merchant ship Empress of China, which carried a cargo of ginseng. There it gained the designation "Flower Flag '' (Chinese: 花旗; pinyin: huāqí; Cantonese Yale: fākeì). According to a pseudonymous account first published in the Boston Courier and later retold by author and U.S. naval officer George H. Preble:
When the thirteen stripes and stars first appeared at Canton, much curiosity was excited among the people. News was circulated that a strange ship had arrived from the further end of the world, bearing a flag "as beautiful as a flower ''. Every body went to see the kwa kee chuen (花旗 船; Fākeìsyùhn), or "flower flagship ''. This name at once established itself in the language, and America is now called the kwa kee kwoh (花旗 國; Fākeìgwok), the "flower flag country '' -- and an American, kwa kee kwoh yin (花旗 國人; Fākeìgwokyàhn) -- "flower flag countryman '' -- a more complimentary designation than that of "red headed barbarian '' -- the name first bestowed upon the Dutch.
In the above quote, the Chinese words are written phonetically based on spoken Cantonese. The names given were common usage in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Vietnam has borrowed the term for the United States, as Hoa Kỳ or 花旗 ("Flower Flag '') in Vietnamese language.
Chinese now refer to the United States as simplified Chinese: 美国; traditional Chinese: 美國; pinyin: Měiguó. Měi is short for Měilìjiān (simplified Chinese: 美利坚; traditional Chinese: 美利堅, phono - semantic matching of "American '') and "guó '' means "country '', so this name is unrelated to the flag. However, the "flower flag '' terminology persists in some places today: for example, American Ginseng is called flower flag ginseng (simplified Chinese: 花旗 参; traditional Chinese: 花旗 參) in Chinese, and Citibank, which opened a branch in China in 1902, is known as Flower Flag Bank (花旗 银行).
The U.S. flag took its first trip around the world in 1787 -- 90 on board the Columbia. William Driver, who coined the phrase "Old Glory '', took the U.S. flag around the world in 1831 -- 32. The flag attracted the notice of Japanese when an oversized version was carried to Yokohama by the steamer Great Republic as part of a round - the - world journey in 1871.
In the following table depicting the 28 various designs of the United States flag, the star patterns for the flags are merely the usual patterns, often associated with the United States Navy. Canton designs, prior to the proclamation of the 48 - star flag, had no official arrangement of the stars. Furthermore, the exact colors of the flag were not standardized until 1934.
In the November 2012 U.S. election, Puerto Rico voted to become a U.S. state. However, the legitimacy of the result of this election was disputed. On June 11, 2017, another referendum was held, this time with the result that 97 % of voters in Puerto Rico voted for statehood, but it had a turnout of only 23 %. Similarly in November 2016, a statehood referendum was held in the District of Columbia where 86 % of voters approved the proposal. If a new U.S. state were to be admitted, it would require a new design on the flag to accommodate the additional star.
The modern signficance of the flag was forged in April 1861, when Major Robert Anderson defended Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. The Confederates shot at the Fort Sumter Flag and forced Anderson to surrender. The modern meaning of the flag was forged by Anderson 's stand at Fort Sumter; he was celebrated in the North as a hero. Harold Holzer states that New York City:
Adam Goodheart argues that after this opening event of the American Civil War, U.S. citizens throughout northern states co-opted the national flag to symbolize U.S. nationalism and rejection of secessionism.
Before that day, the flag had served mostly as a military ensign or a convenient marking of American territory, flown from forts, embassies, and ships, and displayed on special occasions like American Independence day. But in the weeks after Major Anderson 's surprising stand, it became something different. Suddenly the Stars and Stripes flew -- as it does today, and especially as it did after the September 11 attacks in 2001 -- from houses, from storefronts, from churches; above the village greens and college quads. For the first time American flags were mass - produced rather than individually stitched and even so, manufacturers could not keep up with demand. As the long winter of 1861 turned into spring, that old flag meant something new. The abstraction of the Union cause was transfigured into a physical thing: strips of cloth that millions of people would fight for, and many thousands die for. -- Adam Goodheart.
The flag of the United States is one of the nation 's most widely recognized symbols. Within the United States, flags are frequently displayed not only on public buildings but on private residences. The flag is a common motif on decals for car windows, and on clothing ornamentation such as badges and lapel pins. Throughout the world the flag has been used in public discourse to refer to the United States.
The flag has become a powerful symbol of Americanism, and is flown on many occasions, with giant outdoor flags used by retail outlets to draw customers. Reverence for the flag has at times reached religion - like fervor: in 1919 William Norman Guthrie 's book The Religion of Old Glory discussed "the cult of the flag '' and formally proposed vexillolatry.
Desecration of the flag is considered a public outrage, but remains protected as free speech. Scholars have noted the irony that "(t) he flag is so revered because it represents the land of the free, and that freedom includes the ability to use or abuse that flag in protest ''. Comparing practice worldwide, Testi noted in 2010 that the United States was not unique in adoring its banner, for the flags of Scandinavian countries are also "beloved, domesticated, commercialized and sacralized objects ''.
The basic design of the current flag is specified by 4 U.S.C. § 1; 4 U.S.C. § 2 outlines the addition of new stars to represent new states. The specification gives the following values:
These specifications are contained in an executive order which, strictly speaking, governs only flags made for or by the U.S. federal government. In practice, most U.S. national flags available for sale to the public have a different width - to - height ratio; common sizes are 2 × 3 ft. or 4 × 6 ft. (flag ratio 1.5), 2.5 × 4 ft. or 5 × 8 ft. (1.6), or 3 × 5 ft. or 6 × 10 ft. (1.667). Even flags flown over the U.S. Capitol for sale to the public through Representatives or Senators are provided in these sizes. Flags that are made to the prescribed 1.9 ratio are often referred to as "G - spec '' (for "government specification '') flags.
The exact red, white, and blue colors to be used in the flag are specified with reference to the CAUS Standard Color Reference of America, 10th edition. Specifically, the colors are "White '', "Old Glory Red '', and "Old Glory Blue ''. The CIE coordinates for the colors of the 9th edition of the Standard Color Card were formally specified in JOSA in 1946. These colors form the standard for cloth, and there is no perfect way to convert them to RGB for display on screen or CMYK for printing. The "relative '' coordinates in the following table were found by scaling the luminous reflectance relative to the flag 's "white ''.
As with the design, the official colors are only officially required for flags produced for the U.S. federal government, and other colors are often used for mass - market flags, printed reproductions, and other products intended to evoke flag colors. The practice of using more saturated colors than the official cloth is not new. As Taylor, Knoche, and Granville wrote in 1950: "The color of the official wool bunting (of the blue field) is a very dark blue, but printed reproductions of the flag, as well as merchandise supposed to match the flag, present the color as a deep blue much brighter than the official wool. ''
Sometimes, Pantone Matching System (PMS) approximations to the flag colors are used. One set was given on the website of the U.S. embassy in London as early as 1998; the website of the U.S. embassy in Stockholm claimed in 2001 that those had been suggested by Pantone, and that the U.S. Government Printing Office preferred a different set. A third red was suggested by a California Military Department document in 2002. In 2001, the Texas legislature specified that the colors of the Texas flag should be "(1) the same colors used in the United States flag; and (2) defined as numbers 193 (red) and 281 (dark blue) of the Pantone Matching System. ''
When Alaska and Hawaii were being considered for statehood in the 1950s, more than 1,500 designs were submitted to President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Although some of them were 49 - star versions, the vast majority were 50 - star proposals. At least three of these designs were identical to the present design of the 50 - star flag. At the time, credit was given by the executive department to the United States Army Institute of Heraldry for the design.
Of these proposals, one created by 17 - year - old Robert G. Heft in 1958 as a school project received the most publicity. His mother was a seamstress, but refused to do any of the work for him. He originally received a B -- for the project. After discussing the grade with his teacher, it was agreed (somewhat jokingly) that if the flag was accepted by Congress, the grade would be reconsidered. Heft 's flag design was chosen and adopted by presidential proclamation after Alaska and before Hawaii was admitted into the Union in 1959. According to Heft, his teacher did keep to their agreement and changed his grade to an A for the project. The 49 - and 50 - star flags were each flown for the first time at Fort McHenry on Independence Day, in 1959 and 1960 respectively.
Traditionally, the flag may be decorated with golden fringe surrounding the perimeter of the flag as long as it does not deface the flag proper. Ceremonial displays of the flag, such as those in parades or on indoor posts, often use fringe to enhance the appearance of the flag.
The first recorded use of fringe on a flag dates from 1835, and the Army used it officially in 1895. No specific law governs the legality of fringe, but a 1925 opinion of the attorney general addresses the use of fringe (and the number of stars) "... is at the discretion of the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy... '' as quoted from footnote in previous volumes of Title 4 of the United States Code law books and is a source for claims that such a flag is a military ensign not civilian. However, according to the Army Institute of Heraldry, which has official custody of the flag designs and makes any change ordered, there are no implications of symbolism in the use of fringe. Several federal courts have upheld this conclusion, most recently and forcefully in Colorado v. Drew, a Colorado Court of Appeals judgment that was released in May 2010. Traditionally, the Army and Air Force use a fringed National Color for parade, color guard and indoor display, while the Sea Services (Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard) use a fringeless National Color for all occasions.
The flag is customarily flown year - round at most public buildings, and it is not unusual to find private houses flying full - size (3 by 5 feet (0.91 by 1.52 m)) flags. Some private use is year - round, but becomes widespread on civic holidays like Memorial Day, Veterans Day, Presidents ' Day, Flag Day, and on Independence Day. On Memorial Day it is common to place small flags by war memorials and next to the graves of U.S. war veterans. Also on Memorial Day it is common to fly the flag at half staff, until noon, in remembrance of those who lost their lives fighting in U.S. wars.
The United States Flag Code outlines certain guidelines for the use, display, and disposal of the flag. For example, the flag should never be dipped to any person or thing, unless it is the ensign responding to a salute from a ship of a foreign nation. This tradition may come from the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, where countries were asked to dip their flag to King Edward VII: the American flag bearer did not. Team captain Martin Sheridan is famously quoted as saying "this flag dips to no earthly king '', though the true provenance of this quotation is unclear.
The flag should never be allowed to touch the ground and, if flown at night, must be illuminated. If the edges become tattered through wear, the flag should be repaired or replaced. When a flag is so tattered that it can no longer serve as a symbol of the United States, it should be destroyed in a dignified manner, preferably by burning. The American Legion and other organizations regularly conduct flag retirement ceremonies, often on Flag Day, June 14. (The Boy Scouts of America recommends that modern nylon or polyester flags be recycled instead of burned, due to hazardous gases being produced when such materials are burned.)
The Flag Code prohibits using the flag "for any advertising purpose '' and also states that the flag "should not be embroidered, printed, or otherwise impressed on such articles as cushions, handkerchiefs, napkins, boxes, or anything intended to be discarded after temporary use ''. Both of these codes are generally ignored, almost always without comment.
Section 8, entitled Respect For Flag states in part: "The flag should never be used as wearing apparel, bedding, or drapery '', and "No part of the flag should ever be used as a costume or athletic uniform ''. Section 3 of the Flag Code defines "the flag '' as anything "by which the average person seeing the same without deliberation may believe the same to represent the flag of the United States of America ''.
An additional part of Section 8 Respect For Flag, that is frequently violated at sporting events is part (c) "The flag should never be carried flat or horizontally, but always aloft and free. ''
Although the Flag Code is U.S. federal law, there is no penalty for a private citizen or group failing to comply with the Flag Code and it is not widely enforced -- indeed, punitive enforcement would conflict with the First Amendment right to freedom of speech. Passage of the proposed Flag Desecration Amendment would overrule legal precedent that has been established.
When the flag is affixed to the right side of a vehicle of any kind (e.g.: cars, boats, planes, any physical object that moves), it should be oriented so that the canton is towards the front of the vehicle, as if the flag were streaming backwards from its hoist as the vehicle moves forward. Therefore, U.S. flag decals on the right sides of vehicles may appear to be reversed, with the union to the observer 's right instead of left as more commonly seen.
The flag has been displayed on every U.S. spacecraft designed for manned flight, including Mercury, Gemini, Apollo Command / Service Module, Apollo Lunar Module, and the Space Shuttle. The flag also appeared on the S - IC first stage of the Saturn V launch vehicle used for Apollo. But since Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo were launched and landed vertically and were not capable of horizontal atmospheric flight as the Space Shuttle did on its landing approach, the "streaming '' convention was not followed and these flags were oriented with the stripes running horizontally, perpendicular to the direction of flight.
On some U.S. military uniforms, flag patches are worn on the right shoulder, following the vehicle convention with the union toward the front. This rule dates back to the Army 's early history, when both mounted cavalry and infantry units would designate a standard bearer, who carried the Colors into battle. As he charged, his forward motion caused the flag to stream back. Since the Stars and Stripes are mounted with the canton closest to the pole, that section stayed to the right, while the stripes flew to the left. Several US military uniforms, such as flight suits worn by members of the United States Air Force and Navy, have the flag patch on the left shoulder.
Other organizations that wear flag patches on their uniforms can have the flag facing in either direction. The congressional charter of the Boy Scouts of America stipulates that Boy Scout uniforms should not imitate U.S. military uniforms; consequently, the flags are displayed on the right shoulder with the stripes facing front, the reverse of the military style. Law enforcement officers often wear a small flag patch, either on a shoulder, or above a shirt pocket.
Every U.S. astronaut since the crew of Gemini 4 has worn the flag on the left shoulder of his or her space suit, with the exception of the crew of Apollo 1, whose flags were worn on the right shoulder. In this case, the canton was on the left.
The flag did not appear on U.S. postal stamp issues until the Battle of White Plains Issue was released in 1926, depicting the flag with a circle of 13 stars. The 48 - star flag first appeared on the General Casimir Pulaski issue of 1931, though in a small monochrome depiction. The first U.S. postage stamp to feature the flag as the sole subject was issued July 4, 1957, Scott catalog number 1094. Since that time the flag has frequently appeared on U.S. stamps.
In 1907 Eben Appleton, New York stockbroker and grandson of Lieutenant Colonel George Armistead (the commander of Fort McHenry during the 1814 bombardment) loaned the Star Spangled Banner Flag to the Smithsonian Institution, and in 1912 he converted the loan to a gift. Appleton donated the flag with the wish that it would always be on view to the public. In 1994, the National Museum of American History determined that the Star Spangled Banner Flag required further conservation treatment to remain on public display. In 1998 teams of museum conservators, curators, and other specialists helped move the flag from its home in the Museum 's Flag Hall into a new conservation laboratory. Following the reopening of the National Museum of American History on November 21, 2008, the flag is now on display in a special exhibition, "The Star - Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem, '' where it rests at a 10 degree angle in dim light for conservation purposes.
By presidential proclamation, acts of Congress, and custom, U.S. flags are displayed continuously at certain locations.
The flag should especially be displayed at full staff on the following days:
The flag is displayed at half - staff (half - mast in naval usage) as a sign of respect or mourning. Nationwide, this action is proclaimed by the president; statewide or territory - wide, the proclamation is made by the governor. In addition, there is no prohibition against municipal governments, private businesses or citizens flying the flag at half - staff as a local sign of respect and mourning. However, many flag enthusiasts feel this type of practice has somewhat diminished the meaning of the original intent of lowering the flag to honor those who held high positions in federal or state offices. President Dwight D. Eisenhower issued the first proclamation on March 1, 1954, standardizing the dates and time periods for flying the flag at half - staff from all federal buildings, grounds, and naval vessels; other congressional resolutions and presidential proclamations ensued. However, they are only guidelines to all other entities: typically followed at state and local government facilities, and encouraged of private businesses and citizens.
To properly fly the flag at half - staff, one should first briefly hoist it top of the staff, then lower it to the half - staff position, halfway between the top and bottom of the staff. Similarly, when the flag is to be lowered from half - staff, it should be first briefly hoisted to the top of the staff.
Federal statutes provide that the flag should be flown at half - staff on the following dates:
National Korean War Veterans Armistice Day, on July 27, was formerly a day of half - staff observance until the law expired in 2003. In 2009, it became a day of full - staff observance.
Though not part of the official Flag Code, according to military custom, flags should be folded into a triangular shape when not in use. To properly fold the flag:
There is also no specific meaning for each fold of the flag. However, there are scripts read by non-government organizations and also by the Air Force that are used during the flag folding ceremony. These scripts range from historical timelines of the flag to religious themes.
Traditionally, the flag of the United States plays a role in military funerals, and occasionally in funerals of other civil servants (such as law enforcement officers, fire fighters, and U.S. presidents). A burial flag is draped over the deceased 's casket as a pall during services. Just prior to the casket being lowered into the ground, the flag is ceremonially folded and presented to the deceased 's next of kin as a token of respect.
Flag of Bikini Atoll
Flag of Liberia
Flag of Malaysia
Flag of El Salvador 1875 -- 1912
Flag of Brittany
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where is the gate located that is referred to in the gate control theory of pain | Gate control theory - wikipedia
The gate control theory of pain asserts that non-painful input closes the "gates '' to painful input, which prevents pain sensation from traveling to the central nervous system. Therefore, stimulation by non-noxious input is able to suppress pain.
First proposed in 1965 by Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall, the theory offers a physiological explanation for the previously observed effect of psychology on pain perception. Combining early concepts derived from the specificity theory and the peripheral pattern theory, the gate control theory is considered to be one of the most influential theories of pain because it provided a neural basis which reconciled the specificity and pattern theories and ultimately revolutionized pain research.
Although there are some important observations which the gate control theory can not explain adequately, it remains the theory of pain that most accurately accounts for the physical and psychological aspects of pain perception.
Willem Noordenbos (1910 -- 1990), a Dutch researcher at the University of Amsterdam, was the first one to propose a model with an interaction between small (unmyelinated) and thick (myelinated) fibers in 1959. The fast (myelinated) fibers block the slow (unmyelinated) fibers, "fast blocks slow ''.
Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall introduced their "gate control '' theory of pain in the 1965 Science article "Pain Mechanisms: A New Theory ''. The authors proposed that both thin (pain) and large diameter (touch, pressure, vibration) nerve fibers carry information from the site of injury to two destinations in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord: transmission cells that carry the pain signal up to the brain, and inhibitory interneurons that impede transmission cell activity. Activity in both thin and large diameter fibers excites transmission cells. Thin fiber activity impedes the inhibitory cells (tending to allow the transmission cell to fire) and large diameter fiber activity excites the inhibitory cells (tending to inhibit transmission cell activity). So, the more large fiber (touch, pressure, vibration) activity relative to thin fiber activity at the inhibitory cell, the less pain is felt. The authors had drawn a neural "circuit diagram '' to explain why we rub a smack. They pictured not only a signal traveling from the site of injury to the inhibitory and transmission cells and up the spinal cord to the brain, but also a signal traveling from the site of injury directly up the cord to the brain (bypassing the inhibitory and transmission cells) where, depending on the state of the brain, it may trigger a signal back down the spinal cord to modulate inhibitory cell activity (and so pain intensity). The theory offered a physiological explanation for the previously observed effect of psychology on pain perception.
Gate control theory asserts that activation of nerves which do not transmit pain signals, called nonnociceptive fibers, can interfere with signals from pain fibers, thereby inhibiting pain. Afferent pain - receptive nerves, those that bring signals to the brain, comprise at least two kinds of fibers - a fast, relatively thick, myelinated "Aδ '' fiber that carries messages quickly with intense pain, and a small, unmyelinated, slow "C '' fiber that carries the longer - term throbbing and chronic pain. Large - diameter Aβ fibers are nonnociceptive (do not transmit pain stimuli) and inhibit the effects of firing by Aδ and C fibers.
The peripheral nervous system has centers at which pain stimuli can be regulated. Some areas in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord that are involved in receiving pain stimuli from Aδ and C fibers, called laminae, also receive input from Aβ fibers. The nonnociceptive fibers indirectly inhibit the effects of the pain fibers, ' closing a gate ' to the transmission of their stimuli. In other parts of the laminae, pain fibers also inhibit the effects of nonnociceptive fibers, ' opening the gate '. This presynaptic inhibition of the dorsal nerve endings can occur through specific types of GABA receptors (not through the α1 GABA receptor and not through the activation of glycine receptors which are also absent from these types of terminals). Thus certain GABA receptor subtypes but not glycine receptors can presynaptically regulate nociception and pain transmission.
An inhibitory connection may exist with Aβ and C fibers, which may form a synapse on the same projection neuron. The same neurons may also form synapses with an inhibitory interneuron that also synapses on the projection neuron, reducing the chance that the latter will fire and transmit pain stimuli to the brain (image on the right). The inhibitory interneuron fires spontaneously. The C fiber 's synapse would inhibit the inhibitory interneuron, indirectly increasing the projection neuron 's chance of firing. The Aβ fiber, on the other hand, forms an excitatory connection with the inhibitory interneuron, thus decreasing the projection neuron 's chance of firing (like the C fiber, the Aβ fiber also has an excitatory connection on the projection neuron itself). Thus, depending on the relative rates of firing of C and Aβ fibers, the firing of the nonnociceptive fiber may inhibit the firing of the projection neuron and the transmission of pain stimuli.
Gate control theory thus explains how stimulus that activates only nonnociceptive nerves can inhibit pain. The pain seems to be lessened when the area is rubbed because activation of nonnociceptive fibers inhibits the firing of nociceptive ones in the laminae. In transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), nonnociceptive fibers are selectively stimulated with electrodes in order to produce this effect and thereby lessen pain.
One area of the brain involved in reduction of pain sensation is the periaqueductal gray matter that surrounds the third ventricle and the cerebral aqueduct of the ventricular system. Stimulation of this area produces analgesia (but not total numbing) by activating descending pathways that directly and indirectly inhibit nociceptors in the laminae of the spinal cord. Descending pathways also activate opioid receptor - containing parts of the spinal cord.
Afferent pathways interfere with each other constructively, so that the brain can control the degree of pain that is perceived, based on which pain stimuli are to be ignored to pursue potential gains. The brain determines which stimuli are profitable to ignore over time. Thus, the brain controls the perception of pain quite directly, and can be "trained '' to turn off forms of pain that are not "useful ''. This understanding led Melzack to assert that pain is in the brain.
When it was first proposed in 1965, the theory was met with considerable skepticism. Despite having to undergo several modifications, its basic conception remains unchanged.
In 1968, three years after the introduction of the gate control theory, Ronald Melzack concluded that pain is a multidimensional complex with numerous sensory, affective, cognitive, and evaluative components. Melzack 's description has been adapted by the International Association for the Study of Pain in a contemporary definition of pain. Despite flaws in its presentation of neural architecture, the theory of gate control is currently the only theory that most accurately accounts for the physical and psychological aspects of pain.
The gate control theory attempted to end a century - old debate about whether pain is represented by specific neural elements (specificity theory) or by patterned activity (pattern theory) within a convergent somatosensory subsystem. Although it is now considered to be oversimplified with flaws in the presentation of neural architecture, the gate control theory spurred many studies in pain research and significantly advanced our understanding of pain.
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when did the song high school by nicki minaj come out | High School (song) - wikipedia
"High School '' is a song by Trinidadian - American rapper and singer Nicki Minaj featuring American rapper Lil Wayne for Minaj 's reissued second studio album Pink Friday: Roman Reloaded -- The Re-Up (2012). It was released on April 16, 2013, by Young Money, Cash Money, and Republic as the third single from the record. The song was written and produced by Boi - 1da and T - Minus, with additional songwriting provided by Minaj and Lil Wayne. "High School '' is a hip hop and R&B song that lyrically discusses adultery. The song peaked at number 64 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, and additionally reached numbers 15 and 20 on the Billboard Hot Rap Songs and Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs component charts. Elsewhere, the track charted moderately throughout international singles charts, including number 31 on the UK Singles Chart. It is also the only song of Nicki Minaj to be released in 2013.
An accompanying music video was directed by Benny Boom, in which Minaj is depicted in the midst of an affair with Lil Wayne. The clip additionally includes footage of the "Pink Pill '', a variation of the "Beats Pro '' speaker created by Beats Electronics in collaboration with Minaj.
On November 29, Minaj opened a poll to determinate by the fans which song of the album should be the next single. "I 'm Legit '' won the poll with the most votes, while "High School '' placed second, followed by "Up In Flames '' third, "Hell Yeah '' in fourth, and "I Endorse These Strippers '' in fifth. A video was shot for the single on March 11. When the album dropped, fans noticed that "High School '' reminded them of a mixtape song called "Hood Story ''. It was included on her first mixtape called Playtime is Over. Nicki recycled the verses "he said he came from Jamaica '' and "he owned a couple of acres ''. At the end of Hood Story, Nicki whispered, "To Be Continued '', but it was never finished until now. She indirectly confirmed this speculation by retweeting "HOOD STORY PART 2 ''.
"High School '' received mostly positive reviews from critics. Jeffries from AllMusic said that the song "restores faith with three - and - half minutes of driven, witty filth. '' He also noticed that "The Re-Up comes on with such an anti-Roman, back - to - basics attitude that it slowly slithers up to the Wayne track. Women in Hip Hop website gave a very positive review to the track saying that "aggressive voice and flow is a winning factor on this song, Lil Wayne did well and the catchy chorus helped round it out. ''
Bené Viera from VH1 Tuner appreciate Minaj 's "storytelling capabilities. '' Jesal Padania from RapReviews commented negatively saying that "it 's another song that does n't really cut it, '' and it 's "not compared to ' Roman Reloaded '. ''
In an interview in Dubai, Nicki confirmed that she will be filming a music video for "High School '' or "I 'm Legit '' in 2013. In February 22, 2013, a fan asked Nicki on UStream when will the video be shot. She responded that she will shoot it in a few weeks, confirming the shoot in March 6. The video was shot on March 11 by Benny Boom in Los Angeles. The music video is confirmed to be released on April 2, 2013 globally, where Minaj will interview with MTV after its premiere and answer questions via Twitter with the hashtag # AskNicki. The video was released at 10.53 AM on MTV and an Explicit Version of the video was released at 6: 30PM the same day on VEVO. Minaj posted some pictures of the video shoot on March 12, 2013. On March 19, Minaj posted a behind the scenes video filmed and produced by Grizz Lee. She appears in a jacuzzi while wearing a neon green bikini. She changes multiple times and is carried around set by a bodyguard. Wayne and Birdman also appear in the video. He suggests that she films in her birthday suit. Nicki originally wanted him to play her husband in the clip. "I would 've loved that, '' he tells her.
The video begins with an intro for the participants in the video, including Birdman and actor Emilio Rivera as "El Jefe '' who played the "don '' in the video. The video then cuts to Minaj walking poolside in a pink monokini in a beautiful sunlit scene. Lil Wayne and Birdman are shown pulling up to hand over a Louis Vuitton duffle bag to a mafia don. Minaj plays the mistress of the don. Wayne and Birdman then go inside the mafia leaders mansion to secure the deal, and as Minaj is seen walking down the stairs, Wayne appears to be gazed in awe at the sight of Minaj. Throughout the video, Minaj is seen in many revealing outfits, some include a yellow monokini, and lingerie. As the meeting is on, Minaj is seen meeting eyes with Wayne as she walks past. Wayne then raps his verse poolside as well, with video girls dancing beside him. Minaj and Wayne then have a seductive - like love scene where Minaj appears in lingerie, and Wayne is seen shirtless. Various clips of Minaj in a jacuzzi and backyard sporting a yellow dress are shown. Then as the mafia "don '' has left the meeting, Birdman tells Wayne to go flirt with Minaj. More clips of Minaj 's and Wayne love scene are shown. Minaj then disguises herself in a mask and black hoodie and robs the "don ''. Ending the video, Wayne is seen waving down a helicopter, as he and Minaj escape the scene. The pink pill appeared in the music video.
Minaj performed High School for the first time on her Pink Friday Reloaded Tour stop in Perth, Australia during a melody. The single was also performed on Jimmy Kimmel Live but was unaired due to timing. Minaj and Lil Wayne performed High School at the 2013 Billboard Awards. The performance controversially featured Minaj giving Wayne a lap dance.
Recording:
Personnel:
The credits for "High School '' are adapted from the liner notes of Pink Friday: Roman Reloaded - The Re-Up.
sales figures based on certification alone
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who won season 8 the great food truck race | The Great food truck Race - wikipedia
The Great Food Truck Race is a reality television and cooking series that originally aired on August 15, 2010, on Food Network, with Tyler Florence as the host. Billed as a cross between Cannonball Run and Top Chef, this late summer show features several competing teams of three who drive across the United States in their food trucks and make stops every week to sell food in different cities.
Every season, between six and eight food truck teams compete in a race where they must cook, sell, and adapt to different challenges in the hopes of winning $50,000 (and in some cases, their very own food truck). Starting off on the west coast and driving east, every week the food truck that makes the least profit is eliminated and sent home, while the rest of the food trucks continue on to the next city. They 're usually given "seed money '' at the beginning of each episode that goes towards grocery shopping. The teams are assigned different challenges every week for a chance to earn more money (usually in the form of selling the most of a special dish or making a version of a local delicacy for Tyler and a guest judge). They 're also thrown obstacles that hinder their ability to make normal sales (for example, switching their menu to vegan food or being unable to restock supplies for the day).
In the first two seasons of the Great Food Truck Race, the competitors were seasoned, professional food truck operators who were competing for a cash prize (first season was $50,000 and second season was $100,000). In the following seasons (save for season six), food trucks were provided to novices (from home cooks to former restaurateurs) who have dreamt of owning and operating their very own food truck. In seasons three, four, and five, the winning team got the money and got to keep the food truck they were provided with by the show. In season six and onward, the show reverted to awarding the winning teams only the $50,000.
Bob Tuschman, general manager of the Food Network, had gotten several pitches for a food truck themed competition show before settling on the show that would become The Great Food Truck Race. He believed it to be ideal because it combined the Survivor - style reality show competition with the rising trend of food trucks. Tyler Florence was immediately on board and as the show grew and got renewed, so did the food truck scene. Florence believed the food truck trend grew in large part because of the economic slump around the early 2000s, and his show "helped invent an entirely new genre of restaurants ''.
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where is gravy train canned dog food made | Gravy Train (dog food) - Wikipedia
Gravy Train is an American commercial dog food. Originally developed by General Foods, it was the first brand of dog food to have a brown gravy form when warm water is added to the dry kibble, mixing with the kibble 's powder coating. The gravy is intended to make the food more palatable.
The advertising catchphrase is "The Gravy Taste Dogs Ca n't Wait to Finish. ''
Gravy Train was once a brand of General Foods Corporation as part of its Gaines Division which included Gaines Meal, Gaines - Burgers as well as Prime Choice and Top Choice.
Since 2014, Gravy Train has been owned by Big Heart Pet Brands, which spun off from Del Monte Foods.
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how many hit songs does britney spears have | Britney Spears Discography - wikipedia
American singer Britney Spears has released nine studio albums, seven compilation albums, forty - two singles, nine promotional singles, and has made three guest appearances. In 1997, Spears signed a recording contract with American record label Jive Records in order to launch her career.
Spears made her chart debut in November 1998 with "... Baby One More Time '', which was followed by the release of her debut studio album,... Baby One More Time (1999). The record opened the Canadian Albums Chart and the US Billboard 200 at number one, being later certified fourteen times Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). The singer 's second studio album, Oops!... I Did It Again, was made available for consumption on May 16, 2000, and became the fastest - selling record ever by a female act in America, bringing first - week sales of 1,319,193 units and certified diamond in United States. It spawned four singles -- "Oops!... I Did It Again '', "Lucky '', "Stronger '', and "Do n't Let Me Be the Last to Know ''. In November 2001, the singer 's eponymous album spawned worldwide hit "I 'm a Slave 4 U '', which had been pointed out by music critics for being a musical departure from her previous material. After a two - year hiatus from her career, Spears 's released her fourth studio album, In the Zone, in November 2003, which featured "Me Against the Music '' -- a collaboration with Madonna that reached the top position of the European Hot 100 Singles -- and "Toxic '', which earned Spears her first Grammy in the category of Best Dance Recording, and gained her credibility among critics. The singer 's first compilation album, Greatest Hits: My Prerogative, was released the following year and sold nearly six million copies worldwide.
Following experiencing personal struggles through 2007, Spears ' fifth studio album, Blackout, was released in October of the same year. Unlike all of the singer 's previous records, Blackout failed to be heavily promoted through magazine interviews, talk - show appearances or televised performances -- besides a performance at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards -- and was not accompanied by a supporting tour either. With the release of her sixth studio album Circus, Spears became the only act in the Nielsen SoundScan era -- from 1991 to present, -- to have four records debuting with 500,000 or more copies sold in the United States. Supported by the releases of commercially successful international hits like "Womanizer '' and "Circus '', it managed to sale four million copies globally. The singer 's third compilation album, The Singles Collection, featured her third number one single in America, "3 ''. In 2011, she released the song "Hold It Against Me '', which made Spears the second artist in the Billboard Hot 100 's 52 - year history to debut at number one with two or more songs, just behind American recording artist Mariah Carey. The track was included on her seventh studio album, Femme Fatale, which debuted at number one in that country. Also her first album ever to yield three top ten hits in the US, including commercially successful singles like "Till the World Ends '' and "I Wanna Go ''. Spears 's eighth studio album, Britney Jean, was released in 2013. It marks Spears ' first major activity under RCA Records since the dissolution of her long - time record label, Jive Records, in 2011. Receiving mixed reviews from music critics, it experienced minor commercial success, and thus became the lowest - selling record of her career. Spears began working on her ninth studio album in 2014; she also renewed her record deal with RCA Records. Glory was released in 2016 and received positive reviews from music critics. The album debuted at number three on US Billboard 200 with 111,000 album equivalent units, including 88,000 copies sold, and sprawed singles "Make Me... '' and "Slumber Party '', which peaked at 17 and 86 on the Hot 100, and topped the Dance Club Songs in the United States.
Spears has sold over 100 million records worldwide and more than 28.6 million digital singles in the United States, making her one of the best - selling music artists of all time. Billboard ranked her the eighth overall Artist of the Decade, and also recognized her as the best - selling female album artist of the 21st century 's first decade, as well as the fifth overall. Additionally, the Recording Industry Association of America recognized Spears as the eighth best - selling female artist in the United States, with 34.5 million certified albums. The singer serves as one of the few artists in history to have a number one single and studio album in each of the three decades of their career -- 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s. Spears has also sold over 100 million records worldwide.
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why did several states want a bill of people's rights added to the constitution | United States Bill of Rights - wikipedia
The Bill of Rights is the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution. Proposed following the often bitter 1787 -- 88 battle over ratification of the U.S. Constitution, and crafted to address the objections raised by Anti-Federalists, the Bill of Rights amendments add to the Constitution specific guarantees of personal freedoms and rights, clear limitations on the government 's power in judicial and other proceedings, and explicit declarations that all powers not specifically delegated to Congress by the Constitution are reserved for the states or the people. The concepts codified in these amendments are built upon those found in several earlier documents, including the Virginia Declaration of Rights and the English Bill of Rights, along with earlier documents such as Magna Carta (1215). In practice, the amendments had little impact on judgments by the courts for the first 150 years after ratification.
On June 8, 1789, Representative James Madison introduced nine amendments to the Constitution in the House of Representatives. Among his recommendations Madison proposed opening up the Constitution and inserting specific rights limiting the power of Congress in Article One, Section 9. Seven of these limitations would become part of the ten ratified Bill of Rights amendments. Ultimately, on September 25, 1789, Congress approved twelve articles of amendment to the Constitution, each consisting of one one - sentence paragraph, and submitted them to the states for ratification. Contrary to Madison 's original proposal that the articles be incorporated into the main body of the Constitution, they were proposed as supplemental additions (codicils) to it. Articles Three through Twelve were ratified as additions to the Constitution on December 15, 1791, and became Amendments One through Ten of the Constitution. Article Two became part of the Constitution on May 5, 1992, as the Twenty - seventh Amendment. Article One is technically still pending before the states.
Although Madison 's proposed amendments included a provision to extend the protection of some of the Bill of Rights to the states, the amendments that were finally submitted for ratification applied only to the federal government. The door for their application upon state governments was opened in the 1860s, following ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment. Since the early 20th century both federal and state courts have used the Fourteenth Amendment to apply portions of the Bill of Rights to state and local governments. The process is known as incorporation.
There are several original engrossed copies of the Bill of Rights still in existence. One of these is on permanent public display at the National Archives in Washington, D.C.
Prior to the ratification and implementation of the United States Constitution, the thirteen sovereign states followed the Articles of Confederation, created by the Second Continental Congress and ratified in 1781. However, the national government that operated under the Articles of Confederation was too weak to adequately regulate the various conflicts that arose between the states. The Philadelphia Convention set out to correct weaknesses of the Articles that had been apparent even before the American Revolutionary War had been successfully concluded.
The convention took place from May 14 to September 17, 1787, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Although the Convention was purportedly intended only to revise the Articles, the intention of many of its proponents, chief among them James Madison of Virginia and Alexander Hamilton of New York, was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one. The convention convened in the Pennsylvania State House, and George Washington of Virginia was unanimously elected as president of the convention. The 55 delegates who drafted the Constitution are among the men known as the Founding Fathers of the new nation. Thomas Jefferson, who was Minister to France during the convention, characterized the delegates as an assembly of "demi - gods. '' Rhode Island refused to send delegates to the convention.
On September 12, George Mason of Virginia suggested the addition of a Bill of Rights to the Constitution modeled on previous state declarations, and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts made it a formal motion. However, the motion was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations after only a brief discussion. Madison, then an opponent of a Bill of Rights, later explained the vote by calling the state bills of rights "parchment barriers '' that offered only an illusion of protection against tyranny. Another delegate, James Wilson of Pennsylvania, later argued that the act of enumerating the rights of the people would have been dangerous, because it would imply that rights not explicitly mentioned did not exist; Hamilton echoed this point in Federalist No. 84. Because Mason and Gerry had emerged as opponents of the proposed new Constitution, their motion -- introduced five days before the end of the convention -- may also have been seen by other delegates as a delaying tactic. The quick rejection of this motion, however, later endangered the entire ratification process. Author David O. Stewart characterizes the omission of a Bill of Rights in the original Constitution as "a political blunder of the first magnitude '' while historian Jack N. Rakove calls it "the one serious miscalculation the framers made as they looked ahead to the struggle over ratification ''.
Thirty - nine delegates signed the finalized Constitution. Thirteen delegates left before it was completed, and three who remained at the convention until the end refused to sign it: Mason, Gerry, and Edmund Randolph of Virginia. Afterward, the Constitution was presented to the Articles of Confederation Congress with the request that it afterwards be submitted to a convention of delegates, chosen in each State by the people, for their assent and ratification.
Following the Philadelphia Convention, some leading revolutionary figures such as Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, and Richard Henry Lee publicly opposed the new frame of government, a position known as "Anti-Federalism ''. Elbridge Gerry wrote the most popular Anti-Federalist tract, "Hon. Mr. Gerry 's Objections '', which went through 46 printings; the essay particularly focused on the lack of a bill of rights in the proposed constitution. Many were concerned that a strong national government was a threat to individual rights and that the president would become a king. Jefferson wrote to Madison advocating a Bill of Rights: "Half a loaf is better than no bread. If we can not secure all our rights, let us secure what we can. '' The pseudonymous Anti-Federalist "Brutus '' wrote,
We find they have, in the ninth section of the first article declared, that the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless in cases of rebellion -- that no bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be passed -- that no title of nobility shall be granted by the United States, etc. If every thing which is not given is reserved, what propriety is there in these exceptions? Does this Constitution any where grant the power of suspending the habeas corpus, to make ex post facto laws, pass bills of attainder, or grant titles of nobility? It certainly does not in express terms. The only answer that can be given is, that these are implied in the general powers granted. With equal truth it may be said, that all the powers which the bills of rights guard against the abuse of, are contained or implied in the general ones granted by this Constitution.
He continued with this observation:
Ought not a government, vested with such extensive and indefinite authority, to have been restricted by a declaration of rights? It certainly ought. So clear a point is this, that I can not help suspecting that persons who attempt to persuade people that such reservations were less necessary under this Constitution than under those of the States, are wilfully endeavoring to deceive, and to lead you into an absolute state of vassalage.
Supporters of the Constitution, known as Federalists, opposed a bill of rights for much of the ratification period, in part due to the procedural uncertainties it would create. Madison argued against such an inclusion, suggesting that state governments were sufficient guarantors of personal liberty, in No. 46 of The Federalist Papers, a series of essays promoting the Federalist position. Hamilton opposed a bill of rights in The Federalist No. 84, stating that "the constitution is itself in every rational sense, and to every useful purpose, a bill of rights. He stated that ratification did not mean the American people were surrendering their rights, making protections unnecessary: "Here, in strictness, the people surrender nothing, and as they retain everything, they have no need of particular reservations. '' Patrick Henry criticized the federalist point of view, writing that the legislature must be firmly informed "of the extent of the rights retained by the people... being in a state of uncertainty, they will assume rather than give up powers by implication. '' Other anti-federalists pointed out that earlier political documents, in particular the Magna Carta had protected specific rights. In response, Hamilton argued that the Constitution was inherently different:
Bills of rights are in their origin, stipulations between kings and their subjects, abridgments of prerogative in favor of privilege, reservations of rights not surrendered to the prince. Such was the Magna Charta, obtained by the Barons, swords in hand, from King John.
In December 1787 and January 1788, five states -- Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, and Connecticut -- ratified the Constitution with relative ease, though the bitter minority report of the Pennsylvania opposition was widely circulated. In contrast to its predecessors, the Massachusetts convention was angry and contentious, at one point erupting into a fistfight between Federalist delegate Francis Dana and Anti-Federalist Elbridge Gerry when the latter was not allowed to speak. The impasse was resolved only when revolutionary heroes and leading Anti-Federalists Samuel Adams and John Hancock agreed to ratification on the condition that the convention also propose amendments. The convention 's proposed amendments included a requirement for grand jury indictment in capital cases, which would form part of the Fifth Amendment, and an amendment reserving powers to the states not expressly given to the federal government, which would later form the basis for the Tenth Amendment.
Following Massachusetts ' lead, the Federalist minorities in both Virginia and New York were able to obtain ratification in convention by linking ratification to recommended amendments. A committee of the Virginia convention headed by law professor George Wythe forwarded forty recommended amendments to Congress, twenty of which enumerated individual rights and another twenty of which enumerated states ' rights. The latter amendments included limitations on federal powers to levy taxes and regulate trade.
A minority of the Constitution 's critics, such as Maryland 's Luther Martin, continued to oppose ratification. However, Martin 's allies, such as New York 's John Lansing, Jr., dropped moves to obstruct the Convention 's process. They began to take exception to the Constitution "as it was, '' seeking amendments. Several conventions saw supporters for "amendments before '' shift to a position of "amendments after '' for the sake of staying in the Union. The New York Anti-Federalist "circular letter '' was sent to each state legislature proposing a second constitutional convention for "amendments before '', but it failed in the state legislatures. Ultimately, only North Carolina and Rhode Island waited for amendments from Congress before ratifying.
Article Seven of the proposed Constitution set the terms by which the new frame of government would be established. The new Constitution would become operational when ratified by at least nine states. Only then would it replace the existing government under the Articles of Confederation and would apply only to those states that ratified it.
Following contentious battles in several states, the proposed Constitution reached that nine state ratification plateau in June 1788. On September 13, 1788, the Articles of Confederation Congress certified that the new Constitution had been ratified by more than enough states for the new system to be implemented and directed the new government to meet in New York City on the first Wednesday in March the following year. On March 4, 1789, the new frame of government came into force with eleven of the thirteen states participating.
The 1st United States Congress, which met in New York City 's Federal Hall, was a triumph for the Federalists. The Senate of eleven states contained 20 Federalists with only two Anti-Federalists, both from Virginia. The House included 48 Federalists to 11 Anti-Federalists, the latter of whom were from only four states: Massachusetts, New York, Virginia and South Carolina. Among the Virginia delegation to the House was James Madison, Patrick Henry 's chief opponent in the Virginia ratification battle. In retaliation for Madison 's victory in that battle at Virginia 's ratification convention, Henry and other Anti-Federalists, who controlled the Virginia House of Delegates had gerrymandered a hostile district for Madison 's planned congressional run and recruited Madison 's future presidential successor, James Monroe, to oppose him. Madison defeated Monroe after offering a campaign pledge that he would introduce constitutional amendments comprising a Bill of Rights at the First Congress.
Originally opposed to the inclusion of a bill of rights in the Constitution, he had gradually come to understand the importance of doing so during the often contentious ratification debates. By taking the initiative to propose amendments himself through the Congress, he hoped to preempt a second constitutional convention that might, it was feared, undo the difficult compromises of 1787, and open the entire Constitution to reconsideration, thus risking the dissolution of the new federal government. Writing to Jefferson, he stated, "The friends of the Constitution, some from an approbation of particular amendments, others from a spirit of conciliation, are generally agreed that the System should be revised. But they wish the revisal to be carried no farther than to supply additional guards for liberty. '' He also felt that amendments guaranteeing personal liberties would "give to the Government its due popularity and stability ''. Finally, he hoped that the amendments "would acquire by degrees the character of fundamental maxims of free government, and as they become incorporated with the national sentiment, counteract the impulses of interest and passion ''. Historians continue to debate the degree to which Madison considered the amendments of the Bill of Rights necessary, and to what degree he considered them politically expedient; in the outline of his address, he wrote, "Bill of Rights -- useful -- not essential -- ''.
On the occasion of his April 30, 1789 inauguration as the nation 's first president, George Washington addressed the subject of amending the Constitution. He urged the legislators,
whilst you carefully avoid every alteration which might endanger the benefits of an united and effective government, or which ought to await the future lessons of experience; a reverence for the characteristic rights of freemen, and a regard for public harmony, will sufficiently influence your deliberations on the question, how far the former can be impregnably fortified or the latter be safely and advantageously promoted.
James Madison introduced a series of Constitutional amendments in the House of Representatives for consideration. Among his proposals was one that would have added introductory language stressing natural rights to the preamble. Another would apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government. Several sought to protect individual personal rights by limiting various Constitutional powers of Congress. Like Washington, Madison urged Congress to keep the revision to the Constitution "a moderate one '', limited to protecting individual rights.
Madison was deeply read in the history of government and used a range of sources in composing the amendments. The English Magna Carta of 1215 inspired the right to petition and to trial by jury, for example, while the English Bill of Rights of 1689 provided an early precedent for the right to keep and bear arms (although this applied only to Protestants) and prohibited cruel and unusual punishment.
The greatest influence on Madison 's text, however, was existing state constitutions. Many of his amendments, including his proposed new preamble, were based on the Virginia Declaration of Rights drafted by Anti-Federalist George Mason in 1776. To reduce future opposition to ratification, Madison also looked for recommendations shared by many states. He did provide one, however, that no state had requested: "No state shall violate the equal rights of conscience, or the freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases. '' He did not include an amendment that every state had asked for, one that would have made tax assessments voluntary instead of contributions.
First. That there be prefixed to the constitution a declaration that all power is originally vested in, and consequently derived from the people. That government is instituted, and ought to be exercised for the benefit of the people; which consists in the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the right of acquiring and using property, and generally of pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety. That the people have an indubitable, unalienable, and indefeasible right to reform or change their government, whenever it be found adverse or inadequate to the purposes of its institution. Secondly. That in article 1st, section 2, clause 3, these words be struck out, to wit: "The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative, and until such enumeration shall be made; '' and in place thereof be inserted these words, to wit: "After the first actual enumeration, there shall be one Representative for every thirty thousand, until the number amounts to --, after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that the number shall never be less than --, nor more than --, but each State shall, after the first enumeration, have at least two Representatives; and prior thereto. '' Thirdly. That in article 2nd, section 6, clause 1, there be added to the end of the first sentence, these words, to wit, "But no law varying the compensation last ascertained shall operate before the next ensuing election of representatives. '' Fourthly. That in article 2nd, section 9, between clauses 3 and 4, be inserted these clauses, to wit, The civil rights of none shall be abridged on account of religious belief or worship, nor shall any national religion be established, nor shall the full and equal rights of conscience by in any manner, or on any pretext infringed. The people shall not be deprived or abridged of their right to speak, to write, or to publish their sentiments; and the freedom of the press, as one of the great bulwarks of liberty, shall be inviolable. The people shall not be restrained from peaceably assembling and consulting for their common good, nor from applying to the legislature by petitions, or remonstrances for redress of their grievances. The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed; a well armed, and well regulated militia being the best security of a free country: but no person religiously scrupulous of bearing arms, shall be compelled to render military service in person. No soldier shall in time of peace be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner; nor at any time, but in a manner warranted by law. No person shall be subject, except in cases of impeachment, to more than one punishment, or one trial for the same office; nor shall be compelled to be a witness against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law; nor be obliged to relinquish his property, where it may be necessary for public use, without a just compensation. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. The rights of the people to be secured in their persons, their houses, their papers, and their other property from all unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated by warrants issued without probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, or not particularly describing the places to be searched, or the persons or things to be seized. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, to be informed of the cause and nature of the accusation, to be confronted with his accusers, and the witnesses against him; to have a compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. The exceptions here or elsewhere in the constitution, made in favor of particular rights, shall not be so construed as to diminish the just importance of other rights retained by the people; or as to enlarge the powers delegated by the constitution; but either as actual limitations of such powers, or as inserted merely for greater caution. Fifthly. That in article 2nd, section 10, between clauses 1 and 2, be inserted this clause, to wit: No state shall violate the equal rights of conscience, or the freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases Sixthly. That article 3rd, section 2, be annexed to the end of clause 2nd, these words to wit: but no appeal to such court shall be allowed where the value in controversy shall not amount to -- dollars: nor shall any fact triable by jury, according to the course of common law, be otherwise re-examinable than may consist with the principles of common law. Seventhly. That in article 3rd, section 2, the third clause be struck out, and in its place be inserted the classes following, to wit: The trial of all crimes (except in cases of impeachments, and cases arising in the land or naval forces, or the militia when on actual service in time of war or public danger) shall be by an impartial jury of freeholders of the vicinage, with the requisite of unanimity for conviction, of the right of challenge, and other accustomed requisites; and in all crimes punishable with loss of life or member, presentment or indictment by a grand jury shall be an essential preliminary, provided that in cases of crimes committed within any county which may be in possession of an enemy, or in which a general insurrection may prevail, the trial may by law be authorized in some other county of the same State, as near as may be to the seat of the offence. In cases of crimes committed not within any county, the trial may by law be in such county as the laws shall have prescribed. In suits at common law, between man and man, the trial by jury, as one of the best securities to the rights of the people, ought to remain inviolate. Eighthly. That immediately after article 6th, be inserted, as article 7th, the clauses following, to wit: The powers delegated by this constitution, are appropriated to the departments to which they are respectively distributed: so that the legislative department shall never exercise the powers vested in the executive or judicial; nor the executive exercise the powers vested in the legislative or judicial; nor the judicial exercise the powers vested in the legislative or executive departments. The powers not delegated by this constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the States respectively. Ninthly. That article 7th, be numbered as article 8th.
Federalist representatives were quick to attack Madison 's proposal, fearing that any move to amend the new Constitution so soon after its implementation would create an appearance of instability in the government. The House, unlike the Senate, was open to the public, and members such as Fisher Ames warned that a prolonged "dissection of the constitution '' before the galleries could shake public confidence. A procedural battle followed, and after initially forwarding the amendments to a select committee for revision, the House agreed to take Madison 's proposal up as a full body beginning on July 21, 1789.
The eleven - member committee made some significant changes to Madison 's nine proposed amendments, including eliminating most of his preamble and adding the phrase "freedom of speech, and of the press ''. The House debated the amendments for eleven days. Roger Sherman of Connecticut persuaded the House to place the amendments at the Constitution 's end so that the document would "remain inviolate '', rather than adding them throughout, as Madison had proposed. The amendments, revised and condensed from twenty to seventeen, were approved and forwarded to the Senate on August 24, 1789.
The Senate edited these amendments still further, making 26 changes of its own. Madison 's proposal to apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government was eliminated, and the seventeen amendments were condensed to twelve, which were approved on September 9, 1789. The Senate also eliminated the last of Madison 's proposed changes to the preamble.
On September 21, 1789, a House -- Senate Conference Committee convened to resolve the numerous differences between the two Bill of Rights proposals. On September 24, 1789, the committee issued this report, which finalized 12 Constitutional Amendments for House and Senate to consider. This final version was approved by joint resolution of Congress on September 25, 1789, to be forwarded to the states on September 28.
By the time the debates and legislative maneuvering that went into crafting the Bill of Rights amendments was done, many personal opinions had shifted. A number of Federalists came out in support, thus silencing the Anti-Federalists ' most effective critique. Many Anti-Federalists, in contrast, were now opposed, realizing that Congressional approval of these amendments would greatly lessen the chances of a second constitutional convention. Anti-Federalists such as Richard Henry Lee also argued that the Bill left the most objectionable portions of the Constitution, such as the federal judiciary and direct taxation, intact.
Madison remained active in the progress of the amendments throughout the legislative process. Historian Gordon S. Wood writes that "there is no question that it was Madison 's personal prestige and his dogged persistence that saw the amendments through the Congress. There might have been a federal Constitution without Madison but certainly no Bill of Rights. ''
The twelve articles of amendment approved by congress were officially submitted to the Legislatures of the several States for consideration on September 28, 1789. The following states ratified some or all of the amendments:
Having been approved by the requisite three - fourths of the several states, there being 14 States in the Union at the time (as Vermont had been admitted into the Union on March 4, 1791), the ratification of Articles Three through Twelve was completed and they became Amendments 1 through 10 of the Constitution. President Washington informed Congress of this on January 18, 1792.
As they had not yet been approved by 11 of the 14 states, the ratification of Article One (ratified by 10) and Article Two (ratified by 6) remained incomplete. The ratification plateau they needed to reach soon rose to 12 of 15 states when Kentucky joined the Union (June 1, 1792). On June 27, 1792, the Kentucky General Assembly ratified all 12 amendments, however this action did not come to light until 1996.
Article One came within one state of the number needed to become adopted into the Constitution on two occasions between 1789 and 1803. Despite coming close to ratification early on, it has never received the approval of enough states to become part of the Constitution. As Congress did not attach a ratification time limit to the article, it is still technically pending before the states. Since no state has approved it since 1792, ratification by an additional 27 states would now be necessary for the article to be adopted.
Article Two, initially ratified by seven states through 1792 (including Kentucky), was not ratified by another state for eighty years. The Ohio General Assembly ratified it on May 6, 1873 in protest of an unpopular Congressional pay raise. A century later, on March 6, 1978, the Wyoming Legislature also ratified the article. Gregory Watson, a University of Texas at Austin undergraduate student, started a new push for the article 's ratification with a letter - writing campaign to state legislatures. As a result, by May 1992, enough states had approved Article Two (38 of the 50 states in the Union) for it to become the Twenty - seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution. The amendment 's adoption was certified by Archivist of the United States Don W. Wilson and subsequently affirmed by a vote of Congress on May 20, 1992.
Three states did not complete action on the twelve articles of amendment when they were initially put before the states. Georgia found a Bill of Rights unnecessary and so refused to ratify. Both chambers of the Massachusetts General Court ratified a number of the amendments (the Senate adopted 10 of 12 and the House 9 of 12), but failed to reconcile their two lists or to send official notice to the Secretary of State of the ones they did agree upon. Both houses of the Connecticut General Assembly voted to ratify Articles Three through Twelve but failed to reconcile their bills after disagreeing over whether to ratify Articles One and Two. All three later ratified the Constitutional amendments originally known as Articles Three through Twelve as part of the 1939 commemoration of the Bill of Rights ' sesquicentennial: Massachusetts on March 2, Georgia on March 18, and Connecticut on April 19. Connecticut and Georgia would also later ratify Article Two, on May 13, 1987 and February 2, 1988 respectively.
The Bill of Rights had little judicial impact for the first 150 years of its existence; in the words of Gordon S. Wood, "After ratification, most Americans promptly forgot about the first ten amendments to the Constitution. '' The Court made no important decisions protecting free speech rights, for example, until 1931. Historian Richard Labunski attributes the Bill 's long legal dormancy to three factors: first, it took time for a "culture of tolerance '' to develop that would support the Bill 's provisions with judicial and popular will; second, the Supreme Court spent much of the 19th century focused on issues relating to intergovernmental balances of power; and third, the Bill initially only applied to the federal government, a restriction affirmed by Barron v. Baltimore (1833). In the twentieth century, however, most of the Bill 's provisions were applied to the states via the Fourteenth Amendment -- a process known as incorporation -- beginning with the freedom of speech clause, in Gitlow v. New York (1925). In Talton v. Mayes (1896), the Court ruled that Constitutional protections, including the provisions of the Bill of Rights, do not apply to the actions of American Indian tribal governments. Through the incorporation process the United States Supreme Court succeeded in extending to the States almost all of the protections in the Bill of Rights, as well as other, unenumerated rights. The Bill of Rights thus imposes legal limits on the powers of governments and acts as an anti-majoritarian / minoritarian safeguard by providing deeply entrenched legal protection for various civil liberties and fundamental rights. The Supreme Court for example concluded in the West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette (1943) case that the founders intended the Bill of Rights to put some rights out of reach from majorities, ensuring that some liberties would endure beyond political majorities. As the Court noted the idea of the Bill of Rights "was to withdraw certain subjects from the vicissitudes of political controversy, to place them beyond the reach of majorities and officials and to establish them as legal principles to be applied by the courts. '' This is why "fundamental rights may not be submitted to a vote; they depend on the outcome of no elections. ''
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
The First Amendment prohibits the making of any law respecting an establishment of religion, impeding the free exercise of religion, abridging the freedom of speech, infringing on the freedom of the press, interfering with the right to peaceably assemble or prohibiting the petitioning for a governmental redress of grievances. Initially, the First Amendment applied only to laws enacted by Congress, and many of its provisions were interpreted more narrowly than they are today.
In Everson v. Board of Education (1947), the Court drew on Thomas Jefferson 's correspondence to call for "a wall of separation between church and State '', though the precise boundary of this separation remains in dispute. Speech rights were expanded significantly in a series of 20th - and 21st - century court decisions that protected various forms of political speech, anonymous speech, campaign financing, pornography, and school speech; these rulings also defined a series of exceptions to First Amendment protections. The Supreme Court overturned English common law precedent to increase the burden of proof for libel suits, most notably in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964). Commercial speech is less protected by the First Amendment than political speech, and is therefore subject to greater regulation.
The Free Press Clause protects publication of information and opinions, and applies to a wide variety of media. In Near v. Minnesota (1931) and New York Times v. United States (1971), the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment protected against prior restraint -- pre-publication censorship -- in almost all cases. The Petition Clause protects the right to petition all branches and agencies of government for action. In addition to the right of assembly guaranteed by this clause, the Court has also ruled that the amendment implicitly protects freedom of association.
A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.
The Second Amendment protects the individual right to keep and bear arms. The concept of such a right existed within English common law long before the enactment of the Bill of Rights. First codified in the English Bill of Rights of 1689 (but there only applying to Protestants), this right was enshrined in fundamental laws of several American states during the Revolutionary era, including the 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights and the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776. Long a controversial issue in American political, legal, and social discourse, the Second Amendment has been at the heart of several Supreme Court decisions.
No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.
The Third Amendment restricts the quartering of soldiers in private homes, in response to Quartering Acts passed by the British parliament during the Revolutionary War. The amendment is one of the least controversial of the Constitution, and, as of 2016, has never been the primary basis of a Supreme Court decision.
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
The Fourth Amendment guards against unreasonable searches and seizures, along with requiring any warrant to be judicially sanctioned and supported by probable cause. It was adopted as a response to the abuse of the writ of assistance, which is a type of general search warrant, in the American Revolution. Search and seizure (including arrest) must be limited in scope according to specific information supplied to the issuing court, usually by a law enforcement officer who has sworn by it. The amendment is the basis for the exclusionary rule, which mandates that evidence obtained illegally can not be introduced into a criminal trial. The amendment 's interpretation has varied over time; its protections expanded under left - leaning courts such as that headed by Earl Warren and contracted under right - leaning courts such as that of William Rehnquist.
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.
The Fifth Amendment protects against double jeopardy and self - incrimination and guarantees the rights to due process, grand jury screening of criminal indictments, and compensation for the seizure of private property under eminent domain. The amendment was the basis for the court 's decision in Miranda v. Arizona (1966), which established that defendants must be informed of their rights to an attorney and against self - incrimination prior to interrogation by police.
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.
The Sixth Amendment establishes a number of rights of the defendant in a criminal trial:
In Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), the Court ruled that the amendment guaranteed the right to legal representation in all felony prosecutions in both state and federal courts.
In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.
The Seventh Amendment guarantees jury trials in federal civil cases that deal with claims of more than twenty dollars. It also prohibits judges from overruling findings of fact by juries in federal civil trials. In Colgrove v. Battin (1973), the Court ruled that the amendment 's requirements could be fulfilled by a jury with a minimum of six members. The Seventh is one of the few parts of the Bill of Rights not to be incorporated (applied to the states).
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
The Eighth Amendment forbids the imposition of excessive bails or fines, though it leaves the term "excessive '' open to interpretation. The most frequently litigated clause of the amendment is the last, which forbids cruel and unusual punishment. This clause was only occasionally applied by the Supreme Court prior to the 1970s, generally in cases dealing with means of execution. In Furman v. Georgia (1972), some members of the Court found capital punishment itself in violation of the amendment, arguing that the clause could reflect "evolving standards of decency '' as public opinion changed; others found certain practices in capital trials to be unacceptably arbitrary, resulting in a majority decision that effectively halted executions in the United States for several years. Executions resumed following Gregg v. Georgia (1976), which found capital punishment to be constitutional if the jury was directed by concrete sentencing guidelines. The Court has also found that some poor prison conditions constitute cruel and unusual punishment, as in Estelle v. Gamble (1976) and Brown v. Plata (2011).
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
The Ninth Amendment declares that there are additional fundamental rights that exist outside the Constitution. The rights enumerated in the Constitution are not an explicit and exhaustive list of individual rights. It was rarely mentioned in Supreme Court decisions before the second half of the 20th century, when it was cited by several of the justices in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965). The Court in that case voided a statute prohibiting use of contraceptives as an infringement of the right of marital privacy. This right was, in turn, the foundation upon which the Supreme Court built decisions in several landmark cases, including, Roe v. Wade (1973), which overturned a Texas law making it a crime to assist a woman to get an abortion, and Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992), which invalidated a Pennsylvania law that required spousal awareness prior to obtaining an abortion.
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.
The Tenth Amendment reinforces the principles of separation of powers and federalism by providing that powers not granted to the federal government by the Constitution, nor prohibited to the states, are reserved to the states or the people. The amendment provides no new powers or rights to the states, but rather preserves their authority in all matters not specifically granted to the federal government.
Congress has sometimes gotten around the Tenth Amendment by invoking the Commerce Clause in Article One or by threatening to withhold funding for a federal program from noncooperative States, as in South Dakota v. Dole (1987).
George Washington had fourteen handwritten copies of the Bill of Rights made, one for Congress and one for each of the original thirteen states. The copies for Georgia, Maryland, New York, and Pennsylvania went missing. The New York copy is thought to have been destroyed in a fire. Two unidentified copies of the missing four (thought to be the Georgia and Maryland copies) survive; one is in the National Archives, and the other is in the New York Public Library. North Carolina 's copy was stolen from the State Capitol by a Union soldier following the Civil War. In an FBI sting operation, it was recovered in 2003. The copy retained by the First Congress has been on display (along with the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence) in the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom room at the National Archives Building in Washington, D.C. since December 13, 1952.
After fifty years on display, signs of deterioration in the casing were noted, while the documents themselves appeared to be well preserved. Accordingly, the casing was updated and the Rotunda rededicated on September 17, 2003. In his dedicatory remarks, President George W. Bush stated, "The true (American) revolution was not to defy one earthly power, but to declare principles that stand above every earthly power -- the equality of each person before God, and the responsibility of government to secure the rights of all. ''
In 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared December 15 to be Bill of Rights Day, commemorating the 150th anniversary of the ratification of the Bill of Rights. In 1991, the Virginia copy of the Bill of Rights toured the country in honor of its bicentennial, visiting the capitals of all fifty states.
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who sang the songs in the movie ray | Ray (soundtrack) - Wikipedia
Ray is the soundtrack of the 2004 film Ray starring Jamie Foxx (who won the Academy Award for Best Actor for his role as "Ray Charles '' in this film), Kerry Washington, Terrence Howard, Clifton Powell and Regina King. The score was composed by Breyon Prescott and Craig Armstrong.
The album won a Grammy Award and was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Film Music.
A second CD, More Music from Ray, featuring more music from the film along with "music that inspired the film '', was released on Atlantic Records.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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where did cliff richard come in the eurovision | Congratulations (Cliff Richard song) - wikipedia
"Congratulations '' is a song written by Bill Martin and Phil Coulter, as the UK entry in the Eurovision Song Contest 1968 on 6 April with Cliff Richard performing. The song was arranged, conducted and produced by Norrie Paramor who was also musical director for the contest, which was held at London 's Royal Albert Hall.
Phil Coulter originally wrote the song as "I Think I Love You '', but was unsure of the lyrics and got together with Bill Martin (the same team that wrote "Puppet on a String ''), who changed it to "Congratulations ''. It was recorded with session musicians who included Jimmy Page and John Paul Jones.
The song was immediately popular in the UK and became a number one single. On the day of the contest, it was the favourite to win, so much so that the British press were posing the question: "What will come second to ' Congratulations '? ''
During the voting, "Congratulations '' was leading for much of the way until the penultimate vote when Germany gave Spain six points, putting them one point ahead of the United Kingdom. It finished second losing to Spain 's entry "La, la, la '' by just one point. But "Congratulations '' went on to become a far more successful song and a huge hit throughout Europe. In 2008, documentary film - maker Montse Fernandez Vila claimed that the loss was the result of rigging of the Spanish vote by state television on behalf of the Francoist State.
However José María Íñigo, the person that made such claims in the documentary quickly said that his words were taken out of context and said that the channel that produced the documentary, laSexta, who was the promoter of the Spanish representative that year, Rodolfo Chikilicuatre, had manipulated his words to help promote their candidate. He said: "if there had been such a manipulation, it would have been for a different artist who had been closer to the regime ''.
In July 1968 the song was included on the six - track Columbia EP Congratulations: Cliff Sings 6 Songs For Europe.
The song is still popular and was chosen to lead the show which celebrated 50 years of Eurovision and which was named after it: Congratulations: 50 Years of the Eurovision Song Contest. Also, Richard performed the song as part of the commemorations for the 50th anniversary of VE Day in 1995, despite its having been written long after World War II 's end.
George Harrison 's song "It 's Johnny 's Birthday '' from his 1970 album All Things Must Pass is based on this song. The writers Martin and Coulter filed a claim in December 1970, against Harrison, for royalties and subsequent pressings of the album credit their contribution.
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when did the first settlers land in america | European colonization of the Americas - wikipedia
The European colonisation of the Americas describes the history of the settlement and establishment of control of the continents of the Americas by various European powers. Starting in either the 10th or 11th century, when West Norse sailors explored and briefly settled on the shores of present - day Canada, according to Icelandic Sagas, violent conflicts with the indigenous population ultimately led to the Norse abandoning those settlements.
European colonization began in 1492, when a Spanish expedition headed by the Genoese explorer Christopher Columbus sailed west to find a new trade route to the Far East but inadvertently landed in what came to be known to Europeans as the "New World ''. Running aground on the northern part of Hispaniola on 5 December 1492, which the Taino people had inhabited since the 7th century, the site became the first European settlement in the Americas. European conquest, large - scale exploration and colonization soon followed. Columbus 's first two voyages (1492 -- 93) reached the Bahamas and various Caribbean islands, including Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and Cuba. In 1497, sailing from Bristol on behalf of England, John Cabot landed on the North American coast, and a year later, Columbus 's third voyage reached the South American coast. As the sponsor of Christopher Columbus 's voyages, Spain was the first European power to settle and colonize the largest areas, from North America and the Caribbean to the southern tip of South America.
Other powers such as France also founded colonies in the Americas: in eastern North America, a number of Caribbean islands and small coastal parts of South America. Portugal colonized Brazil, tried colonizing the eastern coasts of present - day Canada and settled for extended periods northwest (on the east bank) of the River Plate. The Age of Exploration was the beginning of territorial expansion for several European countries. Europe had been preoccupied with internal wars, and was slowly recovering from the loss of population caused by the bubonic plague; thus the rapid rate at which it grew in wealth and power was unforeseeable in the early 15th century.
Eventually, most of the Western Hemisphere came under the control of European governments, leading to changes to its landscape, population, and plant and animal life. In the 19th century over 50 million people left Europe for the Americas. The post-1492 era is known as the period of the Columbian Exchange, a dramatically widespread exchange of animals, plants, culture, human populations (including slaves), ideas and communicable disease between the American and Afro - Eurasian hemispheres following Columbus 's voyages to the Americas.
Norse journeys to Greenland and Canada are supported by historical and archaeological evidence. A Norse colony in Greenland was established in the late 10th century, and lasted until the mid 15th century, with court and parliament assemblies (þing) taking place at Brattahlíð and a bishop located at Garðar. The remains of a Norse settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, Canada, were discovered in 1960 and were dated to around the year 1000 (carbon dating estimate 990 -- 1050 CE). L'Anse aux Meadows is the only site widely accepted as evidence of pre-Columbian trans - oceanic contact. It was named a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1978. It is also notable for its possible connection with the attempted colony of Vinland, established by Leif Erikson around the same period or, more broadly, with the West Norse colonization of the Americas.
Central America & Caribbean sovereignty 1700 -- present
Early explorations and conquests were made by the Spanish and the Portuguese immediately following their own final reconquest of Iberia in 1492. In the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas, ratified by the Pope, these two kingdoms divided the entire non-European world into two areas of exploration and colonization, with a north to south boundary that cut through the Atlantic Ocean and the eastern part of present - day Brazil. Based on this treaty and on early claims by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa, discoverer of the Pacific Ocean in 1513, the Spanish conquered large territories in North, Central and South America.
Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés took over the Aztec Kingdom and Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire. As a result, by the mid-16th century, the Spanish Crown had gained control of much of western South America, Central America and southern North America, in addition to its earlier Caribbean territories. Over this same timeframe, Portugal claimed lands in North America (Canada) and colonized much of eastern South America, naming it Santa Cruz and Brazil.
Other European nations soon disputed the terms of the Treaty of Tordesillas. England and France attempted to plant colonies in the Americas in the 16th century, but these failed. England and France succeeded in establishing permanent colonies in the following century, along with the Dutch Republic. Some of these were on Caribbean islands, which had often already been conquered by the Spanish or depopulated by disease, while others were in eastern North America, which had not been colonized by Spain north of Florida.
Early European possessions in North America included Spanish Florida, Spanish New Mexico, the English colonies of Virginia (with its North Atlantic offshoot, Bermuda) and New England, the French colonies of Acadia and Canada, the Swedish colony of New Sweden, and the Dutch New Netherland. In the 18th century, Denmark -- Norway revived its former colonies in Greenland, while the Russian Empire gained a foothold in Alaska. Denmark - Norway would later make several claims in the Caribbean, starting in the 1600s.
As more nations gained an interest in the colonization of the Americas, competition for territory became increasingly fierce. Colonists often faced the threat of attacks from neighboring colonies, as well as from indigenous tribes and pirates.
The first phase of well - financed European activity in the Americas began with the Atlantic Ocean crossings of Christopher Columbus (1492 -- 1504), sponsored by Spain, whose original attempt was to find a new route to India and China, known as "the Indies ''. He was followed by other explorers such as John Cabot, who was sponsored by England and reached Newfoundland. Pedro Álvares Cabral reached Brazil and claimed it for Portugal.
Amerigo Vespucci, working for Portugal in voyages from 1497 to 1513, established that Columbus had reached a new set of continents. Cartographers still use a Latinized version of his first name, America, for the two continents. Other explorers included Giovanni da Verrazzano, sponsored by France in 1524; the Portuguese João Vaz Corte - Real in Newfoundland; João Fernandes Lavrador, Gaspar and Miguel Corte - Real and João Álvares Fagundes, in Newfoundland, Greenland, Labrador, and Nova Scotia (from 1498 to 1502, and in 1520); Jacques Cartier (1491 -- 1557), Henry Hudson (1560s -- 1611), and Samuel de Champlain (1567 -- 1635), who explored the region of Canada he reestablished as New France.
In 1513, Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and led the first European expedition to see the Pacific Ocean from the west coast of the New World. In an action with enduring historical import, Balboa claimed the Pacific Ocean and all the lands adjoining it for the Spanish Crown. It was 1517 before another expedition, from Cuba, visited Central America, landing on the coast of Yucatán in search of slaves.
These explorations were followed, notably in the case of Spain, by a phase of conquest: The Spaniards, having just finished the Reconquista of Spain from Muslim rule, were the first to colonize the Americas, applying the same model of governing their European holdings to their territories of the New World.
Ten years after Columbus 's discovery, the administration of Hispaniola was given to Nicolás de Ovando of the Order of Alcántara, founded during the Reconquista. As in the Iberian Peninsula, the inhabitants of Hispaniola were given new landmasters, while religious orders handled the local administration. Progressively the encomienda system, which granted tribute (access to indigenous labor and taxation) to European settlers, was set in place.
A relatively common misconception is that a small number of conquistadores conquered vast territories, aided only by disease epidemics and their powerful caballeros. In fact, recent archaeological excavations have suggested a vast Spanish - Indian alliance numbering in the hundreds of thousands. Hernán Cortés eventually conquered Mexico with the help of Tlaxcala in 1519 -- 1521, while the conquest of the Incas was carried out by some 40,000 Incan renegades led by Francisco Pizarro in between 1532 and 1535.
Over the 1st century and a half after Columbus 's voyages, the native population of the Americas plummeted by an estimated 80 % (from around 50 million in 1492 to eight million in 1650), mostly by outbreaks of Old World diseases.
In 1532, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor sent a vice-king to Mexico, Antonio de Mendoza, in order to prevent Cortes ' independentist drives, who definitively returned to Spain in 1540. Two years later, Charles V signed the New Laws (which replaced the Laws of Burgos of 1512) prohibiting slavery and the repartimientos, but also claiming as his own all the American lands and all of the indigenous people as his own subjects.
When in May 1493, the Pope Alexander VI issued the Inter caetera bull granting the new lands to the Kingdom of Spain, he requested in exchange an evangelization of the people. Thus, during Columbus 's second voyage, Benedictine friars accompanied him, along with twelve other priests. As slavery was prohibited between Christians, and could only be imposed in non-Christian prisoners of war or on men already sold as slaves, the debate on Christianization was particularly acute during the 16th century. In 1537, the papal bull Sublimis Deus definitively recognized that Native Americans possessed souls, thus prohibiting their enslavement, without putting an end to the debate. Some claimed that a native who had rebelled and then been captured could be enslaved nonetheless.
Later, the Valladolid debate between the Dominican priest Bartolomé de Las Casas and another Dominican philosopher Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda was held, with the former arguing that Native Americans were beings doted with souls, as all other human beings, while the latter argued to the contrary and justified their enslavement.
The process of Christianization was at first violent: when the first Franciscans arrived in Mexico in 1524, they burned the places dedicated to pagan cult, alienating much of the local population. In the 1530s, they began to adapt Christian practices to local customs, including the building of new churches on the sites of ancient places of worship, leading to a mix of Old World Christianity with local religions. The Spanish Roman Catholic Church, needing the natives ' labor and cooperation, evangelized in Quechua, Nahuatl, Guaraní and other Native American languages, contributing to the expansion of these indigenous languages and equipping some of them with writing systems. One of the first primitive schools for Native Americans was founded by Fray Pedro de Gante in 1523.
To reward their troops, the Conquistadores often allotted Indian towns to their troops and officers. Black African slaves were introduced to substitute for Native American labor in some locations -- including the West Indies, where the indigenous population was nearing extinction on many islands.
During this time, the Portuguese gradually switched from an initial plan of establishing trading posts to extensive colonization of what is now Brazil. They imported millions of slaves to run their plantations. The Portuguese and Spanish royal governments expected to rule these settlements and collect at least 20 % of all treasure found (the quinto real collected by the Casa de Contratación), in addition to collecting all the taxes they could. By the late 16th century American silver accounted for one - fifth of Spain 's total budget. In the 16th century perhaps 240,000 Europeans entered American ports.
Inspired by the Spanish riches from colonies founded upon the conquest of the Aztecs, Incas, and other large Native American populations in the 16th century, the first Englishmen to settle permanently in America hoped for some of the same rich discoveries when they established their first permanent settlement in Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. They were sponsored by common stock companies such as the chartered Virginia Company financed by wealthy Englishmen who exaggerated the economic potential of this new land. The main purpose of this colony was the hope of finding gold.
It took strong leaders, like John Smith, to convince the colonists of Jamestown that searching for gold was not taking care of their immediate needs for food and shelter and the biblical principle that "he who will not work shall not eat '' (see 2 Thessalonians 3). The lack of food security leading to extremely high mortality rate was quite distressing and cause for despair among the colonists. To support the Colony, numerous supply missions were organized. Tobacco later became a cash crop, with the work of John Rolfe and others, for export and the sustaining economic driver of Virginia and the neighboring colony of Maryland.
From the beginning of Virginia 's settlements in 1587 until the 1680s, the main source of labor and a large portion of the immigrants were indentured servants looking for new life in the overseas colonies. During the 17th century, indentured servants constituted three - quarters of all European immigrants to the Chesapeake region. Most of the indentured servants were teenagers from England with poor economic prospects at home. Their fathers signed the papers that gave them free passage to America and an unpaid job until they became of age. They were given food, clothing, housing and taught farming or household skills. American landowners were in need of laborers and were willing to pay for a laborer 's passage to America if they served them for several years. By selling passage for five to seven years worth of work they could then start out on their own in America. Many of the migrants from England died in the first few years.
Economic advantage also prompted the Darien Scheme, an ill - fated venture by the Kingdom of Scotland to settle the Isthmus of Panama in the late 1690s. The Darien Scheme aimed to control trade through that part of the world and thereby promote Scotland into a world trading power. However, it was doomed by poor planning, short provisions, weak leadership, lack of demand for trade goods, and devastating disease. The failure of the Darien Scheme was one of the factors that led the Kingdom of Scotland into the Act of Union 1707 with the Kingdom of England creating the united Kingdom of Great Britain and giving Scotland commercial access to English, now British, colonies.
In the French colonial regions, the focus of economy was on sugar plantations in Caribbean. In Canada the fur trade with the natives was important. About 16,000 French men and women became colonizers. The great majority became subsistence farmers along the St. Lawrence River. With a favorable disease environment and plenty of land and food, their numbers grew exponentially to 65,000 by 1760. Their colony was taken over by Britain in 1760, but social, religious, legal, cultural and economic changes were few in a society that clung tightly to its recently formed traditions.
Roman Catholics were the first major religious group to immigrate to the New World, as settlers in the colonies of Portugal and Spain (and later, France) belonged to that faith. English and Dutch colonies, on the other hand, tended to be more religiously diverse. Settlers to these colonies included Anglicans, Dutch Calvinists, English Puritans and other nonconformists, English Catholics, Scottish Presbyterians, French Huguenots, German and Swedish Lutherans, as well as Quakers, Mennonites, Amish, Moravians and Jews of various nationalities.
Many groups of colonists went to the Americas searching for the right to practice their religion without persecution. The Protestant Reformation of the 16th century broke the unity of Western Christendom and led to the formation of numerous new religious sects, which often faced persecution by governmental authorities. In England, many people came to question the organization of the Church of England by the end of the 16th century. One of the primary manifestations of this was the Puritan movement, which sought to "purify '' the existing Church of England of its many residual Catholic rites that they believed had no mention in the Bible.
A strong believer in the notion of rule by divine right, Charles I, King of England and Scotland, persecuted religious dissenters. Waves of repression led to the migration of about 20,000 Puritans to New England between 1629 and 1642, where they founded multiple colonies. Later in the century, the new Pennsylvania colony was given to William Penn in settlement of a debt the king owed his father. Its government was set up by William Penn in about 1682 to become primarily a refuge for persecuted English Quakers; but others were welcomed. Baptists, Quakers, German and Swiss Protestants and Anabaptists flocked to Pennsylvania. The lure of cheap land, religious freedom and the right to improve themselves with their own hand was very attractive.
Slavery was a common practice in the Americas prior to the arrival of Europeans, as different American Indian groups captured and held other tribes ' members as slaves. Many of these captives were forced to undergo human sacrifice in Amerindian civilizations such as the Aztecs. In response to some enslavement of natives in the Caribbean during the early years, the Spanish Crown passed a series of laws prohibiting slavery as early as 1512. A new stricter set of laws was passed in 1542, called the New Laws of the Indies for the Good Treatment and Preservation of Indians, or simply New Laws. These were created to prevent the exploitation of the indigenous peoples by the encomenderos or landowners, by strictly limiting their power and dominion. This helped curb Indian slavery considerably, though not completely. Later, with the arrival of other European colonial powers in the New World, the enslavement of native populations increased, as these empires lacked legislation against slavery until decades later. The population of indigenous peoples declined (mostly from European diseases, but also from forced exploitation and atrocities). Later, native workers were replaced by Africans imported through a large commercial slave trade.
By the 18th century, the overwhelming number of black slaves was such that Amerindian slavery was less commonly used. Africans, who were taken aboard slave ships to the Americas, were primarily obtained from their African homelands by coastal tribes who captured and sold them. Europeans traded for slaves with the slave capturers of the local native African tribes in exchange for rum, guns, gunpowder, and other manufactures.
The total slave trade to islands in the Caribbean, Brazil, Mexico and to the United States is estimated to have involved 12 million Africans. The vast majority of these slaves went to sugar colonies in the Caribbean and to Brazil, where life expectancy was short and the numbers had to be continually replenished. At most about 600,000 African slaves were imported into the U.S., or 5 % of the 12 million slaves brought across from Africa. Life expectancy was much higher in the U.S. (because of better food, less disease, lighter work loads, and better medical care) so the numbers grew rapidly by excesses of births over deaths, reaching 4 million by the 1860 Census. From 1770 until 1860, the rate of natural growth of North American slaves was much greater than for the population of any nation in Europe, and was nearly twice as rapid as that of England.
Slaves imported to the Thirteen colonies / United States by time period:
The European lifestyle included a long history of sharing close quarters with domesticated animals such as cows, pigs, sheep, goats, horses, and various domesticated fowl, from which many diseases originally stemmed. Thus, in contrast to the indigenous people, Europeans had developed a richer endowment of antibodies. The large - scale contact with Europeans after 1492 introduced novel germs to the indigenous people of the Americas.
Epidemics of smallpox (1518, 1521, 1525, 1558, 1589), typhus (1546), influenza (1558), diphtheria (1614) and measles (1618) swept the Americas subsequent to European contact, killing between 10 million and 100 million people, up to 95 % of the indigenous population of the Americas. The cultural and political instability attending these losses appears to have been of substantial aid in the efforts of various colonists in New England and Massachusetts to acquire control over the great wealth in land and resources of which indigenous societies had customarily made use.
Such diseases yielded human mortality of an unquestionably enormous gravity and scale -- and this has profoundly confused efforts to determine its full extent with any true precision. Estimates of the pre-Columbian population of the Americas vary tremendously.
Others have argued that significant variations in population size over pre-Columbian history are reason to view higher - end estimates with caution. Such estimates may reflect historical population maxima, while indigenous populations may have been at a level somewhat below these maxima or in a moment of decline in the period just prior to contact with Europeans. Indigenous populations hit their ultimate lows in most areas of the Americas in the early 20th century; in a number of cases, growth has returned.
Geographic differences between the colonies played a large determinant in the types of political and economic systems that later developed. In their paper on institutions and long - run growth, economists Daron Acemoğlu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson argue that certain natural endowments gave rise to distinct colonial policies promoting either smallholder or coerced labor production. Densely settled populations, for example, were more easily exploitable and profitable as slave labor. In these regions, landowning elites were economically incentivized to develop forced labor arrangements such as the Peru mit'a system or Argentinian latifundias without regard for democratic norms. French and British colonial leaders, conversely, were incentivized to develop capitalist markets, property rights, and democratic institutions in response to natural environments that supported smallholder production over forced labor.
James Mahoney, a professor at Northwestern University, proposes that colonial policy choices made at critical junctures regarding land ownership in coffee - rich Central America fostered enduring path dependent institutions. Coffee economies in Guatemala and El Salvador, for example, were centralized around large plantations that operated under coercive labor systems. By the 19th century, their political structures were largely authoritarian and militarized. In Colombia and Costa Rica, conversely, liberal reforms were enacted at critical junctures to expand commercial agriculture, and they ultimately raised the bargaining power of the middle class. Both nations eventually developed more democratic and egalitarian institutions than their highly concentrated landowning counterparts.
In 2007, the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History and the Virginia Historical Society (VHS) co-organized a traveling exhibition to recount the strategic alliances and violent conflict between European empires (English, Spanish, French) and the Native people living in North America. The exhibition was presented in three languages and with multiple perspectives. Artifacts on display included rare surviving Native and European artifacts, maps, documents, and ceremonial objects from museums and royal collections on both sides of the Atlantic. The exhibition opened in Richmond, Virginia on March 17, 2007, and closed at the Smithsonian International Gallery on October 31, 2009.
The related online exhibition explores the international origins of the societies of Canada and the United States and commemorates the 400th anniversary of three lasting settlements in Jamestown (1607), Québec (1608), and Santa Fe (1609). The site is accessible in three languages.
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when was the last time someone lived in biltmore house | Biltmore estate - wikipedia
Biltmore Estate is a large (6950.4 acre or 10.86 square miles) private estate and tourist attraction in Asheville, North Carolina. Biltmore House, the main residence, is a Châteauesque - style mansion built by George Washington Vanderbilt II between 1889 and 1895 and is the largest privately owned house in the United States, at 178,926 square feet (16,622.8 m) of floor space (135,280 square feet (12,568 m) of living area). Still owned by George Vanderbilt 's descendants, it remains one of the most prominent examples of the Gilded Age.
In the 1880s, at the height of the Gilded Age, George Washington Vanderbilt II, youngest son of William Henry Vanderbilt, began to make regular visits with his mother, Maria Louisa Kissam Vanderbilt (1821 -- 1896), to the Asheville, North Carolina, area. He loved the scenery and climate so much that he decided to create his own summer estate in the area, which he called his "little mountain escape '', just as his older brothers and sisters had built opulent summer houses in places such as Newport, Rhode Island, and Hyde Park, New York. Vanderbilt named his estate Biltmore derived from "Bildt, '' Vanderbilt 's ancestors ' place of origin in Holland, and "More '', Anglo - Saxon for open, rolling land. A portion of the estate was once the community of Shiloh. Vanderbilt bought almost 700 parcels of land, including over 50 farms and at least five cemeteries. A spokesperson for the estate said in 2017 that archives show much of the land "was in very poor condition, and many of the farmers and other landowners were glad to sell. ''
Construction of the house began in 1889 and continued well into 1896. In order to facilitate such a large project, a woodworking factory and brick kiln, which produced 32,000 bricks a day, were built onsite, and a three - mile railroad spur was constructed to bring materials to the building site. Construction on the main house required the labor of well over 1,000 workers and 60 stonemasons. Vanderbilt went on extensive buying trips overseas as construction on the house was in progress. He returned to North Carolina with thousands of furnishings for his newly built home including tapestries, hundreds of carpets, prints, linens, and decorative objects, all dating between the 15th century and the late 19th century. Among the few American - made items were the more practical oak drop - front desk, rocking chairs, a walnut grand piano, bronze candlesticks and a wicker wastebasket.
George Vanderbilt opened his opulent estate on Christmas Eve 1895 to invited family and friends from across the country, who were encouraged to enjoy leisure and country pursuits. Notable guests to the estate over the years included author Edith Wharton, novelist Henry James, ambassadors Joseph Hodges Choate and Larz Anderson, and Presidents William McKinley, Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan, and Barack Obama. George married Edith Stuyvesant Dresser in 1898 in Paris, France; their only child, Cornelia Stuyvesant Vanderbilt, was born at Biltmore in the Louis XV room in 1900, and grew up at the estate.
Driven by the impact of the newly imposed income taxes, and the fact that the estate was getting harder to manage economically, Vanderbilt initiated the sale of 87,000 acres (352 km2) to the federal government. After Vanderbilt 's unexpected death in 1914 of complications from an emergency appendectomy, his widow completed the sale to carry out her husband 's wish that the land remain unaltered, and that property became the nucleus of the Pisgah National Forest. Overwhelmed with running such a large estate, Edith began consolidating her interests and sold Biltmore Estate Industries in 1917 and Biltmore Village in 1921. Edith intermittently occupied the house, living in an apartment carved out of the former Bachelors ' Wing, until the marriage of her daughter to John Francis Amherst Cecil in April 1924. The Cecils went on to have two sons who were born in the same room as their mother.
In an attempt to bolster the estate 's financial situation during the Great Depression, Cornelia and her husband opened Biltmore to the public in March 1930 at the request of the City of Asheville, which hoped the attraction would revitalize the area with tourism. Biltmore closed during World War II and in 1942, 62 paintings and 17 sculptures were moved to the estate by train from the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. to protect them in the event of an attack on the United States. The Music Room on the first floor was never finished, so it was used for storage until 1944, when the possibility of an attack became more remote. Among the works stored were the Gilbert Stuart portrait of George Washington and works by Rembrandt, Raphael, and Anthony van Dyck. David Finley, the gallery director, was a friend of Edith Vanderbilt and had stayed at the estate.
After the divorce of the Cecils in 1934, Cornelia left the estate never to return; however, John Cecil maintained his residence in the Bachelors ' Wing until his death in 1954. Their eldest son George Henry Vanderbilt Cecil, occupied rooms in the wing until 1956. At this point Biltmore House ceased to be a family residence and has continued to be operated as a historic house museum.
Younger son William A.V. Cecil, Sr. returned to the estate in the late 1950s and joined his brother to manage the estate when it was in financial trouble and make it a profitable and self - sustaining enterprise like his grandfather envisioned. He eventually inherited the estate upon the death of his mother, Cornelia, in 1976, while his brother, George, inherited the then more profitable dairy farm which was split off into Biltmore Farms. In 1995, while celebrating the 100th anniversary of the estate, Cecil turned over control of the company to his son, William A.V. Cecil, Jr. The Biltmore Company is privately held and of the 4,306.86 acres that make up Biltmore Estate, only 1.36 acres are in the city limits of Asheville, and the Biltmore House is not part of any municipality.
The estate was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1963, and remains a major tourist attraction in Western North Carolina with 1.4 million visitors each year.
After the death of William A.V. Cecil in October 2017 and his wife Mimi Cecil in November, their daughter Dini Pickering as board chair and their son Bill Cecil as CEO announced that the estate would continue to be run the same way. The house is assessed at $157.2 million but due to an agricultural deferment, county property taxes are paid on only $79.1 million of that.
Vanderbilt commissioned prominent New York architect Richard Morris Hunt, who had previously designed houses for various Vanderbilt family members, to design the house in the Châteauesque style, using French Renaissance chateaus that Vanderbilt and Hunt had visited in early 1889, including Château de Blois, Chenonceau and Chambord in France and Waddesdon Manor in England, as inspiration with their steeply pitched roofs, turrets and sculptural ornamentation. Hunt sited the four - story Indiana limestone - built home to face east with a 375 - foot facade to fit into the mountainous topography behind. The facade is asymmetrically balanced with two projecting wings connecting to the entrance tower with an open loggia to the left side and a windowed arcade to the right which held the Winter Garden that was fashionable during the Victorian era. The entrance tower contains a series of windows with decorated jambs that extend from the front door to the most decorated dormer at Biltmore on the fourth floor. The carved decorations include trefoils, flowing tracery, rosettes, gargoyles, and at prominent lookouts, grotesques. The staircase is one of the more prominent features of the east facade, with its three - story, highly decorated winding balustrade with carved statues of St. Louis and Joan of Arc by the Austrian - born architectural sculptor Karl Bitter.
The south facade has the smallest dimensions for the house and is dominated by three large dormers on the east side and a polygonal turret on the west side. An arbor is attached to the house and is accessed from the library which is located on the ground floor. On the north end of the house, Hunt placed the attached stables, carriage house and its courtyard to protect the house and gardens from the wind. The 12,000 - square - foot complex housed Vanderbilt 's prized driving horses and the carriage house opposite the stables stored his 20 carriages in addition to any of his guest 's carriages.
The rear western elevation is less elaborate than the front facade, with some windows not having any decoration at all. Two matching polygonal towers in the center are connected to the polygonal south turret by an open loggia that opens the main rooms of the house to the views of the Blue Ridge Mountains in the distance. The loggia is decorated overhead with terracotta tiles set in a herringbone pattern. The self - supporting ceramic tile vault and arch system was used extensively inside and outside of Biltmore, and was patented by Rafael Guastavino, a Spanish architect and engineer, who personally supervised the installation. The limestone columns were carved to reflect the sunlight in aesthetically pleasing and varied ways per Vanderbilt 's wish. The rusticated base is a contrast to the smooth limestone used on the remainder of the house.
The steeply pitched roof is punctuated by 16 chimneys and covered with slate tiles that were affixed one by one. Each tile was drilled at the corners and wired onto the attic 's steel infrastructure. Copper flashing was then installed at the junctions to prevent water from penetrating. The fanciful flashing on the ridge of the roof was embossed with George Vanderbilt 's initials and motifs from his family crest, though the original gold leaf no longer survives.
Biltmore House had electricity from the time it was built. With electricity less safe and fire more of a danger at the time, the house had six separate sections divided by brick fire walls.
Vanderbilt paid little attention to the family business or his own investments and it is believed that the construction and upkeep of Biltmore depleted much of his inheritance.
Biltmore has four acres of floor space and a total of 250 rooms in the house including 35 bedrooms for family and guests, 43 bathrooms, 65 fireplaces, three kitchens and 19th - century novelties such as electric elevators, forced - air heating, centrally controlled clocks, fire alarms, and a call - bell system. The principal rooms of the house are located on the ground floor. To the right of the marbled Entrance Hall, the octagonal, sunken Winter Garden is surrounded by stone archways with a ceiling of architecturally sculptured wood and multifaceted glass. The centerpiece is a marble and bronze fountain sculpture titled Boy Stealing Geese created by Karl Bitter. On the walls just outside the Winter Garden are copies of the Parthenon frieze. The Banquet Hall is the largest room in the house, measuring 42 feet wide and 72 feet long, with a 70 - foot - high barrel - vaulted ceiling. The table could seat 64 guests surrounded by rare Flemish tapestries and a triple fireplace that spans one end of the hall. On the opposite end of the hall is an organ gallery that houses a 1916 Skinner pipe organ. Left unfinished with bare brick walls, the Music Room was not completed and opened to the public until 1976. It showcases a mantle designed by Hunt, and a large engraving by Albrecht Dürer called the Triumphal Arch commissioned by Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I. The mantle had been stored in the stable for over 80 years. To the left of the entrance hall is the 90 - foot - long Tapestry Gallery, which leads to the Library, featuring three 16th - century tapestries representing The Triumph of Virtue Over Vice. Elsewhere on the walls are family portraits by John Singer Sargent, Giovanni Boldini and James Whistler. The two - story Library contains over 10,000 volumes in eight languages, reflecting George Vanderbilt 's broad interests in classic literature as well as works on art, history, architecture, and gardening. The second - floor balcony is accessed by an ornate walnut spiral staircase. The baroque detailing of the room is enhanced by the rich walnut paneling and the ceiling painting, The Chariot of Aurora, brought to Biltmore by Vanderbilt from the Palazzo Pisani Moretta in Venice, Italy. The painting by Giovanni Antonio Pellegrini is the most important work by the artist still in existence.
The second floor is accessed by the cantilevered Grand Staircase of 107 steps spiraling around a four - story, wrought - iron chandelier holding 72 light bulbs. The Second Floor Living Hall is an extension of the grand staircase as a formal hall and portrait gallery, and was restored to its original configuration in 2013. Several large - scale masterpieces are displayed in the hall, including two John Singer Sargent portraits of Biltmore 's architect, Richard Morris Hunt, and landscaper, Frederick Law Olmsted, both commissioned for the home by Vanderbilt. Located nearby in the south tower is George Vanderbilt 's gilded bedroom with furniture designed by Hunt. His bedroom connects to his wife 's Louis XV - style, oval - shaped bedroom in the north tower through a Jacobean carved oak paneled sitting room with an intricate ceiling.
The suite of rooms includes the Damask Room; the Claude Room, named after one of Vanderbilt 's favorite artists, Claude Lorrain; the Tyrolean Chimney Room; and the most grand, the Louis XV Room, so named due to its architectural scheme and furnishings that were very popular in the late nineteenth century. The suite was restored and opened to the public for the first time in 100 years in 2011.
The third floor has a number of guest rooms with names that describe the furnishing or artist that they were decorated with. The fourth floor has 21 bedrooms that were inhabited by housemaids, laundresses, and other female servants. Also included on the fourth floor is an Observatory with a circular staircase that leads to a wrought iron balcony with doorways to the rooftop where Vanderbilt could view his estate. Male servants were not housed here, however, but instead resided in rooms above the stable and complex.
The Billiard Room is decorated with an ornamental plaster ceiling and rich oak paneling and was equipped with both a custom - made pool table and a carom table (table without pockets). The room was mainly frequented by men, but ladies were welcome to enter as well. Secret door panels on either side of the fireplace led to the private quarters of the Bachelors ' Wing where female guests and staff members were not allowed. The wing includes the Smoking Room, which was fashionable for country houses, and the Gun Room, which held mounted trophies and displayed George Vanderbilt 's gun collection.
Guests of the estate could enjoy other activities that were found on the basement level, including an indoor 70,000 - gallon (265,000 - litre and 265 - cubic meter) heated swimming pool with underwater lighting, one of the nation 's first bowling alleys installed in a private residence, and a gymnasium with once state - of - the - art fitness equipment. The service hub of the house is also found in the largest basement in the US, as the location for the main kitchen, pastry kitchen, rotisserie kitchen, walk - in refrigerators that provided an early form of mechanical refrigeration, the servants ' dining hall, laundry rooms and additional bedrooms for staff.
Wanting the best, Vanderbilt envisioned a park - like setting for his home and employed landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted to design the grounds. However, Olmsted was not impressed with the condition of the 125,000 acres (195 sq mi; 510 km) and advised for a park surrounding the house, establishing farms along the river and replanting the rest as a commercial timber forest, a plan to which Vanderbilt agreed. Gifford Pinchot and later Carl A. Schenck were hired to manage the forests, with Schenck establishing the first forestry education program in the U.S., the Biltmore Forest School, on the estate grounds in 1898.
Another important aspect of the landscaping was the intentionally rustic three - mile (5 km) Approach Road that began at the brick quoined and pebbledash stucco Lodge Gate at the edge of Biltmore Village, and ended at the sphinx - topped stone pillars at the Esplanade. In between, the lane was densely filled with natural and uncultivated looking foliage and shrubbery to provide a relaxing journey for guests. Olmsted made sure to incorporate 75 acres (30 ha) of formal gardens that had been requested by Vanderbilt for the grounds directly surrounding the house. He constructed an Italian formal garden, a walled garden, a shrub and rose garden, fountains, and a conservatory with individual rooms for palms and orchids. There was also a bowling green, an outdoor tea room, and a terrace to incorporate the European statuary that Vanderbilt had brought back from his travels. At the opposite end of the Esplanade is the Rampe Douce, a graduated stairway zigzagging along a rough - cut limestone wall that leads to the grassy slope known as the Vista, topped with a statue of Diana, the goddess of the hunt.
Water features were an important aspect of Victorian landscaping and Olmsted incorporated two for the estate: the Bass Pond created from an old creek - fed millpond and the Lagoon. Each was used for guest recreation like fishing and rowing. To supply water for the estate, Olmsted engineered two reservoirs. One was a spring - fed man - made lake on nearby Busbee Mountain. The other was a man - made, brick - lined reservoir, located behind the statue of Diana in the Vista, at an elevation of approximately 266 feet above the Esplanade.
Vanderbilt 's idea was to replicate the working estates of Europe. He asked Hunt and Olmsted to design a village with architecturally compatible buildings and picturesque landscaping as a source of income through building rental, a place to help carry out philanthropic programs, and an easy point of access between the estate and the train station. The result was Biltmore Village. The village included rental cottages complete with plumbing and central heating, a post office, shops, doctor 's office, school, and a church, known today as the Cathedral of All Souls. Intending that the estate could be self - supporting, Vanderbilt set up scientific forestry programs, poultry farms, cattle farms, hog farms, and a dairy. His wife, Edith, also enthusiastically supported agricultural reform and promoted the establishment of a state agricultural fair. In 1901, the Vanderbilts provided financial assistance to Biltmore Industries, started by Biltmore Village resident Eleanor Vance, which taught young people how to make hand - carved furniture, woven baskets, homespun wool fabric, and more.
The estate today covers approximately 8,000 acres (13 sq mi; 32 km) and is split in half by the French Broad River, overseen by The Biltmore Company, a trust set up by the family. The company is a large enterprise that is one of the largest employers in the Asheville area. Restaurants were opened in 1979 and 1987 as well as four gifts shops in 1993. The former dairy barn was converted into the popular Biltmore Winery in 1985. The AAA four - diamond 210 - room Inn on Biltmore Estate opened in 2001, and in 2010, the estate debuted Antler Hill Village, as well as a remodeled winery, and connected farmyard.
The Biltmore Estate licenses its name and design elements to a line of housewares, linens, and luggage called "Biltmore For Your Home '', marketed exclusively by Belk stores.
The house has been featured in "Empires of the Smoky Skies '', a scenario in Sid Meier 's Civilization V.
The estate and its surrounding forest make up the setting of Robert Beatty 's 2015 middle - grade novel Serafina and The Black Cloak and its sequels.
The grounds and buildings of Biltmore Estate have appeared in a number of major motion pictures and TV series:
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the theory describing the movement of the plates is called plate motion theory | Plate tectonics - wikipedia
Plate tectonics (from the Late Latin tectonicus, from the Greek: τεκτονικός "pertaining to building '') is a scientific theory describing the large - scale motion of seven large plates and the movements of a larger number of smaller plates of the Earth 's lithosphere, since tectonic processes began on Earth between 3 and 3.5 billion years ago. The model builds on the concept of continental drift, an idea developed during the first decades of the 20th century. The geoscientific community accepted plate - tectonic theory after seafloor spreading was validated in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
The lithosphere, which is the rigid outermost shell of a planet (the crust and upper mantle), is broken into tectonic plates. The Earth 's lithosphere is composed of seven or eight major plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates. Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of boundary: convergent, divergent, or transform. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain - building, and oceanic trench formation occur along these plate boundaries (or faults). The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 100 mm annually.
Tectonic plates are composed of oceanic lithosphere and thicker continental lithosphere, each topped by its own kind of crust. Along convergent boundaries, subduction, or one plate moving under another, carries the lower one down into the mantle; the material lost is roughly balanced by the formation of new (oceanic) crust along divergent margins by seafloor spreading. In this way, the total surface of the lithosphere remains the same. This prediction of plate tectonics is also referred to as the conveyor belt principle. Earlier theories, since disproven, proposed gradual shrinking (contraction) or gradual expansion of the globe.
Tectonic plates are able to move because the Earth 's lithosphere has greater mechanical strength than the underlying asthenosphere. Lateral density variations in the mantle result in convection; that is, the slow creeping motion of Earth 's solid mantle. Plate movement is thought to be driven by a combination of the motion of the seafloor away from spreading ridges due to variations in topography (the ridge is a topographic high) and density changes in the crust (density increases as newly formed crust cools and moves away from the ridge). At subduction zones the relatively cold, dense crust is "pulled '' or sinks down into the mantle over the downward convecting limb of a mantle cell. Another explanation lies in the different forces generated by tidal forces of the Sun and Moon. The relative importance of each of these factors and their relationship to each other is unclear, and still the subject of much debate.
The outer layers of the Earth are divided into the lithosphere and asthenosphere. The division is based on differences in mechanical properties and in the method for the transfer of heat. The lithosphere is cooler and more rigid, while the asthenosphere is hotter and flows more easily. In terms of heat transfer, the lithosphere loses heat by conduction, whereas the asthenosphere also transfers heat by convection and has a nearly adiabatic temperature gradient. This division should not be confused with the chemical subdivision of these same layers into the mantle (comprising both the asthenosphere and the mantle portion of the lithosphere) and the crust: a given piece of mantle may be part of the lithosphere or the asthenosphere at different times depending on its temperature and pressure.
The key principle of plate tectonics is that the lithosphere exists as separate and distinct tectonic plates, which ride on the fluid - like (visco - elastic solid) asthenosphere. Plate motions range up to a typical 10 -- 40 mm / year (Mid-Atlantic Ridge; about as fast as fingernails grow), to about 160 mm / year (Nazca Plate; about as fast as hair grows). The driving mechanism behind this movement is described below.
Tectonic lithosphere plates consist of lithospheric mantle overlain by one or two types of crustal material: oceanic crust (in older texts called sima from silicon and magnesium) and continental crust (sial from silicon and aluminium). Average oceanic lithosphere is typically 100 km (62 mi) thick; its thickness is a function of its age: as time passes, it conductively cools and subjacent cooling mantle is added to its base. Because it is formed at mid-ocean ridges and spreads outwards, its thickness is therefore a function of its distance from the mid-ocean ridge where it was formed. For a typical distance that oceanic lithosphere must travel before being subducted, the thickness varies from about 6 km (4 mi) thick at mid-ocean ridges to greater than 100 km (62 mi) at subduction zones; for shorter or longer distances, the subduction zone (and therefore also the mean) thickness becomes smaller or larger, respectively. Continental lithosphere is typically about 200 km thick, though this varies considerably between basins, mountain ranges, and stable cratonic interiors of continents.
The location where two plates meet is called a plate boundary. Plate boundaries are commonly associated with geological events such as earthquakes and the creation of topographic features such as mountains, volcanoes, mid-ocean ridges, and oceanic trenches. The majority of the world 's active volcanoes occur along plate boundaries, with the Pacific Plate 's Ring of Fire being the most active and widely known today. These boundaries are discussed in further detail below. Some volcanoes occur in the interiors of plates, and these have been variously attributed to internal plate deformation and to mantle plumes.
As explained above, tectonic plates may include continental crust or oceanic crust, and most plates contain both. For example, the African Plate includes the continent and parts of the floor of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The distinction between oceanic crust and continental crust is based on their modes of formation. Oceanic crust is formed at sea - floor spreading centers, and continental crust is formed through arc volcanism and accretion of terranes through tectonic processes, though some of these terranes may contain ophiolite sequences, which are pieces of oceanic crust considered to be part of the continent when they exit the standard cycle of formation and spreading centers and subduction beneath continents. Oceanic crust is also denser than continental crust owing to their different compositions. Oceanic crust is denser because it has less silicon and more heavier elements ("mafic '') than continental crust ("felsic ''). As a result of this density stratification, oceanic crust generally lies below sea level (for example most of the Pacific Plate), while continental crust buoyantly projects above sea level (see the page isostasy for explanation of this principle).
Three types of plate boundaries exist, with a fourth, mixed type, characterized by the way the plates move relative to each other. They are associated with different types of surface phenomena. The different types of plate boundaries are:
It has generally been accepted that tectonic plates are able to move because of the relative density of oceanic lithosphere and the relative weakness of the asthenosphere. Dissipation of heat from the mantle is acknowledged to be the original source of the energy required to drive plate tectonics through convection or large scale upwelling and doming. The current view, though still a matter of some debate, asserts that as a consequence, a powerful source of plate motion is generated due to the excess density of the oceanic lithosphere sinking in subduction zones. When the new crust forms at mid-ocean ridges, this oceanic lithosphere is initially less dense than the underlying asthenosphere, but it becomes denser with age as it conductively cools and thickens. The greater density of old lithosphere relative to the underlying asthenosphere allows it to sink into the deep mantle at subduction zones, providing most of the driving force for plate movement. The weakness of the asthenosphere allows the tectonic plates to move easily towards a subduction zone. Although subduction is thought to be the strongest force driving plate motions, it can not be the only force since there are plates such as the North American Plate which are moving, yet are nowhere being subducted. The same is true for the enormous Eurasian Plate. The sources of plate motion are a matter of intensive research and discussion among scientists. One of the main points is that the kinematic pattern of the movement itself should be separated clearly from the possible geodynamic mechanism that is invoked as the driving force of the observed movement, as some patterns may be explained by more than one mechanism. In short, the driving forces advocated at the moment can be divided into three categories based on the relationship to the movement: mantle dynamics related, gravity related (mostly secondary forces), and earth rotation related.
For much of the last quarter century, the leading theory of the driving force behind tectonic plate motions envisaged large scale convection currents in the upper mantle, which can be transmitted through the asthenosphere. This theory was launched by Arthur Holmes and some forerunners in the 1930s and was immediately recognized as the solution for the acceptance of the theory as originally discussed in the papers of Alfred Wegener in the early years of the century. However, despite its acceptance, it was long debated in the scientific community because the leading theory still envisaged a static Earth without moving continents up until the major breakthroughs of the early sixties.
Two - and three - dimensional imaging of Earth 's interior (seismic tomography) shows a varying lateral density distribution throughout the mantle. Such density variations can be material (from rock chemistry), mineral (from variations in mineral structures), or thermal (through thermal expansion and contraction from heat energy). The manifestation of this varying lateral density is mantle convection from buoyancy forces.
How mantle convection directly and indirectly relates to plate motion is a matter of ongoing study and discussion in geodynamics. Somehow, this energy must be transferred to the lithosphere for tectonic plates to move. There are essentially two main types of forces that are thought to influence plate motion: friction and gravity.
Lately, the convection theory has been much debated, as modern techniques based on 3D seismic tomography still fail to recognize these predicted large scale convection cells; therefore, alternative views have been proposed:
In the theory of plume tectonics developed during the 1990s, a modified concept of mantle convection currents is used. It asserts that super plumes rise from the deeper mantle and are the drivers or substitutes of the major convection cells. These ideas, which find their roots in the early 1930s with the so - called "fixistic '' ideas of the European and Russian Earth Science Schools, find resonance in the modern theories which envisage hot spots or mantle plumes which remain fixed and are overridden by oceanic and continental lithosphere plates over time and leave their traces in the geological record (though these phenomena are not invoked as real driving mechanisms, but rather as modulators). Modern theories that continue building on the older mantle doming concepts and see plate movements as a secondary phenomena are beyond the scope of this article and are discussed elsewhere (for example on the Plume tectonics article).
Another theory is that the mantle flows neither in cells nor large plumes but rather as a series of channels just below the Earth 's crust, which then provide basal friction to the lithosphere. This theory, called "surge tectonics '', became quite popular in geophysics and geodynamics during the 1980s and 1990s. Recent research, based on three - dimensional computer modeling, suggests that plate geometry is governed by a feedback between mantle convection patterns and the strength of the lithosphere.
Forces related to gravity are usually invoked as secondary phenomena within the framework of a more general driving mechanism such as the various forms of mantle dynamics described above.
Gravitational sliding away from a spreading ridge: According to many authors, plate motion is driven by the higher elevation of plates at ocean ridges. As oceanic lithosphere is formed at spreading ridges from hot mantle material, it gradually cools and thickens with age (and thus adds distance from the ridge). Cool oceanic lithosphere is significantly denser than the hot mantle material from which it is derived and so with increasing thickness it gradually subsides into the mantle to compensate the greater load. The result is a slight lateral incline with increased distance from the ridge axis.
This force is regarded as a secondary force and is often referred to as "ridge push ''. This is a misnomer as nothing is "pushing '' horizontally and tensional features are dominant along ridges. It is more accurate to refer to this mechanism as gravitational sliding as variable topography across the totality of the plate can vary considerably and the topography of spreading ridges is only the most prominent feature. Other mechanisms generating this gravitational secondary force include flexural bulging of the lithosphere before it dives underneath an adjacent plate which produces a clear topographical feature that can offset, or at least affect, the influence of topographical ocean ridges, and mantle plumes and hot spots, which are postulated to impinge on the underside of tectonic plates.
Slab - pull: Current scientific opinion is that the asthenosphere is insufficiently competent or rigid to directly cause motion by friction along the base of the lithosphere. Slab pull is therefore most widely thought to be the greatest force acting on the plates. In this current understanding, plate motion is mostly driven by the weight of cold, dense plates sinking into the mantle at trenches. Recent models indicate that trench suction plays an important role as well. However, the fact that the North American Plate is nowhere being subducted, although it is in motion, presents a problem. The same holds for the African, Eurasian, and Antarctic plates.
Gravitational sliding away from mantle doming: According to older theories, one of the driving mechanisms of the plates is the existence of large scale asthenosphere / mantle domes which cause the gravitational sliding of lithosphere plates away from them. This gravitational sliding represents a secondary phenomenon of this basically vertically oriented mechanism. This can act on various scales, from the small scale of one island arc up to the larger scale of an entire ocean basin.
Alfred Wegener, being a meteorologist, had proposed tidal forces and centrifugal forces as the main driving mechanisms behind continental drift; however, these forces were considered far too small to cause continental motion as the concept was of continents plowing through oceanic crust. Therefore, Wegener later changed his position and asserted that convection currents are the main driving force of plate tectonics in the last edition of his book in 1929.
However, in the plate tectonics context (accepted since the seafloor spreading proposals of Heezen, Hess, Dietz, Morley, Vine, and Matthews (see below) during the early 1960s), the oceanic crust is suggested to be in motion with the continents which caused the proposals related to Earth rotation to be reconsidered. In more recent literature, these driving forces are:
Forces that are small and generally negligible are:
For these mechanisms to be overall valid, systematic relationships should exist all over the globe between the orientation and kinematics of deformation and the geographical latitudinal and longitudinal grid of the Earth itself. Ironically, these systematic relations studies in the second half of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century underline exactly the opposite: that the plates had not moved in time, that the deformation grid was fixed with respect to the Earth equator and axis, and that gravitational driving forces were generally acting vertically and caused only local horizontal movements (the so - called pre-plate tectonic, "fixist theories ''). Later studies (discussed below on this page), therefore, invoked many of the relationships recognized during this pre-plate tectonics period to support their theories (see the anticipations and reviews in the work of van Dijk and collaborators).
Of the many forces discussed in this paragraph, tidal force is still highly debated and defended as a possible principal driving force of plate tectonics. The other forces are only used in global geodynamic models not using plate tectonics concepts (therefore beyond the discussions treated in this section) or proposed as minor modulations within the overall plate tectonics model.
In 1973, George W. Moore of the USGS and R.C. Bostrom presented evidence for a general westward drift of the Earth 's lithosphere with respect to the mantle. He concluded that tidal forces (the tidal lag or "friction '') caused by the Earth 's rotation and the forces acting upon it by the Moon are a driving force for plate tectonics. As the Earth spins eastward beneath the moon, the moon 's gravity ever so slightly pulls the Earth 's surface layer back westward, just as proposed by Alfred Wegener (see above). In a more recent 2006 study, scientists reviewed and advocated these earlier proposed ideas. It has also been suggested recently in Lovett (2006) that this observation may also explain why Venus and Mars have no plate tectonics, as Venus has no moon and Mars ' moons are too small to have significant tidal effects on the planet. In a recent paper, it was suggested that, on the other hand, it can easily be observed that many plates are moving north and eastward, and that the dominantly westward motion of the Pacific Ocean basins derives simply from the eastward bias of the Pacific spreading center (which is not a predicted manifestation of such lunar forces). In the same paper the authors admit, however, that relative to the lower mantle, there is a slight westward component in the motions of all the plates. They demonstrated though that the westward drift, seen only for the past 30 Ma, is attributed to the increased dominance of the steadily growing and accelerating Pacific plate. The debate is still open.
The vector of a plate 's motion is a function of all the forces acting on the plate; however, therein lies the problem regarding the degree to which each process contributes to the overall motion of each tectonic plate.
The diversity of geodynamic settings and the properties of each plate result from the impact of the various processes actively driving each individual plate. One method of dealing with this problem is to consider the relative rate at which each plate is moving as well as the evidence related to the significance of each process to the overall driving force on the plate.
One of the most significant correlations discovered to date is that lithospheric plates attached to downgoing (subducting) plates move much faster than plates not attached to subducting plates. The Pacific plate, for instance, is essentially surrounded by zones of subduction (the so - called Ring of Fire) and moves much faster than the plates of the Atlantic basin, which are attached (perhaps one could say ' welded ') to adjacent continents instead of subducting plates. It is thus thought that forces associated with the downgoing plate (slab pull and slab suction) are the driving forces which determine the motion of plates, except for those plates which are not being subducted. This view however has been contradicted by a recent study which found that the actual motions of the Pacific Plate and other plates associated with the East Pacific Rise do not correlate mainly with either slab pull or slab push, but rather with a mantle convection upwelling whose horizontal spreading along the bases of the various plates drives them along via viscosity - related traction forces. The driving forces of plate motion continue to be active subjects of on - going research within geophysics and tectonophysics.
In line with other previous and contemporaneous proposals, in 1912 the meteorologist Alfred Wegener amply described what he called continental drift, expanded in his 1915 book The Origin of Continents and Oceans and the scientific debate started that would end up fifty years later in the theory of plate tectonics. Starting from the idea (also expressed by his forerunners) that the present continents once formed a single land mass (which was called Pangea later on) that drifted apart, thus releasing the continents from the Earth 's mantle and likening them to "icebergs '' of low density granite floating on a sea of denser basalt. Supporting evidence for the idea came from the dove - tailing outlines of South America 's east coast and Africa 's west coast, and from the matching of the rock formations along these edges. Confirmation of their previous contiguous nature also came from the fossil plants Glossopteris and Gangamopteris, and the therapsid or mammal - like reptile Lystrosaurus, all widely distributed over South America, Africa, Antarctica, India, and Australia. The evidence for such an erstwhile joining of these continents was patent to field geologists working in the southern hemisphere. The South African Alex du Toit put together a mass of such information in his 1937 publication Our Wandering Continents, and went further than Wegener in recognising the strong links between the Gondwana fragments.
But without detailed evidence and a force sufficient to drive the movement, the theory was not generally accepted: the Earth might have a solid crust and mantle and a liquid core, but there seemed to be no way that portions of the crust could move around. Distinguished scientists, such as Harold Jeffreys and Charles Schuchert, were outspoken critics of continental drift.
Despite much opposition, the view of continental drift gained support and a lively debate started between "drifters '' or "mobilists '' (proponents of the theory) and "fixists '' (opponents). During the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s, the former reached important milestones proposing that convection currents might have driven the plate movements, and that spreading may have occurred below the sea within the oceanic crust. Concepts close to the elements now incorporated in plate tectonics were proposed by geophysicists and geologists (both fixists and mobilists) like Vening - Meinesz, Holmes, and Umbgrove.
One of the first pieces of geophysical evidence that was used to support the movement of lithospheric plates came from paleomagnetism. This is based on the fact that rocks of different ages show a variable magnetic field direction, evidenced by studies since the mid -- nineteenth century. The magnetic north and south poles reverse through time, and, especially important in paleotectonic studies, the relative position of the magnetic north pole varies through time. Initially, during the first half of the twentieth century, the latter phenomenon was explained by introducing what was called "polar wander '' (see apparent polar wander), i.e., it was assumed that the north pole location had been shifting through time. An alternative explanation, though, was that the continents had moved (shifted and rotated) relative to the north pole, and each continent, in fact, shows its own "polar wander path ''. During the late 1950s it was successfully shown on two occasions that these data could show the validity of continental drift: by Keith Runcorn in a paper in 1956, and by Warren Carey in a symposium held in March 1956.
The second piece of evidence in support of continental drift came during the late 1950s and early 60s from data on the bathymetry of the deep ocean floors and the nature of the oceanic crust such as magnetic properties and, more generally, with the development of marine geology which gave evidence for the association of seafloor spreading along the mid-oceanic ridges and magnetic field reversals, published between 1959 and 1963 by Heezen, Dietz, Hess, Mason, Vine & Matthews, and Morley.
Simultaneous advances in early seismic imaging techniques in and around Wadati -- Benioff zones along the trenches bounding many continental margins, together with many other geophysical (e.g. gravimetric) and geological observations, showed how the oceanic crust could disappear into the mantle, providing the mechanism to balance the extension of the ocean basins with shortening along its margins.
All this evidence, both from the ocean floor and from the continental margins, made it clear around 1965 that continental drift was feasible and the theory of plate tectonics, which was defined in a series of papers between 1965 and 1967, was born, with all its extraordinary explanatory and predictive power. The theory revolutionized the Earth sciences, explaining a diverse range of geological phenomena and their implications in other studies such as paleogeography and paleobiology.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, geologists assumed that the Earth 's major features were fixed, and that most geologic features such as basin development and mountain ranges could be explained by vertical crustal movement, described in what is called the geosynclinal theory. Generally, this was placed in the context of a contracting planet Earth due to heat loss in the course of a relatively short geological time.
It was observed as early as 1596 that the opposite coasts of the Atlantic Ocean -- or, more precisely, the edges of the continental shelves -- have similar shapes and seem to have once fitted together.
Since that time many theories were proposed to explain this apparent complementarity, but the assumption of a solid Earth made these various proposals difficult to accept.
The discovery of radioactivity and its associated heating properties in 1895 prompted a re-examination of the apparent age of the Earth. This had previously been estimated by its cooling rate under the assumption that the Earth 's surface radiated like a black body. Those calculations had implied that, even if it started at red heat, the Earth would have dropped to its present temperature in a few tens of millions of years. Armed with the knowledge of a new heat source, scientists realized that the Earth would be much older, and that its core was still sufficiently hot to be liquid.
By 1915, after having published a first article in 1912, Alfred Wegener was making serious arguments for the idea of continental drift in the first edition of The Origin of Continents and Oceans. In that book (re-issued in four successive editions up to the final one in 1936), he noted how the east coast of South America and the west coast of Africa looked as if they were once attached. Wegener was not the first to note this (Abraham Ortelius, Antonio Snider - Pellegrini, Eduard Suess, Roberto Mantovani and Frank Bursley Taylor preceded him just to mention a few), but he was the first to marshal significant fossil and paleo - topographical and climatological evidence to support this simple observation (and was supported in this by researchers such as Alex du Toit). Furthermore, when the rock strata of the margins of separate continents are very similar it suggests that these rocks were formed in the same way, implying that they were joined initially. For instance, parts of Scotland and Ireland contain rocks very similar to those found in Newfoundland and New Brunswick. Furthermore, the Caledonian Mountains of Europe and parts of the Appalachian Mountains of North America are very similar in structure and lithology.
However, his ideas were not taken seriously by many geologists, who pointed out that there was no apparent mechanism for continental drift. Specifically, they did not see how continental rock could plow through the much denser rock that makes up oceanic crust. Wegener could not explain the force that drove continental drift, and his vindication did not come until after his death in 1930.
As it was observed early that although granite existed on continents, seafloor seemed to be composed of denser basalt, the prevailing concept during the first half of the twentieth century was that there were two types of crust, named "sial '' (continental type crust) and "sima '' (oceanic type crust). Furthermore, it was supposed that a static shell of strata was present under the continents. It therefore looked apparent that a layer of basalt (sial) underlies the continental rocks.
However, based on abnormalities in plumb line deflection by the Andes in Peru, Pierre Bouguer had deduced that less - dense mountains must have a downward projection into the denser layer underneath. The concept that mountains had "roots '' was confirmed by George B. Airy a hundred years later, during study of Himalayan gravitation, and seismic studies detected corresponding density variations. Therefore, by the mid-1950s, the question remained unresolved as to whether mountain roots were clenched in surrounding basalt or were floating on it like an iceberg.
During the 20th century, improvements in and greater use of seismic instruments such as seismographs enabled scientists to learn that earthquakes tend to be concentrated in specific areas, most notably along the oceanic trenches and spreading ridges. By the late 1920s, seismologists were beginning to identify several prominent earthquake zones parallel to the trenches that typically were inclined 40 -- 60 ° from the horizontal and extended several hundred kilometers into the Earth. These zones later became known as Wadati -- Benioff zones, or simply Benioff zones, in honor of the seismologists who first recognized them, Kiyoo Wadati of Japan and Hugo Benioff of the United States. The study of global seismicity greatly advanced in the 1960s with the establishment of the Worldwide Standardized Seismograph Network (WWSSN) to monitor the compliance of the 1963 treaty banning above - ground testing of nuclear weapons. The much improved data from the WWSSN instruments allowed seismologists to map precisely the zones of earthquake concentration worldwide.
Meanwhile, debates developed around the phenomena of polar wander. Since the early debates of continental drift, scientists had discussed and used evidence that polar drift had occurred because continents seemed to have moved through different climatic zones during the past. Furthermore, paleomagnetic data had shown that the magnetic pole had also shifted during time. Reasoning in an opposite way, the continents might have shifted and rotated, while the pole remained relatively fixed. The first time the evidence of magnetic polar wander was used to support the movements of continents was in a paper by Keith Runcorn in 1956, and successive papers by him and his students Ted Irving (who was actually the first to be convinced of the fact that paleomagnetism supported continental drift) and Ken Creer.
This was immediately followed by a symposium in Tasmania in March 1956. In this symposium, the evidence was used in the theory of an expansion of the global crust. In this hypothesis the shifting of the continents can be simply explained by a large increase in size of the Earth since its formation. However, this was unsatisfactory because its supporters could offer no convincing mechanism to produce a significant expansion of the Earth. Certainly there is no evidence that the moon has expanded in the past 3 billion years; other work would soon show that the evidence was equally in support of continental drift on a globe with a stable radius.
During the thirties up to the late fifties, works by Vening - Meinesz, Holmes, Umbgrove, and numerous others outlined concepts that were close or nearly identical to modern plate tectonics theory. In particular, the English geologist Arthur Holmes proposed in 1920 that plate junctions might lie beneath the sea, and in 1928 that convection currents within the mantle might be the driving force. Often, these contributions are forgotten because:
In 1947, a team of scientists led by Maurice Ewing utilizing the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 's research vessel Atlantis and an array of instruments, confirmed the existence of a rise in the central Atlantic Ocean, and found that the floor of the seabed beneath the layer of sediments consisted of basalt, not the granite which is the main constituent of continents. They also found that the oceanic crust was much thinner than continental crust. All these new findings raised important and intriguing questions.
The new data that had been collected on the ocean basins also showed particular characteristics regarding the bathymetry. One of the major outcomes of these datasets was that all along the globe, a system of mid-oceanic ridges was detected. An important conclusion was that along this system, new ocean floor was being created, which led to the concept of the "Great Global Rift ''. This was described in the crucial paper of Bruce Heezen (1960), which would trigger a real revolution in thinking. A profound consequence of seafloor spreading is that new crust was, and still is, being continually created along the oceanic ridges. Therefore, Heezen advocated the so - called "expanding Earth '' hypothesis of S. Warren Carey (see above). So, still the question remained: how can new crust be continuously added along the oceanic ridges without increasing the size of the Earth? In reality, this question had been solved already by numerous scientists during the forties and the fifties, like Arthur Holmes, Vening - Meinesz, Coates and many others: The crust in excess disappeared along what were called the oceanic trenches, where so - called "subduction '' occurred. Therefore, when various scientists during the early sixties started to reason on the data at their disposal regarding the ocean floor, the pieces of the theory quickly fell into place.
The question particularly intrigued Harry Hammond Hess, a Princeton University geologist and a Naval Reserve Rear Admiral, and Robert S. Dietz, a scientist with the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey who first coined the term seafloor spreading. Dietz and Hess (the former published the same idea one year earlier in Nature, but priority belongs to Hess who had already distributed an unpublished manuscript of his 1962 article by 1960) were among the small handful who really understood the broad implications of sea floor spreading and how it would eventually agree with the, at that time, unconventional and unaccepted ideas of continental drift and the elegant and mobilistic models proposed by previous workers like Holmes.
In the same year, Robert R. Coats of the U.S. Geological Survey described the main features of island arc subduction in the Aleutian Islands. His paper, though little noted (and even ridiculed) at the time, has since been called "seminal '' and "prescient ''. In reality, it actually shows that the work by the European scientists on island arcs and mountain belts performed and published during the 1930s up until the 1950s was applied and appreciated also in the United States.
If the Earth 's crust was expanding along the oceanic ridges, Hess and Dietz reasoned like Holmes and others before them, it must be shrinking elsewhere. Hess followed Heezen, suggesting that new oceanic crust continuously spreads away from the ridges in a conveyor belt -- like motion. And, using the mobilistic concepts developed before, he correctly concluded that many millions of years later, the oceanic crust eventually descends along the continental margins where oceanic trenches -- very deep, narrow canyons -- are formed, e.g. along the rim of the Pacific Ocean basin. The important step Hess made was that convection currents would be the driving force in this process, arriving at the same conclusions as Holmes had decades before with the only difference that the thinning of the ocean crust was performed using Heezen 's mechanism of spreading along the ridges. Hess therefore concluded that the Atlantic Ocean was expanding while the Pacific Ocean was shrinking. As old oceanic crust is "consumed '' in the trenches (like Holmes and others, he thought this was done by thickening of the continental lithosphere, not, as now understood, by underthrusting at a larger scale of the oceanic crust itself into the mantle), new magma rises and erupts along the spreading ridges to form new crust. In effect, the ocean basins are perpetually being "recycled, '' with the creation of new crust and the destruction of old oceanic lithosphere occurring simultaneously. Thus, the new mobilistic concepts neatly explained why the Earth does not get bigger with sea floor spreading, why there is so little sediment accumulation on the ocean floor, and why oceanic rocks are much younger than continental rocks.
Beginning in the 1950s, scientists like Victor Vacquier, using magnetic instruments (magnetometers) adapted from airborne devices developed during World War II to detect submarines, began recognizing odd magnetic variations across the ocean floor. This finding, though unexpected, was not entirely surprising because it was known that basalt -- the iron - rich, volcanic rock making up the ocean floor -- contains a strongly magnetic mineral (magnetite) and can locally distort compass readings. This distortion was recognized by Icelandic mariners as early as the late 18th century. More important, because the presence of magnetite gives the basalt measurable magnetic properties, these newly discovered magnetic variations provided another means to study the deep ocean floor. When newly formed rock cools, such magnetic materials recorded the Earth 's magnetic field at the time.
As more and more of the seafloor was mapped during the 1950s, the magnetic variations turned out not to be random or isolated occurrences, but instead revealed recognizable patterns. When these magnetic patterns were mapped over a wide region, the ocean floor showed a zebra - like pattern: one stripe with normal polarity and the adjoining stripe with reversed polarity. The overall pattern, defined by these alternating bands of normally and reversely polarized rock, became known as magnetic striping, and was published by Ron G. Mason and co-workers in 1961, who did not find, though, an explanation for these data in terms of sea floor spreading, like Vine, Matthews and Morley a few years later.
The discovery of magnetic striping called for an explanation. In the early 1960s scientists such as Heezen, Hess and Dietz had begun to theorise that mid-ocean ridges mark structurally weak zones where the ocean floor was being ripped in two lengthwise along the ridge crest (see the previous paragraph). New magma from deep within the Earth rises easily through these weak zones and eventually erupts along the crest of the ridges to create new oceanic crust. This process, at first denominated the "conveyer belt hypothesis '' and later called seafloor spreading, operating over many millions of years continues to form new ocean floor all across the 50,000 km - long system of mid-ocean ridges.
Only four years after the maps with the "zebra pattern '' of magnetic stripes were published, the link between sea floor spreading and these patterns was correctly placed, independently by Lawrence Morley, and by Fred Vine and Drummond Matthews, in 1963, now called the Vine - Matthews - Morley hypothesis. This hypothesis linked these patterns to geomagnetic reversals and was supported by several lines of evidence:
By explaining both the zebra - like magnetic striping and the construction of the mid-ocean ridge system, the seafloor spreading hypothesis (SFS) quickly gained converts and represented another major advance in the development of the plate - tectonics theory. Furthermore, the oceanic crust now came to be appreciated as a natural "tape recording '' of the history of the geomagnetic field reversals (GMFR) of the Earth 's magnetic field. Today, extensive studies are dedicated to the calibration of the normal - reversal patterns in the oceanic crust on one hand and known timescales derived from the dating of basalt layers in sedimentary sequences (magnetostratigraphy) on the other, to arrive at estimates of past spreading rates and plate reconstructions.
After all these considerations, Plate Tectonics (or, as it was initially called "New Global Tectonics '') became quickly accepted in the scientific world, and numerous papers followed that defined the concepts:
The Plate Tectonics Revolution was the scientific and cultural change which developed from the acceptance of the plate tectonics theory. The event was a paradigm shift and scientific revolution.
Continental drift theory helps biogeographers to explain the disjunct biogeographic distribution of present - day life found on different continents but having similar ancestors. In particular, it explains the Gondwanan distribution of ratites and the Antarctic flora.
Reconstruction is used to establish past (and future) plate configurations, helping determine the shape and make - up of ancient supercontinents and providing a basis for paleogeography.
Current plate boundaries are defined by their seismicity. Past plate boundaries within existing plates are identified from a variety of evidence, such as the presence of ophiolites that are indicative of vanished oceans.
Tectonic motion is believed to have begun around 3 to 3.5 billion years ago.
Various types of quantitative and semi-quantitative information are available to constrain past plate motions. The geometric fit between continents, such as between west Africa and South America is still an important part of plate reconstruction. Magnetic stripe patterns provide a reliable guide to relative plate motions going back into the Jurassic period. The tracks of hotspots give absolute reconstructions, but these are only available back to the Cretaceous. Older reconstructions rely mainly on paleomagnetic pole data, although these only constrain the latitude and rotation, but not the longitude. Combining poles of different ages in a particular plate to produce apparent polar wander paths provides a method for comparing the motions of different plates through time. Additional evidence comes from the distribution of certain sedimentary rock types, faunal provinces shown by particular fossil groups, and the position of orogenic belts.
The movement of plates has caused the formation and break - up of continents over time, including occasional formation of a supercontinent that contains most or all of the continents. The supercontinent Columbia or Nuna formed during a period of 2,000 to 1,800 million years ago and broke up about 1,500 to 1,300 million years ago. The supercontinent Rodinia is thought to have formed about 1 billion years ago and to have embodied most or all of Earth 's continents, and broken up into eight continents around 600 million years ago. The eight continents later re-assembled into another supercontinent called Pangaea; Pangaea broke up into Laurasia (which became North America and Eurasia) and Gondwana (which became the remaining continents).
The Himalayas, the world 's tallest mountain range, are assumed to have been formed by the collision of two major plates. Before uplift, they were covered by the Tethys Ocean.
Depending on how they are defined, there are usually seven or eight "major '' plates: African, Antarctic, Eurasian, North American, South American, Pacific, and Indo - Australian. The latter is sometimes subdivided into the Indian and Australian plates.
There are dozens of smaller plates, the seven largest of which are the Arabian, Caribbean, Juan de Fuca, Cocos, Nazca, Philippine Sea, and Scotia.
The current motion of the tectonic plates is today determined by remote sensing satellite data sets, calibrated with ground station measurements.
The appearance of plate tectonics on terrestrial planets is related to planetary mass, with more massive planets than Earth expected to exhibit plate tectonics. Earth may be a borderline case, owing its tectonic activity to abundant water (silica and water form a deep eutectic).
Venus shows no evidence of active plate tectonics. There is debatable evidence of active tectonics in the planet 's distant past; however, events taking place since then (such as the plausible and generally accepted hypothesis that the Venusian lithosphere has thickened greatly over the course of several hundred million years) has made constraining the course of its geologic record difficult. However, the numerous well - preserved impact craters have been utilized as a dating method to approximately date the Venusian surface (since there are thus far no known samples of Venusian rock to be dated by more reliable methods). Dates derived are dominantly in the range 500 to 750 million years ago, although ages of up to 1,200 million years ago have been calculated. This research has led to the fairly well accepted hypothesis that Venus has undergone an essentially complete volcanic resurfacing at least once in its distant past, with the last event taking place approximately within the range of estimated surface ages. While the mechanism of such an impressive thermal event remains a debated issue in Venusian geosciences, some scientists are advocates of processes involving plate motion to some extent.
One explanation for Venus 's lack of plate tectonics is that on Venus temperatures are too high for significant water to be present. The Earth 's crust is soaked with water, and water plays an important role in the development of shear zones. Plate tectonics requires weak surfaces in the crust along which crustal slices can move, and it may well be that such weakening never took place on Venus because of the absence of water. However, some researchers remain convinced that plate tectonics is or was once active on this planet.
Mars is considerably smaller than Earth and Venus, and there is evidence for ice on its surface and in its crust.
In the 1990s, it was proposed that Martian Crustal Dichotomy was created by plate tectonic processes. Scientists today disagree, and think that it was created either by upwelling within the Martian mantle that thickened the crust of the Southern Highlands and formed Tharsis or by a giant impact that excavated the Northern Lowlands.
Valles Marineris may be a tectonic boundary.
Observations made of the magnetic field of Mars by the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft in 1999 showed patterns of magnetic striping discovered on this planet. Some scientists interpreted these as requiring plate tectonic processes, such as seafloor spreading. However, their data fail a "magnetic reversal test '', which is used to see if they were formed by flipping polarities of a global magnetic field.
Some of the satellites of Jupiter have features that may be related to plate - tectonic style deformation, although the materials and specific mechanisms may be different from plate - tectonic activity on Earth. On 8 September 2014, NASA reported finding evidence of plate tectonics on Europa, a satellite of Jupiter -- the first sign of subduction activity on another world other than Earth.
Titan, the largest moon of Saturn, was reported to show tectonic activity in images taken by the Huygens probe, which landed on Titan on January 14, 2005.
On Earth - sized planets, plate tectonics is more likely if there are oceans of water. However, in 2007, two independent teams of researchers came to opposing conclusions about the likelihood of plate tectonics on larger super-Earths with one team saying that plate tectonics would be episodic or stagnant and the other team saying that plate tectonics is very likely on super-earths even if the planet is dry.
Consideration of plate tectonics is a part of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence and extraterrestrial life.
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what is the meaning of ppi pixel density | Pixel density - wikipedia
Pixels per inch (PPI) or pixels per centimeter (PPCM) are measurements of the pixel density (resolution) of an electronic image device, such as a computer monitor or television display, or image digitizing device such as a camera or image scanner. Horizontal and vertical density are usually the same, as most devices have square pixels, but differ on devices that have non-square pixels.
PPI can also describe the resolution, in pixels, of an image file. A 100 × 100 pixel image printed in a 1 inch square has a resolution of 100 pixels per inch. Used this way, the measurement is meaningful when printing an image. It has become commonplace to refer to PPI as DPI, even though PPI refers to input resolution. Industry standard, good quality photographs usually require 300 pixels per inch, at 100 % size, when printed onto coated paper stock, using a printing screen of 150 lines per inch (lpi). This delivers a quality factor of 2, which is optimum. The lowest acceptable quality factor is considered 1.5, which equates to printing a 225 ppi image using a 150 lpi screen onto coated paper.
Screen frequency is determined by the type of paper the image is printed on. An absorbent paper surface, uncoated recycled paper for instance, lets ink droplets spread (dot gain) -- so requires a more open printing screen. Input resolution can therefore be reduced to minimize file size without loss in quality, as long as the quality factor of 2 is maintained. This is easily determined by doubling the line frequency. For example, printing on an uncoated paper stock often limits printing screen frequency to no more than 120 lpi, therefore, a quality factor of 2 is achieved with images of 240 ppi.
The PPI of a computer display is related to the size of the display in inches and the total number of pixels in the horizontal and vertical directions. This measurement is often referred to as dots per inch, though that measurement more accurately refers to the resolution of a computer printer.
For example, a 15 - inch (38 cm) display whose dimensions work out to 12 inches (30.48 cm) wide by 9 inches (22.86 cm) high, capable of a maximum 1024 × 768 (or XGA) pixel resolution, can display around 85 PPI in both the horizontal and vertical directions. This figure is determined by dividing the width (or height) of the display area in pixels by the width (or height) of the display area in inches. It is possible for a display to have different horizontal and vertical PPI measurements (e.g., a typical 4: 3 ratio CRT monitor showing a 1280 × 1024 mode computer display at maximum size, which is a 5: 4 ratio, not quite the same as 4: 3). The apparent PPI of a monitor depends upon the screen resolution (that is, the number of pixels) and the size of the screen in use; a monitor in 800 × 600 mode has a lower PPI than does the same monitor in a 1024 × 768 or 1280 × 960 mode.
The dot pitch of a computer display determines the absolute limit of possible pixel density. Typical circa - 2000 cathode ray tube or LCD computer displays range from 67 to 130 PPI, though desktop monitors have exceeded 200 PPI and contemporary small - screen mobile devices often exceed 300 PPI, sometimes by a wide margin.
In January 2008, Kopin Corporation announced a 0.44 inch (1.12 cm) SVGA LCD with a pixel density of 2272 PPI (each pixel only 11.25 μm). In 2011 they followed this up with a 3760 DPI 0.21 '' diagonal VGA colour display. The manufacturer says they designed the LCD to be optically magnified, as in high - resolution eyewear devices.
Holography applications demand even greater pixel density, as higher pixel density produces a larger image size and wider viewing angle. Spatial light modulators can reduce pixel pitch to 2.5 μm, giving a pixel density of 10,160 PPI.
Some observations indicate that the unaided human generally ca n't differentiate detail beyond 300 PPI. However, this figure depends both on the distance between viewer and image, and the viewer 's visual acuity. The human eye also responds in a different way to a bright, evenly lit interactive display from how it does to prints on paper.
High pixel density display technologies would make supersampled antialiasing obsolete, enable true WYSIWYG graphics and, potentially enable a practical "paperless office '' era. For perspective, such a device at 15 inch (38 cm) screen size would have to display more than four Full HD screens (or WQUXGA resolution).
Development of a display with ~ 900 ppi allows for three pixels with 16 - bit color to act as sub-pixels to form a pixel cluster. These pixel clusters act as regular pixels at ~ 300 ppi to produce a 48 - bit color display.
The PPI pixel density specification of a display is also useful for calibrating a monitor with a printer. Software can use the PPI measurement to display a document at "actual size '' on the screen.
Theoretically, PPI can be calculated from knowing the diagonal size of the screen in inches and the resolution in pixels (width and height). This can be done in two steps:
1. Calculate diagonal resolution in pixels using the Pythagorean theorem:
2. Calculate PPI:
where
For example,:
Note that these calculations may not be very precise. Frequently, screens advertised as "X inch screen '' can have their real physical dimensions of viewable area differ, for example:
Camera manufacturers often quote view screens in ' number of dots '. This is not the same as the number of pixels, because there are 3 ' dots ' per pixel -- red, green and blue. For example, the Canon 50d is quoted as having 920,000 dots. This translates as 307,200 pixels (x3 = 921,600 dots). Thus the screen is 640 × 480 pixels.
This must be taken into account when working out the PPI. Using the above calculations requires the screen 's dimensions, but other methods require the total pixels, not total dots. ' Dots ' and ' pixels ' are often confused in reviews and specs when viewing information about digital cameras specifically.
"PPI '' or "pixel density '' may also describe image scanner resolution. In this context, PPI is synonymous with samples per inch. In digital photography, pixel density is the number of pixels divided by the area of the sensor. A typical DSLR, circa 2013, has 1 -- 6.2 MP / cm; a typical compact has 20 -- 70 MP / cm.
For example, Sony Alpha SLT - A58 has 20.1 megapixels on an APS - C sensor having 6.2 MP / cm since a compact camera like Sony Cyber-shot DSC - HX50V has 20.4 megapixels on an 1 / 2.3 '' sensor having 70 MP / cm. The professional camera has a lower PPI than a compact camera, because it has larger photodiodes due to having far larger sensors.
Smartphones use small displays, but modern smartphone displays have a larger PPI rating, such as the Samsung Galaxy S7 with a quad HD display at 577 PPI, Fujitsu F - 02G with a quad HD display at 564 PPI, the LG G6 with quad HD display at 564 PPI or -- XHDPI or Oppo Find 7 with 534 PPI on 5.5 '' display -- XXHDPI (see section below). Sony 's Xperia XZ Premium has a 4K display with a pixel density of 807 PPI, the highest of any smartphone as of 2017.
The Google Android developer documentation groups displays by their approximate pixel densities into the following categories:
The digital publishing industry primarily uses "pixels per inch '' but sometimes "pixels per centimeter '' is used or a conversion factor is given.
The PNG image file format only allows the meter as the unit for pixel density.
The following table show how pixel density is supported by popular image file formats. In the second column, "length '' refers to horizontal and vertical size in inches, centimeters, etc., whereas "pixel '' refers only to the number of pixels found along the horizontal and vertical dimension. The cell colors used do not indicate how feature - rich a certain image file format is, but what density support can be expected of a certain image file format. Often - used image file formats that do not support pixel density are added for counter-example purposes.
Even though image manipulation software can optionally set density for some image file formats, not many other software uses density information when displaying images. Web browsers, for example, ignore any density information. Named pixel densities is used mainly for browsers and mobile apps. As the table shows, support for density information in image file formats varies enormously and should be used with great care in a controlled context.
* Support in SVG differs. The standard supports the floats pixelUnitToMillimeterX, pixelUnitToMillimeterY, screenPixelToMillimeterX and screenPixelToMillimeterY for use in CSS2. Inkscape SVG supports density for PNG export only inkscape: export - xdpi and inkscape: export - ydpi. Adobe stores it even differently.
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master of your own fate captain of your own soul | Invictus - wikipedia
"Invictus '' is a short Victorian poem by the English poet William Ernest Henley (1849 -- 1903). It was written in 1875 and published in 1888 in his first volume of poems, Book of Verses, in the section Life and Death (Echoes).
Originally, the poem was published with no title. The second edition of Henley 's Book of Verses added a dedication "To R.T.H.B. '' -- a reference to Robert Thomas Hamilton Bruce (1846 -- 1899), a successful Scottish flour merchant, baker, and literary patron. The 1900 edition of Henley 's Poems, published after Bruce 's death, altered the dedication to "I.M.R.T. Hamilton Bruce (1846 -- 1899) '' (I.M. standing for "in memoriam '').
The poem was reprinted in nineteenth - century newspapers under a variety of titles, including "Myself '', "Song of a Strong Soul '', "My Soul '', "Clear Grit '', "Master of His Fate '', "Captain of My Soul '', "Urbs Fortitudinis '', and "De Profundis ''.
The established title "Invictus '' (Latin for "unconquered '') was added by editor Arthur Quiller - Couch when the poem was included in The Oxford Book of English Verse (1900).
Out of the night that covers me, Black as the pit from pole to pole, I thank whatever gods may be For my unconquerable soul. In the fell clutch of circumstance I have not winced nor cried aloud. Under the bludgeonings of chance My head is bloody, but unbowed. Beyond this place of wrath and tears Looms but the Horror of the shade, And yet the menace of the years Finds, and shall find me, unafraid. It matters not how strait the gate, How charged with punishments the scroll, I am the master of my fate: I am the captain of my soul.
In 1875 one of Henley 's legs required amputation due to complications arising from tuberculosis. Immediately after the amputation, he was told that his other leg would require a similar procedure. He chose instead to enlist the services of the distinguished English surgeon Joseph Lister, who was able to save Henley 's remaining leg after multiple surgical interventions on the foot. While recovering in the infirmary, he was moved to write the verses that became "Invictus ''. This period of his life, coupled with recollections of an impoverished childhood, were primary inspirations for the poem, and play a major role in its meaning. A memorable evocation of Victorian stoicism -- the "stiff upper lip '' self - discipline and fortitude in adversity, which popular culture rendered into a British character trait, "Invictus '' remains a cultural touchstone. With the message of displaying fortitude in the face of adversity, the poem evokes Victorian stoicism and a "stiff upper lip ''.
The fourth stanza alludes to a phrase from the King James Bible, which has, at Matthew 7: 14,
Because strait is the gate, and narrow is the way, which leadeth unto life, and few there be that find it.
In modern English this is rendered as "But the gate to life is very narrow. '' In this context "life '' means "eternal salvation. ''
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the missile defense agency (mda) works with the combatant commanders | Missile Defense Agency - wikipedia
The Missile Defense Agency (MDA) is the section of the United States government 's Department of Defense responsible for developing a layered defense against ballistic missiles. The agency has its origins in the Strategic Defense Initiative which was established in 1983 and was headed by Lt. General James Alan Abrahamson. Under the Strategic Defense Initiative 's Innovative Sciences and Technology Office, headed by physicist and engineer Dr. James Ionson, the investment was predominantly made in basic research at national laboratories, universities, and in industry. These programs have continued to be key sources of funding for top research scientists in the fields of high - energy physics, supercomputing / computation, advanced materials, and many other critical science and engineering disciplines -- funding which indirectly supports other research work by top scientists, and which was most politically viable to fund within the Military budget of the United States environment. It was renamed the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization in 1993, and then renamed the Missile Defense Agency in 2002. The current commander is U.S. Air Force Lt. Gen. Samuel A. Greaves.
See United States national missile defense for the history of DoD missile defense programs.
According to the agency 's web - page:
The Missile Defense Agency 's mission is to develop, test and prepare for deployment of a missile defense system. Using complementary interceptors, land -, sea -, air - and space - based sensors, and battle management command and control systems, the planned missile defense system will be able to engage all classes and ranges of ballistic missile threats. Our programmatic strategy is to develop, rigorously test, and continuously evaluate production, deployment and operational alternatives for the ballistic missile defense system. Missile defense systems being developed and tested by MDA are primarily based on hit - to - kill technology. It has been described as hitting a bullet with a bullet - a capability that has been successfully demonstrated in test after test.
Ballistic Missile Defense Systems (BMDS) must be able to be operated in different regions of the world in order for the success of the MDA mission. The International Strategy was approved by the MDA Director in 2007. The general strategy for international efforts is:
As of 2017 MDA was working on facilities in Germany, Romania, Poland, Japan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.
Ballistic missile systems using advanced liquid - or solid - propellant propulsion are becoming more mobile, accurate and capable of striking targets over longer distances and are proliferating worldwide.
MDA divides its systems into four phases, boost, ascent, mid-course and terminal, each corresponding to a different phase of the threat ballistic missile flight regime. Each phase offers different advantages and disadvantages to a missile defense system (see missile defense classified by trajectory phase), and the geography of each defended area dictates the types of systems that can be employed, thus the flexible and layered defense approach concept should improve overall defense effectiveness. The more opportunities you have to shoot it down, the better the chance of success.
Alternatively activities are categorized in five "blocks ''. For example, block 4.0 is "Defend Allies and Deployed Forces in Europe from Limited Iranian Long - Range Threats and Expand Protection of U.S. Homeland ''. It included the US missile defense complex in Poland to be constructed, and the European Mid-course Radar (EMR) currently located at the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site at Kwajalein Atoll, which was to be modified and relocated to the Czech Republic. That plan, however, was scrapped by the Obama administration on September 17, 2009.
One can distinguish disabling the warheads and just disabling the boosting capability. The latter has the risk of "shortfall '': damage in countries between the launch site and the target location.
See also APS report.
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when was the first kidz bop album released | Kidz Bop (album) - wikipedia
Kidz Bop (occasionally known as Kidz Bop 1) is the first album in the Kidz Bop series in which children sing popular songs of the time. The album was certified Gold by the RIAA. Nicholas Scala of New York was involved with the production of the album. The album contains 30 newly recorded songs from the late 1990s and 2000. More Kidz Bop was released later in 2000 and features an additional 10 songs.
In her review on Allmusic, critic Heather Phares says the effect of kids singing contemporary hits can be "fun or creepy '' depending on the song. The punk - pop songs and nonsensical hits fare the best, but "it 's more than a little unsettling to hear children singing along to the chorus of Britney Spears ' ' Oops!... I Did It Again '. ''
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how many episodes are in a season of american idol | List of American Idol episodes - wikipedia
American Idol is an American singing competition television series created by Simon Fuller, produced by FremantleMedia North America and 19 Entertainment, and distributed by FremantleMedia North America. It began airing on Fox in the United States on June 11, 2002, and ended on April 7, 2016. The series moved to ABC with its sixteenth season which debuted on March 11, 2018. It started off as an addition to the Idols format based on the British series Pop Idol, and became one of the most successful shows in the history of American television. The concept of the series involves discovering recording stars from unsigned singing talents, with the winner determined by the viewers in America through telephones, Internet, and SMS text voting.
As of May 21, 2018, 574 episodes of American Idol have aired.
The 121 people who made it past auditions perform and are narrowed down first to 65, then to 45.
Auditions were held in Soldier Field. 34 people made it to Hollywood.
51 contestants move on to the Hollywood round from East Rutherford, New Jersey
37 contestants move on to the Hollywood Round from New Orleans, Louisiana
53 contestants move on to the Hollywood Round from Milwaukee, Wisconsin
56 contestants move on to the Hollywood Round from Nashville, Tennessee
50 contestants move on to the Hollywood Round from Austin, Texas
26 contestants move on to the Hollywood Round from Los Angeles, California
47 contestants move on to the Hollywood Round from San Francisco, California.
Adam Lambert performs Aftermath, Diddy Dirty Money and Skylar Grey perform Coming Home.
Lee DeWyze performs "Beautiful Like You '', The Black Eyed Peas perform "Just Ca n't Get Enough ''.
Jennifer Hudson performs "Where You At '', Sugarland performs "Stuck Like Glue ''.
Fantasia Barrino performs "Collard Greens & Cornbread '', will.i.am & Jamie Foxx perform "Hot Wings (I Wanna Party) ''.
Constantine Maroulis performs "Unchained Melody '', Iggy Pop performs "Wild One ''.
Jason Aldean & Kelly Clarkson perform "Do n't You Wanna Stay '', Rihanna performs "California King Bed ''.
David Cook performs "The Last Goodbye '', Katy Perry and Kanye West perform "E.T. ''.
Crystal Bowersox performs "Ridin with the Radio '', Bruno Mars performs "The Lazy Song ''.
Theme: Songs From Now and Then
Lady Antebellum performs "Just a Kiss '', Jennifer Lopez and Pitbull perform "On the Floor ''.
Theme: Leiber & Stoller Songbook
Lady Gaga performs "You and I '', Enrique Iglesias performs "Dirty Dancer '' and "I Like It '', Jordin Sparks performs "I Am Woman '', and the music video premiere of "(It) Feels So Good '' by Steven Tyler.
Theme: Contestant 's Choice / Jimmy Iovine 's Choice / Judges ' Choice
Nicole Scherzinger and 50 Cent perform "Right There '', Il Volo performs "' O Sole Mio '', and the music video premiere of "Run the World (Girls) '' by Beyoncé.
Scotty McCreery is crowned winner of American Idol (season 10).
Theme: Whitney Houston & Stevie Wonder
Lauren Alaina performs "Georgia Peaches '' and Mary J. Blige performs "Why ''.
Jermaine Jones was disqualified prior to this performance show.
Theme: Year They Were Born
Demi Lovato performs "Give Your Heart a Break '' and Daughtry performs "Outta My Head ''.
Theme: Billy Joel
Lana Del Rey performs "Video Games '' and Haley Reinhart performs "Free ''.
Theme: Their Personal Idols
Nicki Minaj performs "Starships '' and Scotty McCreery performs "Water Tower Town ''.
Theme: Songs from the 1980s
The Wanted perform "Glad You Came '', Kellie Pickler performs "Where 's Tammy Wynette '', and the music video premiere of "Dance Again '' by Jennifer Lopez.
Theme: Songs from the 2010s
James Durbin performs "Higher Than Heaven '' and Jennifer Hudson & Ne - Yo perform "Think Like a Man ''.
Kris Allen performs "The Vision of Love '' and LMFAO perform "Sorry for Party Rocking ''.
Queen Extravaganza perform "Somebody to Love '', Stefano performs "I 'm on a Roll '', and Katy Perry performs "Part of Me ''.
Theme: Songs from the 1960s / British Pop
Coldplay perform "Paradise '', Carrie Underwood performs "Blown Away '', and Coldplay perform "Every Teardrop Is a Waterfall ''.
David Cook performs "The Last Song I 'll Write for You '' and Jennifer Lopez performs "Dance Again ''.
Lisa Marie Presley performs "You Ai n't Seen Nothin ' Yet '' and Adam Lambert performs "Never Close Our Eyes ''.
Phillip Phillips is crowned the winner of American Idol (season 11).
Bon Jovi performs "Because We Can '' and Phillip Phillips performs "Gone, Gone, Gone ''. The 6th place finishers of each respective gender perform.
The announcement of the winner of the fan tour save.
Casey Abrams performs "I Saw Her Standing There '' and Jessica Sanchez & Ne - Yo perform "Tonight ''.
Theme: Motown
Colton Dixon performs "Love Has Come For Me '', OneRepublic & Katharine McPhee perform "If I Lose Myself '', and Keith Urban performs "Long Hot Summer ''.
Casey James performs "The Good Life '', and Carrie Underwood performs "See You Again. ''
Scotty McCreery performs "See You Tonight '' and Kelly Clarkson performs "People Like Us ''
Clay Aiken performs Bridge Over Troubled Water and Fantasia performs Lose to Win.
Stefano Langone performs "Yes to Love '' and Lee DeWyze performs "Silver Lining. ''
Theme: Songs from Now & Then
David Cook performs "Laying Me Low '', will.i.am performs "Bang Bang '', and Harry Connick, Jr. performs "Every Man Should Know ''.
Candice Glover is crowned winner of the twelfth season
American Idol has seen its fair share of viewership changes over the years, peaking at 38.1 million viewers in the season 2 finale, to an all - time low with a mere 5.55 million viewers tuning in to watch fourteenth season 's final performances.
(millions)
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who plays trevor's dad in the fundamentals of caring | The Fundamentals of Caring - wikipedia
The Fundamentals of Caring is a 2016 American comedy - drama film written and directed by Rob Burnett, based on the 2012 novel The Revised Fundamentals of Caregiving by Jonathan Evison and stars Paul Rudd, Craig Roberts, and Selena Gomez. The film had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 29, 2016 and was released by Netflix on June 24, 2016.
Ben (Paul Rudd) is a retired writer. Needing a new job, he takes a six - week course to become a caregiver. He gets a job from an English woman named Elsa (Jennifer Ehle), a registered caregiver and bank manager, whose 18 - year - old son Trevor (Craig Roberts) suffers from Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Trevor is a sardonic, anxious boy with a fascination with American roadside attractions, and Ben suggests one day that they go to see some of them. Trevor initially refuses, and Elsa worries Ben is becoming too close to him, as Trevor 's father left when he was diagnosed, only sending him letters throughout the years. Ben soon finds himself hounded by a court tracker hired by his wife and avoids his visits.
Eventually, Elsa agrees with Ben 's road trip plan, and he and Trevor embark on a journey to the world 's deepest pit. On the way there, Trevor says he wants to see his father, who owns a car dealership in Salt Lake City. Stopping at a gas station, the two meet a girl Trevor 's age named Dot (Selena Gomez), who Trevor develops a crush on. When they encounter her again at a diner later on, they see her attempting to hitchhike, and Ben decides to give her a ride. Dot informs them on the way that she is heading to Denver to restart her life, and that her mother has died. As the three bond, especially she and Trevor, Ben notices a car that has been following them, and tells the two of it at a motel. He believes it is someone sent by his wife.
Further down the highway, the three find a pregnant woman named Peaches (Megan Ferguson), whose car has broken down. She is heading to live with her mother before the baby comes, as the father is currently on his second U.S. military tour. They give her a ride as well, and when they stop for the night, Trevor asks Dot on a date, which she accepts, and the two go to the diner across the street from them. Ben and Peaches watch through from the motel through the diner window, and can see it is going well. The next day, the four make it to Trevor 's father 's car dealership. When he meets with his dad, he informs Trevor he never wrote him letters, and that it was his mother this whole time, and his father stays distant. Outraged, Trevor berates Ben and tells him he wishes to go home, but Dot insists they continue to the world 's deepest pit.
The group eventually makes it there, in awe of the abyss. Trevor, Dot, and Peaches head to the bottom, but Ben notices the car that 's been following them. He walks over, and finds it 's not his wife 's tracker, but Dot 's father, who wishes to make sure she 's safe. Ben then receives a call from Dot, who tells him to quickly come down. When he sees a crowd gathered at the bottom of the pit, he worries and finds Peaches has gone into labor. Despite being tormented by the memory of his son 's death, he successfully helps deliver the baby. Peaches thanks him as she and her newborn son are taken to the hospital. In the parking lot, Dot sees her father and walks up to him, the two reconciling. When she comes back, she tells the two she wishes to go the rest of the journey with her father, and the three say their goodbyes, Dot kissing Trevor before she leaves, promising they 'll text. With the assistance of the ambulance staff, Trevor gets to fulfill his wish peeing standing over the pit railing.
Ben and Trevor make it home safely, and having finally coped with the loss of his son, Ben meets his estranged wife and gives her the divorce papers. He continues writing, his next novel being about Trevor. He narrates his writing the last few lines, informing the audience that he eventually quit as Trevor 's caregiver, but the two remained friends. On Trevor 's 21st birthday, Ben went into his room to find Trevor lying dead on the floor and his new caregiver crying on the floor next to him. Only to find out Trevor was faking. The caregiver quit the next day.
On October 11, 2012, Worldwide Pants ' Rob Burnett and Jon Beckerman acquired the film rights to Jonathan Evison 's novel The Revised Fundamentals of Caregiving. Burnett would adapt and direct the film. On January 7, 2015, Paul Rudd was added to the cast to play the male lead, which Donna Gigliotti and James Spies would produce. On January 13, Selena Gomez also joined the film.
On December 7, it was announced that the original title, The Revised Fundamentals of Caregiving, had been changed to The Fundamentals of Caring. It was later revealed Bobby Cannavale and Frederick Weller had been cast in the film.
Filming began on January 22, 2015, in Atlanta, Georgia. In early February filming took place in Cartersville, Georgia. Filming concluded on February 26, 2015, after 26 days of filming.
The film had its world premiere at the 2016 Sundance Film Festival as the Closing Night Film. In January 2016, prior to the film 's premiere at the festival Netflix acquired global distribution rights to the film. It was released on Netflix on June 24, 2016.
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a rating of 78 %, based on 27 reviews, with an average rating of 6.2 / 10. On Metacritic the film has a score of 55 out of 100, based on 10 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
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monarch of the glen by sir edwin landseer | The Monarch of the Glen (painting) - wikipedia
The Monarch of the Glen is an oil - on - canvas painting of a red deer stag completed in 1851 by the English painter Sir Edwin Landseer. It was commissioned as part of a series of three panels to hang in the Palace of Westminster in London. As one of the most popular paintings throughout the 19th century, it sold widely in reproductions in steel engraving, and was finally bought by companies to use in advertising. The painting had become something of a cliché by the mid-20th century, as "the ultimate biscuit tin image of Scotland: a bulky stag set against the violet hills and watery skies of an isolated wilderness '', according to the Sunday Herald.
The stag has twelve points on his antlers, which in deer terminology makes him a "royal stag '' but not a "monarch stag '', for which sixteen points are needed.
In 2017 the National Galleries of Scotland in Edinburgh launched a successful campaign to buy the painting for £ 4 million, finally achieving the acquisition. The painting is now part of the collection, and is on display at the Scottish National Gallery in Room 12.
Landseer was a member of the Royal Academy, a favourite of Queen Victoria, and had become famous for his paintings and drawings of animals. His later works include the sculptures of the lions at the foot of Nelson 's Column in Trafalgar Square. From the 1840s, he produced a series of intricately observed studies of stags based on those he had seen on the trips he had been making to the Scottish Highlands since 1824. In 1850, Landseer received a national commission to paint three subjects connected with the chase for the Refreshment Rooms of the House of Lords, for which he produced Monarch of the Glen and two other paintings. Once they were completed the House of Commons refused to grant the £ 150 promised for the commission, and, as a result, the paintings were sold to private collectors. It has been claimed that the landscape setting shows Glen Affric.
It was exhibited in London in 1851, 1874 and 1890. From the collection of William Denison, 1st Earl of Londesborough it passed in 1884 to Henry Eaton, 1st Baron Cheylesmore after whose death in 1891 it realized £ 7,245 at his sale at Christie 's in May 1892, where it was bought by Agnew 's, who resold it to T. Barratt for £ 8,000. In 1916 he resold it at Christie 's for £ 5,250. The price in 1892 was the highest made by a Landseer before the 1960s, with the exception of a rumoured price of £ 10,000 in a private sale of The Otter Hunt in 1873, which would have then represented the highest price ever paid for a British painting.
The painting was purchased in 1916 by Pears soap company and featured in their advertising. It was sold on to John Dewar & Sons distillery and became their trademark before similarly being used by Glenfiddich. The painting was then acquired as part of the purchase of Dewar 's by Diageo. In 1997 Diageo sold Dewar 's to Bacardi but this did not include ancillary assets. Diageo then loaned the painting to the National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh.
On 2 November 2016, Diageo announced their intention to sell the painting, as they stated it had "no direct link to our business or brands ''. The National Galleries of Scotland was offered the painting, valued at £ 8 million, at half this price, if they could raise the required £ 4 million. A campaign was then launched to raise the funds, which succeeded.
The painting has been inspiration for certain company logos and founding principles. The logo of The Hartford Financial Services Group, Inc, a U.S. insurance services company, is taken directly from this painting, as is that of Exmoor Ales.
The painting has many copiers, one, The Challenger, was an inspiration for the sides of delivery trucks for Challenge Dairies whose heritage was latter added to butter cartons in stores.
Nestlé Waters North America 's Deer Park Spring Water uses a variant reverse image of the logo.
Company legend has it the first President of Challenge Cream and Butter Association, J.P. Murphy, now Challenge Dairy of California, chose the name from a variation of the mural, depicted on the company 's current logo.
In 2012 Peter Saville collaborated with Dovecot Studios Edinburgh in celebration of their centenary to create a large scale tapestry of his work After, After, After Monarch of the Glen. This new tapestry commission is Dovecot Studios re appropriation of Peter Saville 's appropriation of Sir Peter Blake 's appropriation of Sir Edwin Landseer 's 1851 painting Monarch of the Glen. Dovecot Studios has woven this new tapestry of Peter Saville 's design, thereby joining the artists who have reinterpreted this British masterpiece.
Glenfiddich single malt Scotch whisky has used a variation of Landseer 's stag image in their logo since 1968.
The painting has also been used on the label of tins of Baxter 's Royal Game soup in the UK.
The Monarch of the Glen was prominently featured in an episode of The Goodies.
The BBC television series Monarch of the Glen (2000 - 2005) takes its title from the painting, as well as the title of Compton Mackenzie 's 1941 novel of the same name.
A novella by Neil Gaiman is named after The Monarch of the Glen.
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who wins in batman vs superman movie 2016 | Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice - Wikipedia
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice is a 2016 American superhero film featuring the DC Comics characters Batman and Superman. Directed by Zack Snyder, it is the second installment in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU), following 2013 's Man of Steel. It was written by Chris Terrio and David S. Goyer, and features an ensemble cast that includes Ben Affleck, Henry Cavill, Amy Adams, Jesse Eisenberg, Diane Lane, Laurence Fishburne, Jeremy Irons, Holly Hunter, and Gal Gadot. Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice is the first live - action film to feature Batman and Superman together, as well as the first live - action cinematic portrayal of Wonder Woman. In the film, criminal mastermind Lex Luthor (Eisenberg) manipulates Batman (Affleck) into a preemptive battle with Superman (Cavill), who Luthor is obsessed with defeating.
The film was announced at the 2013 San Diego Comic - Con after the release of Man of Steel. Snyder stated that the film would take inspiration from the Batman comic book series The Dark Knight Returns by Frank Miller, but clarified that it would follow an original premise. The incarnation of Batman in the film is different from the character 's previous portrayal in The Dark Knight Trilogy, serving as a cinematic reboot of the character. The film is also inspired by narrative elements from the "Death of Superman '' story arc. Pre-production began at East Los Angeles College in October 2013, with principal photography starting in May 2014 in Detroit. Additional filming also took place in Chicago.
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice premiered at the Auditorio Nacional in Mexico City on March 19, 2016, and was released in the United States on March 25, 2016 in 2D, 3D, IMAX 3D, 4DX, premium large formats, and 70 mm prints by Warner Bros. Pictures. Following a strong debut that set new box office records, the film experienced a historic drop in its second weekend and never recovered. Despite turning a profit, it was deemed a box office disappointment and received generally unfavorable reviews from critics for its tone, screenplay and pacing, though some praised its visual style and acting performances. An extended cut dubbed the "Ultimate Edition '', which features 31 minutes of additional footage, was released digitally on June 28, 2016 and on Blu - ray and Ultra HD Blu - ray on July 19, 2016. A follow - up sequel titled Justice League was released in November 2017.
Eighteen months after the battle between Superman and General Zod in Metropolis, Superman has become a controversial figure. Billionaire Bruce Wayne, who has operated in Gotham City as the vigilante Batman for two decades, sees Superman as an existential threat to humanity. After learning of Batman 's form of justice, Clark Kent (Superman 's civilian identity) seeks to expose him via Daily Planet articles. Wayne learns that Russian weapon trafficker Anatoli Knyazev has been contacting LexCorp mogul Lex Luthor. Meanwhile, Luthor unsuccessfully tries to persuade Senator June Finch to allow him to import kryptonite retrieved from the Indian Ocean following Zod 's terraforming attempt, claiming he wants to maintain it as a "deterrent '' against future Kryptonian threats. He instead makes alternative plans with Finch 's subordinate and gains access to Zod 's body and the Kryptonian scout ship.
Bruce attends a gala at LexCorp to steal encrypted data from the company 's mainframe, where he also encounters with Clark, but has it taken from him by an antiquities dealer named Diana Prince; she eventually returns it to Bruce. While decrypting the drive, Bruce dreams of a post-apocalyptic world, where he leads a group of rebels against a fascist Superman. He is awoken from his vision by an unidentified person, appearing through a portal, who warns him of Lois Lane 's crucial role in the future, and urges him to find "the others '' before vanishing. Wayne later discovers that Luthor is also investigating metahumans. One of them is Prince herself, who is shown in a photo taken during World War I. Wayne admits to Alfred Pennyworth that he plans to steal the kryptonite to weaponize it, should it become necessary to fight Superman.
At a congressional hearing, as Finch questions Superman on the validity of his actions, a bomb goes off and kills everyone present but Superman. Believing he should have detected the bomb, and frustrated by his failure to save them, Superman goes into self - imposed exile. Batman breaks into LexCorp and steals the kryptonite, planning to use it to battle Superman by building a powered exoskeleton, creating a kryptonite grenade launcher, and a kryptonite - tipped spear. Meanwhile, Luthor enters the Kryptonian ship and accesses a vast technology database accumulated from over 100,000 worlds.
Later, Luthor kidnaps Lois and Martha Kent, Clark 's adoptive mother, to bring Superman out of exile. He reveals to him that he manipulated Superman and Batman by fueling their distrust for each other. Luthor demands that Superman kill Batman in exchange for Martha 's life. Superman tries to explain the situation to Batman, but instead Batman fights Superman and eventually subdues him. Before Batman can kill him with the spear, Superman urges Batman to "save Martha '', whose name is also shared with Bruce 's late mother, confusing him long enough for Lois to arrive and explain what Superman meant. Realizing how far he has fallen and unwilling to let an innocent die, Batman rescues Martha, while Superman confronts Luthor on the scout ship.
Luthor executes his backup plan, unleashing a genetically engineered monster with DNA from both Zod 's body and his own blood. Diana Prince arrives unexpectedly; revealing her metahuman nature, she joins forces with Batman and Superman to eliminate the creature. When they are all outmatched, Superman realizes its vulnerability to kryptonite, and retrieves the spear to kill it. In the creature 's last moments, it fatally wounds Superman.
Luthor is arrested and Batman confronts him in prison, warning Luthor that he will always be watching him. Luthor gloats that Superman 's death has made the world vulnerable to powerful alien threats. A memorial is held for Superman in Metropolis. Clark is also declared dead, with various friends and family members including Bruce Wayne and Diana Prince attending for him in Smallville. Martha gives an envelope to Lois, which contains an engagement ring from Clark. After the funeral, Bruce expresses his regrets to Diana about how he failed Superman. He reveals to her that he plans to form a team of metahumans, starting with those from Luthor 's files, to help protect the world in Superman 's absence. After they leave, the dirt atop Clark 's coffin levitates.
Additionally, Robin Atkin Downes performed the motion - capture and voice work for Doomsday, although never named in the film, a monstrous creature created by Kryptonian technology after Luthor mixes his own blood with General Zod 's DNA. The role was kept under such heavy secrecy that Downes did not know who he was playing until the second trailer was released. On his role, Downes stated that he was proud to be part of the film and expressed his admiration in helping bring Doomsday to life in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. When asked why Doomsday was chosen to be in the film, Zack Snyder stated "To go up against heroes like Batman and Superman, we wanted to introduce one of the DC Universe 's most iconic and powerful villains '', further explaining, "He is essentially an unstoppable force. He poses a real threat to the world within the film. '' Snyder has confirmed Doomsday will return in the DCEU, stating "Well, you have Doomsday, right? He does n't just crawl out of the ground. He has his own mythology, right? So that has to be explored. '' Downes has previously provided voice roles for various DC animated films and shows as well as DC video games. Jeffrey Dean Morgan and Lauren Cohan portray Thomas and Martha Wayne, Bruce Wayne 's deceased parents, Patrick Wilson portrays the President of the United States in a voice role, and Michael Cassidy portrays Jimmy Olsen, a CIA agent. Reprising their roles from Man of Steel are Harry Lennix as Secretary Calvin Swanwick, Christina Wren as Major Carrie Farris, Kevin Costner as Jonathan Kent, Rebecca Buller as Jenny Jurwich, Chad Krowchuk as Glen Woodburn, and Carla Gugino as the Kryptonian A.I. Kelor. The corpse of General Zod also appears in the film in a crucial role; however, Michael Shannon did not film any scenes for the film and the corpse was created using the physique of fitness model Greg Plitt and a head - shot of Shannon. Mark Edward Taylor portrays Jack O'Dwyer, an executive of Wayne Enterprises.
Ezra Miller, Jason Momoa, and Ray Fisher appear as Barry Allen / Flash, Arthur Curry / Aquaman, and Victor Stone / Cyborg respectively in brief appearances, which led to their inclusion in the Justice League film. Joe Morton appears in a role as Silas Stone, Victor 's father. U.S. Senator Patrick Leahy makes a cameo appearance as Senator Purrington, whilst U.S. Senator Debbie Stabenow also makes a cameo as the Governor of New Jersey. Neil deGrasse Tyson, Soledad O'Brien, Anderson Cooper, Nancy Grace and Charlie Rose appear as themselves. Jena Malone was cast as S.T.A.R. Labs scientist Jenet Klyburn, but her scenes were cut from the theatrical release, along with Man of Steel characters Coburn Goss as Father Leone and Joseph Cranford as Pete Ross; they were restored for the Ultimate Edition home media release. Talk show host Jon Stewart has a cameo in the extended cut. To further establish the interconnection between the films of the shared universe, Chris Pine appears on Diana Prince 's photo as Steve Trevor, which he reprised in Wonder Woman.
-- Snyder, on how Batman came into the film
In June 2013, Warner Bros. announced that director Zack Snyder and screenwriter David S. Goyer would return for a Man of Steel sequel, with the studio considering the release for the film in 2015. The following month, Snyder confirmed at San Diego Comic - Con International that the sequel to Man of Steel would feature Superman and Batman meeting for the first time on film. Goyer and Snyder would co-write the story, with Goyer authoring the script, and Christopher Nolan involved in an advisory role as executive producer. According to Snyder, the film would take inspiration from the comic The Dark Knight Returns.
In November 2013, Snyder clarified his film would not be based upon the aforementioned graphic novel. "If you were going to do that, you would need a different Superman. We 're bringing Batman into the universe that now this Superman lives in. '' Batman v Superman marks the first appearance of Wonder Woman in a live - action, theatrical film, which Warner Bros. had been developing as far back as 1996. In December 2013, Chris Terrio was hired to rewrite the script, due to Goyer 's commitments to other projects. Further commenting on the influences, Terrio revealed in an article published by the Wall Street Journal that the movie would draw inspiration from Nolan 's Batman trilogy, Italian semiotician Umberto Eco 's 1972 essay "The Myth of Superman '', and the W.H. Auden poem "Musée des Beaux Arts '' which contrasts the quotidian details of normal people 's lives with the epic struggles of mythological figures. According to him, "In superhero stories, Batman is Pluto, god of the underworld, and Superman is Apollo, god of the sky. That began to be really interesting to me -- that their conflict is not just due to manipulation, but their very existence. '' The Joker and the Riddler were supposed to appear in the film, but Snyder ultimately decided to cut them from the final script.
The film 's official title, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, was revealed in May 2014. Snyder stated that having the "v '' in the title instead of "vs. '' was a way "to keep it from being a straight ' versus ' movie, even in the most subtle way ''. Henry Cavill later stated, "I would n't call this a Superman sequel (...) This is Batman versus Superman. It 's a separate entity altogether. It 's introducing the Batman character and expanding upon the universe, which was kicked off by Man of Steel. '' Forbes noted that although the film originated as a sequel to Man of Steel, it was "revamped into a backdoor pilot for Justice League and / or an eventual stand - alone Batman movie. '' As part of a settlement with his heirs, this is the first Batman production that lists Bill Finger as a co-creator.
Henry Cavill, Amy Adams, Kevin Costner, Diane Lane, Laurence Fishburne, Harry Lennix and Christina Wren reprise their roles from Man of Steel. Joining the cast are Ben Affleck as Batman, Gal Gadot as Wonder Woman, Jesse Eisenberg as Lex Luthor, Jeremy Irons as Alfred Pennyworth, Ray Fisher as Cyborg, Jason Momoa as Aquaman, and Tao Okamoto as Luthor 's assistant Mercy Graves. Scoot McNairy and Callan Mulvey were cast as Wallace Keefe and Anatoli Knyazev, while Jena Malone was cast as Jenet Klyburn, a character that was featured exclusively in the Ultimate Edition home media release.
Dawn of Justice is Affleck 's second film as a comic book superhero; he played Daredevil in the 2003 film of the same name, and was initially reluctant to accept playing Batman, citing that he "felt (he) did n't fit the traditional mold. But once Zack (Snyder) showed (him) the concept, and that it would be both different from the great movies that Chris (topher Nolan) and Christian (Bale) made, but still in keeping with tradition, (he) was excited. '' Affleck previously stated in 2006 that Daredevil had "inoculated (him) from ever playing another superhero ''.
Snyder cast an older Batman to be a layered juxtaposition against a younger Superman; while "bear (ing) the scars of a seasoned crime fighter, but retain (ing) the charm that the world sees in billionaire Bruce Wayne. '' Nolan was involved with the casting of Affleck and he was the first actor Snyder approached for the part. The director had also discussed the part with Josh Brolin. Bale admitted he wanted to play Batman again after The Dark Knight Rises, though he stated that his Batman does not belong in any other film and he was never approached by Warner Bros. to play the role again.
On casting Eisenberg as Lex Luthor, Snyder offered, "Having Jesse in the role allows us to explore that interesting dynamic, and also take the character in some new and unexpected directions ''. Bryan Cranston was considered for the role before Eisenberg was cast. Producer Charles Roven revealed that this incarnation of Wonder Woman would use the character 's origins from 2011 's The New 52 reboot of the DC continuity, wherein the character would be a demigoddess, and the daughter of Zeus. This deviates from the character 's original origins, where she was "a clay figure brought to life by the gods ''. Olga Kurylenko was considered for the role of Wonder Woman before Gadot was cast. Dawn of Justice is Ray Fisher 's feature film debut, and the first live - action film to feature Cyborg, whose role will become more significant in future DC Comics films. It is also the live - action theatrical debut of Aquaman.
The casting of Affleck, Gadot, and Eisenberg was criticized. Affleck 's casting caused significant backlash from comic book fans, with multiple online petitions demanding his removal from the role; unlike previous Batman actors, he was not considered intimidating enough for the role by the protesters. Conversely, PopMatters journalist J.C. Maçek III supported Affleck 's casting as Batman, stating, "Way back when the news was new I wrote a PopMatters article defending the choice of Ben Affleck as Batman. I 'll let that one speak for itself. '' Via social media, fans criticized Gadot 's small frame in contrast to Wonder Woman 's warrior - like build in the comics. Responding to this, Gadot stated that she had been participating in various training regimens to achieve a body that stays closer to the source material. Fans also criticized Eisenberg 's casting, feeling that the then - 30 - year - old was too young for the role, and not physically imposing enough. Upon the film 's release, both Affleck and Gadot received considerable praise for their performances, despite the overall negative reception of the film itself.
Michael Wilkinson reprised his duties as costume designer. He updated the Superman suit from Man of Steel so that it "feels fresh and right for this installment of Zack Snyder 's comic - book universe ''. The first Batsuit featured in the film is influenced by The Dark Knight Returns; unlike the suits seen in previous live - action Batman films, it is made of cloth instead of armor and is a cast of the physique of fitness model Rossano Rea. An image of the Wonder Woman costume was revealed at the 2014 San Diego Comic - Con, in which the costume desaturates the red, blue, and gold colors that make up the costume of most versions of the character.
A second Batsuit was also unveiled at Comic - Con, and unlike the first, it is armored. Aquaman 's look in this film shows him "tattooed in Maori - like patterns '', and wearing a suit "decked out in shades of gold, black and silver armor ''. According to the Warner Bros. Studios lot, the next generation Batmobile combined inspiration from both the sleek, streamlined design of classic Batmobiles and the high - suspension, military build from the more recent Tumbler from The Dark Knight Trilogy. Designed by production designer Patrick Tatopoulos, the Batmobile is about 20 feet long and 12 feet wide. The glasses Cavill wears as Clark Kent are made by British spectacle designer Tom Davies.
In September 2013, Larry Fong joined the crew as cinematographer, having previously worked with Zack Snyder on 300, Watchmen, and Sucker Punch. Initial filming commenced on October 19, 2013, at East Los Angeles College, to shoot an American football game between Gotham City University and rival Metropolis State University. At the end of the month, construction began on the Kent farm seen in Man of Steel for the film. Principal photography involving the main cast of the film began on May 19, 2014, in Detroit, Michigan, with scenes featuring Gal Gadot as Diana Prince being filmed early on May 16. While filming in Michigan, the production spent a total of $199 million in the state. The scene of a state funeral at the Arlington National Cemetery, a tribute by the United States Army, was actually filmed in Michigan as well, using green screen.
Additional filming began in Chicago, Illinois in November 2014. Other locations included the Michigan Motion Picture Studios, the Eli and Edythe Broad Art Museum at Michigan State University, Yorkville, Illinois, and New Mexico. Sequences of the film, including a scene depicting the murder of Bruce Wayne 's parents, were filmed using IMAX cameras. The planned shoot in Morocco was shifted to New Mexico due to incidents related to the 2014 Ebola outbreak. Principal photography wrapped on December 5, 2014.
Hans Zimmer composed the film score, emphasizing a challenge not to reuse the themes he established with the Batman character from Christopher Nolan 's trilogy. Junkie XL, who provided additional music in Man of Steel, also returned for this film, helping to compose the theme for Batman. Originally, Zimmer enlisted Junkie XL to compose the Batman material, with Zimmer planning to focus solely on the Superman side of the score, but the final Batman theme was written by both composers as a collaboration. Zimmer noted that he had significant trouble in finding a new angle from which to tell the story and after the release of the film, Zimmer announced that he was retired from superhero films. The soundtrack album of the film was released on March 18, 2016 by WaterTower Music.
Songs featured in the film include: "Kang Ling (An Instrument Made From A Human Thigh Bone) '', a traditional song performed by the monks of the Dip Tse Chok Ling Monastery, Dharamshala; "Night and Day '' and "Ev'ry Time We Say Goodbye '' written by Cole Porter and performed by Richard Cheese; "Shostakovich: Waltz II (Jazz Suite No. 2) '' written by Dmitri Shostakovich performed by the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra conducted by Riccardo Chailly; and "Amazing Grace '' arranged and performed by John Allan and again performed by the Canadian Scottish Regiment Pipes and Drums and the United States Third Marine Aircraft Wing Band.
In November 2013, Warner Bros. announced that Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice would be released on July 17, 2015. In January 2014, however, the studio announced that it was delayed from its original release date of July 17, 2015, and moved to May 6, 2016, in order to give the filmmakers "time to realize fully their vision, given the complex visual nature of the story. '' The release date was moved once again in August 2014 from May 6, 2016, to March 25, 2016, with a Warner Bros. insider saying the studio was "not flinching '' in regards to the previous opening date being on the same day as Marvel Studios ' Captain America: Civil War, but instead stating that March 2016 was a "fantastic corridor '' for them. According to sources obtained by The Hollywood Reporter, Warner Bros. considered the possibility of having a 70mm release for the film, which was partially shot in the 65mm IMAX format.
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice premiered at Auditorio Nacional in Mexico City on March 19, 2016, followed by a New York City premiere on March 20 at Radio City Music Hall. Following the Brussels attacks, Warner Bros. originally cancelled the red carpet of the London premiere, but decided to carry on with the premiere for the fans. The film was released in the United States and the United Kingdom on March 25 in 3D. It opened simultaneously in North America, China and Japan, the world 's three largest film markets, as well as additional international territories, with the exception of Poland, where theaters do not open on Good Friday. The film debuted simultaneously across 30,000 screens in nearly every major foreign territory across 61 markets, including China, with domestic open across roughly 4,242 locations of which 3,500 theaters (85 %) were in 3D, 390 IMAX screens, 470 PLF locations, 150 D - Box theaters and ten 70 mm prints.
An estimated $165 million marketing effort helped promote Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. At the 2014 San Diego Comic - Con International, Snyder introduced the film 's first footage intended to be exclusive to the event. A teaser trailer was scheduled to be screened in selected cinemas on April 20, 2015. However, on April 16, the trailer leaked online, and within a few hours Snyder officially released the trailer to Twitter. At the 2015 San Diego Comic - Con International, Snyder and the cast attended to present an initial trailer of the film. The trailer was, unlike the teaser, which received mixed response, positively received by attendees, who gave the trailer a standing ovation. Mark Hughes of Forbes said the trailers "both set the stage for a story about the world 's distrust and fear of Superman, Batman 's rage at Superman and intention to duke it out with the Man of Steel, and Wonder Woman 's participation in a big fight featuring the ' Trinity. ' ''
Warner Bros. Consumer Products partnered - up with "a powerhouse slate of global licensees for a broad, multi-category licensing and merchandising program '', including Mattel, Lego, Rubies, Funko, Thinkway Toys, Hot Toys, Junkfood, Bioworld, Pez, Seiko, Converse and among many other licensees to sell merchandise related to the film. Fiat Chrysler Automobiles was also a licensee for the film, offering a special edition Jeep Renegade in exchange for a near - exclusive product placement deal; aside from Bruce Wayne 's Aston Martin, all vehicles in the film were either from Chrysler, Dodge, Jeep, Ram, or Iveco. Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice -- Cross Fire, an original companion novel tied to the film, telling a tie - in story set before the events of the movie, was published by Scholastic Corporation.
A five - issue comic - book prelude exploring what happened in the weeks and months leading up to the events of the film was released as a tie - in with Dr Pepper 's character - branded bottles. Also, there are a series of four minicomics found in Batman v Superman - branded General Mills cereals. Additionally, those who purchased Batman v Superman - themed Doritos Family Fun Mix at Walmart received the comic book prequel Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice -- Upstairs / Downstairs. Rocksteady Studios released a downloadable content for the video game Batman: Arkham Knight that featured the Batmobile and Batsuit from the film.
The third trailer debuted on Jimmy Kimmel Live! on December 3, 2015. It received positive responses, with Scott Mendelson of Forbes calling the trailer a "Saturday morning cartoon nerd 's wildest dreams. '' Molly Driscoll of CS Monitor stated that it looks like the film "will continue the trend of adapting comic book stories as timely tales. '' Graeme McMillan of The Hollywood Reporter noted that based on the trailer 's content, the film might be the anti-Civil War, referring to Marvel 's Captain America: Civil War as "Superman and Batman complete the comic book trope by overcoming their differences to fight a common foe, alongside a third hero, who saves them both -- that feels the most fresh, especially in light of the Civil War trailer. While that ended with a showdown between three heroes, this trailer moves beyond that to show three heroes standing united. '' However, it was criticized for revealing that, with Rob Tornoe of NewsWorks pointing out that this trailer was targeting the "broadest audience '' rather than just fans, as studios try to "maximize a film 's opening day box office. ''
Warner Bros. did not buy a Super Bowl 50 commercial; instead, they worked with Turkish Airlines to put together a pair of Batman v Superman - themed airline commercials. McMillan of The Hollywood Reporter stated that the spots "inform interested parties about the culture, geography and history of Batman and Superman 's individual stomping grounds, each one filled with Easter eggs for the comic book faithful and newcomer alike. '' Jesse Eisenberg 's part as Lex Luthor in these commercials was praised, as Dirk Libbey of CinemaBlend noted that "he matches up well with Bruce Wayne by playing the welcoming billionaire business man. It 's a far cry from the somewhat cartoonish villain we 've seen in the clips from the film. ''
The final trailer was released to the public on February 11, 2016, which was described as "intense '' by Kwame Opam of The Verge. Mendelson of Forbes felt that Warner Bros. "probably would n't have even dropped this one had the prior trailer back in December been received better. So now we have this fourth and final sell, and at least they are going out on a high note. '' Jonathon Dornbush of Entertainment Weekly said that the footage "works to establish Batman as his own independent crime fighting force, while also providing a deeper look at his existential struggle against Superman. ''
In February 2016, Warner Bros. and Doritos formed a partnership, creating a website offering fans the opportunity to enter codes found on Doritos purchases branded with the film 's logo, and enter to win movie tickets, tech toys, and a trip the premiere in New York City. Warner Bros also partnered with Omaze to give fans who donated a chance to win "The Ultimate Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Experience '', while benefiting three nonprofit organizations nominated by Ben Affleck, Henry Cavill and Jesse Eisenberg. "The Ultimate Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Experience '' offered a fan and their friend the chance to win tickets to the premiere of the film, as well as fly on a helicopter with Cavill or ride in the Batmobile with Affleck. Hendrick Motorsports drivers Jimmie Johnson and Dale Earnhardt, Jr. drove cars based on Superman and Batman respectively, at Auto Club Speedway on March 20, 2016. A tie - in endless runner video game to the film, entitled Batman vs Superman -- Who Will Win?, debuted March 16, 2016, released by Warner Bros. International Enterprises.
The film grossed $166 million in the USA & Canada in its opening weekend, the eighth - biggest opening of all time, ahead of The Dark Knight Rises ' $160.9 million. The film had a worldwide opening of $422.5 million, which stands as the second - biggest for Warner Bros. and the fifth - biggest of all time. It became the fourth film to have a global opening above $400 million. It also had an IMAX worldwide opening weekend total of $36 million from 945 IMAX screens, the third - biggest ever, behind Star Wars: The Force Awakens ($48 million) and Jurassic World ($44 million). However, both inside and outside of the United States, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice experienced a notable poor Friday - to - Sunday hold and set a new record for the worst Friday - to - Sunday drop for a superhero movie release in modern box office history with a 58 % decline, which was previously held by Fantastic Four.
In its second weekend, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice experienced a "historic '' box - office drop, with an 81.2 % decline on Friday that was "one of the biggest Friday - to - Friday drops any blockbuster has ever seen '', and an overall 68.4 % drop for the weekend despite not "facing any big competition at the box office '', making it the second largest decline for a marquee superhero title, behind only 2003 's Hulk. Brad Brevet, writing for Box Office Mojo, reported that "it appeared Batman v Superman was looking at a drop anywhere from 58 -- 68 % and it ended up settling in on the wrong side of those expectations. '' Scott Mendelson, writing for Forbes, said "Whether or not the movie is any good, and whether or not audiences respond to the picture, is best measured by the second and third weekends... Yes, we 're still talking about a $15.35 million second Friday and a $50 m+ second weekend, but in terms of legs, this film sadly does n't seem to have any. '' Continuing this trend, in its third weekend, the film dropped by 54.3 % in which Brad Brevet concluded in a follow - up for Box Office Mojo that "the legs on this one are proving quite short. ''
In the weeks leading up to the film 's release, advance ticket sales outpaced The Dark Knight Rises, The Avengers, and Furious 7. Worldwide, it was estimated to gross between $300 -- 340 million in over 35,000 screens in its opening weekend. It passed the $50 million mark in IMAX ticket sales on its second weekend, grossing a total of $53.4 million from 571 IMAX screens. Warner Bros. domestic distribution chief Jeff Goldstein described the film 's box office performance as a "fantastic result, by any measure. '' Box office analyst Jeff Bock said "Still, outside of Christopher Nolan 's two Dark Knight movies, and Tim Burton 's Batman films when you adjust for inflation, this is the highest - grossing property in DC 's bullpen thus far. It tops Man of Steel by more than $200 million, '' and that "overall, BvS successfully relaunched DC 's cinematic universe. The film needed to reach $800 million in revenue at the box office to "recoup its investment '' according to financial analysts. Despite surpassing this amount, it was considered "a disappointment '' for failing to reach $1 billion, This resulted in Warner Bros., in May 2016, creating DC Films, giving a dedicated executive team responsibility for films based on DC Comics, similar to the dedicated Marvel Comics focus of Marvel Studios within the larger Walt Disney Studios group. Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice grossed $330.4 million in North America and $543.3 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $873.6 million, making it the seventh - highest - grossing film of 2016 behind Captain America: Civil War, Rogue One: A Star Wars Story, Finding Dory, Zootopia, The Jungle Book, and The Secret Life of Pets. Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $105.7 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film.
Following reports of pre-tickets sales in both the United States and Canada on February 29, many insiders and analysts predicted an opening weekend haul between $120 -- 140 million for Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, with projections as high as $185 million. However, Warner Bros. insiders were more conservative in their estimates projecting in the lower range of $110 million. According to Deadline.com, an undisclosed rival studio box office analyst indicated that if the film is truly pacing in tandem with The Dark Knight Rises, then Dawn of Justice could possibly be looking at a $180 million+ debut. The film also became Fandango 's top pre-selling superhero film ever, beating The Dark Knight Rises and Avengers: Age of Ultron, representing 90 % of the site 's weekend 's ticket sales. A survey carried out showed that the introduction of Wonder Woman is a primary draw for moviegoers. It pre-sold around $20 -- 25 million worth of advance tickets. Dawn of Justice made $27.7 million in Thursday previews from around 3,800 theaters which is the biggest of 2016, the biggest Easter weekend preview, the second - biggest for a superhero film (behind The Dark Knight Rises), and the seventh - biggest of all time of which $3.0 million came from IMAX showings, also a new record for Easter weekend.
On its opening day, it earned $81.59 million from 4,242 theaters, including previews, marking the biggest pre-summer opening day of all time, the second - biggest superhero Friday opening and the fourth - biggest opening - day and fourth - biggest single - day gross, with $9 million coming from IMAX showings. Excluding the Thursday previews, it earned $53.89 million on Friday which is the fifth - biggest ever. It fell 37.8 % on Saturday, which is the second - worst superhero opening Friday - to - Saturday drop, only behind the 40 % drop of The Dark Knight Rises. In total, it earned $166 million for its debut weekend, setting records for the biggest March and pre-summer openings, (these have since been broken by Beauty and the Beast) the biggest Easter opening, the second - biggest opening for Warner Bros., the biggest for a DC Comics property, and the eighth - biggest opening of all time. Conversely, the film holds the record for the worst superhero Friday - to - Sunday drop with a 58 % decline, eclipsing the previous 48 % decline record held by Fantastic Four in 2015. IMAX comprised 11 % or $18 million of the weekend 's gross from 388 theaters which is the fifth - biggest of all time (a record it shares with Age of Ultron) and 3D represented 40 % ($68 million) of the total ticket sales. RealD 3D comprised $47 million of the opening gross. Premium large formats generated $17.6 million (10 %), with $3.6 million of that coming from Cinemark XD auditoriums from 475 theaters.
Following its record breaking opening weekend, it posted the biggest March Monday with $15.05 million, a drop of 55 % from its Sunday gross. This broke The Hunger Games ' previous record of $10.8 million, and also the biggest March Tuesday with $12.2 million. It made $209 million in its first week full which stands at the eleventh - biggest opening week of all time and surpassed the lifetime total Batman Begins. Despite earning $15.35 million in its second Friday, the film dropped 81.2 % and broke the record for the biggest Friday - to - Friday drop for a comic book adaptation film, not including $27.7 million worth of previews which represented an even larger decline. It fell precipitously by 69.1 % in its second weekend, grossing $51.3 million from 4,256 theaters (an addition of 14 cinemas) due to poor reviews and mixed word of mouth, establishing itself an infamous record for the seventh steepest drop for a superhero / comic book adapted film and the steepest decline since the - 69 % posted by X-Men Origins: Wolverine in 2009, despite facing little to no competition or new wide - releases and having the added benefit of 30 % K -- 12 schools off, and 9 % of colleges on break, per ComScore. The steep drop also marks the fourth - biggest for a film that opened above $100 million (tied with The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -- Part 2). In its third weekend it was overtaken by the comedy The Boss after falling 54 % with $23.3 million.
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice proved to be front - loaded, failing to generate significant revenue after its opening weekend / week release. It earned just 1.99 times ($330 million) its opening weekend numbers ($166 million), which is lower than Man of Steel 's 2.28 multiplier. Like other DC films, such as Watchmen, Green Lantern and Man of Steel, it opened to record breaking numbers but then dropped the following weekend onward due largely to bad critical reception and mixed word of mouth from audiences. It earned just 1.99 times its opening weekend, the worst (multiplier) for a film opening above $100 million. A similar result was followed by DC 's third superhero film, Suicide Squad released in August 2016, although Suicide Squad became less front loaded than Dawn of Justice.
Internationally, it was projected to open between $180 -- 200 million; however, Deadline.com pointed out that these figures were only early predictions pegged to the performance of similar films in their respective territories. It opened in ten countries on Wednesday, March 23, 2016, earning $7 million and debuting at No. 1 in all markets on approximately 5,900 screens. The following day, the film was released in 38 additional countries, earning $33.1 million on 19,700 screens for a two - day total of $44 million. On March 25, it opened in the remaining 17 countries delivering $67.2 million in revenue, for a three - day total of $115.3 million in 62 countries on more than 30,000 screens. Through Sunday, March 27, it earned an opening - weekend total of $256.5 million from 66 countries on over 40,000 screens, making it the biggest superhero opening weekend of all time, the biggest overall March opening, the second - biggest opening ever for Warner Bros., and the fifth - biggest international opening on record. The film 's accomplishements also included the second - biggest IMAX opening record of $18 million, behind only Jurassic World which tallied $23.5 million. 3D accounted 59 % or $149.86 million of the weekend gross led by China (98 %), Germany (88 %), Brazil (81 %), Russia (55 %), and France (51 %). As with North America, the film witnessed a steep decline in its second Friday internationally, falling 72 % to $19.2 million, with the biggest decline in the U.K. (77 %) and China (87 %). Its second weekend earnings fell 66 % overall to $85.25 million. Despite the decline, the film topped the box office for three consecutive weekends.
In Mexico, it had the biggest opening day for Warner Bros. and the second - biggest of all time with $5.8 million, including record - breaking midnight showings. It also scored the biggest opening day of all time in Brazil ($3.5 million) and the biggest opening day for a superhero film in Germany ($2.8 million). Elsewhere, it opened in the United Kingdom and Ireland ($9 million), Australia ($2.5 million), India ($2.54 million), Russia ($1.9 million), South Korea ($1.7 million), Japan ($1.2 million), the United Arab Emirates and Hong Kong ($1.1 million respectively). In China, it earned $21.22 million on its opening day, including around $1.34 million worth of previews, which is the biggest for Warner Bros. and the sixth - biggest Hollywood opening day of all time. However, other Chinese sources have the film open to around $20 million. In terms of opening weekends, the biggest openings were recorded in China ($57.2 million), the United Kingdom and Ireland ($20.7 million), Mexico ($18.2 million), Brazil ($12 million), South Korea ($10.2 million), Australia ($9.9 million), France ($8.6 million), Germany ($8.1 million), Russia ($7.7 million), India ($6.6 million), Spain ($6.1 million) and Japan ($4.5 million). It broke all - time opening record in Brazil and Warner Bros. opening records in Mexico, Hong Kong, India, Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Peru, Puerto Rico and Venezuela. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, it benefited from the long Easter weekend holiday and despite a distinctly mixed bag of reviews in the U.K. press, it posted an opening £ 14.62 million or $20.7 million from 612 theaters, a record for 2016 so far and for a superhero title on straight Friday to Sunday, but fell short of The Avengers and Avengers: Age of Ultron, when accounting for previews.
In Japan, it opened in third place, behind two local films, Assassination Classroom: Graduation and Doraemon: Nobita and the Birth of Japan 2016. In South Korea, it scored the biggest March opening after opening on a Tuesday and dominating 68.3 % of the market share with $10.2 million. In China, after scoring the biggest Hollywood opening Friday (behind Transformers: Age of Extinction), it earned an estimated $57.2 million from approximately 16,000 screens in its opening weekend, besting all other DC Comics adaption film just by its weekend haul except for Man of Steel and gave Warner Bros. its biggest three day opening there with $7 million coming from 557 IMAX screens. However, the opening figure fell below analysts projections of $70 -- 80 million. It held the top spot for its first seven days only, after which it faced stiff competitions from local productions, and fell dramatically from then onwards in accruing revenue. As a result, it fell to third place in its second weekend after falling enormously by 78 % to $12.7 million, a record for a superhero film.
It became the Warner Bros. ' highest - grossing film of all time in India, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Vietnam. It also crossed $100 million Latin American markets, making it Warner Bros. ' second highest - grossing film there. In total earnings, its biggest markets outside of North America are China ($95 million), which analysts predicted that it would not cross $100 million there, followed by the UK ($52.1 million), Mexico ($36 million) and Brazil ($35.5 million).
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice received generally unfavorable reviews from film critics. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 27 % based on 379 reviews, with an average rating of 4.9 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice smothers a potentially powerful story -- and some of America 's most iconic superheroes -- in a grim whirlwind of effects - driven action. '' Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average to critics ' reviews, gave the film an average score of 44 out of 100, based on 51 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale. It earned "B -- '' from men, "B '' from women, a "B '' from those under 25 and a "B -- '' from those over 25. According to comScore, 73 % of audiences graded the film "very good '' or "excellent '', with a 60 % definite recommend. BBC News reported that, "the film had been widely praised by fans after its first screening in New York ''.
Critics generally reacted more harshly to the film. Lindy West in The Guardian described it as "153 minutes of a grown man whacking two dolls together '', asking "(h) as the definition of ' movie ' changed from ' motion picture story that a human wrote on purpose ' to ' 700 only tangentially related 12 - second grey and red vignettes '? '' A.O. Scott of The New York Times wrote: "The point of Batman v Superman is n't fun, and it is n't thinking, either. It 's obedience. The theology is invoked... to buttress a spectacle of power. And in that way the film serves as a metaphor for its own aspirations. The corporations that produce movies like this one, and the ambitious hacks who sign up to make them, have no evident motive beyond their own aggrandizement. '' Writing in The Telegraph, Robbie Collin called the film "humourless '' and "the most incoherent blockbuster in years ''. Cynthia Fuchs of PopMatters said, "As you 're watching this movie, you might also contemplate your own part, in being swayed into consuming so much of what you 've consumed before. '' Adding, "Wonder Woman 's remains Batman v Superman 's most compelling story, precisely because it 's untold. '' Matt Patches of Thrillist wrote "what Batman v Superman can do, it does, at the cost of coherency and thrills. The movie is bat - shit crazy. A dour, disdainful demeanor, plus a gluttony of complex plot twists, dissipates most of the contact high. '' Michael Philips of Chicago Tribune wrote, "A near - total drag, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice plays like a loose, unofficial quarter - billion - dollar remake of The Odd Couple, in which Oscar and Felix are literally trying to kill each other. '' On his podcast Hollywood Babble - On, film director Kevin Smith, a long - time friend and collaborator of Affleck, praised Affleck 's performance but panned the film, commenting that it "did n't really have a heart '' and was "humorless '', arguing that "there seems to be a fundamental lack of understanding of what those characters are about. It 's almost like Zack Snyder did n't read a bunch of comics, he read one comic once, and it was Dark Knight Returns, and his favorite part was the last part where Batman and Superman fight. '' On a second viewing, however, Smith via his Instagram lightened his stance. Jeremy Irons expressed displeasure with the film, feeling it was "deservedly so '' savaged by critics and calling the feature "very muddled '' while expressing hope that the forthcoming Justice League (2017) would be better due to its story being "... a lot smaller, it 's more linear ''.
Taking a softer tone, David Betancourt of The Washington Post and Scott Mendelson of Forbes praised the film 's visual spectacle and performances from Affleck and Gadot, though Mendelson also called the film "an utter mess of thinly sketched characters, haphazard plotting, surprisingly jumbled action ''. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called the film "better than Man of Steel but below the high bar set by Nolan 's Dark Knight, '' adding that "Dawn of Justice is still a colossus, the stuff that DC Comics dreams are made of for that kid in all of us who yearns to see Batman and Superman suit up and go in for the kill. '' Jake Coyle of Associated Press wrote, "it hurtles not with the kinetic momentum of Mad Max: Fury Road nor the comparatively spry skip of a Marvel movie, but with an operatic grandeur it sometimes earns and often does n't. '' Mark Hughes of Forbes called it "the follow - up to The Dark Knight that many viewers and fans wanted or hoped for '', adding that it 's "visually stunning, with powerful emotional storytelling and awe - inspiring action spectacle. '' Andrew Barker of Variety said "as a pure visual spectacle... Batman V Superman ably blows the hinges off the multiplex doors. '' Charles Koplinski of the Illinois Times called it "a brooding, but most importantly intelligent take on the seminal figures of our 20th century pop culture mythology, a movie that at once pays tribute to these characters ' roots while offering up modern incarnations of them that ring true for our times. '' Nicolas Barber of the BBC called the film "a four - star epic '' praising Affleck 's performance as Batman and the visual grandeur of Fong 's cinematography. Jordan Hoffman of The Guardian gave an ambivalent review; he especially criticized the "very bad writing '', but conceded "there are a lot of moments... that work '' and praised Affleck and Gadot 's performances, calling Gadot as Wonder Woman the best thing in the film.
Multiple commentators criticized Eisenberg on the grounds that his interpretation of Lex Luthor hewed too close to character traits associated with another DC Comics villain, the Joker. Even before the film was released, Affleck compared Eisenberg 's performance to that of Heath Ledger in The Dark Knight. Once the film came out, critics lambasted Eisenberg 's take on Luthor. Sonny Bunch of The Washington Post lamented that "As the film progresses, Lex degenerates into a gibbering mad man, some strange mix of the Riddler and the Joker with a little bit of Mark Zuckerberg added for flair. '' Charlie Jane Anders of Gizmodo wrote that "Someone clearly told Jesse Eisenberg that this movie is the Dark Knight to Man of Steel 's Batman Begins, and he 's doing his damndest to give a Heath Ledger-esque performance... Watching the trailers, I had thought Eisenberg 's loopy acting might be this movie 's saving grace -- but a concentrated dose of his faux mania actually turns out to be the worst thing. '' Andy Scott of Grunge, in an article titled "How Jesse Eisenberg Ruined Batman v Superman, '' wrote that "Eisenberg 's speech patterns and mannerisms felt almost entirely lifted from Ledger 's iconic performance, to the point where he walked the dangerous grey line between respectful homage and downright thievery. ''
An extended cut of the film dubbed the Ultimate Edition was released on home media platforms, alongside the theatrical cut. This version received an R rating from the Motion Picture Association of America, for more violence than the PG - 13 rated theatrical cut, and is longer by 31 minutes. With the release of the Ultimate Edition, which was the director 's original version of the film before additional editing, critics noted that the film would have likely been better received with the additional footage. Ben Kendrick of ScreenRant stated that while it was more "intelligible '', character portrayal was not "fundamentally changed '' and "for viewers who did n't like Man of Steel or Batman v Superman for larger reasons, such as tone, approach, and the darker characterization of DC 's most iconic heroes, the Ultimate Edition is only a longer... version of a film that... is likely to remain divisive, even if the final product is a better film. '' Phil Owens of TheWrap called it an improvement upon the original cut, writing, "Lo and behold somehow Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice has become something that approaches a functional movie. In the process, it only makes the original cut even more inexplicable and terrible. ''
The film debuted in first place on the home video sales chart for the week ending July 24, 2016. As of November 25, 2017, it has made $21.2 million in DVD sales and $54.8 million in Blu - Ray sales, totaling nearly $76 million.
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what award is given to the top goal scorer at the world cup | FIFA World Cup awards - wikipedia
At the end of each FIFA World Cup final tournament, several awards are presented to the players and teams which have distinguished themselves in various aspects of the game.
There are currently five post-tournament awards, and one given during the tourney:
Two other awards were given between 1994 and 2006:
The Golden Ball award is presented to the best player at each FIFA World Cup finals, with a shortlist drawn up by the FIFA technical committee and the winner voted for by representatives of the media. Those who finish as runners - up in the vote receive the Silver Ball and Bronze Ball awards as the second and third most outstanding players in the tournament respectively. The current award was introduced in the 1982 FIFA World Cup, sponsored by Adidas and France Football, though fifa.com also lists in their player articles as "golden ball winners '' Kempes, Cruyff, Pelé, Bobby Charlton, Garrincha and Didi for 1978, 1974, 1970, 1966, 1962 and 1958 respectively. Barcelona is the only club that its players have won the Golden Ball a record 3 times (Johan Cruyff in 1974, Romário in 1994, Lionel Messi in 2014).
The Golden Boot or Golden Shoe Award goes to the top goalscorer of the FIFA World Cup. While every World Cup had a ranking of the goalscorers, the first time an award was given was in 1982, under the name Golden Shoe. It was rechristened Golden Boot in 2010. FIFA sometimes lists the top goalscorers of previous Cups among the Golden Boot winners.
If there is more than one player with the same number of goals, since 1994 the tie - breaker goes to the player without a penalty goal, if none has a penalty then the tie breaker goes to the person with more assists - with the FIFA Technical Study Group deciding whether an assist is to be counted as such. If there is still more than one player, the tie - breaker since 2006 goes to the player who has played the least amount of time.
FIFA initially credited Nejedlý with only four goals, which would make him joint top scorer with Angelo Schiavio of Italy and Edmund Conen of Germany. However, FIFA changed it to five goals in November 2006, making Nejedlý the outright top scorer.
FIFA initially credited Leônidas with eight goals. However, in November 2006, FIFA confirmed that in the quarter - final tie against Czechoslovakia, he had scored once, not twice as FIFA had originally recorded, meaning he had scored only seven goals in total.
There was controversy regarding the number of goals Brazilian Ademir had scored in 1950, as a result of incomplete data concerning the Final Round game Brazil vs. Spain (6 -- 1). The 5 -- 0 goal had been credited to Jair, but is now credited to Ademir
Salenko is the only player to win the award playing for a team that were eliminated in the group stages. His six goals are the only international goals he ever scored.
Despite the assist tiebreaker, Salenko and Stoichkov remained tied with 6 goals and one assist each, and both received the Golden Shoe.
Romário and Andersson surpassed the other two players with five goals (Jürgen Klinsmann and Roberto Baggio) by having three assists each.
Both runners - up had the same number of assists, and each received the Silver Shoe.
During the tournament, after the group stage match against Costa Rica, Ronaldo logged a protest against the crediting of a goal as an own goal, and FIFA granted him the change.
Eight players had scored three goals. Ronaldo, Crespo and Zinedine Zidane stood out for having one assist, and then the two recipients were determined by less playtime (308 minutes for Crespo, 411 for Ronaldo, 559 for Zidane).
Müller, Villa, Sneijder and Diego Forlán tied with five goals. Müller won by virtue of having more assists (3) than the rest (each had one). Villa won the Silver Boot due to playing fewer minutes than Sneijder, and Sneijder won the Bronze Boot due to having played fewer minutes than Forlán.
Neymar, Lionel Messi and Robin van Persie all had four goals in the tournament. Neymar received the Bronze Boot for playing fewer minutes than his competitors.
Griezmann, Lukaku, Denis Cheryshev, Cristiano Ronaldo and Kylian Mbappé tied with 4 goals. Griezmann won the Silver Boot by virtue of having more assists (2) than the rest (Lukaku had one, the rest had zero). Lukaku won the Bronze Boot due to having more assists (one) than Cheryshev, Ronaldo or Mbappé (zero).
The Golden Glove Award is awarded to the best goalkeeper of the tournament. The award was introduced with the name Lev Yashin Award in 1994, in honor of the late Soviet goalkeeper. The FIFA Technical Study Group recognises the top goalkeeper of the tournament based on the player 's performance throughout the final competition. Although goalkeepers have this specific award for their position, they are still eligible for the Golden Ball as well, as when Oliver Kahn was awarded in 2002. Although the Golden Glove Award was first awarded in 1994, every All - Star Team in World Cups prior to 1998 except 1990 included only one goalkeeper. In the event of a tie, the Golden Glove Award goes to the goalkeeper who progressed furthest in the competition. The next tiebreakers are saves made, then minutes played.
The Yashin Award was first awarded in 1994.
The award was renamed the Golden Glove Award in 2010.
The Best Young Player award was awarded for the first time at the 2006 World Cup in Germany and given to Germany 's Lukas Podolski. The award is given to the best player in the tournament who is at most 21 years old. For the 2018 World Cup, this meant that the player had to have been born on or after 1 January 1997. The election took place on FIFA 's official World Cup website with the help of The FIFA Technical Study Group.
FIFA organised a survey on the Internet for users to choose the "best young player '' of the World Cup, between 1958 and 2002, named the best young player of each tournament. With 61 % of the overall vote, the winner was Pelé, who finished ahead of the Peruvian Teófilo Cubillas, the best young player at Mexico 1970, and England 's Michael Owen, who reached similar heights at France 98.
The Best Young Player Award was first awarded in 2006.
The FIFA Fair Play Trophy is given to the team with the best record of fair play during the World Cup final tournament since 1970. Only teams that qualified for the second round are considered. The winners of this award earn the FIFA Fair Play Trophy, a diploma, a fair play medal for each player and official, and $50,000 worth of football equipment to be used for youth development.
The appearance of the award was originally a certificate. From 1982 to 1990, it had been a golden trophy based on Sport Billy, a football - playing cartoon character from 1982 who became an icon for FIFA Fair play. Ever since 1994, it is simply a trophy with an elegant footballer figure. Peru was the first nation to win the award after receiving no yellow or red cards in the 1970 FIFA World Cup held in Mexico.
The Man of the Match award picks the outstanding player in every game of the tournament since 2002. While the inaugural two editions were chosen by the technical group, the Man of the Match is since 2010 picked by an online poll on FIFA 's website.
Total awards As of 15 July 2018
By Country As of 15 July 2018
The FIFA Award for the Most Entertaining Team is a subjectively awarded prize for the team that had done the most to entertain the public with a positive approach to the game, organised through public participation in a poll starting in 1994.
The All - Star Team is a team of the best performers at the respective World Cup finals. The ways in which the FIFA All - Star team members have been chosen has varied from year to year. A technical study group consisting of journalists - mostly of Europe and South America - and experts has historically chosen the team. However, in 1994 FIFA decided to add an official squad, chosen by the FIFA technical group and under the brand name MasterCard All - Star Team. The All - Star team wound up dropped prior to the 2010 tournament - coincidentally, three years after FIFA changed its sponsorship from MasterCard to Visa.
Enrique Ballestrero
José Nasazzi Milutin Ivković
Luis Monti Álvaro Gestido José Leandro Andrade
Pedro Cea Héctor Castro Héctor Scarone Guillermo Stábile Bert Patenaude
Ricardo Zamora
Jacinto Quincoces Eraldo Monzeglio
Luis Monti Attilio Ferraris Leonardo Cilaurren
Giuseppe Meazza Raimundo Orsi Enrique Guaita Matthias Sindelar Oldřich Nejedlý
František Plánička
Pietro Rava Alfredo Foni Domingos da Guia
Michele Andreolo Ugo Locatelli
Silvio Piola Gino Colaussi György Sárosi Gyula Zsengellér Leônidas
Roque Máspoli
Erik Nilsson José Parra Víctor Rodríguez Andrade
Obdulio Varela Bauer Alcides Ghiggia Jair
Zizinho Ademir Juan Alberto Schiaffino
Gyula Grosics
Ernst Ocwirk Djalma Santos José Santamaría
Fritz Walter József Bozsik Nándor Hidegkuti Zoltán Czibor
Helmut Rahn Ferenc Puskás Sándor Kocsis
Harry Gregg
Djalma Santos Bellini Nílton Santos
Danny Blanchflower Didi Gunnar Gren Raymond Kopa
Pelé Garrincha Just Fontaine
Viliam Schrojf
Djalma Santos Cesare Maldini Valery Voronin Karl - Heinz Schnellinger
Mário Zagallo Zito Josef Masopust
Vavá Garrincha Leonel Sánchez
Gordon Banks
George Cohen Bobby Moore Vicente Silvio Marzolini
Franz Beckenbauer Mário Coluna Bobby Charlton
Flórián Albert Uwe Seeler Eusébio
Ladislao Mazurkiewicz
Carlos Alberto Atilio Ancheta Franz Beckenbauer Giacinto Facchetti
Gérson Rivellino Bobby Charlton
Pelé Gerd Müller Jairzinho
Sepp Maier
Ruud Krol Paul Breitner Elias Figueroa Franz Beckenbauer Berti Vogts
Wolfgang Overath Kazimierz Deyna Johan Neeskens
Rob Rensenbrink Johan Cruyff Grzegorz Lato
Ubaldo Fillol
Berti Vogts Ruud Krol Daniel Passarella Alberto Tarantini
Dirceu Teófilo Cubillas Rob Rensenbrink
Roberto Bettega Paolo Rossi Mario Kempes
Dino Zoff
Luizinho Júnior Claudio Gentile Fulvio Collovati
Zbigniew Boniek Falcão Michel Platini Zico
Paolo Rossi Karl - Heinz Rummenigge
Jean - Marie Pfaff
Josimar Manuel Amoros Júlio César
Jan Ceulemans Jean Tigana Michel Platini Diego Maradona
Preben Elkjær Larsen Emilio Butragueño Gary Lineker
Sergio Goycochea Luis Gabelo Conejo
Andreas Brehme Paolo Maldini Franco Baresi
Diego Maradona Lothar Matthäus Dragan Stojković Paul Gascoigne
Salvatore Schillaci Roger Milla Jürgen Klinsmann
Michel Preud'homme
Jorginho Márcio Santos Paolo Maldini
Dunga Krasimir Balakov Gheorghe Hagi Tomas Brolin
Romário Hristo Stoichkov Roberto Baggio
Fabien Barthez José Luis Chilavert
Roberto Carlos Marcel Desailly Lilian Thuram Frank de Boer Carlos Gamarra
Dunga Rivaldo Michael Laudrup Zinedine Zidane Edgar Davids
Ronaldo Davor Šuker Brian Laudrup Dennis Bergkamp
Oliver Kahn Rüştü Reçber
Roberto Carlos Sol Campbell Fernando Hierro Hong Myung - bo Alpay Özalan
Rivaldo Ronaldinho Michael Ballack Claudio Reyna Yoo Sang - chul
Ronaldo Miroslav Klose El Hadji Diouf Hasan Şaş
Gianluigi Buffon Jens Lehmann Ricardo
Roberto Ayala John Terry Lilian Thuram Philipp Lahm Fabio Cannavaro Gianluca Zambrotta Ricardo Carvalho
Zé Roberto Patrick Vieira Zinedine Zidane Michael Ballack Andrea Pirlo Gennaro Gattuso Luís Figo Maniche
Hernán Crespo Thierry Henry Miroslav Klose Luca Toni Francesco Totti
In addition to the 16 of the All - Star Team, 6 reserves were listed: Edwin van der Sar, Juan Sebastián Verón, Thierry Henry, Jay - Jay Okocha, Michael Owen, and Christian Vieri.
Again there were seven reserves: Iker Casillas, Cafu, Dietmar Hamann, Joaquín, Hidetoshi Nakata, Landon Donovan, and Marc Wilmots.
In 2010, an equivalent of the All Star Team was an online poll to FIFA.com Club members named "Dream Team '', sponsored by Yingli. The Dream Team poll returned the following edition sponsored by Oi.
Iker Casillas
Philipp Lahm Sergio Ramos Carles Puyol Maicon
Xavi Bastian Schweinsteiger Wesley Sneijder Andrés Iniesta
David Villa Diego Forlán
Vicente del Bosque
Manuel Neuer
Marcelo Mats Hummels Thiago Silva David Luiz
Ángel Di María Toni Kroos James Rodríguez
Lionel Messi Thomas Müller Neymar
Joachim Löw
While FIFA did not release an official list for 2014, official sponsor Castrol published a team of the tournament based on their Castrol Performance Index, which evaluates players ' performances through statistical data.
Manuel Neuer
Marcos Rojo Mats Hummels Thiago Silva Stefan de Vrij
Oscar Toni Kroos Philipp Lahm James Rodríguez
Arjen Robben Thomas Müller
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who is regarded as founder of the british empire in india | History of the British Raj - wikipedia
The history of the British Raj refers to the period of British rule on the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947. The system of governance was instituted in 1858 when the rule of the East India Company was transferred to the Crown in the person of Queen Victoria (who in 1876 was proclaimed Empress of India). It lasted until 1947, when the British provinces of India were partitioned into two sovereign dominion states: the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan, leaving the princely states to choose between them. The two new dominions later became the Republic of India and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (the eastern half of which, still later, became the People 's Republic of Bangladesh). The province of Burma in the eastern region of the Indian Empire had been made a separate colony in 1937 and became independent in 1948.
In the third half of the 19th century, both the direct administration of India by the British crown and the technological change ushered in by the industrial revolution, had the effect of closely intertwining the economies of India and Great Britain. In fact many of the major changes in transport and communications (that are typically associated with Crown Rule of India) had already begun before the Mutiny. Since Dalhousie had embraced the technological change then rampant in Great Britain, India too saw rapid development of all those technologies. Railways, roads, canals, and bridges were rapidly built in India and telegraph links equally rapidly established in order that raw materials, such as cotton, from India 's hinterland could be transported more efficiently to ports, such as Bombay, for subsequent export to England. Likewise, finished goods from England were transported back just as efficiently, for sale in the burgeoning Indian markets. However, unlike Britain itself, where the market risks for the infrastructure development were borne by private investors, in India, it was the taxpayers -- primarily farmers and farm - labourers -- who endured the risks, which, in the end, amounted to £ 50 million. In spite of these costs, very little skilled employment was created for Indians. By 1920, with a history of 60 years of its construction, only ten per cent of the "superior posts '' in the railways were held by Indians.
The rush of technology was also changing the agricultural economy in India: by the last decade of the 19th century, a large fraction of some raw materials -- not only cotton, but also some food - grains -- were being exported to faraway markets. Consequently, many small farmers, dependent on the whims of those markets, lost land, animals, and equipment to money - lenders. More tellingly, the latter half of the 19th century also saw an increase in the number of large - scale famines in India. Although famines were not new to the subcontinent, these were particularly severe, with tens of millions dying, and with many critics, both British and Indian, laying the blame at the doorsteps of the lumbering colonial administrations.
Lord Ripon, the Liberal Viceroy of India, who instituted the Famine Code
The Agra canal (c. 1873), a year away from completion. The canal was closed to navigation in 1904 to increase irrigation and aid in famine - prevention.
Railway map of India in 1909. Railway construction in India had began in 1853.
A 1903 stereographic image of Victoria Terminus, Bombay, by Underwood and Underwood. The station was completed in 1888.
The first steps were taken toward self - government in British India in the late 19th century with the appointment of Indian counsellors to advise the British viceroy and the establishment of provincial councils with Indian members; the British subsequently widened participation in legislative councils with the Indian Councils Act 1892. Municipal Corporations and District Boards were created for local administration; they included elected Indian members.
The Indian Councils Act 1909 -- also known as the Morley - Minto Reforms (John Morley was the secretary of state for India, and Gilbert Elliot, fourth earl of Minto, was viceroy) -- gave Indians limited roles in the central and provincial legislatures, known as legislative councils. Indians had previously been appointed to legislative councils, but after the reforms some were elected to them. At the centre, the majority of council members continued to be government - appointed officials, and the viceroy was in no way responsible to the legislature. At the provincial level, the elected members, together with unofficial appointees, outnumbered the appointed officials, but responsibility of the governor to the legislature was not contemplated. Morley made it clear in introducing the legislation to the British Parliament that parliamentary self - government was not the goal of the British government.
The Morley - Minto Reforms were a milestone. Step by step, the elective principle was introduced for membership in Indian legislative councils. The "electorate '' was limited, however, to a small group of upper - class Indians. These elected members increasingly became an "opposition '' to the "official government ''. The Communal electorates were later extended to other communities and made a political factor of the Indian tendency toward group identification through religion.
John Morley, the Secretary of State for India from 1905 to 1910, and Gladstonian Liberal. The Indian Councils Act 1909, also known as the Minto - Morley Reforms allowed Indians to be elected to the Legislative Council.
Picture post card of the Gordon Highlanders marching past King George V and Queen Mary at the Delhi Durbar on December 12, 1911, when the King was crowned Emperor of India.
Indian medical orderlies attending to wounded soldiers with the Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force in Mesopotamia during World War I.
World War I would prove to be a watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. 1.4 million Indian and British soldiers of the British Indian Army would take part in the war and their participation would have a wider cultural fallout: news of Indian soldiers fighting and dying with British soldiers, as well as soldiers from dominions like Canada and Australia, would travel to distant corners of the world both in newsprint and by the new medium of the radio. India 's international profile would thereby rise and would continue to rise during the 1920s. It was to lead, among other things, to India, under its own name, becoming a founding member of the League of Nations in 1920 and participating, under the name, "Les Indes Anglaises '' (The British Indies), in the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp. Back in India, especially among the leaders of the Indian National Congress, it would lead to calls for greater self - government for Indians.
In 1916, in the face of new strength demonstrated by the nationalists with the signing of the Lucknow Pact and the founding of the Home Rule leagues, and the realisation, after the disaster in the Mesopotamian campaign, that the war would likely last longer, the new Viceroy, Lord Chelmsford, cautioned that the Government of India needed to be more responsive to Indian opinion. Towards the end of the year, after discussions with the government in London, he suggested that the British demonstrate their good faith -- in light of the Indian war role -- through a number of public actions, including awards of titles and honours to princes, granting of commissions in the army to Indians, and removal of the much - reviled cotton excise duty, but most importantly, an announcement of Britain 's future plans for India and an indication of some concrete steps. After more discussion, in August 1917, the new Liberal Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu, announced the British aim of "increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration, and the gradual development of self - governing institutions, with a view to the progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire. '' This envisioned reposing confidence in the educated Indians, so far disdained as an unrepresentative minority, who were described by Montague as "Intellectually our children ''. The pace of the reforms where to be determined by Britain as and when the Indians were seen to have earned it. However, although the plan envisioned limited self - government at first only in the provinces -- with India emphatically within the British Empire -- it represented the first British proposal for any form of representative government in a non-white colony.
Earlier, at the onset of World War I, the reassignment of most of the British army in India to Europe and Mesopotamia had led the previous Viceroy, Lord Harding, to worry about the "risks involved in denuding India of troops. '' Revolutionary violence had already been a concern in British India; consequently in 1915, to strengthen its powers during what it saw was a time of increased vulnerability, the Government of India passed the Defence of India Act, which allowed it to intern politically dangerous dissidents without due process and added to the power it already had -- under the 1910 Press Act -- both to imprison journalists without trial and to censor the press. Now, as constitutional reform began to be discussed in earnest, the British began to consider how new moderate Indians could be brought into the fold of constitutional politics and simultaneously, how the hand of established constitutionalists could be strengthened. However, since the reform plan was devised during a time when extremist violence had ebbed as a result of increased war - time governmental control and it now feared a revival of revolutionary violence, the government also began to consider how some of its war - time powers could be extended into peace time.
Consequently, in 1917, even as Edwin Montagu announced the new constitutional reforms, a sedition committee chaired by a British judge, Mr. S.A.T. Rowlatt, was tasked with investigating war - time revolutionary conspiracies and the German and Bolshevik links to the violence in India, with the unstated goal of extending the government 's war - time powers. The Rowlatt committee presented its report in July 1918 and identified three regions of conspiratorial insurgency: Bengal, the Bombay presidency, and the Punjab. To combat subversive acts in these regions, the committee recommended that the government use emergency powers akin to its war - time authority, which included the ability to try cases of sedition by a panel of three judges and without juries, exaction of securities from suspects, governmental overseeing of residences of suspects, and the power for provincial governments to arrest and detain suspects in short - term detention facilities and without trial.
With the end of World War I, there was also a change in the economic climate. By year 's end 1919, 1.5 million Indians had served in the armed services in either combatant or non-combatant roles, and India had provided £ 146 million in revenue for the war. The increased taxes coupled with disruptions in both domestic and international trade had the effect of approximately doubling the index of overall prices in India between 1914 and 1920. Returning war veterans, especially in the Punjab, created a growing unemployment crisis and post-war inflation led to food riots in Bombay, Madras, and Bengal provinces, a situation that was made only worse by the failure of the 1918 -- 19 monsoon and by profiteering and speculation. The global influenza epidemic and the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 added to the general jitters; the former among the population already experiencing economic woes, and the latter among government officials, fearing a similar revolution in India.
To combat what it saw as a coming crisis, the government now drafted the Rowlatt committee 's recommendations into two Rowlatt Bills. Although the bills were authorised for legislative consideration by Edwin Montagu, they were done so unwillingly, with the accompanying declaration, "I loathe the suggestion at first sight of preserving the Defence of India Act in peace time to such an extent as Rowlatt and his friends think necessary. '' In the ensuing discussion and vote in the Imperial Legislative Council, all Indian members voiced opposition to the bills. The Government of India was nevertheless able to use of its "official majority '' to ensure passage of the bills early in 1919. However, what it passed, in deference to the Indian opposition, was a lesser version of the first bill, which now allowed extrajudicial powers, but for a period of exactly three years and for the prosecution solely of "anarchical and revolutionary movements, '' dropping entirely the second bill involving modification of the Indian Penal Code. Even so, when it was passed the new Rowlatt Act aroused widespread indignation throughout India and brought Mohandas Gandhi to the forefront of the nationalist movement.
Meanwhile, Montagu and Chelmsford themselves finally presented their report in July 1918 after a long fact - finding trip through India the previous winter. After more discussion by the government and parliament in Britain, and another tour by the Franchise and Functions Committee for the purpose of identifying who among the Indian population could vote in future elections, the Government of India Act 1919 (also known as the Montagu - Chelmsford Reforms) was passed in December 1919. The new Act enlarged the provincial councils and converted the Imperial Legislative Council into an enlarged Central Legislative Assembly. It also repealed the Government of India 's recourse to the "official majority '' in unfavourable votes. Although departments like defence, foreign affairs, criminal law, communications and income - tax were retained by the Viceroy and the central government in New Delhi, other departments like public health, education, land - revenue and local self - government were transferred to the provinces. The provinces themselves were now to be administered under a new dyarchical system, whereby some areas like education, agriculture, infrastructure development, and local self - government became the preserve of Indian ministers and legislatures, and ultimately the Indian electorates, while others like irrigation, land - revenue, police, prisons, and control of media remained within the purview of the British governor and his executive council. The new Act also made it easier for Indians to be admitted into the civil service and the army officer corps.
A greater number of Indians were now enfranchised, although, for voting at the national level, they constituted only 10 % of the total adult male population, many of whom were still illiterate. In the provincial legislatures, the British continued to exercise some control by setting aside seats for special interests they considered cooperative or useful. In particular, rural candidates, generally sympathetic to British rule and less confrontational, were assigned more seats than their urban counterparts. Seats were also reserved for non-Brahmins, landowners, businessmen, and college graduates. The principal of "communal representation '', an integral part of the Minto - Morley Reforms, and more recently of the Congress - Muslim League Lucknow Pact, was reaffirmed, with seats being reserved for Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo - Indians, and domiciled Europeans, in both provincial and Imperial legislative councils. The Montagu - Chelmsford reforms offered Indians the most significant opportunity yet for exercising legislative power, especially at the provincial level; however, that opportunity was also restricted by the still limited number of eligible voters, by the small budgets available to provincial legislatures, and by the presence of rural and special interest seats that were seen as instruments of British control.
The three Round Table Conferences of 1930 -- 32 were a series of conferences organised by the British Government to discuss constitutional reforms in India. They were conducted according to the recommendation of Muslim leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah to the Viceroy Lord Irwin and the Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, and by the report submitted by the Simon Commission in May 1930. Demands for swaraj, or self - rule, in India had been growing increasingly strong. By the 1930s, many British politicians believed that India needed to move towards dominion status. However, there were significant disagreements between the Indian and the British leaders that the Conferences could not resolve.
In 1932 the Viceroy, Lord Willingdon, after the failure of the three Round Table Conferences (India) in London, now confronted Gandhi 's Congress in action. The India Office told Willingdon that he should conciliate only those elements of Indian opinion that were willing to work with the Raj. That did not include Gandhi and the Indian National Congress, which launched its Civil Disobedience Movement on 4 January 1932. Therefore, Willingdon took decisive action. He imprisoned Gandhi. He outlawed the Congress; he rounded up all members of the Working Committee and the Provincial Committees and imprisoned them; and he banned Congress youth organisations. In total he imprisoned 80,000 Indian activists. Without most of their leaders, protests were uneven and disorganised, boycotts were ineffective, illegal youth organisations proliferated but were ineffective, more women became involved, and there was terrorism, especially in the North - West Frontier Province. Gandhi remained in prison until 1933. Willingdon relied on his military secretary, Hastings Ismay, for his personal safety.
MacDonald, trying to resolve the critical issue of how Indians would be represented, on 4 August 1932 granting separate electorates for Muslims, Sikhs, and Europeans in India and increased the number of provinces that offered separate electorates to Anglo - Indians and Indian Christians. Untouchables (now known as the Dalits) obtained a separate electorate. That outraged Gandhi because he firmly believed they had to be treated as Hindus. He and Congress rejected the peoposal, but it went into effect anyway.
In 1935, after the failure of the Round Table Conferences, the British Parliament approved the Government of India Act 1935, which authorised the establishment of independent legislative assemblies in all provinces of British India, the creation of a central government incorporating both the British provinces and the princely states, and the protection of Muslim minorities. The future Constitution of independent India would owe a great deal to the text of this act. The act also provided for a bicameral national parliament and an executive branch under the purview of the British government. Although the national federation was never realised, nationwide elections for provincial assemblies were held in 1937. Despite initial hesitation, the Congress took part in the elections and won victories in seven of the eleven provinces of British India, and Congress governments, with wide powers, were formed in these provinces. In Great Britain, these victories were to later turn the tide for the idea of Indian independence.
India played a major role in the Allied war effort against both Japan and Germany. It provided over 2 million soldiers, who fought numerous campaigns in the Middle East, and in the India - Burma front. It supplied billions of pounds to the British war effort, which was eventually repaid. The Muslim and Sikh populations were strongly supportive of the British war effort, but the Hindu population was divided. Congress opposed the war, and tens of thousands of its leaders were imprisoned in 1942 -- 45. A major famine in eastern India led to hundreds of thousands of deaths by starvation, and remains a highly controversial issue regarding Churchill 's reluctance to provide emergency food relief.
With the outbreak of World War II in 1939, the viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, declared war on India 's behalf without consulting Indian leaders, leading the Congress provincial ministries to resign in protest. The Muslim League, in contrast, supported Britain in the war effort; however, it now took the view that Muslims would be unfairly treated in an independent India dominated by the Congress. Hindus not affiliated with the Congress typically supported the war. The two major Sikh factions, the Unionists and the Akali Dal, supported Britain and successfully urged large numbers of Sikhs to volunteer for the army.
The British sent a high level Cripps ' mission in 1942 to secure Indian nationalists ' co-operation in the war effort in exchange for postwar independence and dominion status. Congress demanded immediate independence and the mission failed. Gandhi then launched the "Quit India '' movement in August 1942, demanding the immediate withdrawal of the British from India or face nationwide civil disobedience. Along with thousands of other Congress leaders, Gandhi was immediately imprisoned, and the country erupted in violent local episodes led by students and later by peasant political groups, especially in Eastern United Provinces, Bihar, and western Bengal. According to John F. Riddick, from 9 August 1942 to 21 September 1942, the Quit India movement:
The police and Army crushed the resistance in a little more than six weeks; nationalist leaders were imprisoned for the duration.
With Congress leaders in jail, attention also turned to Subhas Chandra Bose, who had been ousted from the Congress in 1939 following differences with the more conservative high command; Bose now turned to Germany and Japan for help with liberating India by force. With Japanese support, he organised the Indian National Army, composed largely of Indian soldiers of the British Indian army who had been captured at Singapore by the Japanese, including many Sikhs as well as Hindus and Muslims. Japan secret service had promoted unrest in South east Asia to destabilise the British War effort, and came to support a number of puppet and provisional governments in the captured regions, including those in Burma, the Philippines and Vietnam, the Provisional Government of Azad Hind (Free India), presided by Bose. Bose 's effort, however, was short lived; after the reverses of 1944, the reinforced British Indian Army in 1945 first halted and then reversed the Japanese U Go offensive, beginning the successful part of the Burma Campaign. Bose 's Indian National Army surrendered with the recapture of Singapore; Bose died in a plane crash soon thereafter. The British demanded trials for INA officers, but public opinion -- including Congress and even the Indian Army -- saw the IRA as fighting for Indian independence and demanded a termination. Yasmin Khan says, "The INA became the real heroes of the war in India. '' After a wave of unrest and nationalist violence the trials were stopped.
Britain borrowed everywhere it could and made heavy purchases of munitions and supplies in India during the war. Previously India owed Britain large sums; now it was reversed. Britain 's sterling balances around the world amounted to £ 3.4 billion in 1945; India 's share was £ 1.3 billion (equivalent to $ US 74 billion in 2016 dollars.) In this way the Raj treasury accumulated very large sterling reserves of British pounds that was owed to it by the British treasury. However, Britain treated this as a long - term loan with no interest and no specified repayment date. Just when the money would be made available by London was an issue, for the British treasury was nearly empty by 1945. India 's balances totalled to Rs. 17.24 billion in March 1946; of that sum Rs. 15.12 billion (£ 1.134 billion) was split between India and Pakistan when they became independent in August 1947. They finally got the money and India spent all its share by 1957.
In January 1946, a number of mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation to Britain. The mutinies came to a head with mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy in Bombay in February 1946, followed by others in Calcutta, Madras, and Karachi. Although the mutinies were rapidly suppressed, they found much public support in India and had the effect of spurring the new Labour government in Britain to action, and leading to the Cabinet Mission to India led by the Secretary of State for India, Lord Pethick Lawrence, and including Sir Stafford Cripps, who had visited four years before.
Also in early 1946, new elections were called in India in which the Congress won electoral victories in eight of the eleven provinces. The negotiations between the Congress and the Muslim League, however, stumbled over the issue of the partition. Jinnah proclaimed 16 August 1946, Direct Action Day, with the stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India. The following day Hindu - Muslim riots broke out in Calcutta and quickly spread throughout India. Although the Government of India and the Congress were both shaken by the course of events, in September, a Congress - led interim government was installed, with Jawaharlal Nehru as united India 's prime minister.
Later that year, the Labour government in Britain, its exchequer exhausted by the recently concluded World War II, decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 Britain announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948.
As independence approached, the violence between Hindus and Muslims in the provinces of Punjab and Bengal continued unabated. With the British army unprepared for the potential for increased violence, the new viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, advanced the date for the transfer of power, allowing less than six months for a mutually agreed plan for independence. In June 1947, the nationalist leaders, including Nehru and Abul Kalam Azad on behalf of the Congress, Jinnah representing the Muslim League, B.R. Ambedkar representing the Untouchable community, and Master Tara Singh representing the Sikhs, agreed to a partition of the country along religious lines. The predominantly Hindu and Sikh areas were assigned to the new India and predominantly Muslim areas to the new nation of Pakistan; the plan included a partition of the Muslim - majority provinces of Punjab and Bengal.
Many millions of Muslim, Sikh, and Hindu refugees trekked across the newly drawn borders. In Punjab, where the new border lines divided the Sikh regions in half, massive bloodshed followed; in Bengal and Bihar, where Gandhi 's presence assuaged communal tempers, the violence was more limited. In all, anywhere between 250,000 and 500,000 people on both sides of the new borders died in the violence. On 14 August 1947, the new Dominion of Pakistan came into being, with Muhammad Ali Jinnah sworn in as its first Governor General in Karachi. The following day, 15 August 1947, India, now a smaller Union of India, became an independent country with official ceremonies taking place in New Delhi, and with Jawaharlal Nehru assuming the office of the prime minister, and the viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, staying on as its first Governor General.
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when was the new giant species of spitting cobra found in kenya | Naja ashei - wikipedia
Naja ashei, commonly known as Ashe 's spitting cobra or the giant spitting cobra, is a species of venomous snake in the family Elapidae. The species is native to Africa. It is the world 's largest species of spitting cobra.
The specific name, ashei, is in honor of British - born Kenyan herpetologist James Ashe (1925 -- 2004).
N. ashei, the largest spitting cobra, averages around 1.3 -- 2.0 m (4.3 -- 6.6 ft) in total length (including tail). The largest specimen of this species to date, caught in Kenya, was 2.7 m (8.9 ft) in total length. Some N. nigricollis may also reach such sizes, but this is very exceptional, whereas on the Kenyan coast, specimens of N. ashei of more than 2 m (6.6 ft) are not uncommon.
N. ashei is very heavily built with a big head. Its colour varies in different shades of brown from light grey through pale mustard to dark brown. It is pale in colour along the belly, sometimes with slight speckling or blotches, with a dark brown throat band. It has 17 to 25 midbody dorsal scale rows, 176 to 219 ventrals, and 51 to 69 subcaudals, with an entire anal scale across the vent.
N. ashei is found in eastern and northeastern Africa, in the dry lowlands of northern and eastern Kenya and similar habitats in northeastern Uganda, southern Ethiopia and southern Somalia.
The venom of N. ashei is very similar in composition to that of other spitting cobras, including the black - necked spitting cobra (N. nigricollis) and the red spitting cobra (N. pallida), which are both found in the same areas. It consists of postsynaptic neurotoxins and cytotoxins. However, N. ashei is capable of injecting a much larger volume of venom in a single bite compared to the others. A single specimen milked at Bio-Ken Snake Farm in 2004 produced a wet venom yield of 6.2 ml, weighed 7.1 g and contained nearly 3 g of toxins.
In absence of dedicated research, recommended treatment of bites is, as for all true cobras, with the appropriate antivenom (SAVP polyvalent from South African Vaccine Producers). The dosage may need to be higher than for the average N. nigricollis bite. First aid treatment for venom in the eyes is immediate irrigation with water or any bland liquid - failure to do so may result in permanent blindness. Whether bitten or spat at, the patient should be seen as soon as possible by a physician. No available data suggest this species ' toxins differ clinically from those of other spitting cobras, except perhaps by the effects of greater dosages, on average. Spitting cobra venom has rather low systemic toxicity, meaning with appropriate treatment, survival of bitten persons is very likely. A strong necrotizing effect (kills tissue around the wound) means survivors may be disfigured. If a jet of venom gets into the eyes and is not treated immediately, blindness (due to destruction of the cornea) is likely; even in patients treated with antivenom, amputation may become necessary if a full dose of a large spitting cobra 's venom is received.
Differences from other spitting cobras were realized in the 1960s, but N. ashei was initially regarded by most merely as a brown - coloured form of the black - necked spitting cobra (N. nigricollis). Thus, N. ashei was only classified as a distinct species in 2007, by Wolfgang Wüster (Bangor University, Wales) and Donald Broadley (Biodiversity Foundation for Africa). Royjan Taylor (Director of the Bio-Ken Snake Farm in Watamu, Kenya) was instrumental in providing specimens, among them the holotype. The specific epithet honors the late James Ashe, who founded the Bio-Ken Snake Farm and was one of the first experts to suggest N. ashei was a new species.
The giant spitting cobra is most closely related to the Mozambique spitting cobra (N. mossambica), which with this species forms a sister taxon to N. nigricollis.
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when have the texas rangers won a world series | Texas Rangers (Baseball) - Wikipedia
The Texas Rangers are an American professional baseball team based in Arlington, Texas, located in the Dallas -- Fort Worth metroplex. The Rangers franchise currently competes in Major League Baseball as a member of the American League (AL) West division. Since 1994, the Rangers have played in Globe Life Park in Arlington in Arlington, Texas. The team 's name is borrowed from the famous law enforcement agency of the same name.
The franchise was established in 1961 as the Washington Senators, an expansion team awarded to Washington, D.C., after the city 's first AL ballclub, the second Washington Senators, moved to Minnesota and became the Twins (the original Washington Senators played primarily in the National League during the 1890s). After the 1971 season, the new Senators moved to Arlington, Texas, and debuted as the Rangers the following spring.
The Texas Rangers Baseball Club has made eight appearances in the MLB postseason, seven following division championships in 1996, 1998, 1999, 2010, 2011, 2015, and 2016 and as a wild card team in 2012. In 2010, the Rangers advanced past the Division Series for the first time, defeating the Tampa Bay Rays. Texas then brought home their first American League pennant after beating the New York Yankees in six games. In the 2010 World Series, the franchise 's first, the Rangers fell to the San Francisco Giants in five games. They repeated as American League champions the following year, then lost the 2011 World Series to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games.
When the second Washington Senators moved to Minnesota in 1960 as the Twins, Major League Baseball decided to expand a year earlier than planned to stave off the twin threats of competition from the proposed Continental League and loss of its exemption from the Sherman Antitrust Act. This new team adopted the old Senators name, but was (and still is) considered an expansion team since the Twins retained the old Senators ' records and history. The Senators and their expansion cousins, the Los Angeles Angels began to fill their rosters with American League players in an expansion draft. The team played the 1961 season at old Griffith Stadium before moving to the new District of Columbia Stadium (now the Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium).
For most of their existence, the new Senators were the definition of futility, losing an average of 90 games a season. The team 's struggles led to a twist on a joke about the old Senators -- "Washington: first in war, first in peace and still last in the American League. '' Frank Howard, known for his towering home runs, was the team 's most accomplished player, winning two home run titles.
Ownership changed hands several times during the franchise 's stay in Washington and was often plagued by poor decision - making and planning. Owner Elwood Richard Quesada once wondered why he should have to pay his players because he believed they did n't belong in the majors. He later agreed to a 10 - year lease at D.C. Stadium -- a move that would come back to haunt the Senators. In 1963, Quesada sold his stake in the club and resigned. Washington stockbrokers James Johnston and James Lemon owned the team briefly, suffering massive financial losses. Johnston died in 1967 and Lemon sold the team a year later to hotel and trucking executive Bob Short, who outbid a group headed by Bob Hope. Short named himself general manager and hired Hall of Famer Ted Williams as manager. Although Williams had never coached or managed at any level of baseball, he seemed to light a spark under the once - moribund Senators. Williams kept them in contention for most of the season; their 86 -- 76 record in 1969 would be their only winning season in Washington.
The success though was brief, as Short borrowed most of the $9.4 million he had used to pay for the team. As the Senators general manager, Short was forced to make many questionable trades to lower the debt and acquire amounts of the much - needed revenue. As a result, the team rapidly fell back into the American League 's cellar position. Fans kept their distance from the Senators while the Baltimore Orioles, 45 miles (72 km) to the northeast, won four American League pennants and two World Series from the 1966 season through the 1971 season. By the end of the 1970 season, Short had issued an ultimatum: unless someone was willing to buy the Senators for $12 million (in comparison, the New York Yankees were sold in 1973 for $8.8 million), he would not proceed to renew the stadium lease and would move the team elsewhere. When that season ended, Short dealt his best starting pitcher and the left side of his infield to the Detroit Tigers for erstwhile 30 - game - winner Denny McLain, who had spent most of the 1970 campaign suspended because of gambling allegations. The deal -- alleged by onetime Senators broadcaster Shelby Whitfield to have been made in order to secure the Tigers ' vote in favor of the Senators ' eventual move to Texas -- turned Detroit back into contenders, while McLain was a monumental bust, losing an embarrassing league - worst of 22 games.
Short was especially receptive to an offer brought up by Arlington, Texas mayor Tom Vandergriff, who had been trying to obtain a Major League sports team to play in the Metroplex for over a decade. Years earlier, Charles O. Finley, the owner of the Kansas City Athletics, sought to relocate his baseball team to Dallas, Texas, but the idea was rebuffed and ultimately declined by the other A.L. team owners.
Arlington 's hole card was Turnpike Stadium, a 10,000 - seat park which had been built in 1965 to house the AA Dallas - Fort Worth Spurs of the Texas League. However, it had been built to Major League specifications and also located in a natural bowl, meaning only minor excavations would be necessary to expand the park to accommodate Major League crowds.
After Vandergriff offered a multimillion - dollar down payment, Short decided to make the move to Arlington. On September 21, 1971, by a vote of 10 to 2 (the Orioles ' Jerold Hoffberger and John Allyn of the Chicago White Sox registered the dissenting votes), American League owners granted approval to move the franchise to Arlington, Texas for the 1972 season.
Senators fans were livid. Enmity came to a head at the club 's last game in Washington. Thousands of fans simply walked in without paying after the security guards left early, swelling the paid attendance of 14,460 to around 25,000, while fans unfurled a banner reading "SHORT STINKS ''. With the Senators leading 7 -- 5 and two outs in the top of the ninth inning, several hundred youths stormed the field, raiding it for souvenirs. One man grabbed first base and ran off with it. With no security in sight and only three bases, umpire crew chief Jim Honochick forfeited the game to the New York Yankees.
It would be 33 years before major league baseball returned to the nation 's capital, in the form of the National League 's Washington Nationals, which had previously been known as the Montreal Expos.
During the off - season, improvements were made to Turnpike Stadium, which reopened as Arlington Stadium for the 1972 season. Meanwhile, ownership announced that the franchise would be renamed the Texas Rangers. The team played its first game on April 15, 1972, a 1 -- 0 loss at the hands of their 1961 expansion cousins, then known as the California Angels. The next day, the Rangers defeated the Angels 5 -- 1 for the club 's first victory. After the season Ted Williams retired as manager; he had made no secret of his displeasure with the franchise 's new location. Whitey Herzog was named the new manager, but he was replaced before the end of the 1973 season by Billy Martin.
In 1974, the Rangers began to come into their own as a team. Under the ownership of Brad Corbett, they finished the season second in the American League West with an 84 -- 76 record, behind the eventual World Series champion Oakland Athletics. The 1974 Rangers are still the only MLB team to finish above. 500 after two consecutive 100 - loss seasons. Mike Hargrove was awarded A.L. Rookie of the Year, Billy Martin was named Manager of the Year, Jeff Burroughs won American League MVP, and Ferguson Jenkins was named the Comeback Player of the Year after winning 25 games, a club record to this day. However, after a 44 -- 51 start in 1975, Martin was fired as the Rangers ' manager and was replaced by Frank Lucchesi.
After excellent seasons between 1977 -- 79, the Rangers came very close to clinching a playoff spot in the first half of 1981. But when Texas lost its last game before the players ' strike began, the Oakland A 's won the A.L. West in the first half by a half - game. After 1981, the Rangers would not post a winning record for another five seasons. During this stretch, the Rangers made one of their most unpopular trades ever, sending multi-Gold Glove catcher and fan favorite Jim Sundberg to the Milwaukee Brewers for future Brewers ' manager Ned Yost.
The Rangers faced an attendance problem for a few years after moving their team to Texas, in part due to the team 's inconsistent performance and in part due to the oppressive heat and humidity that can encompass the area in the summer. Until the Florida Marlins arrived in 1993, Arlington Stadium was often the hottest stadium in the Majors, with temperatures frequently topping around 100 ° throughout the months of summer. In part because of this, the Rangers began playing most of even their weekend games between May and September at night -- a tradition that continues to this day. They usually get a waiver from ESPN to play Sunday night games.
Bobby Valentine became steward over an influx of splendid talent in the late 1980s and early 1990s. A winning season in 1986 was a shock to pundits and fans alike as the Rangers remained in the race for the American League pennant for the entire season. With a team consisting of many stellar young rookies such as Rubén Sierra, Pete Incaviglia, Mitch Williams, Bobby Witt, and Edwin Correa, the Rangers finished the season 2nd place with an 87 -- 75 record, just five games behind the division champion California Angels. The season marked a dramatic 25 - win improvement over the 1985 season, which resulted in yet another last - place finish in the West. The signing of 41 - year - old star pitcher Nolan Ryan prior to the 1989 season allowed Ryan to reach his 5,000 th strikeout, 300th win, and sixth and seventh no - hitters with the Rangers. Coupled with powerful batters like Juan González, Rubén Sierra, Julio Franco, and Rafael Palmeiro and a pitching staff that also included Charlie Hough, Bobby Witt, Kevin Brown, and Kenny Rogers, fans held really high expectations for the Rangers ' upcoming season. However, the team never posted a finish higher than second place and Valentine was relieved of his duties during the 1992 season.
In April 1989, Rangers owner and oil tycoon Eddie Chiles, sold the team to an investment group headed by George W. Bush. After hearing that Chiles planned to sell the team, Bush headed a group of investors (including Frank L. Morsani and the Mack family) that bought the team for $89 million. While his own equity in the team was a small one ($500,000), he was named Managing General Partner of the new ownership group. He increased his investment to $600,000 the following year.
During his tenure, the Rangers and the City of Arlington decided to replace the aging Arlington Stadium with a new publicly funded stadium, at a cost of $193 million, financed by Arlington residents, through a sales tax increase. Ground was broken on October 30, 1991 on what would become The Ballpark in Arlington (now named Globe Life Park in Arlington). The city, through the Arlington Sports Facilities Development Authority, also controversially authorized the seizure of 13 acres (53,000 m) of land through eminent domain for the Rangers future development. Landowners filed lawsuits over the acquisition and eventually won settlements of $22.2 million which the Rangers failed to pay.
Bush left his position with the Rangers when he was elected Governor of Texas in 1994. Although Bush no longer has any ownership stake in the Rangers, he remains a fan of the team to this day and regularly attends the team 's home games.
In 1993, Kevin Kennedy took over managerial duties, presiding over the team for two seasons, keeping the 1993 Rangers in the hunt for a playoff berth into mid-September. Kennedy was let go in 1994, although the team led the A.L. West prior to the players ' strike. On July 28 Kenny Rogers pitched the 12th perfect game in Major League history. The strike prematurely ended what could have been the Rangers ' first division championship when commissioner Bud Selig canceled the remainder of the season and the playoffs.
The year 1995 saw the beginnings of promise for the Rangers. With a brand new ballpark that hosted its first All - Star Game that year, Johnny Oates was hired as the Rangers ' manager.
Oates and company promptly helped to bring home the 1996 A.L. Western Division Championship, the first division championship in franchise history. The first playoff series, 24 years after the franchise came to Texas, saw the Rangers lose to the New York Yankees, 3 games to 1. Oates was named A.L. Manager of the Year and Juan González was named A.L. MVP. The team featured a powerful lineup of hitters with Iván Rodríguez, Will Clark, Mark McLemore, Dean Palmer, Rusty Greer, Juan González, and Mickey Tettleton but continued to struggle with pitching -- a common stereotype of Rangers teams -- despite having Rick Helling, and Aaron Sele on their roster.
Oates led the team to consecutive A.L. West championships in 1998 and 1999. Neither of Oates ' last two playoff teams could win a single game, losing all 6 in back - to - back sweeps at the hands of the Yankees, a team that won 3 World Championships in the 1990s after defeating Rangers teams in the first round. The 1999 team would be the last playoff - bound team for over a decade, as the Rangers took a step backwards at the beginning of the new millennium. En route to a second straight last - place finish, Oates resigned his position 28 games into the 2001 season. The Rangers finished the decade going 1 -- 9 in the postseason, without a single home win.
In 1998, venture capital billionaire Tom Hicks bought the team for $250 million. Hicks also agreed to pay the $22.2 million awarded in settlements in relation to the 1991 eminent domain litigation concerning the Ballpark in Arlington.
Prior to the 2001 season, star free agent shortstop Alex Rodriguez was signed by the Rangers in the most lucrative deal in baseball history: a 10 - year, $252 million contract.
The move was controversial and is frequently maligned by fans and writers who thought that owner Tom Hicks was placing too much emphasis on one player instead of utilizing team resources to acquire several players, especially for a team that lacked pitching talent. Club officials maintained that Rodriguez would be the cornerstone of future postseason success.
Although Rodriguez 's individual performance was outstanding, the Rangers continued to struggle and manager Jerry Narron was fired following the 2002 season, and he was replaced by seasoned manager Buck Showalter.
The 2003 season signified the fourth straight last - place finish, and after a post-season fallout between Rodriguez and club management, the reigning A.L. MVP and newly appointed Rangers captain was traded to the New York Yankees for second baseman Alfonso Soriano and infielder prospect Joaquin Arias.
Prior to the 2004 season, little hope was held out for the Rangers to improve on their losing ways. However, the Rangers battled with the Anaheim Angels and Oakland Athletics for first place in the A.L. West for much of the season. Mark Teixeira, Alfonso Soriano, Michael Young, and Hank Blalock became some of the best - hitting infielders in the league, with Young, Blalock, and Soriano being named to the 2004 All - Star Game. Soriano was named the All - Star MVP after going 2 for 3 with a three - run home run. Late in September, the Oakland A 's visited Arlington for a 3 - game series. After taking the first two games of the series, the Rangers trailed 4 -- 2, in the bottom of the ninth. A loss would have dropped them to four games behind the Athletics. A home run by Hank Blalock and a dramatic two - out, two - run double by David Dellucci (known amongst fans as the "Dellucci Double '') gave the Rangers a 5 -- 4 win, one of the most memorable in club history. It also allowed the Rangers to sweep the first - place Athletics and leave them just two games behind with 10 to play. Unfortunately, the Rangers ended up losing six of the final ten games and another turnaround season came up short. The club finished in third place behind the Angels and A 's, a mere 3 games out of first place.
In 2005 the Rangers again struggled to find consistency amid controversy and injuries, notwithstanding that the team swept an entire homestand for the first time in its history. Frank Francisco and Carlos Almanzar, two key members of the bullpen, were sidelined for Tommy John surgery. Kenny Rogers, the team 's ace pitcher, received a 20 - game suspension from commissioner Bud Selig for attacking a cameraman at Ameriquest Field prior to a game. Management later placed opening day starter Ryan Drese on waivers, where he was claimed by the Washington Nationals. After Drese 's release and Rogers ' suspension, the Rangers ' performance on the mound faltered, and a disastrous 1 -- 12 August road trip all but sealed the squad 's fate.
On October 4, 2005, the Rangers announced that John Hart would step down as general manager and that Jon Daniels was being promoted from assistant general manager to replace him. Daniels, at 28 years and one month, would become the youngest general manager in Major League history.
Daniels and the Rangers front office were very active in the 2005 -- 2006 offseason. Alfonso Soriano, who had often been mentioned in trade speculation, was finally dealt to the Nationals for outfielders Brad Wilkerson and Terrmel Sledge. The Rangers then began making moves to acquire pitching talent. The Rangers gained enigmatic starter Vicente Padilla from the Philadelphia Phillies in exchange for Ricardo Rodríguez and acquired San Diego Padres pitchers Adam Eaton and Akinori Otsuka in exchange for Chris Young, Adrian Gonzalez, and Sledge. Finally, they signed free agent starter Kevin Millwood to a five - year contract worth $60 million.
The Rangers 2006 season ended with a disappointing 80 -- 82 record and a third - place finish in the West. Though the club showed strength in the early going, the team proved unable to keep pace with the surging Oakland Athletics in the second half and fell out of contention in September. To some extent the Rangers were the victims of bad luck, as their win - loss record was worse than their + 51 run differential for the season would normally indicate. However, the element that the club continued to lack was a solid pitching staff, whose combined ERA ranked 9th in the A.L. at the season 's end. The Rangers were represented in the 2006 All - Star game by center fielder Gary Matthews, Jr. and shortstop Michael Young, who was named the MVP for his game - winning two - run triple in the ninth inning.
Significant player moves in - season included a July 28 deal acquiring outfielders Carlos Lee and Nelson Cruz from the Milwaukee Brewers in exchange for Kevin Mench, Francisco Cordero, and Laynce Nix.
On October 4 after two attempts to replicate the success of the 2004 team, the Rangers dismissed Buck Showalter as manager with three years left on his contract. A month later, the team announced that Oakland Athletics third base coach Ron Washington had accepted their offer to manage the team. A change at manager would be the first of several moves to strengthen the team in yet another busy off - season.
Gary Matthews, Jr., Mark DeRosa, Carlos Lee, and Adam Eaton all signed with other clubs as free agents. Vicente Padilla accepted a three - year, $33 million offer with an option for a fourth year at $12 million. The Rangers also signed 1B / OF Frank Catalanotto to a multi-year deal. The Rangers later added reliever Éric Gagné and veteran outfielders Kenny Lofton and Sammy Sosa on short - term deals. In a sign that GM Jon Daniels was looking for results in 2007, the Rangers ' top pitching prospect John Danks was traded to the Chicago White Sox along with reliever Nick Masset for 23 - year - old starter Brandon McCarthy. The Danks trade caused quite a stir amongst fans, many of which had followed the minor league careers of the highly touted "DVD '' trio of pitchers that included Danks, Edinson Vólquez, and Thomas Diamond. All three pitchers would eventually reach the majors, with varying degrees of success, while McCarthy 's career became marred by injury.
The Rangers previously negotiated a 30 - year, $75 million stadium naming rights agreement with Ameriquest Mortgage Company in 2004, renaming the Ballpark "Ameriquest Field ''. Under the Ameriquest moniker, the Ballpark featured a replica of the Liberty Bell in the stands above the Diamond Club (representing Ameriquest 's logo) that rang after home runs. In 2007, though, the Rangers announced the termination of the agreement with Ameriquest, and changed the name to Rangers Ballpark in Arlington. Club president Jeff Cogen cited that the team was more concerned about getting their name back on the ballpark than Ameriquest 's public financial troubles. "It 's all about the brand '', Cogen said. The Rangers lost a reported $2.5 million per year from the lack of naming rights but regained advertising space given over to Ameriquest in the naming rights deal. Regardless of Cogen 's comments, Ameriquest dissolved within months after the naming rights were terminated, and the company ended most business operations in September 2007.
The Rangers struggled offensively early in the season, despite playing in a notoriously hitter - friendly park. On June 20, Sammy Sosa hit his 600th career home run against the Chicago Cubs at the Rangers Ballpark in Arlington. Hank Blalock, the starting 3rd baseman who had been enjoying a good season, was placed on the 60 - day disabled list on the May 19 due to thoracic outlet syndrome, and Mark Teixeira followed him onto the disabled list on June 9 (for the first time in his career) with a strained left quadriceps muscle. With a record of 46 -- 59 at the July 31 trade deadline, the team traded Mark Teixeira and Ron Mahay to the Atlanta Braves in a deal that would eventually bring 5 prospects to the Rangers organization, including four of Atlanta 's top prospects Jarrod Saltalamacchia, Elvis Andrus, Matt Harrison, and Neftalí Feliz. The team also traded closer Éric Gagné to the Boston Red Sox for left - hander Kason Gabbard and Minor League outfielders David Murphy and Engel Beltre. These moves were the beginnings of a rebuilding project headed by Jon Daniels with a focus on the acquisition and development of young players. In the coming years, more club resources would be dedicated to improving the quality of the farm system and scouting departments, most notably in Latin America and the Far East. The objective of Daniels ' plan was to field a legitimately competitive team by the 2010 season.
The 2007 season remains notable in the minds of baseball fans for two inexplicable oddities. On August 19 at the Metrodome, the Minnesota Twins logged 19 strikeouts against the Rangers, one short of the Major League record. Three days later, the 22nd, in the first game of a doubleheader at Oriole Park at Camden Yards, the Rangers ' bats came alive with a modern record for runs by one team, defeating the Baltimore Orioles 30 -- 3. Their 27 - run margin of victory is also a modern - day MLB record. Wes Littleton gained probably the easiest save in Major League history: entering the game in the bottom of the seventh, with his team already ahead 14 -- 3, he pitched three innings to finish the game, and gave up just two hits and a walk.
The Rangers began the 2008 season red hot, headlined by newcomer Josh Hamilton who looked to be a threat to win the Triple Crown, before fading off as the season wore on. During the All - Star festivities at Yankee Stadium, Hamilton crushed a first round home run record in the 2008 Home Run Derby with 28. Hamilton hit another four in the second round and three during the final round, for a total of 35 home runs, but lost to the Twins ' Justin Morneau. Four Rangers played in the All Star Game: Josh Hamilton, Ian Kinsler, Milton Bradley, and Michael Young, who would repeat his 2006 All - Star Game feat by driving in the winning run via a sac fly.
The Rangers would finish the season with yet another sub -. 500 record (79 -- 83), yet ended the season second in the West, the club 's best finish since 1999. The off - season saw perennial All - Star shortstop Michael Young ask for a trade when the team told him he would be moving to third base to make room for rookie Elvis Andrus. After speaking with club president Nolan Ryan and his agent, Young later rescinded his trade request, and agreed to move to third base. The offseason also saw the departure of mercurial outfielder / DH Milton Bradley to free agency.
The 2009 season saw the Rangers soar into playoff contention for the first time since 2004. Despite injuries to Josh Hamilton and Ian Kinsler, the Rangers held first place in their division for long stretches of the summer before fading after September 1, losing the division to the Los Angeles Angels. The Rangers finished the season at 87 -- 75, their first winning season since 2004 and good enough for second place in the A.L. West. Michael Young responded to his move to third base by posting one of his best offensive seasons ever while committing just nine errors and earning a sixth straight All - Star appearance. Josh Hamilton and Nelson Cruz were also named 2009 A.L. All - Stars. Several young stars with the club broke out including the debuts of highly rated rookies Elvis Andrus, Derek Holland, and Neftalí Feliz. Second baseman Ian Kinsler hit for the cycle in April, while having a 30 -- 30 season in home runs and stolen bases. Starting pitcher Scott Feldman posted a fantastic season as well in 2009, finishing 3rd in the A.L in wins with 17.
While the 2009 season was strong on the field, club owner Tom Hicks became the focus of several reports indicating serious financial problems with his holding group, Hicks Sports Group, which also owned the Dallas Stars, the Frisco Roughriders (the Rangers AA - farm club), 1 / 2 of Liverpool F.C. (sold in mid-October 2010 to New England Sports Ventures, owners of the Boston Red Sox), and the Mesquite Championship Rodeo (later sold by HSG).
HSG was reported to have gone into default on a $525 million loan.
In April 2009, Hicks announced he would be willing to sell a minority interest in the team. Only one month later, Hicks announced he would be willing to sell majority control of the Rangers.
In July 2009, it was reported that Hicks borrowed money from Major League Baseball to meet the team 's payroll.
After the 2009 season, Hicks began scouting prospective buyers and in December entered into exclusive negotiating rights for sale of the Rangers with a consortium headed by Pittsburgh sports lawyer Chuck Greenberg and Rangers team president Nolan Ryan.
On January 22, 2010, Hicks Sports Group officially reached a formal agreement to sell the Texas Rangers to the group headed by Greenberg and Ryan (later called Rangers Baseball Express) for approximately $570 million. Under the provisions of the deal, former owner Hicks stayed on as a limited minority partner, but was not allowed to retain a seat on the board of governors. Co-lead investors Dallas businessmen Ray Davis and Bob R. Simpson were named co-chairmen. Hicks also sold much of the land surrounding Rangers Ballpark to Rangers Baseball Express in a separate deal.
The deal was subject to approval by the other MLB owners (a 3 / 4 vote is required) and completed by April 1. However, one of HSG 's principal lenders (Monarch Alternative Capital) opposed the sale on grounds that the proceeds would not fully repay the defaulted HSG notes. On April 21, Major League Baseball issued a statement declaring the Rangers ' sale to be under the control of the Commissioner to expedite the process. Because of public comments made by Hicks deemed detrimental to the process, MLB also stripped Hicks of any responsibility regarding the sale of the team. On May 13, MLB threatened to seize control of the rest of the team 's operations if a deal was not completed by the deadline set by the Commissioner.
As the stalemate between HSG and its creditors continued, on May 24, 2010 the Texas Rangers filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. As of that date, the Rangers and HSG had an estimated debt of $575 million. Much of the unsecured debt was owed in back salary. Officially, New York Yankees third baseman Alex Rodriguez topped the list of unsecured creditors with an estimated $24.9 million owed by the Rangers. Additionally, the Rangers also owed Baltimore Orioles pitcher Kevin Millwood $12.9 million, and then current Rangers third baseman Michael Young $3.9 million. At a press conference, the Greenberg - Ryan group proposed to buy the team for $575 million. The sale would repay all the team 's creditors, including players owed back salary.
After several attempts to resolve the deal fell through, the bankruptcy court ordered a public auction to be held on August 4. The Greenberg / Ryan bid would be the opening bid, and other offers (subject to MLB approval) would have to be submitted by the prior day in order to be considered. At the auction, only one other MLB - approved group submitted an offer -- Radical Baseball LLC, a group formed by Houston businessman Jim Crane (who was previously unsuccessful in buying the Houston Astros, and ultimately bought that team in 2011) and Dallas Mavericks owner Mark Cuban (who was previously unsuccessful in buying the Chicago Cubs). The auction lasted until the early morning of August 5, with the winning bid submitted by Greenberg / Ryan. The bankruptcy court approved the bid later that morning and the bankruptcy case closed. The sale to the Greenberg / Ryan was approved by all 30 MLB owners at the owners meeting in Minneapolis on Thursday August 12.
"I 'll be the managing partner and CEO. If you like what 's going on or you do n't like what 's going on, I take responsibility for that. When it comes to baseball, I 'm not going to interject my opinions. If Nolan and (Jon Daniels) want to discuss something with me, they can, but I have complete faith and trust in the decisions that they make. I 'll be as involved as they wish me to be, but with complete faith and confidence in them. What I 'm going to focus on, particularly since the baseball side is in great shape, is the business side. How do we connect with the community? How do we create a higher tempo of energy in the front office? How can we do a better job of filling the stands and make an impact on people 's lives? If we succeed on the business side and continue on path on the baseball side and combine it with a dynamic market like this is, we can be and should be one of the powerhouse franchises in baseball. ''
The new ownership group, which included Chuck Greenberg and Nolan Ryan, was called Rangers Baseball Express, LLC and had Greenberg serving as managing general partner and Ryan as club president. Davis and Simpson were named co-chairmen. In March 2011 Greenberg resigned as Chief Executive and Managing General Partner and sold his interest in the Club following a "falling out '' with his partners. Following Greenberg 's resignation, Nolan Ryan was named Chief Executive Officer in addition to his continuing role as Team President. Ryan was subsequently designated the Controlling Owner of the Club by a unanimous vote of the 30 owners of Major League Baseball on May 12, 2011. Co-Chairmen Simpson and Davis stated they would not be involved in day - to - day operations.
Offseason moves made by the Rangers sent Kevin Millwood to the Baltimore Orioles and acquired free agents Rich Harden, Colby Lewis, and Vladimir Guerrero. With the new influx of talent and success in 2009, the Rangers entered the season expecting to compete for the division and achieve the front office 's goals of 2007. During the offseason, Texas Rangers ' team President Nolan Ryan spoke about the Rangers ' chances in the upcoming season saying, "My expectations today are that we 're going to be extremely competitive and if we do n't win our division, I 'll be disappointed. ''
After stumbling out of the gates with a sub -. 500 start in April, the Rangers took the division lead with a franchise - best month of June, going 21 -- 6. The Rangers would never relinquish first place after an 11 - game winning streak. On July 9, the club dealt one of its top prospects, Justin Smoak, with two other minor leaguers to the Seattle Mariners for former Cy Young Award winner Cliff Lee and Mark Lowe. The Rangers also made moves to acquire veterans Bengie Molina, Jorge Cantú, Cristian Guzmán, and Jeff Francoeur. In the 2010 All - Star Game, the team was represented by Cliff Lee, Vladimir Guerrero, Ian Kinsler, Josh Hamilton, Elvis Andrus, and Neftalí Feliz. After the All - Star Game, came the debut of the claw and antler hand gestures, which gained much popularity, especially after the release of various apparel and souvenir options for the fans. Foam claws and helmets with deer antlers became quite commonplace in the ballpark as the Rangers played further into the fall. The Rangers won the A.L. West on September 25, advancing to the postseason for the first time since 1999.
After winning the AL West with a 90 -- 72 record, the Rangers entered the playoffs for the first time since 1999, and faced the Tampa Bay Rays for the first round, which ultimately resulted in a 3 -- 2 series victory and marked the first postseason series victory in the 50 - year history of the Rangers / Washington Senators franchise. Facing the Rangers in the American League Championship Series were the defending World Champion New York Yankees, the team the Rangers failed against three separate times in the 1990s. In the playoffs, the Rangers record against the Yankees was 1 -- 9. In a 6 - game series, the Texas Rangers came out victorious, winning the first pennant in franchise history in front of an ecstatic home crowd. Josh Hamilton was awarded ALCS MVP after setting a series record for intentional walks. The Texas Rangers faced the San Francisco Giants in the 2010 World Series. The Rangers offense struggled against the Giants ' young pitching and eventually lost the Series 4 -- 1, the lone win coming in Arlington on October 30. For the first time, the Rangers ended their season in the month of November.
The Rangers successfully defended their AL West Division title in 2011, making the club 's second straight division title and postseason appearance and fifth division title and postseason appearance overall. The Rangers set records for best record (96 -- 66 with a. 592 winning percentage) and home attendance (2,946,949). On October 15, they went back to the World Series after beating the Detroit Tigers 15 -- 5 in Game 6 of the ALCS. The series featured Nelson Cruz hitting 6 home runs, the most home runs by one player in a playoff series in MLB history. In game 2 Cruz also became the first player in postseason history to win a game with a walk - off grand slam as the Rangers defeated the Tigers 7 -- 3 in 11 innings. However, they would proceed to lose the World Series to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games, after twice being one strike away from the championship in game 6. Game 7 is notable for the controversy surrounding the manager Ron Washington 's pre-game clubhouse speech.
The Rangers lost C.J. Wilson to the rival Angels in the offseason, but managed to gain the services of Japanese pitcher Yu Darvish. They also added Joe Nathan to fill the closer role vacated by Neftalí Feliz, who was shifted to full - time starter. The Rangers dominated the American League standings for much of the season, despite losing Feliz and Colby Lewis to the 60 - day DL. Darvish quickly flourished in the starting rotation, finishing with a 16 -- 9 record and a 3.90 ERA. Josh Hamilton also had a spectacular season, finishing with 43 home runs, four of which came in a single game against the Baltimore Orioles on May 8. However the Rangers floundered in September, culminating in a sweep by the Oakland Athletics in the final series. Before the last series of the regular season, the Rangers faced the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim on September 29, 2012. The game was postponed due to a rain delay and the game was held off until the next day. The Texas Rangers then lost to the Angels 5 -- 4 for the first game and won 8 -- 7 in the second game later that night, which guaranteed them a spot in the first ever American League wild - card playoff game. As a result of their 93 -- 69 record, finishing second in the AL West behind the Oakland A 's, the Texas Rangers settled for the Wild Card playoff slot. In the new Wild Card Game, the Rangers ' woes continued, as they lost 5 -- 1 to the Orioles.
The Rangers finished the season in second place in the American League West with a 91 - 72 record, 5 1 / 2 games behind the Oakland Athletics. On September 30, 2013, the Rangers faced the Tampa Bay Rays in a 163rd play - in 2013 American League Wild Card tie - breaker game, to determine the second participant in the 2013 American League Wild Card Game against the Cleveland Indians. The 163rd game was determined to be an extension of the regular season and not considered to be part of the 2013 Major League Baseball Postseason. The Rangers lost to the Rays 5 - 2 in the tie - breaker and were eliminated from playoff contention for the first time since 2009.
On October 17, 2013, Nolan Ryan announced that he was stepping down as Rangers CEO effective October 31, 2013.
Injuries took a major toll on the Rangers in 2014. The lone bright spot was Adrián Beltré, who despite spending some time injured, was the most consistent offensive player on the team. On September 4, 2014, the Rangers became the first MLB team officially eliminated from 2014 postseason contention when a 10 -- 2 loss at home to the Seattle Mariners dropped their record to 53 -- 87. The following day, manager Ron Washington resigned, citing personal issues.
The 2015 season started off on a bad note with the Ranger 's Ace pitcher Yu Darvish having to undergo Tommy John surgery due to a torn UCL before the season began. According to most experts, the Rangers were not expected to place any better than fourth or fifth in the American League West. However, even though the Rangers started the season with an 8 - 16 record, they were able to surpass the. 500 mark on a few different occasions throughout the year. Surprisingly, in 2015 the Rangers were one of the best road teams in all of baseball with a road record of 45 - 36. Only the Chicago Cubs had a better road record with 48 - 33.
With the acquisition of Cole Hamels, the Rangers would retain a winning record after August 3. The Rangers would overtake the Houston Astros and clinch the American League West title on the final day of the season with a record of 88 - 74. It was the Rangers ' 6th division title and 7th postseason appearance in franchise history. Hamels ' positive effect on the Rangers was compared to that of the Toronto Blue Jays ' David Price, another ace starting pitcher who helped spearhead a run to the postseason after blending in seamlessly with a struggling team who acquired him at the trade deadline. (1)
The Rangers lost to the Toronto Blue Jays in five games in the Division Series after squandering a 2 - 0 series lead.
Through the 2016 season, the Rangers have won 4,277 games and lost 4,649 over their history, equating to a. 479 lifetime winning percentage. After the 2011 World Series and the 2012 season, the team is 19 -- 25 in individual playoff games, and 4 -- 6 overall for postseason series.
Nellie Fox
Ted Williams
Bert Blyleven Goose Gossage
Vladimir Guerrero Whitey Herzog
Ferguson Jenkins
Gaylord Perry Iván Rodríguez
Nolan Ryan
Chuck Hinton and Frank Howard, who played for the franchise in Washington (although Howard played for the Rangers in 1972), are listed on the Washington Hall of Stars display at Nationals Park in Washington. So are Gil Hodges and Mickey Vernon, who managed the "New Senators ''. Vernon also played for the "Old Senators '', who became the Minnesota Twins.
Jon Miller
Eric Nadel
Rangers Captain is the mascot for the Texas Rangers. Introduced in 2002, he is a palomino - style horse, dressed in the team 's uniform. He wears the uniform number "72 '' in honor of 1972, the year the Rangers relocated to Arlington.
The mascot also has multiple uniforms to match each of the variants the team has. Rangers Captain 's chosen uniform for the game matches the uniform choice made by the team for that particular game. Captain 's outfits sometimes match a theme the team is promoting; on Apr 24, 2010, he was dressed up like Elvis as part of an Elvis Presley themed night.
The Texas Rangers Hall of Fame was created in 2003 to honor the careers of former Texas Rangers players, managers, executives and broadcasters. There are currently 20 members.
The Hall is located in Globe Life Park in Arlington, behind right field. The Hall 's two levels contain 13,000 square feet, a 235 - seat theater, and various plaques, photos, and memorabilia. It can accommodate up to 600 people.
Pitchers Starting rotation
Bullpen
Closer
Catchers
Infielders
Outfielders
Pitchers
Catchers
Infielders
Outfielders
Manager
Coaches
60 - day disabled list
7 - or 10 - day disabled list Suspended list Personal leave Roster and coaches updated August 12, 2018 Transactions Depth chart
In addition to the flagship stations listed above, Rangers games can be heard on affiliates throughout much of Texas, and also in parts of Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana, and New Mexico. Eric Nadel is the primary play - by - play announcer. He has called games for the club since 1979 beginning on television broadcasts, then moving exclusively to radio beginning in 1985. He became the primary announcer after the late Mark Holtz moved to television. Currently, Nadel provides play - by - play in the 1st, 2nd, 5th, 6th, 8th, and 9th innings, and color commentary for the other innings. On December 11, 2013, he was awarded the 2014 Ford C. Frick Award by the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum for excellence in broadcasting. Matt Hicks now shares the broadcast booth with Nadel. He joined the broadcast in 2012 after Steve Busby moved from radio to television to replace Dave Barnett. Hicks provides play - by - play in the 3rd, 4th, and 7th innings, and color commentary for the other innings. Jared Sandler hosts the pre-game and post-game shows, and also fills in whenever Nadel or Hicks have a day off. For the Spanish radio affiliates, Eleno Ornelas is the play - by - play announcer, and former Rangers pitcher José Guzmán is the color analyst.
Texas Rangers games currently air on regional television network Fox Sports Southwest. During the 2016 season, they had an average 3.96 rating and 105,000 viewers on primetime broadcasts. Due to the Rangers having to play many of their Sunday home games at night, the team has been featured frequently on ESPN 's Sunday Night Baseball during the summer months. Rangers games can also be seen on MLB on Fox and TBS.
Since 2017, Dave Raymond is the primary television play - by - play announcer and former MLB pitcher C.J. Nitkowski is the primary color commentator. Nitkowski also fills in for Raymond on play - by - play for select games. Raymond replaced Steve Busby, who since 1982 on both TV and radio has had various stints in various positions on Rangers broadcasts from play - by - play to color commentary to pre-game and post-game analysis. In June 2012, Busby moved back to television play - by - play after Dave Barnett left his position as game announcer following an episode in which he experienced speech difficulties. Beginning in 2016, Raymond substituted for Busby on select games. Previously the primary color commentator, Tom Grieve still broadcasts many games. A former Rangers player and general manager, Grieve has been in the TV booth since 1995, following the end of his tenure as GM. Another former Ranger, Mark McLemore, has substituted for Grieve in the past and often joins the booth for an inning during home games. He and former Ranger Iván Rodríguez are among the pre-game and post-game analysts used on Fox Sports Southwest. FSSW pre-game and post-game shows are hosted by a rotation among Dana Larson, John Rhadigan, Ric Renner, and Erin Hartigan. In - game reporters include Rhadigan, Hartigan, Lesley McCaslin, and Rangers employee Emily Jones (formerly of FSSW).
The Texas Rangers Six Shooters is an interactive dance squad for the Texas Rangers that perform various duties at Rangers home games. The women dance, tumble, and interact with fans.
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who were the first presidents of the united states | List of Presidents of the United States - wikipedia
The President of the United States is the elected head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander - in - chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is indirectly elected to a four - year term by the people through the Electoral College.
Since the office was established in 1789, 44 men have served as president. The first, George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College. Grover Cleveland served two non-consecutive terms in office, and is counted as the nation 's 22nd and 24th presidents; the incumbent, Donald Trump, is therefore the 45th president. There are currently five living former presidents. The most recent death of a former president was on December 26, 2006 with the death of Gerald Ford.
William Henry Harrison 's presidency was the shortest in American history. He died 31 days after taking office in 1841. Franklin D. Roosevelt served the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms. Since the ratification of the Twenty - second Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once.
Of the elected presidents, four died in office of natural causes (William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four were assassinated (Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, William McKinley and John F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon). John Tyler was the first vice president to assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with his own presidency, as opposed to a caretaker president. The Twenty - fifth Amendment to the Constitution put Tyler 's precedent into law in 1967. It also established a mechanism by which a mid-term vacancy in the vice presidency could be filled. Richard Nixon was the first president to fill a vacancy under this Provision when he appointed Gerald Ford to the office. Later, Ford became the second to do so when he appointed Nelson Rockefeller to succeed him. Previously, a mid-term vacancy was left unfilled.
Throughout most of its history, American politics has been dominated by political parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, there were no parties. Soon after the 1st Congress convened, factions began rallying around dominant Washington Administration officials, such as Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson. Greatly concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remained unaffiliated with any political faction or party throughout his eight - year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party. Since Washington, every president has been affiliated with a political party at the time they assumed office.
Three presidents held another U.S. federal office after serving as president.
Several presidents campaigned unsuccessfully for other U.S. state or federal elective offices after serving as president.
Additionally, one former president, John Tyler, served in the government of the Confederate States during the American Civil War. Tyler served in the Provisional Confederate Congress from 1861 to 1862. He was elected to the Confederate House of Representatives in November 1861, but died before he could take his seat.
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advantages of matrix factorization in linear algebra computations | LU decomposition - wikipedia
In numerical analysis and linear algebra, lower -- upper (LU) decomposition or factorization factors a matrix as the product of a lower triangular matrix and an upper triangular matrix. The product sometimes includes a permutation matrix as well. The LU decomposition can be viewed as the matrix form of Gaussian elimination. Computers usually solve square systems of linear equations using the LU decomposition, and it is also a key step when inverting a matrix or computing the determinant of a matrix. The LU decomposition was introduced by mathematician Tadeusz Banachiewicz in 1938.
Let A be a square matrix. An LU factorization refers to the factorization of A, with proper row and / or column orderings or permutations, into two factors -- a lower triangular matrix L and an upper triangular matrix U:
In the lower triangular matrix all elements above the diagonal are zero, in the upper triangular matrix, all the elements below the diagonal are zero. For example, for a 3 × 3 matrix A, its LU decomposition looks like this:
Without a proper ordering or permutations in the matrix, the factorization may fail to materialize. For example, it is easy to verify (by expanding the matrix multiplication) that a 11 = l 11 u 11 (\ textstyle a_ (11) = l_ (11) u_ (11)). If a 11 = 0 (\ textstyle a_ (11) = 0), then at least one of l 11 (\ textstyle l_ (11)) and u 11 (\ textstyle u_ (11)) has to be zero, which implies that either L or U is singular. This is impossible if A is nonsingular (invertible). This is a procedural problem. It can be removed by simply reordering the rows of A so that the first element of the permuted matrix is nonzero. The same problem in subsequent factorization steps can be removed the same way; see the basic procedure below.
It turns out that a proper permutation in rows (or columns) is sufficient for the LU factorization. The LU factorization with partial pivoting (LUP) refers often to the LU factorization with row permutations only:
where L and U are again lower and upper triangular matrices, and P is a permutation matrix, which, when left - multiplied to A, reorders the rows of A. It turns out that all square matrices can be factorized in this form, and the factorization is numerically stable in practice. This makes LUP decomposition a useful technique in practice.
An LU factorization with full pivoting involves both row and column permutations:
where L, U and P are defined as before, and Q is a permutation matrix that reorders the columns of A.
An LDU decomposition is a decomposition of the form
where D is a diagonal matrix, and L and U are unit triangular matrices, meaning that all the entries on the diagonals of L and U are one.
Above we required that A be a square matrix, but these decompositions can all be generalized to rectangular matrices as well. In that case, L and D are square matrices both of which have the same number of rows as A, and U has exactly the same dimensions as A. Upper triangular should be interpreted as having only zero entries below the main diagonal, which starts at the upper left corner.
We factorize the following 2 - by - 2 matrix:
One way to find the LU decomposition of this simple matrix would be to simply solve the linear equations by inspection. Expanding the matrix multiplication gives
This system of equations is underdetermined. In this case any two non-zero elements of L and U matrices are parameters of the solution and can be set arbitrarily to any non-zero value. Therefore, to find the unique LU decomposition, it is necessary to put some restriction on L and U matrices. For example, we can conveniently require the lower triangular matrix L to be a unit triangular matrix (i.e. set all the entries of its main diagonal to ones). Then the system of equations has the following solution:
Substituting these values into the LU decomposition above yields
Any square matrix A (\ textstyle A) admits an LUP factorization. If A (\ textstyle A) is invertible, then it admits an LU (or LDU) factorization if and only if all its leading principal minors are nonzero. If A (\ textstyle A) is a singular matrix of rank k (\ textstyle k), then it admits an LU factorization if the first k (\ textstyle k) leading principal minors are nonzero, although the converse is not true.
If a square, invertible matrix has an LDU factorization with all diagonal entries of L and U equal to 1, then the factorization is unique. In that case, the LU factorization is also unique if we require that the diagonal of L (\ textstyle L) (or U (\ textstyle U)) consists of ones.
If A is a symmetric (or Hermitian, if A is complex) positive definite matrix, we can arrange matters so that U is the conjugate transpose of L. That is, we can write A as
This decomposition is called the Cholesky decomposition. The Cholesky decomposition always exists and is unique -- provided the matrix is positive definite. Furthermore, computing the Cholesky decomposition is more efficient and numerically more stable than computing some other LU decompositions.
For a (not necessarily invertible) matrix over any field, the exact necessary and sufficient conditions under which it has an LU factorization are known. The conditions are expressed in terms of the ranks of certain submatrices. The Gaussian elimination algorithm for obtaining LU decomposition has also been extended to this most general case. #
The LU decomposition is basically a modified form of Gaussian elimination. We transform the matrix A into an upper triangular matrix U by eliminating the entries below the main diagonal. The Doolittle algorithm does the elimination column - by - column, starting from the left, by multiplying A to the left with atomic lower triangular matrices. It results in a unit lower triangular matrix and an upper triangular matrix. The Crout algorithm is slightly different and constructs a lower triangular matrix and a unit upper triangular matrix.
Computing the LU decomposition using either of these algorithms requires 2n / 3 floating - point operations, ignoring lower - order terms. Partial pivoting adds only a quadratic term; this is not the case for full pivoting.
When an LDU factorization exists and is unique, there is a closed (explicit) formula for the elements of L, D, and U in terms of ratios of determinants of certain submatrices of the original matrix A. In particular, D 1 = A 1, 1 (\ textstyle D_ (1) = A_ (1, 1)), and for i = 2,..., n (\ textstyle i = 2, \ ldots, n), D i (\ textstyle D_ (i)) is the ratio of the i (\ textstyle i) - th principal submatrix to the (i − 1) (\ textstyle (i - 1)) - th principal submatrix. Computation of the determinants is computationally expensive, so this explicit formula is not used in practice.
Given an N × N matrix
we define
We eliminate the matrix elements below the main diagonal in the n - th column of A by adding to the i - th row of this matrix the n - th row multiplied by
for i = n + 1,..., N (\ textstyle i = n + 1, \ ldots, N). This can be done by multiplying A to the left with the lower triangular matrix
We set
After N − 1 steps, we eliminated all the matrix elements below the main diagonal, so we obtain an upper triangular matrix A. We find the decomposition
Denote the upper triangular matrix A by U, and L = L 1 − 1... L N − 1 − 1 (\ textstyle L = L_ (1) ^ (- 1) \ ldots L_ (N - 1) ^ (- 1)). Because the inverse of a lower triangular matrix L is again a lower triangular matrix, and the multiplication of two lower triangular matrices is again a lower triangular matrix, it follows that L is a lower triangular matrix. Moreover, it can be seen that
We obtain A = L U (\ textstyle A = LU).
It is clear that in order for this algorithm to work, one needs to have a n, n (n − 1) ≠ 0 (\ textstyle a_ (n, n) ^ ((n - 1)) \ neq 0) at each step (see the definition of l i, n (\ textstyle l_ (i, n))). If this assumption fails at some point, one needs to interchange n - th row with another row below it before continuing. This is why the LU decomposition in general looks like P − 1 A = L U (\ textstyle P ^ (- 1) A = LU).
The LUP decomposition algorithm by Cormen et al. generalizes Crout matrix decomposition. It can be described as follows.
It is possible to find a low rank approximation to the LU decomposition using a randomized algorithm. Given an input matrix A (\ textstyle A) and a desired low rank k (\ textstyle k), the randomized LU returns permutation matrices P, Q (\ textstyle P, Q) and lower / upper trapezoidal matrices L, U (\ textstyle L, U) of size m × k (\ textstyle m \ times k) and k × n (\ textstyle k \ times n) respectively, such that with high probability ‖ P A Q − L U ‖ 2 ≤ C σ k + 1 (\ textstyle \ Vert PAQ - LU \ Vert _ (2) \ leq C \ sigma _ (k + 1)), where C (\ textstyle C) is a constant that depends on the parameters of the algorithm and σ k + 1 (\ textstyle \ sigma _ (k + 1)) is the (k + 1) (\ textstyle (k + 1)) th singular value of the input matrix A (\ textstyle A).
If two matrices of order n can be multiplied in time M (n), where M (n) ≥ n for some a > 2, then the LU decomposition can be computed in time O (M (n)). This means, for example, that an O (n) algorithm exists based on the Coppersmith -- Winograd algorithm.
Special algorithms have been developed for factorizing large sparse matrices. These algorithms attempt to find sparse factors L and U. Ideally, the cost of computation is determined by the number of nonzero entries, rather than by the size of the matrix.
These algorithms use the freedom to exchange rows and columns to minimize fill - in (entries that change from an initial zero to a non-zero value during the execution of an algorithm).
General treatment of orderings that minimize fill - in can be addressed using graph theory.
Given a system of linear equations in matrix form
we want to solve the equation for x, given A and b. Suppose we have already obtained the LUP decomposition of A such that P ′ A = L U (\ textstyle P'A = LU), so L U x = P b (\ textstyle LUx = Pb).
In this case the solution is done in two logical steps:
Note that in both cases we are dealing with triangular matrices (L and U), which can be solved directly by forward and backward substitution without using the Gaussian elimination process (however we do need this process or equivalent to compute the LU decomposition itself).
The above procedure can be repeatedly applied to solve the equation multiple times for different b. In this case it is faster (and more convenient) to do an LU decomposition of the matrix A once and then solve the triangular matrices for the different b, rather than using Gaussian elimination each time. The matrices L and U could be thought to have "encoded '' the Gaussian elimination process.
The cost of solving a system of linear equations is approximately 2 3 n 3 (\ textstyle (\ frac (2) (3)) n ^ (3)) floating - point operations if the matrix A (\ textstyle A) has size n (\ textstyle n). This makes it twice as fast as algorithms based on the QR decomposition, which costs about 4 3 n 3 (\ textstyle (\ frac (4) (3)) n ^ (3)) floating - point operations when Householder reflections are used. For this reason, the LU decomposition is usually preferred.
When solving systems of equations, b is usually treated as a vector with a length equal to the height of matrix A. In matrix inversion however, instead of vector b, we have matrix B, where B is an n - by - p matrix, so that we are trying to find a matrix X (also a n - by - p matrix):
We can use the same algorithm presented earlier to solve for each column of matrix X. Now suppose that B is the identity matrix of size n. It would follow that the result X must be the inverse of A. An implementation of this methodology in the C programming language can be found here.
Given the LUP decomposition A = P − 1 L U (\ textstyle A = P ^ (- 1) LU) of a square matrix A, the determinant of A can be computed straightforwardly as
The second equation follows from the fact that the determinant of a triangular matrix is simply the product of its diagonal entries, and that the determinant of a permutation matrix is equal to (− 1) where S is the number of row exchanges in the decomposition.
In the case of LU decomposition with full pivoting, det (A) (\ textstyle \ det (A)) also equals the right - hand side of the above equation, if we let S be the total number of row and column exchanges.
The same method readily applies to LU decomposition by setting P equal to the identity matrix.
References
Computer code
Online resources
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who sang it's a kind of hush | There 's a Kind of Hush - wikipedia
"There 's a Kind of Hush '' is a popular song written by Les Reed and Geoff Stephens which was a hit in 1967 for Herman 's Hermits and again in 1976 for The Carpenters.
The song was introduced on the 1966 album Winchester Cathedral by Geoff Stephens ' group the New Vaudeville Band; like that group 's hit "Winchester Cathedral '', "There 's a Kind of Hush '' was conceived as a neo-British music hall number although it is a less overt example of that style. The first single version of "There 's a Kind of Hush '' was recorded in 1966 by Gary and the Hornets, a teen / pre-teen male band from Franklin, Ohio whose version -- entitled "A Kind of Hush '' produced by Lou Reizner -- became a regional success and showed signs of breaking nationally in January 1967; the single would reach No. 4 in Cincinnati and No. 3 in Erie PA. However an expedient cover by Herman 's Hermits was released in the US in February 1967 to reach the Top 30 of the Billboard Hot 100 in three weeks and proceed to a peak of # 4 -- affording the group their final US Top Ten hit -- with Gold certification for US sales of one million units awarded that April. In the UK Herman 's Hermits ' "There 's a Kind of Hush '' would reach No. 7. The success of the Herman 's Hermits version led to the release of the original New Vaudeville Band track as a single in some territories with both of these versions charting in Australia with peaks of No. 5 (Herman 's Hermits) and No. 12 (New Vaudeville Band) and also in South Africa where the New Vaudeville Band bested the Herman 's Hermits ' No. 9 peak by reaching No. 4.
The Carpenters remade "There 's a Kind of Hush '' -- as "There 's a Kind of Hush (All Over the World) '' -- for their 1976 album release A Kind of Hush for which it served as lead single, reaching No. 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and affording the Carpenters ' their thirteenth No. 1 on the easy listening chart.
The single 's lack of comparative success indicated a drop in the Carpenters ' popularity, it being the first lead single from a mainstream Carpenters ' album to fall short of the Top 5 since "Ticket to Ride '' from the group 's 1969 debut album Offering, while the No. 33 chart peak of the A Kind of Hush album afforded the Carpenters ' their first Top 20 shortfall since Offering (Horizon would prove to be their last album to reach the top 20 in the United States). "There 's a Kind of Hush '' would remain the Carpenters ' final top twenty hit until 1981 's "Touch Me When We 're Dancing ''.
Richard Carpenter explained in the liner notes to the Carpenters ' 2004 best - of compilation, Gold, that although he and Karen Carpenter loved the song, he was not particularly pleased with how their remake turned out:
"... one of Karen 's and my favorite songs from the ' 60s. In hindsight, however, even though our version was a hit, I wish we 'd never recorded it. Here are three reasons why: (1) The original was, and is, perfectly fine. (2) Our foray into the oldies should have ended with the medley featured on side 2 of Now & Then, 1973. (3) The use of a synthesizer in some of our recordings has not worn well with me, on this track, or just about any other track on which I used it. ''
In the summer of 1968 Karel Gott reached No. 7 in Czechoslovakia with his rendition of "There 's a Kind of Hush '' (sung in English); a Czech rendering of the song entitled "Požehnej, Bože Můj '' would be featured on Gott 's 1970 album Poslouchejte! Karel Gott Zpívá Lásku Bláznivou A Další Hity.
As "There 's a Kind of Hush (All Over the World) '' the song made a C&W chart appearance with a No. 42 peak in 1972 via a recording by Brian Collins.
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who sings the theme song for that 70 show | That ' 70s show - wikipedia
That ' 70s Show is an American television period sitcom that originally aired on Fox from August 23, 1998 to May 18, 2006. The series focused on the lives of a group of six teenage friends living in fictional Point Place, Wisconsin from May 17, 1976 to December 31, 1979.
The main teenage cast members were Topher Grace, Mila Kunis, Ashton Kutcher, Danny Masterson, Laura Prepon and Wilmer Valderrama. The main adult cast members were Debra Jo Rupp, Kurtwood Smith, Don Stark, Tommy Chong and Tanya Roberts.
The creators had wanted the show to have a 1970s "feel '' from the beginning, so opted to set the series later in the decade, when trends and political ideologies had become firmly established and disseminated. The idea that the duration of the series would carry sociopolitical undertones also necessitated a chain of social events which could influence the characters. Thus, 1976 was chosen, which allowed episodes set within a short time frame to address streaking, the sexual revolution, the Equal Rights Amendment, the 1973 oil crisis, and the presidencies of Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford, all of which were culturally influential events that occurred in the earlier years of the 1970s. The shift to 1977 during the last half of the first season also allowed the inclusion of the first Star Wars movie, which premiered in May 1977.
Throughout the first two seasons, episodes opened with title cards showing the season / month and year (example: Late Spring, 1977 or June 1977). These, however, were largely abandoned after season 2, with few subsequent episodes using them. However, they were used again in the final episode, showing "December 31, 1979 10: 45 a.m. '' From the premiere onward, the episode 's year could be determined by the registration tags on Eric 's Vista Cruiser at the end of the opening and closing credits. The final episode 's closing credits showed an "80 '' year tag.
The show was set in May 1976 in the August 23, 1998 premiere. After 12 episodes, the series transitioned to 1977. The 23rd episode, "Grandma 's Dead '', was also set in 1976, because it was supposed to be the season finale of season 1. The show remained in 1977 for the next two seasons. Near the end of the third season, the series transitioned to 1978 until early in the sixth season. The remaining episodes took place in 1979, and the series finale abruptly ends during a New Year 's Eve party as the characters reach "one '' during a countdown to January 1, 1980.
The show 's unexpected longevity (it was the only series to debut on Fox in 1998 to survive cancellation) combined with the first season jump to 1977 necessitated a slow - down of the series ' timeline. Over time, this proved problematic from a narrative standpoint, as nearly every year featured a Thanksgiving and / or Christmas episode, and the teen - aged actors playing high - school student characters all aged into their mid-20s by the time their characters graduated from high school after five seasons (except Mila Kunis, who was not quite 20). As the series timeline sped up and slowed down with more rapidity near the series ' climax, the timeline necessitated that several major events depicted as having occurred months apart would have in fact happened within weeks or even days of one another.
The timeline issues experienced on the show were not unprecedented, as other period - specific TV series have had similar issues. Most notably, M * A * S * H aired for 11 seasons despite the Korean War only lasting three years. Additionally, many TV series over the years that take place in the present time have characters age faster than normal while other characters age naturally.
The character of Eric Forman was written out of the series at the end of the seventh season, as Topher Grace wanted to move on with his career. Ashton Kutcher switched to a recurring guest role when he also chose to depart following the seventh season. However, Kelso had not been written out yet, so to give better closure to the character, Kutcher appeared in the first four episodes of the eighth season (credited as a special guest star) and later returned for the finale. Tommy Chong (who began reappearing by late season 7 after a long absence) became a regular again to help fill Kelso 's role as the dimwit of the group. Eric was originally supposed to be replaced by his new friend Charlie, played by Bret Harrison, as an "innocent character '', who proved fairly popular with audiences, but the character was killed off after Harrison was offered a lead role in the series The Loop. Another new character named Randy Pearson, played by Josh Meyers, was introduced to take the place of both Eric and, to a lesser extent, Charlie. Another new character, Samantha, a stripper played by Judy Tylor, was added as Hyde 's wife for nine episodes. The location of the show 's introductory theme song was changed from the Vista Cruiser to the circle. Both Eric and Kelso returned for the series ' final episode, although Topher Grace was uncredited.
The eighth season was announced as the final season of the show on January 17, 2006, and "That ' 70s Finale '' was filmed a month later on February 17, 2006, first airing on May 18, 2006.
The working titles for the show were Teenage Wasteland (named after the lyric from The Who 's "Baba O'Riley ''), The Kids Are Alright (named after The Who 's song of the same name), Feelin ' All Right, and Reeling in the Years (named after Steely Dan 's song of the same name). However, due to the denials of these three songs from the 1970s (including Pete Townshend 's denial of using his two songs for each of the two titles), and Fox Network 's decision that Feelin ' All Right was not too memorable, co-creator Bonnie Turner suggested that the show should be titled That ' 70s Show, which became the official title.
The show usually opens with the theme song, "In the Street '', written by Alex Chilton and Chris Bell of the band Big Star. The original version of the song appeared on Big Star 's 1972 debut album # 1 Record. In 2000, Chilton confirmed that he was paid $70 in royalties each time the show aired, an amount he thought ironic, given the show 's title.
Big Star 's original version of the song was not used on the show. Instead, a cover version sung by Todd Griffin was used as the theme song for the show 's first season. Beginning in the second season, the theme song was performed by the band Cheap Trick. Unlike previous versions of the song, Cheap Trick ended the song with the repeated phrase "We 're all alright! '' quoting the ending of their 1978 hit song "Surrender ''.
Both versions of the song (Todd Griffin and Cheap Trick) used on the show end with somebody yelling "Hello, Wisconsin! '' In Griffin 's version, Masterson is the one yelling "Hello, Wisconsin! '' while it is unknown who yells it in Cheap Trick 's version during the opening. On the soundtrack, That ' 70s Album (Rockin '), Cheap Trick 's lead singer Robin Zander yells "Hello, Wisconsin! '' Alternate holiday versions of the theme song were arranged for Halloween and Christmas specials, using organ music and bells, respectively.
Opening credits for seasons 1 -- 7 showed members of the cast driving in Eric 's car singing the theme song together. At the conclusion of the opening, a shot of a 1970s - style Wisconsin license plate (black letters / numbers on a yellow background) is seen, showing the year in which the episode was taking place in the bottom right corner. During the first season 's opening, a single shot of the group is used; beginning with season 2, numerous alternating shots were used of the cast in various groupings (including the adult cast members, who had not appeared in the first season 's opening).
After Topher Grace and Ashton Kutcher left the series, the opening credits were reworked for season 8 to feature close - up shots of each of the actors singing (or mouthing) a line of the theme song in the Circle (for example, Mila Kunis "Hanging Out...; '' Danny Masterson "Down the Street ''). The only actors to not say or do anything in the new opening credits were Kurtwood Smith and Tommy Chong, with the exception of the first episode of season 8, when Chong sings the last "We 're all alright ''. Smith looks at the camera frowning and rolls his eyes. Chong looks around the room, confused as he hears "Hello, Wisconsin! '' The final episode omits most of the opening sequence and instead only shows the license plate shot.
The show addressed social issues of the 1970s such as sexism, sexual attitudes, generational conflict, the economic hardships of the 1970s recession, mistrust of the American government by blue - collar workers, and underage drinking, including teenage drug use. The series also highlighted developments in the entertainment industry, including the television remote ("the clicker ''), reruns, VCR, and cable TV; the video games Pong and Space Invaders; the cassette tape and Disco; MAD magazine; and Eric 's obsession with Star Wars. The show has been compared to Happy Days, which was similarly set 20 years before the time in which it aired.
Beginning with the second season, the show focused less on the sociopolitical aspects of the story. For example, the dynamic of the relationship between Eric and Donna was altered in later seasons to more closely resemble the relationships of other "power couples '' on teen dramas. Likewise, the first season of the show featured a recurring, more dramatic storyline in which the Formans were in danger of losing their home due to Red 's hours being cut back at the auto parts plant where he worked. Storylines in later seasons were generally presented more comically and less dramatically.
The show also featured guest - starring actors from 1970s TV shows, such as Mary Tyler Moore, Valerie Harper and Betty White (The Mary Tyler Moore Show), Tom Poston and Jack Riley (The Bob Newhart Show), Pamela Sue Martin (The Hardy Boys / Nancy Drew Mysteries), Tim Reid and Howard Hesseman (WKRP in Cincinnati), Eve Plumb, Barry Williams and Christopher Knight (The Brady Bunch), Tom Bosley and Marion Ross (Happy Days), Monty Hall (Let 's Make A Deal), Gavin MacLeod (The Love Boat and The Mary Tyler Moore Show), Don Knotts, Richard Kline and Jenilee Harrison (Three 's Company), and Danny Bonaduce and Shirley Jones (The Partridge Family). Series recurring cast member Tanya Roberts also starred in a popular show in the 1970s (Charlie 's Angels).
Beginning with season 5, each episode in the series is named after a song by a rock band that was famous in the 1970s: Led Zeppelin (season 5), The Who (Season 6), The Rolling Stones (season 7), and Queen (season 8, except for the finale, titled "That ' 70s Finale '').
One device in the show is to present a split screen in which two pairs of characters speak. One character is usually seeking advice on a problem with a character in the second pairing and the other character advises them. Although the conversations appear to mirror each other, notable differences often occur. It is most often used by the couples of the show, with each member of the couple being advised on the relationship. For example, in the episode "Who Wants It More? '', Donna and Eric tell Jackie and Hyde that they have been holding out on each other sexually for three days and that maybe they should cave. Both Jackie and Hyde tell Donna and Eric not to cave or the "caver '' will be owned by the other.
The show includes character daydream sequences, some of which refer to or parody fads and films of the time, such as Star Wars, Rocky, and Grease.
The character picturing the dream sometimes also narrates it, but regardless, the other characters present see the same dream. In the episode "Stone Cold Crazy '', Jackie mentioned she liked the song playing in Fez 's dream sequence. The sequences are usually introduced by a wobbling screen transition. Sometimes, the transition is absent when the characters who imagine the scene believe they are real (for example, Eric 's dream about Donna in "Eric 's Birthday '' or Jackie 's dream about Hyde proposing in "It 's All Over Now '').
In the 100th episode, "That ' 70s Musical '', all singing scenes were Fez 's dream sequences.
In the circle, a group of characters, usually the teenagers, sit in a circle (generally in Eric 's basement, though occasionally elsewhere), as the camera pans, stopping at each character as he or she speaks. It was usually apparent that the characters are under the influence of marijuana. Thick clouds of smoke, frequent coughing and an extreme wide - angle lens added to the "drug - induced '' feel, although the audience never saw anyone actually smoking the drug. Also, no visible drug - related paraphernalia were seen, such as bongs or joint papers. Characters never spoke the word "marijuana '' while in the circle (except in one episode "Reefer Madness ''), often referring to it as "stuff '' or a "stash ''. In the episode "Bye - Bye Basement '', Theo (Leo 's cousin) refers to "weed ''; in "The Relapse '', Kelso tells Fez that the concrete wall behind the gym is used mostly for "smoking weed and beating up freshmen; '' in "Ski Trip '' Kitty asks Eric why he is taking so much oregano to Jackie 's ski lodge; in "Eric 's Burger Job '', Kelso blames his "roach clip '' when the water bed pops on which he is sitting at a party; in two episodes ("That Wrestling Show '' and "Hyde Moves In '') Eric and Hyde can be seen wearing shirts with the words "Cannabis Sativa '' written on a Campbell 's soup can; and in "The Pill '' Red, referring to Kelso, exclaims, "That kid 's on dope! '' A gimmick related to the circle and the marijuana smoking was Eric watching the kitchen wall moving erratically, although this technique was also used to show that Eric was drunk.
As the series progressed, the circle became one of the series ' recurring features. The only four episodes where the whole gang is in the circle are "Class Picture '', "I 'm A Boy '', "Substitute '', and in the series finale. During the eighth and final season, the circle sans smoke replaced the Vista Cruiser as the setting of the opening credits.
The stupid helmet refers to a replica of a Green Bay Packers helmet that a character is forced to wear after having done or said something deemed stupid by the rest of the gang. Eric had to wear it when he said he wanted to propose to Donna and Fez wore it when he started banging his head on the table after trying to help Kelso keep Jackie. The helmet can be seen in the Forman basement on a shelf behind the cast. When the series concluded in 2006, the last one up the staircase had to call Red a "dumbass '', something he always called the kids. Since Kelso was the last one up, he grabbed the helmet.
In many episodes, the teenaged characters often hang out on a local water tower. At the end of several water tower segments, at least one character falls off (usually Kelso). When Charlie Richardson (played by Bret Harrison) fell off and died in season 8, the water tower was renamed in his honor.
After Charlie 's death, Kelso fell off again, but survived, leading him to believe he was "invincible ''. In the "Water Tower episode '', the gang painted a marijuana leaf on the tower, but it looked more like a green hand giving the finger. In the episode "The Immigrant Song (a.k.a. Fez Gets Busted) '' Kelso paints Jackie and his names on the tower to annoy Hyde just before falling and ending up in the hospital. During this episode, Fez paints his manhood on the tower but only gets as far as drawing a circle when the police arrive to arrest him. Kelso was known to fall off the water tower once in every grade since middle school. Jackie and Fez share their first official kiss on the tower in the show 's finale.
In the first season, scene transitions (also known as bumpers) consisted of animated smiley buttons or still images of faces from the 1970s with only the mouth moving using Syncro - Vox, usually yelling, in a rock form, "Yeahhh! '' or something similar (ex. Farrah Fawcett saying "Yeah! '' or Richard Nixon saying "Are you ready to rock and roll? '') The smiley buttons were removed for re-runs and home video, replaced with flowers likewise exploding, replicating, deflating or bouncing around. Sometimes they would be visuals of lava lamps with the show 's logo plummeting to the bottom of the screen in front of it.
Beginning in season 2, transitions featured the characters doing something in front of a colorful, psychedelic, lava lamp - like background. These transitions featured the most prominent characters of the episode usually dancing, falling or making facial expressions. The music accompanying these colorful sequences would match the tone of the episode and characters.
By the show 's final season, new transitions were created to accommodate cast changes (e.g. Donna 's hair color, Leo continuing as a series regular and the insertion of Randy).
"Nobody 's Fault But Mine (2) '' is the only episode where Laurie Forman is featured in a transition. Tanya Roberts is the only regular actor not to be featured in a transition.
Many of the show 's episodes featured Eric and the rest of the kids in or around Eric 's "Aztec Gold '' 1969 Oldsmobile Vista Cruiser, handed down to Eric by Red. For the first seven seasons of the show, the show 's introduction showed the cast inside the Vista Cruiser.
The show 's pronunciation of "Vista Cruiser '', with emphasis on "Cruiser '' conflicted with the pronunciation of author George Plimpton in the Oldsmobile television advertisement for the 1969 Vista Cruiser, where he pronounced the two words with the emphasis on "Vista ''.
That particular station wagon was bought by Wilmer Valderrama at the show 's conclusion from Carsey - Werner for US $ 500.
In August 2009, the show 's Vista Cruiser was named third - greatest television car ever by MSN Autos.
In one of the show 's major running gags, Red often threatens to punish Eric with many variations of catchphrase, "kicking your ass ''. For example, in "Kitty and Eric 's Night Out '', Red mistakenly thinks Eric offended Kitty, so Red says, "I swear I 'll kick his ass! '' In "Eric 's Hot Cousin '', Eric tries to get out of something by claiming he 's sleepwalking and Red says, "And I 'm about to be sleep - kicking your ass '', and, in "Prank Day '', when Red gets covered in oatmeal, Eric tries to explain that it was just a prank that had gone "horribly, horribly wrong '' Red says, "Well, I have a prank, too. One where my foot does n't plow through your ass. Let 's hope it does n't go horribly, horribly wrong! '' Several of the running gags were shown in edited clips for the series finale.
Some other notable running gags and catchphrases are:
In 1999, the show was remade by the ITV network in the United Kingdom as Days Like These using almost verbatim scripts with minor changes to cultural references.
That ' 70s Show was released on DVD in Regions 1, 2 and 4 by Fox Home Entertainment at an increment of two seasons per year between 2004 and 2008 and a complete series release on October 14, 2008. Mill Creek Entertainment released all eight seasons between 2011 and ' 13 and released a complete series set on May 14, 2013. On March 6, 2012, Mill Creek released the first season on Blu - ray and season two on October 16, 2012. On November 3, 2015, Mill Creek Entertainment released That ' 70s Show The Complete Series on Blu - ray 1080p with 5.1 DTS - HD Master Audio and 1.78: 1 widescreen aspect ratio.
Several prominent songs from the decade can be heard on the series, and two soundtracks were released in 1999. The first is a collection of funk, soul, and disco, called That ' 70s Album (Jammin '). The second is a collection of album - oriented rock songs, called That ' 70s Album (Rockin '). AllMusic gave both albums 3 out of 5 stars in their reviews.
Over the course of its run, the series was a consistent performer for Fox, becoming one of their flagship shows. Its eight seasons, consisting of 200 episodes, made it Fox 's second - longest - running live - action sitcom ever behind Married... with Children, though That ' 70s Show did not have the same ratings success.
Over the course of its run, the series was nominated for a substantial number of awards, including 16 Primetime Emmy Awards. The only win for the series at this event came in 1999, when Melina Root was awarded the Emmy for Outstanding Costume Design for a Series for "That Disco Episode ''. Additionally, the show was nominated for a large number of Teen Choice Awards, with both Ashton Kutcher and Wilmer Valderrama winning on three occasions.
Media related to That ' 70s Show at Wikimedia Commons
does not include 1966 or 1967 NFL championships
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meaning of the emerald tablet in the alchemist | Emerald Tablet - wikipedia
The Emerald Tablet, also known as the Smaragdine Table, or Tabula Smaragdina, is a compact and cryptic piece of the Hermetica reputed to contain the secret of the prima materia and its transmutation. It was highly regarded by European alchemists as the foundation of their art and its Hermetic tradition. The original source of the Emerald Tablet is unknown. Although Hermes Trismegistus is the author named in the text, its first known appearance is in a book written in Arabic between the sixth and eighth centuries. The text was first translated into Latin in the twelfth century. Numerous translations, interpretations and commentaries followed.
The layers of meaning in the Emerald Tablet have been associated with the creation of the philosopher 's stone, laboratory experimentation, phase transition, the alchemical magnum opus, mystical psychosis, cosmic consciousness, unus mundus, anima mundi, The All (of Hermetism / Hermeticism), successful child conception out of proved pure love, the ancient, classical, element system, and the correspondence between macrocosm and microcosm.
Similarities and correspondences with the Emerald Tablet have been drawn with Eastern philosophies like Daoism (Tao Te Ching, Tao, wuji, YinYang, and the I Ching), Hinduism, and Buddhism, and even with the Book of Genesis and Book of Isaiah of the Christian Bible.
The text of the Smaragdine Tablet gives its author as Hermes Trismegistus ("Hermes the Thrice - Greatest ''), a legendary Hellenistic combination of the Greek god Hermes and the ancient Egyptian god Thoth. Despite the claims of antiquity, it 's believed to be an Arabic work written between the sixth and eighth centuries. The oldest documentable source of the text is the "Kitab Balaniyus al - Hakim fi'l - ` Ilal Kitāb sirr al - ḫalīqa '' كتاب سر الخليقة و صنعة الطبيعة أو كتاب العلل للحكيم بلنياس (book of Balinas the wise on the Causes) written in Arabic between the sixth and eighth centuries. This volume is attributed to "Balinas '' (or Pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana) In his book, Balinas frames the Emerald Tablet as ancient Hermetic wisdom. He tells his readers that he discovered the text in a vault below a statue of Hermes in Tyana, and that, inside the vault, an old corpse on a golden throne held the emerald tablet. The laws of hermeticism: Following Balinas, an early version of the Emerald Tablet appeared in Kitab Sirr al - Asrar: (Book of the Secret of Creation and the Art of Nature), itself a composite of earlier works, and in Kitab Ustuqus al - Uss al - Thani (Second Book of the Elements of Foundation) attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan. The Smaragdine Tablet was first translated into Latin in the twelfth century by Hugo of Santalla. The text is also in an enlarged thirteenth century edition of Secretum Secretorum (also known as Kitab Sirr al - Asrar).
A translation by Isaac Newton is found among his alchemical papers that are currently housed in King 's College Library, Cambridge University.
Tis true without lying, certain & most true. That which is below is like that which is above & that which is above is like that which is below to do the miracles of one only thing And as all things have been & arose from one by the meditation of one: so all things have their birth from this one thing by adaptation. The Sun is its father, the moon its mother, the wind hath carried it in its belly, the earth is its nurse. The father of all perfection in the whole world is here. Its force or power is entire if it be converted into earth. Separate thou the earth from the fire, the subtle from the gross sweetly with great industry. It ascends from the earth to the heaven & again it descends to the earth & receives the force of things superior & inferior. By this means you shall have the glory of the whole world & thereby all obscurity shall fly from you. Its force is above all force. For it vanquishes every subtle thing & penetrates every solid thing. So was the world created. From this are & do come admirable adaptations whereof the means (or process) is here in this. Hence I am called Hermes Trismegist, having the three parts of the philosophy of the whole world That which I have said of the operation of the Sun is accomplished & ended.
Original edition of the Latin text. (Chrysogonus Polydorus, Nuremberg 1541):
Verum, sine mendacio, certum et verissimum: Quod est inferius est sicut quod est superius, et quod est superius est sicut quod est inferius, ad perpetranda miracula rei unius. Et sicut res omnes fuerunt ab uno, meditatione unius, sic omnes res natae ab hac una re, adaptatione. Pater eius est Sol. Mater eius est Luna, portavit illud Ventus in ventre suo, nutrix eius terra est. Pater omnis telesmi totius mundi est hic. Virtus eius integra est si versa fuerit in terram. Separabis terram ab igne, subtile ab spisso, suaviter, magno cum ingenio. Ideo fugiet a te omnis obscuritas. Haec est totius fortitudinis fortitudo fortis, quia vincet omnem rem subtilem, omnemque solidam penetrabit. Sic mundus creatus est. Hinc erunt adaptationes mirabiles, quarum modus est hic. Itaque vocatus sum Hermes Trismegistus, habens tres partes philosophiae totius mundi. Completum est quod dixi de operatione Solis.
In its several Western recensions, the Tablet became a mainstay of medieval and Renaissance alchemy. Commentaries and / or translations were published by, among others, Trithemius, Roger Bacon, Michael Maier, Albertus Magnus, and Isaac Newton. The concise text was a popular summary of alchemical principles, wherein the secrets of the philosopher 's stone were thought to have been described.
The fourteenth century alchemist Ortolanus (or Hortulanus) wrote a substantial exegesis on The Secret of Hermes, which was influential on the subsequent development of alchemy. Many manuscripts of this copy of the Emerald Tablet and the commentary of Ortolanus survive, dating at least as far back as the fifteenth century. Ortolanus, like Albertus Magnus before him saw the tablet as a cryptic recipe that described laboratory processes using deck names (or code words). This was the dominant view held by Europeans until the fifteenth century.
By the early sixteenth century, the writings of Johannes Trithemius (1462 -- 1516) marked a shift away from a laboratory interpretation of the Emerald Tablet, to a literal approach. Trithemius equated Hermes ' one thing with the monad of pythagorean philosophy and the anima mundi. This interpretation of the Hermetic text was adopted by alchemists such as John Dee, Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa and Gerhard Dorn.
C.G. Jung identified The Emerald Tablet with a table made of green stone which he encountered in the first of a set of his dreams and visions beginning at the end of 1912, and climaxing in his writing Seven Sermons to the Dead in 1916. Historians of science, Eric John Holmyard (1891 - 1959) and Julius Ruska (1867 - 1949) also studied the tablet in the twentieth century. Because of its longstanding popularity, the Emerald Tablet is the only piece of non-Greek Hermetica to attract widespread attention in the West.
In the television series Dark, the mysterious priest Noah has a large image of the Emerald Tablet tattooed on his back. The image also appears on a metal door in the caves that are central to the plot. Several characters are shown looking at copies of the text. In addition, the sixth episode of the series is named after a line from the Latin version, "Sic mundus creatus est. ''
In 1974, Brazilian singer Jorge Ben Jor recorded a studio album under the name A Tábua de Esmeralda ("The Emerald Tablet ''), quoting from the Tablet 's text and from alchemy in general in several songs. The album has been defined as an exercise in "musical alchemy '' and celebrated as Ben Jor 's greatest musical achievement, blending together samba, jazz and rock rythmes.
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when was the first school shooting ever recorded | List of School shootings in the United States - Wikipedia
This article lists in chronology and provides additional details of incidents in which a firearm was discharged at a school infrastructure or campus in the United States, including incidents of shootings on a school bus. This list contains school shooting incidents that occurred on the campuses of K - 12 public schools and private schools as well as colleges and universities. It excludes incidents that occurred during wars or police actions as well as murder - suicides by rejected suitors or estranged spouses and suicides or suicide attempts involving only one person. Mass shootings by staff of schools that involve only other employees are covered at workplace killings. This list does not include bombings such as the Bath School disaster.
6 - year - old Dedrick Owens fatally shot 6 - year - old classmate Kayla Rolland. Owens has since been the youngest documented school shooter.
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when is a child placed in foster care | Foster care - wikipedia
Foster care is a system in which a minor has been placed into a ward, group home (residential child care community, treatment center,...), or private home of a state - certified caregiver, referred to as a "foster parent '' or with a family member approved by the state. The placement of the child is normally arranged through the government or a social service agency. The institution, group home or foster parent is compensated for expenses unless with a family member.
The State, via the family court and child protective services agency, stand in loco parentis to the minor, making all legal decisions while the foster parent is responsible for the day - to - day care of the minor.
A little more than a quarter of all foster children are placed in the care of relatives. Most kinship care is done informally, without the involvement of a court or public organization. However, in the U.S., formal kinship care is increasingly common. In 2012, a quarter of all children in formal foster care were placed with relatives instead of being placed into the system.
In Australia foster care was known as "boarding - out ''. Foster care had its early stages in South Australia in 1866 and stretched to the second half of the 19th century. It is said that the system was mostly run by women until the early 20th century. Then the control was centered in many state children 's departments. "Although boarding - out was also implemented by nongovernment (al) child rescue organizations, many large institutions remained. These institutions assumed an increasing importance from the late 1920s when the system went into decline. '' The system was re-energized in the postwar era, and in the 1970s. The system is still the main structure for "out - of - home care. '' The system took care of both local and foreign children. "The first adoption legislation was passed in Western Australia in 1896, but the remaining states did not act until the 1920s, introducing the beginnings of the closed adoption that reached it peak in the period 1940 -- 1975. New baby adoption dropped dramatically from the mid-1970s, with the greater tolerance of and support for single mothers ''.
Foster care in Cambodia is relatively new as an official practice within the government. However, despite a later start, the practice is currently making great strides within the country. Left with a large number of official and unofficial orphanages from the 1990s, the Cambodian government conducted several research projects in 2006 and 2008, pointing to the overuse of orphanages as a solution for caring for vulnerable children within the country. Most notably, the studies found that the percentage of children within orphanages that had parents approached 80 %. At the same time, local NGOs like Children In Families began offering limited foster care services within the country. In the subsequent years, the Cambodian government began implementing policies that required the closure of some orphanages and the implementation of minimum standards for residential care institutions. These actions lead to an increase in the number of NGOs providing foster care placements and helped to set the course for care reform around the country. As of 2015, the Cambodian government is working with UNICEF, USAID, several governments, and many local NGOs in continuing to build the capacity for child protection and foster care within the Kingdom.
Foster children in Canada are known as permanent wards, (crown wards in Ontario). A ward is someone, in this case a child, placed under protection of a legal guardian and are the legal responsibility of the government. Census data from 2011 counted children in foster care for the first time, counting 47,885 children in care. The majority of foster children -- 29,590, or about 62 per cent -- were aged 14 and under. The wards remain under the care of the government until they "age out of care. '' All ties are severed from the government and there is no longer any legal responsibility toward the youth. This age is different depending on the province.
Foster care has had a long history in India, first initiated in the 1960s by the central government. The first non-institutional scheme was introduced in Maharashtra in 1972. The scheme was later revised in 2005 as the ' Bal Sangopal Scheme -- Non Institutional Services '. In the late 1990s Karnataka implemented a foster care scheme focused on destitute children. Emergency schemes were operational even in Gujarat, after the 2001 earthquake where around 350 children were rehabilitated with their relatives and neighbours in the community. However, although the JJ Act presently provides for foster care, it is not being implemented effectively. Very few state governments have developed foster care programs. Foster care is still largely used as a pre-adoption procedure, which is limiting the potential of this method to provide family care to children. In the year 2016 the Ministry of Women and child Development published Model Guidelines on Foster Care. The Centre of Excellence in Alternative Care of Children established in December 2015 has started the work on foster care by creating awareness on foster care, by providing training to all agencies at all levels reading foster care and helping NGOs and other agencies in implementing foster care. In a very short amount of time they have trained more than 600 people in the country.
In December 2013, the Israeli Knesset approved a bill co-drafted by the Israel National Council for the Child to regulate the rights and obligations of participants in the foster care system in Israel.
In Japan, foster care started around 1948, leading to the passing of the Child Welfare Law. The idea of foster care or taking in abandoned children actually came about around 1392 - 1490s in Japan. The foster care system in Japan is similar to the Orphan Trains because Brace thought the children would be better off on farms. The people in Japan thought the children would do better on farms rather than living in the "dusty city. '' The families would often send their children to a farm family outside the village and only keep their oldest son. The farm families served as the foster parents and they were financially rewarded for taking in the younger siblings. "It was considered an honor to be chosen as foster parents, and selection greatly depended on the family 's reputation and status within the village ''. Around 1895 the foster care program became more like the system used in the United States because the Tokyo Metropolitan Police sent children to a hospital where they would be "settled ''. Problems emerged in this system, such as child abuse, so the government started phasing it out and "began increasing institutional facilities ''. In 1948 the Child Welfare Law was passed, increasing official oversight, and creating better conditions for the children to grow up in.
In the United Kingdom, foster care and adoption has always been an option, "in the sense of taking other people 's children into their homes and looking after them on a permanent or temporary basis. '' Although, nothing about it had a legal foundation, until the 20th century. The UK had "wardship, '' the family taking in the child had custody by the Chancery Court. Wardship was not used very often because it did not give the guardian "parental rights. '' In the 19th century came a "series of baby farming scandals. '' At the end of the 19th century they started calling it "boarding - out '' like they did in Australia. They started placing the children in orphanages and workhouses as well. "The First World War saw an increase in organized adoption through adoption societies and child rescue organizations, and pressure grew for adoption to be given legal status. '' The first laws based on adoption and foster care were passed in 1926. "The peak number of adoptions was in 1968, since when there has been an enormous decline in adoption in the United Kingdom. The main reasons for children being adopted in the United Kingdom had been unmarried mothers giving up their children for adoption and stepparents adopting their new partner 's children ''.
In the United States, foster care started as a result of the efforts of Charles Loring Brace. "In the mid 19th Century, some 30,000 homeless or neglected children lived in the New York City streets and slums. '' Brace took these children off the streets and placed them with families in most states in the country. Brace believed the children would do best with a Christian farm family. He did this to save them from "a lifetime of suffering '' He sent these children to families by train, which gave the name The Orphan Train Movement. "(This) lasted from 1853 to the early 1890s (1929?) and transported more than 120,000 (250,000?) children to new lives. '' When Brace died in 1890, his sons took over his work of the Children 's Aid Society until they retired. The Children 's Aid Society created "a foster care approach that became the basis for the federal Adoption and Safe Families Act of 1997 '' called Concurrent Planning. This greatly impacted the foster care system. Children 's Aid works with the biological and foster parents to "achieve permanency ''. "From the mid-1800s to the eve of the Great Depression, orphan train children were placed with families who pre-selected them with an order form, specifying age, gender, hair and eye color. In other cases, trainloads of children were assembled on stages, train platforms or town halls and examined by prospective parents. "Conjuring the image of picking the best apple from the bin. Sometimes a child would be separated from his or her brothers and sisters, or would end up in a family that only wanted them to work. Most of the time the children were chosen by a loving or childless family ''.
Family - based foster care is generally preferred to other forms of out of home care. Foster care is intended to be a short term solution until a permanent placement can be made. Generally, the first choice of adoptive parents is a relative such as an aunt, uncle or grandparent, known as kinship care. If no related family member is willing or able to adopt, the next preference is for the child to be adopted by the foster parents or by someone else involved in the child 's life (such as a teacher or coach). This is to maintain continuity in the child 's life. If neither above option are available, the child may be adopted by someone who is a stranger to the child.
If none of these options are viable the plan for the minor may be to enter OPPLA (Other Planned Permanent Living Arrangement). This option allows the child to stay in custody of the state and the child can stay placed in a foster home, with a relative or a long term care facility, such as a residential child care community or, for children with development disabilities, physical disabilities or mental disabilities, a treatment center.
671,000 children were served by the foster care system in the United States in 2015. "After declining more than 20 percent between FY 2006 and FY 2012 to a low of 397,000, the number of children in foster care on the last day of the fiscal year increased to 428,000 in FY 2015, with a slightly higher percent change from 2014 to 2015 (3.3 %) than observed from 2013 to 2014 (3.2 %). '' In 2015, there were about 112,000 children ready for adoptive families in the nation 's foster care systems.
The median amount of time a child spent in foster care in the U.S. in 2015 was 13.5 months. That year, 74 % of children spent less than two years in foster care, while 13 % were in care for three or more years. Of the estimated 427,910 children in foster care on September 30, 2015: 43 percent were White, 24 percent were African - American, 21 percent were Hispanic (of any race), 10 percent were other races or multiracial, and 2 percent were unknown or unable to be determined.
Children may enter foster care voluntarily or involuntarily. Voluntary placement may occur when a biological parent or lawful guardian is unable to care for a child. Involuntary placement occurs when a child is removed from their biological parent or lawful guardian due to the risk or actual occurrence of physical or psychological harm. In the US, most children enter foster care due to neglect. If a biological parent or legal guardian is unwilling to care for a child, the child is deemed to be dependent and is placed under the care of the child protection agency. The policies regarding foster care as well as the criteria to be met in order to become a foster parent vary according to legal jurisdiction.
Especially egregious failures of child protective services often serve as a catalyst for increased removal of children from the homes of biological parents. An example is the brutal torture and murder of 17 - month - old Peter Connelly, a British toddler who died in London Borough of Haringey, North London after suffering more than 50 severe injuries over an eight - month period, including eight broken ribs and a broken back. Throughout the period of time in which he was being tortured, he was repeatedly seen by Haringey Children 's services and NHS health professionals. Haringey Children 's services already failed ten years earlier in the case of Victoria Climbié. In the time since his death, in 2007, cases have reached a record rate in England surpassing 10,000 in the reporting year ending in March 2012.
From 1993 through 2002 there were 107 recorded deaths; there are approximately 400,000 children in out - of - home care, in the United States. Almost 10 % of children in foster care have stayed in foster care for five or more years. Nearly half of all children in foster care have chronic medical problems. 8 % of all children in foster care have serious emotional problems, 11 % of children exiting foster care aged out of the system, in 2011. Children in foster care experience high rates of child abuse, emotional deprivation, and physical neglect. In one study in the United Kingdom "foster children were 7 -- 8 times, and children in residential care 6 times more likely to be assessed by a pediatrician for abuse than a child in the general population ''. A study of foster children in Oregon and Washington State found that nearly one third reported being abused by a foster parent or another adult in a foster home.
A higher prevalence of physical, psychological, cognitive and epigenetic disorders for children in foster care has been established in studies in various countries. The Casey Family Programs Northwest Foster Care Alumni Study was a fairly extensive study of various aspects of children who had been in foster care. It noted that 80 % of ex-foster children are doing "poorly ''.
Individuals who were in foster care experience higher rates of physical and psychiatric morbidity than the general population and suffer from not being able to trust and that can lead to placements breaking down. In the Casey study of foster children in Oregon and Washington state, they were found to have double the incidence of depression, 20 % as compared to 10 % and were found to have a higher rate of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) than combat veterans with 25 % of those studied having PTSD. Children in foster care have a higher probability of having attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and deficits in executive functioning, anxiety as well as other developmental problems. These children experience higher degrees of incarceration, poverty, homelessness, and suicide. Studies in the U.S. have suggested that some foster care placements may be more detrimental to children than remaining in a troubled home, but a more recent study suggested that these findings may have been affected by selection bias, and that foster care has little effect on behavioral problems.
Foster children have elevated levels of cortisol, a stress hormone, in comparison to children raised by their biological parents. Elevated cortisol levels can compromise the immune system. (Harden BJ, 2004). Most of the processes involved in healthy neurodevelopment are predicated upon the establishment of close nurturing relationships and environmental stimulation. Negative environmental influences during this critical period of brain development can have lifelong consequences.
Children in foster care have a higher incidence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In one study, 60 % of children in foster care who had experienced sexual abuse had PTSD, and 42 % of those who had been physically abused met the PTSD criteria. PTSD was also found in 18 % of the children who were not abused. These children may have developed PTSD due to witnessing violence in the home. (Marsenich, 2002).
In a study conducted in Oregon and Washington state, the rate of PTSD in adults who were in foster care for one year between the ages of 14 -- 18 was found to be higher than that of combat veterans, with 25 percent of those in the study meeting the diagnostic criteria as compared to 12 -- 13 percent of Iraq war veterans and 15 percent of Vietnam war veterans, and a rate of 4 % in the general population. The recovery rate for foster home alumni was 28.2 % as opposed to 47 % in the general population.
"More than half the study participants reported clinical levels of mental illness, compared to less than a quarter of the general population ''.
Foster children are at increased risk for a variety of eating disorders in comparison to the general population. In a study done in the United Kingdom, 35 % of foster children experienced an increase in Body Mass Index (BMI) once in care. Food Maintenance Syndrome is characterized by a set of aberrant eating behaviors of children in foster care. It is "a pattern of excessive eating and food acquisition and maintenance behaviors without concurrent obesity ''; it resembles "the behavioral correlates of Hyperphagic Short Stature ''. It is hypothesised that this syndrome is triggered by the stress and maltreatment foster children are subjected to, it was prevalent amongst 25 percent of the study group in New Zealand. Bulimia nervosa is seven times more prevalent among former foster children than in the general population.
Nearly half of foster children in the U.S. become homeless when they turn 18. "One of every 10 foster children stays in foster care longer than seven years, and each year about 15,000 reach the age of majority and leave foster care without a permanent family -- many to join the ranks of the homeless or to commit crimes and be imprisoned.
Three out of 10 of the United States homeless are former foster children. According to the results of the Casey Family Study of Foster Care Alumni, up to 80 percent are doing poorly -- with a quarter to a third of former foster children at or below the poverty line, three times the national poverty rate. Very frequently, people who are homeless had multiple placements as children: some were in foster care, but others experienced "unofficial '' placements in the homes of family or friends.
Individuals with a history of foster care tend to become homeless at an earlier age than those who were not in foster care. The length of time a person remains homeless is longer in individuals who were in foster care.
Children in foster care are at a greater risk of suicide. The increased risk of suicide is still prevalent after leaving foster care. In a small study of twenty - two Texan youths who aged out of the system, 23 percent had a history of suicide attempts.
A Swedish study utilizing the data of almost one million people including 22,305 former foster children who had been in care prior to their teens, concluded:
Former child welfare clients were in year of birth and sex standardised risk ratios (RRs) four to five times more likely than peers in the general population to have been hospitalised for suicide attempts... Individuals who had been in long - term foster care tended to have the most dismal outcome... former child welfare / protection clients should be considered a high - risk group for suicide attempts and severe psychiatric morbidity.
Death rate
Children in foster care have an overall higher mortality rate than children in the general population. A study conducted in Finland among current and former foster children up to age 24 found a higher mortality rate due to substance abuse, accidents, suicide and illness. The deaths due to illness were attributed to an increased incidence of acute and chronic medical conditions and developmental delays among children in foster care.
Georgia Senator Nancy Schaefer published a report "The Corrupt Business of Child Protective Services '' stating:
"The National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect in 1998 reported that six times as many children died in foster care than in the general public and that once removed to official "safety '', these children are far more likely to suffer abuse, including sexual molestation than in the general population ".
Educational outcomes of ex-foster children in the Northwest Alumni Study:
The study reviewed case records for 659 foster care alumni in Northwest USA, and interviewed 479 of them between September 2000 and January 2002.
Studies have revealed that youth in foster care covered by Medicaid insurance receive psychotropic medication at a rate that was 3 times higher than that of Medicaid - insured youth who qualify by low family income. In a review (September 2003 to August 2004) of the medical records of 32,135 Texas foster care 0 -- 19 years old, 12,189 were prescribed psychotropic medication, resulting in an annual prevalence of 37.9 % of these children being prescribed medication. 41.3 % received 3 different classes of these drugs during July 2004, and 15.9 % received 4 different classes. The most frequently used medications were antidepressants (56.8 %), attention - deficit / hyperactivity disorder drugs (55.9 %), and antipsychotic agents (53.2 %). The study also showed that youth in foster care are frequently treated with concomitant psychotropic medication, for which sufficient evidence regarding safety and effectiveness is not available.
The use of expensive, brand name, patent protected medication was prevalent. In the case of SSRIs the use of the most expensive medications was noted to be 74 %; in the general market only 28 % are for brand name SSRI 's vs generics. The average out - of - pocket expense per prescription was $34.75 for generics and $90.17 for branded products, a $55.42, difference.
Children in the child welfare system have often experienced significant and repeated traumas and having a background in foster homes -- especially in instances of sexual abuse -- can be the precipitating factor in a wide variety of psychological and cognitive deficits it may also serve to obfuscate the true cause of underlying issues. The foster care experience may have nothing to do with the symptoms, or on the other hand, a disorder may be exacerbated by having a history of foster care and attendant abuses. The human brain however has been shown to have a fair degree of neuroplasticity. and adult neurogenesis has been shown to be an ongoing process.
George Shanti, Nico Van Oudenhoven, and Ekha Wazir, co-authors of Foster Care Beyond the Crossroads: Lessons from an International Comparative Analysis, say that there are four types of Government foster care systems. The first one is that of developing countries. These countries do not have policies implemented to take care of the basic needs of these children and these children mostly receive assistance from relatives. The second system is that of former socialist governments. The historical context of these states has not allowed for the evolution of their foster care system. NGO 's have urged them to evolve; however the traditional system of institutionalizing these children is still in place. Thirdly, liberal democracies do not have the support from its political system in order to take care of these children, even though they have the resources. Finally, social democracies are the most advanced governments in regards to their foster care system. These governments have a massive infrastructure, funding, and support system in order to help foster care children.
Foster care adoption is a type of domestic adoption where the child is initially placed into a foster care system and is subsequently placed for adoption. Children may be placed into foster care for a variety of reasons; including, removal from the home by a governmental agency because of maltreatment. In some jurisdictions, adoptive parents are licensed as and technically considered foster parents while the adoption is being finalized. According to the U.S Department of Health and Human Services Children 's Bureau, there were approximately 408,425 children in foster care in 2010. Of those children, twenty - five percent had a goal of adoption. In 2015, 243,060 children exited foster care and twenty - two percent were adopted. Nationwide, there are more than one hundred thousand children in the U.S. foster care system waiting for permanent families.
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law and order svu series 3 episode 7 | Law & Order: Special Victims Unit (season 3) - wikipedia
The third season of the television series, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit premiered Friday, September 28, 2001 and ended Friday, May 17, 2002 on NBC. It occupied the Friday 10pm / 9c timeslot once again.
In the aftermath of 9 / 11, several cast and crew members volunteered to help the rescue effort. The main title voiceover by Steven Zirnkilton was also changed for the first few episodes to include the following dedication: "On September 11, 2001, New York City was ruthlessly and criminally attacked. While no tribute can ever heal the pain of that day, the producers of Law & Order dedicate this season to the victims and their families and to the firefighters and police officers who remind us every day with their lives and courage what it truly means to be an American ''. Syndicated airings of the episodes replaced this dialogue with the original title voiceover. The opening sequence changed as well; NBC ordered the opening credits for the third season re-edited to remove images of the World Trade Center, which were seen at the beginning and ending; the credit sequences in the previous two seasons were not subsequently changed.
With David J. Burke having left the show at the end of the second season, Neal Baer was the sole showrunner / executive producer of Season 3. During the production of the third season, Baer convinced Amanda Green to begin writing scripts. Green was already serving as a consultant for the series while she worked for the NYPD. The episode "Counterfeit '' became her debut as a writer. Tara Butters and Michele Fazekas who also joined the writing staff in the third season enjoyed the freedom of not having to meet with a large team in a writer 's room. "As a result, there was no sense of competitiveness. We were working on our own so it was like writing your own mini-feature. ''
All second season main cast members returned for the third season of the series. B.D. Wong returned to play forensic psychiatrist Dr. George Huang. He was originally contracted to appear in two episodes at the end of the second season and two episodes at the beginning of the third. As Wong puts it "They asked me to come and do four episodes as a kind of audition, to see if it worked, and after those four episodes they asked me to stay on. '' Wong credited the New York - based show with giving him the opportunity to regularly act in theatre.
Four cast members of SVU who would recur in subsequent years first appeared in the third season. In "Counterfeit, '' Robert John Burke began playing NYPD Internal Affairs Sergeant Ed Tucker when it is believed that the Special Victims Unit has been guilty of misconduct. Peter Hermann first played Defense Attorney Trevor Langan in "Monogamy, '' the episode on which Hermann and Hargitay, who would later marry, first met. The show later hinted in future seasons a light romantic flame between them. In "Surveillance, '' Joel de la Fuente first appears as the Technical Assistance Response Unit analyst Ruben Morales; at auditions the character was called "Burt Trevor, '' but this name was given to a different technician. Finally, Judith Light joined the recurring cast in "Guilt '' as Alex Cabot 's strict boss, Bureau Chief ADA Elizabeth Donnelly. Light was already a fan of the program, saying "You can see when you watch a show like this, the level of professionalism going into it. ''
The show "Wrath '' has been repeatedly mentioned by Mariska Hargitay as one of her favorites. For the episode, Justin Kirk portrayed the wrongfully imprisoned man Eric Plummer. Upon being freed, he kills four people to exact revenge upon the police and Olivia Benson in particular. The scene in which Benson shoots Plummer was described as being very challenging to act. In an interview with Universal Channel, Hargitay said "I shot him dead and some things happened to me physically that I was n't expecting. '' Although the video was cut to disguise it, Hargitay in fact mentions two Season 3 episodes in the interview. The second is "Inheritance '' which shows Benson identify with a suspect who is a child of rape like herself. Marcus Chong played the suspect Darrell Guan who exemplifies the aggressive characteristics of his father.
The episode "Ridicule '' portrayed a man as a victim of gang rape by women for the first time on network television. The victim Peter Smith was played by Pete Starrett while his rapists were played by Paige Turco and Diane Neal, who would join the cast playing ADA Casey Novak in the fifth season after Stephanie March left the series. Mike Doyle portrayed Assistant Medical Examiner Karlan in the episode "Prodigy '' before portraying CSU Forensics Technician Ryan O'Halloran in the fifth season.
Nick Chinlund guest starred as condemned serial killer Matthew Brodus in the episode "Execution ''. Chinlund had originally auditioned to portray the role of Detective Elliot Stabler. John Ritter guest starred as Dr. Manning, a psychiatrist who becomes the prime suspect in his wife 's murder, in the episode "Monogamy ''. Ritter was praised for his performance in the episode, which aired shortly before his death; Michael Buckley of TV Guide wrote that "The gradual change in his demeanor makes for a memorable piece of acting. ''
Martha Plimpton was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series for her role in "Denial ''. She played Claire Rinato, a drug addict who is traumatized by having learned terrible things about her mother, played by Mary Steenburgen. Detective Tutuola tries to help her character recover from the addiction using his background as a narcotics detective. In "Guilt '', Bret Harrison played Sam Cavanaugh, a child molestation victim who is reluctant to testify against his abuser. This appearance later helped Harrison secure his best known role in Reaper, which was created by the same writers as "Guilt ''.
In the second last episode, "Competence '', a girl with Down Syndrome struggles to prove that she is mentally competent to take care of a child. Lois Smith played the girl 's mother and James Badge Dale played the girl 's boyfriend. One of the writers of the episode, Robert F. Campbell, mentioned Lois Smith and "Competence '' when reflecting on his favourite experiences as an SVU writer. The season finale "Silence '' deals with sexual abuse in the Catholic Church. Eric Stoltz portrayed a priest who initially lies to protect clergymen higher up but eventually comes forward with the truth. Charlayne Woodard guest starred in the finale as Sister Peg, a role which she later reprised several times.
A young wife 's body is found after what seems to be an erotic asphyxiation accident. Detectives Benson and Stabler follow her link to a male stripper (Pete Starrett). He reveals their link was that he was recently gang raped by her and her two female lawyer friends, Amelia Chase (Diane Neal) and Pam Adler (Paige Turco) after the three women handcuffed him to a bed during a bachelorette party. ADA Cabot follows People v. Liberta (1984) and sues the women for this non statutory female on male rape. The investigation of one of the women, Pam Adler, then reveals the suicide was in fact a murder, as the victim planned to come clean and expose her fellow rapists.
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when did district of columbia become a state | District of Columbia statehood movement - wikipedia
The District of Columbia statehood movement is a political movement that advocates making the District of Columbia a U.S. state. As the national capital, the District of Columbia is a federal district under the direct jurisdiction of the United States Congress. Statehood would grant the District voting representation in the Congress and full control over local affairs. For most of the modern statehood movement, the new state 's name would have been "New Columbia ''; however, the D.C. City Council changed the proposed name to "State of Washington, D.C. '' in October 2016, in which "D.C. '' would stand for "Douglass Commonwealth '', a reference to abolitionist Frederick Douglass.
Statehood for the District, which is also known as Washington, D.C., might be achieved by an act of Congress, under the power granted to Congress under Article Four, Section 3 of the U.S. Constitution. However, there is some debate as to whether simple legislation would be sufficient to grant statehood to Washington, which is the seat of the United States federal government.
An alternative proposal is to reincorporate the District of Columbia into the state of Maryland.
In 1783, a crowd of disbanded Revolutionary War soldiers angry about not having been paid, gathered to protest outside the building where the Continental Congress was meeting. The soldiers blocked the door and initially refused to allow the delegates to leave. Despite requests from the Congress, the Pennsylvania state government declined to call out its militia to deal with the unruly mob, and so Congress was forced to abruptly adjourn to New Jersey. This led to the widespread belief that Congress needed control over the national capital. As James Madison wrote in The Federalist No. 43, "Without it, not only the public authority might be insulted and its proceedings interrupted with impunity; but a dependence of the members of the general government on the State comprehending the seat of the government, for protection in the exercise of their duty, might bring on the national councils an imputation of awe or influence, equally dishonorable to the government and dissatisfactory to the other members of the Confederacy. '' This belief resulted in the creation of a national capital, separate from any state, by the Constitution 's District Clause.
The "District Clause '' in Article I, Section 8, Clause 17 of the United States Constitution states:
(The Congress shall have Power) To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States.
However, Madison further wrote in Federalist 43 that the residents of the new federal district "will have had their voice in the election of the government which is to exercise authority over them. '' Madison did not elaborate as to how this would be but even with a then unidentified parcel suggested that the principles of self - government would not be absent in the capital of the Republic.
In 1788, the land on which the District is formed was ceded by Maryland. In 1790, Congress passed the Residence Act placing the District on the Potomac River between the Anacostia and Connogochegue with the exact location chosen by President Washington. His selection was announced on January 24, 1791, and the Residence Act was amended to include land that Virginia had ceded in 1790. That land was returned to Virginia in 1847. The Congress did not officially move to the new federal capital until the first Monday in December 1800. During that time the District was governed by a combination of a federally appointed Board of Commissioners, the state legislatures and locally elected governments.
Within a year of moving to the District, Congress passed the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801 and incorporated the new federal District under its sole authority as permitted by the District Clause. Since the District of Columbia was no longer part of any state, the District 's residents lost voting representation in Congress and the Electoral College as well as a voice in Constitutional Amendments and the right to home rule, facts that did not go without protest. In January 1801, a meeting of District citizens was held which resulted in a statement to Congress noting that as a result of the impending Organic Act "we shall be completely disfranchised in respect to the national government, while we retain no security for participating in the formation of even the most minute local regulations by which we are to be affected. We shall be reduced to that deprecated condition of which we pathetically complained in our charges against Great Britain, of being taxed without representation. ''
Talk of suffrage for the District of Columbia began almost immediately, though it mostly focused on a constitutional amendments and retrocession, not statehood. In 1801, Augustus Woodward writing under the name Epaminondes, wrote a series of newspaper articles in the National Intelligencer proposing a constitutional amendment that would read "The Territory of Columbia shall be entitled to one Senator in the Senate of the United States; and to a number of members in the House of Representatives proportionate to its population. '' Since then more than 150 constitutional amendments and bills have been introduced to provide representation to the District of Columbia, resulting in congressional hearings on more than twenty occasions, with the first of those hearings in 1803. At that time, resolutions were introduced by Congress to retrocede most of Washington to Maryland. Citizens fearful that the seat of government be moved asked that DC be given a territorial government and an amendment to the Constitution for equal rights. But James Holland of North Carolina argued that creating a territorial government would leave citizens dissatisfied. He said, "the next step will be a request to be admitted as a member of the Union, and, if you pursue the practice relative to territories, you must, so soon as their numbers will authorize it, admit them into the Union. ''
The first proposal for congressional representation to get serious consideration came in 1888, but it would n't be until 1921 that congressional hearings would be held on the subject. Those hearings resulted in the first bill, introduced by Sen. Wesley Lively Jones (R - WA), to be reported out of committee that would have addressed District representation. The bill would have enabled - though not required - Congress to treat residents of DC as though they were citizens of a state.
Congress members continued to propose amendments to address the District 's lack of representation, with efforts picking up as part of the Civil Rights Movement in the late 1950s. This eventually resulted in successful passage of the Twenty - third Amendment in 1961, which granted the District votes in the Electoral College in proportion to their size as if they were a state, but no more than the least populous state. This right has been exercised by D.C. citizens since the presidential election of 1964.
With District citizens still denied full suffrage, members continued to propose bills to address congressional representation. Such bills made it out of committee in 1967 and 1972, for a House floor for a vote in 1976 and in 1978 resulted in the formal proposal of the District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment. However that amendment expired in 1985, 22 ratifications short of the needed 38.
Before the failure of the Voting Rights Amendment, but when passage seemed unlikely, District voters finally began to pursue statehood. In 1980, District voters approved the call of a constitutional convention to draft a proposed state constitution, just as U.S. territories had done prior to their admission as states. The convention was held in February through April 1982. The proposed constitution was ratified by District voters in 1982 for a new state to be called "New Columbia ''. In 1987, another state constitution was drafted, which again referred to the proposed state as New Columbia. Since the 98th Congress, more than a dozen statehood bills have been introduced, with two bills being reported out of the committee of jurisdictions. The second of these bills made it to the House floor in November 1993, for the only floor debate and vote on D.C. statehood. It was defeated in the House of Representatives by a vote of 277 to 153.
Pursuant to the 1980 proposed state constitution, the District still selects members of a shadow congressional delegation, consisting of two shadow Senators and a shadow Representative, to lobby the Congress to grant statehood. These positions are not officially recognized by the Congress. Additionally, until May 2008, the Congress prohibited the District from spending any funds on lobbying for voting representation or statehood.
Since the 1993 vote, bills to grant statehood to the District have been introduced in Congress each year but have not been brought to a vote. Following a 2012 statehood referendum in the U.S. territory of Puerto Rico, political commentators endorsed the idea of admitting both the District and Puerto Rico into the Union.
In July 2014, President Barack Obama became the second sitting President, after Bill Clinton in 1993, to endorse statehood for the District of Columbia. In a town - hall event, he said "I 'm for it. '' He added that "folks in D.C. pay taxes like everybody else, they contribute to the overall well being of the country like everybody else, they should be treated like everybody else, '' Obama said in response to a question. "There has been a long movement to get D.C. statehood and I 've been for it for quite some time. The politics of it end up being difficult to get through Congress, but I think it 's absolutely the right thing to do. '' D.C. residents now pay more in taxes than 22 states.
For more than 20 years following the 1993 floor vote, there were no congressional hearings on D.C. Statehood. But on September 15, 2014, the U.S. Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Government Affairs held a hearing on bill S. 132, which would have created a new state out of the current District of Columbia, similar to the 1993 bill.
On December 4, 2015, the District of Columbia was granted membership in the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organisation, an advocacy group for people groups and territories which do not receive full representation in the government of the state they reside in.
On April 15, 2016, District Mayor Muriel Bowser called for a citywide vote on whether the nation 's capital should become the 51st state. This was followed by the release of a proposed state constitution. This constitution would make the Mayor of the District of Columbia the governor of the proposed state, while the members of the City Council would make up the proposed House of Delegates. While the name "New Columbia '' has long been associated with the movement, community members thought other names, such as Potomac or Douglass, were more appropriate for the area.
On November 8, 2016, the voters of the District of Columbia voted overwhelmingly in favor of statehood, with 86 % of voters voting to advise approving the proposal. Although the proposed state name on the ballot sent to voters appeared as "State of New Columbia '', the resolution passed by the D.C. City Council passed in October 2016, weeks before the election, changed the name to "State of Washington, D.C. '', in which "D.C. '' stands for "Douglass Commonwealth '', a reference to African - American abolitionist Frederick Douglass, who lived in Washington, D.C. from 1877 to 1895.
In May 2017, a bill to propose DC statehood, the Washington, D.C. Admission Act, was introduced in the U.S. Senate.
Prior to the District 's founding, James Madison argued (in Federalist No. 43) that the national capital needed to be distinct from the states in order to provide for its own maintenance and safety. He wrote, "but a dependence of the members of the general government on the State comprehending the seat of the government, for protection in the exercise of their duty, might bring on the national councils an imputation of awe or influence, equally dishonorable to the government and dissatisfactory to the other members of the Confederacy. ''
More recently, opponents of D.C. statehood have expressed objections to statehood on the grounds that the federal government would be dependent on a single state for its security and operations, apart from its use of federal law enforcement bodies such as the Secret Service. The new state might enact policies inconsistent with operating the federal government for the benefit of the nation as a whole. The District would be far smaller than any other state by area and the District 's population is smaller than all but two states, which could potentially grant the District unfair influence in national politics that other small states have.
Opponents argue that the newly formed state would also be unique in that interests would be dominated by those of the federal government, which would be the state 's largest employer. It would also be the only state to have no rural residents and thus no need to consider the interests of non-urban areas. However, given that other states are dominated by rural areas with no significant urban population and there is no inherent value difference between an urban vs. rural voter, this argument is not commonly used. Some have expressed concern that the newly formed state might enact a commuter tax on non-residents that work in the District; such a tax is currently illegal under the District of Columbia Home Rule Act.
There is also a question as to whether granting statehood to the District would need the approval of Maryland. The U.S. Constitution requires that any new states formed from an existing state receive permission from the legislature. Since Maryland granted land to form the national capital and not a new state, some lawmakers have concluded that Maryland must also consent to the new state. However, Maryland 's consent was not needed when a Potomac River island that was part of the Maryland cession was transferred to Virginia from D.C. in 1945. This island and surrounding mud flats had been filled in to create Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport.
Alternate proposals to statehood have been proposed to grant the District varying degrees of greater political autonomy and voting representation in the Congress. Most proposals generally involve either treating D.C. more like a state or allowing the state of Maryland to take back the land it donated to form the District.
If both the Congress and the Maryland state legislature agreed, jurisdiction over the District of Columbia could be returned to Maryland, possibly excluding a small tract of land immediately surrounding the United States Capitol, the White House and the Supreme Court building. This process is known as retrocession. If the District were returned to Maryland, citizens in D.C. would gain voting representation in the Congress as residents of Maryland. The majority of D.C. citizens are opposed to this idea. Further, although the U.S. Constitution does not specify a minimum size for the District, retrocession may require a constitutional amendment, as the District 's role as the seat of government is mandated by the Constitution 's District Clause. Retrocession could also alter the idea of a separate national capital as envisioned by the Founding Fathers.
A proposal related to retrocession was the "District of Columbia Voting Rights Restoration Act of 2004 '' (H.R. 3709), which would have treated the residents of the District as residents of Maryland for the purposes of congressional representation. Maryland 's congressional delegation would then be apportioned accordingly to include the population of the District. Those in favor of such a plan argue that the Congress already has the necessary authority to pass such legislation without the constitutional concerns of other proposed remedies. From the foundation of the District in 1790 until the passage of the Organic Act of 1801, citizens living in D.C. continued to vote for members of Congress in Maryland or Virginia; legal scholars therefore propose that the Congress has the power to restore those voting rights while maintaining the integrity of the federal district. However, the proposed legislation never made it out of committee and would not grant the District any additional authority over its local affairs.
Several bills have been introduced in Congress to grant the District of Columbia voting representation in one or both houses of Congress. The primary issue with all legislative proposals is whether the Congress has the constitutional authority to grant the District voting representation. Members of Congress in support of the bills claim that constitutional concerns should not prohibit the legislation 's passage, but rather should be left to the courts. A secondary criticism of a legislative remedy is that any law granting representation to the District could be undone in the future. Additionally, recent legislative proposals deal with granting representation in the House of Representatives only, which would still leave the issue of Senate representation for District residents unresolved. Thus far, no bill granting the District voting representation has successfully passed both houses of Congress. If a bill were to pass, the law would not grant the District any additional authority over its local affairs.
Leading supporters of DC Statehood include most of the organizations that led the civil and voting rights movement of the 1960s. It is viewed as the logical extension of the expansion of voting rights that has occurred over the course of American history. Democrats are thought to favor statehood over retrocession, as it would most likely add new Democratic seats in the United States Senate. Some Republicans, in turn, have opposed enfranchisement for the American citizens in DC based on the expected political disadvantage to them. Neither statehood nor retrocession are top priorities by Democrats and Republicans.
Religious groups supporting DC statehood include the American Jewish Committee, the Episcopal Church, the Union for Reform Judaism, United Church of Christ, United Methodist Church General Board of Church and Society, and the Unitarian Universalist Association.
Statehood is a cause for many labor and civil rights groups including American Federation of Teachers, Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights, NAACP, National Treasury Employees Union, National Urban League, and SEIU.
Statehood is also supported by "good government '' organizations such as the League of Women Voters and Common Cause.
Recent Democratic Presidents Bill Clinton and Barack Obama have expressed support for statehood, as well as Democratic 2016 Presidential candidates Hillary Clinton, Bernie Sanders - a co-sponsor of the 2015 New Columbia Admission Act, and former Maryland Governor Martin O'Malley. Maryland 's Senators, Barbara Mikulski and Ben Cardin, both Democrats, are co-sponsors of a September 2014 D.C. statehood bill.
The D.C. Republican Party has been a long - standing supporter of voting rights for the District of Columbia. However, nationally based Republicans have often been steadfast in their opposition to D.C. statehood. The 2016 Republican Party Platform advocated Washington D.C. remain a district. The Platform stated statehood for D.C. can only be advanced by a constitutional amendment, citing any other means would be ' invalid '. The Platform states the last constitutional amendment proposal was ' soundly rejected ' by the states in 1976, and ' should not be revived '.
In November 2000, the D.C. Department of Motor Vehicles began issuing license plates bearing the slogan "Taxation without representation ''. President Bill Clinton had these plates placed on the presidential limousines shortly before the end of his second term. However, President George W. Bush, in one of his first official acts as president, had the plates removed. The usage of "taxation without representation '' plates was restored by President Barack Obama shortly before his second - term inauguration. Donald Trump continued to use the plates, though he stated he had "no position '' regarding statehood or representation for the District.
A September 2014 poll found that 49 % of Americans opposed DC Statehood, while only 27 % supported it. 53 % of Independents and 67 % of Republicans opposed it, but only 33 % of Democrats did. However, when asked if DC should be represented as voters in other states are, by a voting Representative and two Senators 37 % said yes and 31 % said no. Other polling from the 1990s showed stronger support. A 1999 poll showed that 46 % of Americans would support statehood.
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which cells release hydrochloric acid (hcl) into the stomach | Gastric acid - wikipedia
Gastric acid, gastric juice or stomach acid, is a digestive fluid formed in the stomach and is composed of hydrochloric acid (HCl), potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl). The acid plays a key role in digestion of proteins, by activating digestive enzymes, and making ingested proteins unravel so that digestive enzymes break down the long chains of amino acids. Gastric acid is produced by cells in the lining of the stomach, which are coupled in feedback systems to increase acid production when needed. Other cells in the stomach produce bicarbonate, a base, to buffer the fluid, ensuring that it does not become too acidic. These cells also produce mucus, which forms a viscous physical barrier to prevent gastric acid from damaging the stomach. The pancreas further produces large amounts of bicarbonate and secretes bicarbonate through the pancreatic duct to the duodenum to completely neutralize any gastric acid that passes further down into the digestive tract.
The main constituent of gastric acid is hydrochloric acid which is produced by parietal cells (also called oxyntic cells) in the gastric glands in the stomach. Its secretion is a complex and relatively energetically expensive process. Parietal cells contain an extensive secretory network (called canaliculi) from which the hydrochloric acid is secreted into the lumen of the stomach. The pH of gastric acid is 1.5 to 3.5 in the human stomach lumen, the acidity being maintained by the proton pump H / K ATPase. The parietal cell releases bicarbonate into the bloodstream in the process, which causes a temporary rise of pH in the blood, known as an alkaline tide.
The highly acidic environment in the stomach lumen causes proteins from food to lose their characteristic folded structure (or denature). This exposes the protein 's peptide bonds. The gastric chief cells of the stomach secrete enzymes for protein breakdown (inactive pepsinogen, and in infancy rennin). Hydrochloric acid activates pepsinogen into the enzyme pepsin, which then helps digestion by breaking the bonds linking amino acids, a process known as proteolysis. In addition, many microorganisms have their growth inhibited by such an acidic environment, which is helpful to prevent infection.
A typical adult human stomach will secrete about 1.5 liters of gastric acid daily. Gastric acid secretion happens in several steps. Chloride and hydrogen ions are secreted separately from the cytoplasm of parietal cells and mixed in the canaliculi. Gastric acid is then secreted into the lumen of the gastric gland and gradually reaches the main stomach lumen. The exact manner in which the secreted acid reaches the stomach lumen is controversial, as acid must first cross the relatively pH neutral gastric mucus layer.
Chloride and sodium ions are secreted actively from the cytoplasm of the parietal cell into the lumen of the canaliculus. This creates a negative potential of - 40 m V to - 70 mV across the parietal cell membrane that causes potassium ions and a small number of sodium ions to diffuse from the cytoplasm into the parietal cell canaliculi.
The enzyme carbonic anhydrase catalyses the reaction between carbon dioxide and water to form carbonic acid. This acid immediately dissociates into hydrogen and bicarbonate ions. The hydrogen ions leave the cell through H / K ATPase antiporter pumps.
At the same time, sodium ions are actively reabsorbed. This means that the majority of secreted K and Na ions return to the cytoplasm. In the canaliculus, secreted hydrogen and chloride ions mix and are secreted into the lumen of the oxyntic gland.
The highest concentration that gastric acid reaches in the stomach is 160 mM in the canaliculi. This is about 3 million times that of arterial blood, but almost exactly isotonic with other bodily fluids. The lowest pH of the secreted acid is 0.8, but the acid is diluted in the stomach lumen to a pH between 1 and 3.
There is a small continuous basal secretion of gastric acid between meals of usually less than 10 mEq / hour.
There are three phases in the secretion of gastric acid which increase the secretion rate in order to digest a meal:
Gastric acid production is regulated by both the autonomic nervous system and several hormones. The parasympathetic nervous system, via the vagus nerve, and the hormone gastrin stimulate the parietal cell to produce gastric acid, both directly acting on parietal cells and indirectly, through the stimulation of the secretion of the hormone histamine from enterochromaffine - like cells (ECL). Vasoactive intestinal peptide, cholecystokinin, and secretin all inhibit production.
The production of gastric acid in the stomach is tightly regulated by positive regulators and negative feedback mechanisms. Four types of cells are involved in this process: parietal cells, G cells, D cells and enterochromaffine - like cells. Besides this, the endings of the vagus nerve (CN X) and the intramural nervous plexus in the digestive tract influence the secretion significantly.
Nerve endings in the stomach secrete two stimulatory neurotransmitters: acetylcholine and gastrin - releasing peptide. Their action is both direct on parietal cells and mediated through the secretion of gastrin from G cells and histamine from enterochromaffine - like cells. Gastrin acts on parietal cells directly and indirectly too, by stimulating the release of histamine.
The release of histamine is the most important positive regulation mechanism of the secretion of gastric acid in the stomach. Its release is stimulated by gastrin and acetylcholine and inhibited by somatostatin.
In the duodenum, gastric acid is neutralized by sodium bicarbonate. This also blocks gastric enzymes that have their optima in the acid range of pH. The secretion of sodium bicarbonate from the pancreas is stimulated by secretin. This polypeptide hormone gets activated and secreted from so - called S cells in the mucosa of the duodenum and jejunum when the pH in the duodenum falls below 4.5 to 5.0. The neutralization is described by the equation:
The carbonic acid rapidly equilibrates with carbon dioxide and water through catalysis by carbonic anhydrase enzymes bound to the gut epithelial lining, leading to a net release of carbon dioxide gas within the lumen associated with neutralisation. In the absorptive upper intestine, such as the duodenum, both the dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonic acid will tend to equilibrate with the blood, leading to most of the gas produced on neutralisation being exhaled through the lungs.
In hypochlorhydria and achlorhydria, there is low or no gastric acid in the stomach, potentially leading to problems as the disinfectant properties of the gastric lumen are decreased. In such conditions, there is greater risk of infections of the digestive tract (such as infection with Vibrio or Helicobacter bacteria).
In Zollinger -- Ellison syndrome and hypercalcemia, there are increased gastrin levels, leading to excess gastric acid production, which can cause gastric ulcers.
In diseases featuring excess vomiting, patients develop hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis (decreased blood acidity by H and chlorine depletion).
The proton pump enzyme is the target of proton pump inhibitors, used to increase gastric pH (and hence decrease stomach acidity) in diseases that feature excess acid. H antagonists indirectly decrease gastric acid production. Antacids neutralize existing acid.
The role of gastric acid in digestion was established in the 1820s and 1830s by William Beaumont on Alexis St. Martin, who, as a result of an accident, had a fistula (hole) in his stomach, which allowed Beaumont to observe the process of digestion and to extract gastric acid, verifying that acid played a crucial role in digestion.
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how many episodes are in season 5 of forged in fire | Forged in Fire (TV series) - wikipedia
Forged in Fire is an American competition series that airs on the History channel, and is produced by Outpost Entertainment, a Leftfield Entertainment company. In each episode, four bladesmiths compete in a three - round elimination contest to forge bladed weapons, with the overall winner receiving $10,000 and the day 's championship title. The series is hosted by Wil Willis, with a three - judge panel consisting of J. Neilson (Jason Knight during portions of season 3 and 4; Ben Abbott during portions of season 4), David Baker, and Doug Marcaida, experts in weapon history and use. History ordered an initial eight episodes of the series with the first program premiering on Monday, June 22, 2015, at 10pm ET. Season two premiered on February 16, 2016 and increased to 10 episodes. The third season premiered with a "champion of champions '' match on August 23, 2016, and was announced as having 16 episodes. The fourth season premiered on April 11, 2017, with a "Judges ' Pick '' episode in which the four judges (Neilson, Knight, Baker, Marcaida) each selected one smith from past seasons to compete again. The fifth season premiered on March 7, 2018.
On April 17, 2018, a spin - off series titled Forged in Fire: Knife or Death premiered on History. This series is hosted by Bill Goldberg and co-hosted by Tu Lam, a martial arts expert and retired member of the Green Berets.
The series is filmed in Brooklyn, New York. The set, referred to as "The Forge, '' is stocked with a wide range of metalworking equipment, including propane forges, coal forges, grinders, power hammers and hydraulic presses. Medical personnel are present to treat any injuries or other health problems and may, at their discretion, disqualify smiths who are unable to continue safely. At the end of each round, the smith whose weapon is judged to be the least satisfactory must surrender it and leave the competition.
In the first round, the four smiths are presented with a starting material that they must use to forge a blade. In some episodes, they all begin with the same material; in others, they may choose from an assortment of metal objects or must salvage their material from a source such as a junked car or lawnmower. Willis states one set of criteria concerning blade or blade / tang length, and often a second set for a feature that must be incorporated, such as serrations or a fuller groove; not all competitions require a special feature. The smiths are typically given 10 minutes to sketch out their designs, but this time is occasionally extended or omitted altogether. Following the design period, they are given a set length of time to forge their blades; they are not required to adhere to their original designs. Once time expires, the judges evaluate the blades based on Willis ' criteria and inspect their workmanship, quality, and design, then deliberate privately before announcing their decision. Any smiths who fail to meet the criteria, or who fail to turn in a blade at all, are subject to immediate elimination.
For the second round, the three remaining smiths are given an additional length of time to turn their blades into fully operational weapons. They must attach a handle, choosing from a range of provided materials and incorporating any special feature stated by Willis, and grind, sharpen, and polish the blades. They may also address any flaws or issues pointed out by the judges in the first round, if they choose to do so. After the time expires, the judges put each weapon through a series of tests to gauge properties such as sharpness, durability, and ease of use. For these tests, the weapons are used to chop / slash / stab objects that include ropes, ice blocks, animal carcasses, and steel car doors. If a weapon suffers catastrophic failure, defined as damage that renders it unsafe or ineffective for further testing, its maker is immediately disqualified. The judges may, at their discretion, choose not to subject a weapon to a particular test if it is sufficiently cracked or flawed.
The working time in each of the first two rounds is typically three hours, but may be extended to four hours if an added feature poses a sufficient challenge, such as being required to forge a billet with modern damascus steel methods and use it for the blade.
In the third round, the two remaining smiths are shown a historically significant (and technically difficult) weapon and are given five days to create a version of it. They return to their home forges to do the work and comply with any specifications set by Willis. Afterwards, they return to the Forge and submit their weapons for testing against objects and environments similar to the historical scenarios in which they were typically used. Based on the test results, the judges select one smith to receive the $10,000 prize.
The "Master & Apprentice '' episode in Season 4 featured four master / apprentice pairs of smiths. Only one member of each pair was allowed to work at any time, trading off every 30 minutes in the first two rounds, and every day in the third. The non-working member was allowed to offer advice. For this episode, the forging time in the first round was extended to three and a half hours.
The "Ultimate Champions Edition '' (season 4) and "Rookies Edition '' (season 5) each featured five smiths instead of four. The smiths were required to forge a particular type of blade at their homes and bring those weapons to the studio for a preliminary test. One smith was eliminated based on the results of this test, after which the competition proceeded through the normal three rounds.
Wil Willis is a former Army Ranger and decorated Air Force para-rescue specialist. Willis ' previous television experience includes Special Ops Mission and Triggers, two series that aired on the former Military Channel.
J. Neilson, a knife and sword expert, holds the rank of Master Smith within the American Bladesmith Society. He has over 20 years ' experience in making knives and edged weapons. He examines the weapons ' technical qualities and tests their durability. In Season 3, Neilson took a leave of absence in order to have surgery on his hand; Jason Knight, another ABS Master Smith, filled his seat on the judges ' panel during that time. Neilson appeared alongside Knight for the Season 4 premiere, then resumed his seat in the eighth episode. Starting with the 21st episode of the fourth season, he was replaced by two - time Forged in Fire champion Ben Abbott.
David Baker, a Hollywood prop maker who has appeared on the Spike series Deadliest Warrior, is an authority on weapons history and an expert on replicating period - accurate weapons for both museums and films. He judges the weapons ' historical accuracy and aesthetic beauty.
Doug Marcaida, an edged - weapons specialist, is a U.S. military contractor, martial arts instructor and knife designer for FOX Knives Italy. Specializing in the Southeast Asian fighting style of Kali, he has taught classes in weapon awareness and use for military, law enforcement, and security organizations. Marcaida evaluates the smiths ' weapons to determine their effectiveness in combat. When he can not test the smiths ' weapons himself due to injury, he has a co-worker or family member perform this task in his place.
Tim Healy and Steve Ascher are executive producers for History. Jodi Flynn, Brent Montgomery, David George, Shawn Witt and Simon Thomas are executive producers for Outpost Entertainment. Healy observed the demonstration, and later the filming, from the sidelines. Healy says that the inspiration for Forged in Fire came from his and other developers ' love of food competition shows such as Chopped and Iron Chef. However, in order to appeal to the History channel 's audience, they decided to have the competition focus on historical weaponry.
In the city of Cohoes, New York near Albany, a man, inspired by the series, tried to forge a piece of metal over a fire in a barrel near his home. He caused a fire that destroyed three residential buildings and damaged 28 others.
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tarzan the wonder car taarzan the wonder car picture | Taarzan: the Wonder car - Wikipedia
Taarzan: The Wonder Car is a 2004 Indian fantasy thriller film directed by Abbas Burmawalla and Mustan Burmawalla. The film stars Vatsal Sheth, Ajay Devgn and Ayesha Takia in the lead roles, while Farida Jalal, Shakti Kapoor, Amrish Puri, Pankaj Dheer, Sadashiv Amrapurkar, Gulshan Grover and Mukesh Tiwari play supporting roles. It is loosely based on the American film Christine (1983). Which was also remade in Marathi as Ek Gadi Baki Anadi in 1989.
The film was released as a part of launching the car named "Tarzan ''. Due to a huge failure of the movie at the box office, the car was never launched. Producers of the movie and the car faced huge losses. Over time, however, the film has become a cult favourite.
Ayesha Takia won the Filmfare Best Debut Award for her part in the movie.
Deven Chaudhary (Ajay Devgan) lives with his mother (Farida Jalal) and only son Raj (Vatsal Sheth). Deven spends considerable time designing the perfect car, calling it DC -- which is very futuristic and more advanced than any other car in the market -- and registering its patent. The SUV car is said to have 400BHP and 500NM of torque, as well as making it from 0 - 60 in 5.2 seconds. He also looks after an older model car, handed over to him by his late father, and calls it "Taarzan ''. He meets with Rakesh Kapoor (Pankaj Dheer) and his partners, who praise his design but decline dealing with him, as they do not want to give royalty as part of the deal.
Later, Deven finds that Rakesh and his partners conned him and registered his design under their name. Deven reports this to a police officer, Inspector Sanjay Sharma (Deepak Shirke), but the latter turns out to be on Kapoor 's payroll. Kapoor, along with his cronies and Sharma, attack and lock Deven in his car. The car is then pushed into the river, causing a bound and gagged Deven to die. Unaware of the truth behind Deven 's death, his mother decides to bring up her grandson alone.
Twelve years later, Raj studies at a college and falls in love with a rich girl named Priya (Ayesha Takia). The young Raj now works in the garage of Kartar Singh (Amrish Puri) as a mechanic. One day, Raj discovers Taarzan and recognizes it immediately. He somehow pools money and buys it at a throwaway price, which was 5000 rupees. Raj wants to update the car that reminds him of his father. Little does he know that with the car, he has also brought back his father, whose soul is trapped inside the car.
Kartar is moved on learning this and aides Raj in repairing Taarzan. Taarzan is totally revamped and Raj decides to rename it DC, to honour his father 's memory. Here, Deven 's spirit possesses Taarzan and starts killing all the gentlemen responsible for the murder, including Inspector Sanjay Sharma. Since the car now belongs to Raj, he becomes a suspect in eyes of Inspector Khurana (Gulshan Grover), the investigating officer. Here, Kapoor returns to India after learning that all his partners have died. Kapoor is revealed to be Priya 's father.
On Priya 's insistence, Kapoor goes to meet Raj, but after learning that Raj is Deven 's son, Kapoor assumes that Raj has somehow found the truth and is using Priya as a pawn. Kapoor decides to kill Raj and take Priya back with him. Priya and Raj are both clueless, but Raj is shocked when Kapoor tells him the truth. Here, Taarzan comes alive again and in front of disbelieving eyes of Kapoor and Raj, jumps in the ocean to save Raj. Deven 's spirit now becomes visible to everybody.
In front of Raj, his grandmother, Priya and Inspector Khurana, a terrified Kapoor confesses the crime. Khurana arrests Kapoor, while Deven says his last goodbye to his mother and son. With Raj, his Deven 's mother & Priya united, Deven 's spirit becomes free and he ascends to heaven, with the Raj and Priya living a happy life afterwards.
The car is loosely based on a 1991 Toyota MR2, although comparisons have been made to the 2004 Mitsubishi Eclipse and Ferrari 348. It is said to have high performance tyres and produces around 650 BHP, with its kerb weight being 1358 KG. The production team used 7 Toyota MR2s for the stunt scenes in the making of the film.
The music is composed by Himesh Reshammiya with lyrics by Sameer.
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how does a hydrogen ion become an atom | Hydrogen ion - wikipedia
A hydrogen ion is created when a hydrogen atom loses or gains an electron. A positively charged hydrogen ion (or proton) can readily combine with other particles and therefore is only seen isolated when it is in a gaseous state or a nearly particle - free space. Due to its extremely high charge density of approximately 2 × 10 times that of a sodium ion, the bare hydrogen ion can not exist freely in solution as it readily hydrates, i.e., bonds quickly. The hydrogen ion is recommended by IUPAC as a general term for all ions of hydrogen and its isotopes. Depending on the charge of the ion, two different classes can be distinguished: positively charged ions and negatively charged ions.
A hydrogen atom is made up of a nucleus with charge + 1, and a single electron. Therefore, the only positively charged ion possible has charge + 1. It is noted H.
Depending on the isotope in question, the hydrogen cation has different names:
In addition, the ions produced by the reaction of these cations with water as well as their hydrates are called hydrogen ions:
Zundel cations and Eigen cations play an important role in proton diffusion according to the Grotthuss mechanism.
In connection with acids, "hydrogen ions '' typically refers to hydrons.
Hydrogen atom (center) contains a single proton and a single electron. Removal of the electron gives a cation (left), whereas addition of an electron gives an anion (right). The hydrogen anion, with its loosely held two - electron cloud, has a larger radius than the neutral atom, which in turn is much larger than the bare proton of the cation. Hydrogen forms the only cation that has no electrons, but even cations that (unlike hydrogen) still retain one or more electrons are still smaller than the neutral atoms or molecules from which they are derived.
Hydrogen anions are formed when additional electrons are acquired:
Hydrogen ions drive ATP synthase in photosynthesis. This happens when hydrogen ions get pushed across the membrane creating a high concentration inside the thylakoid membrane and a low concentration in the cytoplasm. However, because of osmosis, the H will force itself out of the membrane through ATP synthase. Using their kinetic energy to escape, the protons will spin the ATP synthase which in turn will create ATP. This happens in cellular respiration as well though the concentrated membrane will instead be the inner membrane of the mitochondria.
Hydrogen ions concentration, measured as pH, is also responsible for the acidic or basic nature of a compound. Water molecules split to form H and hydroxide anions. This process is referred to as the self - ionization of water.
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who won best reality show at the emmys | Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding reality - competition Program - wikipedia
The Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Reality - Competition Program is handed out for reality competition formats during the primetime telecast since 2003.
The Amazing Race won consecutively every year since the category 's inception until Top Chef ended its streak in 2010. Likewise, American Idol had been nominated every year since the category 's inception, until that streak ended in 2012.
In the following list, the first titles listed are winners, these are also in bold and in blue background; those not in bold are nominees, which are listed in alphabetical order. The years given are those in which the ceremonies took place:
Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Reality Series -- Competition
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where was darling buds of may a breath of french air filmed | The Darling Buds of May (TV series) - wikipedia
The Darling Buds of May is a British comedy drama television series, produced by Yorkshire Television for the ITV network, first broadcast between 7 April 1991 and 4 April 1993. It is an adaptation of the 1958 novel of the same name, and its sequels, by H.E. Bates.
Set in rural 1950s Kent, it follows the life of the Larkin family. It starred David Jason as "Pop '' Larkin alongside Pam Ferris as "Ma '' Larkin, with Catherine Zeta - Jones playing their eldest daughter Mariette, who marries tax inspector Philip Franks as "Charley '' Charlton. A ratings success, it proved to be Zeta - Jones ' breakout role.
Featuring a total of 20 episodes, it was broadcast as three series of six double - episode story lines in the spring of 1991, 1992 and 1993, plus two single episode Christmas specials aired in 1991 and 1992.
The title is from the third line of Shakespeare 's sonnet 18.
The Larkin family lives on a farm in rural England, in the county of Kent. Sidney ("Pop '') and his partner Florence ("Ma '') have six children, eldest daughter Mariette, followed by their only son Montgomery, and other daughters Primrose, twins Zinnia and Petunia, and Victoria. Ma is a housewife while Pop supplements his farm income with various other not entirely legitimate enterprises. Tax collector Cedric ("Charlie '') visits to audit Pop, but falls in love with Mariette and quits his job to live the rural life. As Ma and Pop raise their other children, Charlie attempts to provide for his now wife Mariette. Ma and Pop soon have a seventh child, Oscar, followed around a year later by Charlie and Mariette 's first baby, John Blenheim.
Pop and Ma 's relationship is depicted as loving and affectionate throughout, although Pop is flirtatious and subject to numerous advances, most of which Ma is aware of and evidently unconcerned by. Proud of all his children, Pop 's schemes evidently provide well for the family, enough to fund boarding school for the twins, naval boarding school for Monty, a swimming pool, a fairground, and a holiday to France, although he is just as motivated by doing good and helping others as making a profit. Ma occasionally becomes involved in Pop 's schemes, or creates a scheme of her own. Possessing some very close friends, their lifestyle, in particular the fact they have never been married, nonetheless raises eyebrows in the stuffy environs of the local village.
Mariette and Charlie 's relationship is more torrid, in part due to his insecurity over her attractiveness, and his varying success in providing financially, with their newly acquired hop farm struggling. Mariette 's business skills eventual come to bear as they purchase a local brewery. Primrose is depicted as a frustrated romantic, moving to France to live with a boy her own age and attempting to seduce both Charlie and the village minister upon her return. Monty meanwhile contends with bullying, both at home and at naval boarding school. The increasingly mischievous twins gradually grow apart from their younger sibling Victoria, who delights in teasing and embarrassing all her siblings, especially Primrose.
All the episodes are seemingly set during 1958 -- 59 despite the timespan of events across all three series making this a logical impossibility. The first serial is based on the first book, written and set in 1958, during which Florence finds out she is pregnant. In the second serial ("When the green woods laugh '') Sidney is accused of committing indecent assault on 23 August 1958. The trial takes place on July 7th, the same day as Charlie 's and Mariette 's wedding; this would seem to be a continuity error because it can not be July of the following year as Florence 's baby had not yet been born. By the time of the third serial ("A breath of French air '') Florence has already given birth to Oscar and the Larkins have a late August holiday in Brittany, during which Charlie and Mariette celebrate their first wedding anniversary. The fourth serial ("Christmas is coming '') is set at Christmas and it is established Mariette is five months pregnant; she gives birth in the fifth serial ("Oh! to be in England! ''), which would be some time in the spring of 1960 at the earliest according to the dating of the first series and the chronology of events up to that point. However, in the sixth serial ("Stranger at the gates '') the twins celebrate their birthday, which a close - up of a wall calendar reveals to be 15 August 1959.
In the eighth serial ("Le Grand Weekend '') the Larkins ' weekend getaway coincides with Charles de Gaulle 's state visit, which would date the events of the episode to April 1960 if it does indeed coincide with the real - life visit. Primrose 's birthday was revealed to be in May in "Stranger at the gates '' and she celebrates it in the ninth serial "The happiest days of your life '', dating the events either to May 1960 (using the retconned second series date) or 1961 (going by the date given in the first series). By the eleventh serial ("Climb the greasy pole ''), when the children are older and the babies have grown to toddlerhood, another close - up of a calendar reveals the month to be October 1959. At the end of the final episode, Sidney is elected to the Rural District Council on 5 November 1959 (Guy Fawkes Night).
Of the four main cast members, Jason and Ferris appeared in all twenty episodes, while Zeta - Jones and Franks appeared in eighteen, their only absences being in the third series double episode "Cast Not Your Pearls Before Swine '' (3.3 & 3.4).
The actors playing the other Larkin children and grandchild were as below (listed in descending character age). All the children except those yet to be born appeared in the first episode. After appearing in the first six episodes, the actor playing Primrose was replaced, the second appearing from the seventh episode (the first Christmas special) onwards. The actors playing the roles of Oscar and John Blenheim first appear in episodes 1.5 and 2.1 respectively. Although a male character, John Blenheim was played by Daisy - May Bates, granddaughter of the author of the books.
Various other actors appeared in more than one story - line, i.e. in more than one double - episode.
Having been sold to MGM films in 1959, it was n't until 1989 that Richard Bates, son of the author of the original books H.E Bates, was able to purchase the rights to the novels. At the same time, Yorkshire Television were looking for a new project for David Jason, having starred for them in A Bit of a Do. Richard Bates went on to Executive Produce the show, alongside Vernon Lawrence of Yorkshire Television.
Bates had originally considered Bob Hoskins as ideal for the role of Pop, but Lawrence was of the view his increasing fame as a film actor would create problems. Jason was cast first, followed by Ferris and Franks. Finding an actor to fit with the novel 's description of Mariette as a black - haired and olive skinned beauty proved difficult, with over 300 rejected until Zeta - Jones was cast. With filming due to start, she had been spotted appearing in 42nd Street at the Drury Lane Theatre.
Each one - hour episode took two weeks to film, followed by two months in post production.
Much of the series was filmed in and around the village of Pluckley in Kent; Executive Producer Richard Bates lived just a few miles away.
The location for "Home Farm '', the Larkin residence, was Buss Farm a few miles south of Pluckley, owned by the Holmes family. All four main buildings of the Grade II listed farm were utilised, the farmhouse itself, a square oast house (depicted in the title sequence), a Tudor barn and cart lodge. After being put up for sale by the family in 2012, it was purchased in 2013 by a businessman. Renaming it "Darling Buds Farm '', several buildings were converted into guest accommodation themed around the show.
Other locations in Pluckley village itself were used extensively; the Black Horse pub in The Street was renamed the Hare and Hounds and used as the Larkins ' local. Church Gate Cottage and Fig Tree Cottage in The Street served as Edith Pilchester 's and The Brigadier 's homes respectively. Pluckley primary school, also in The Street, served as the village hall. The butcher 's shop also featured, and the Post Office (dressed as the grocer 's). Church scenes were filmed at St Nicholas Church in the village.
The cricket scenes were filmed at Little Chart Cricket Club, a village north east of Pluckley.
Further afield, in and around Tenterden, Kent, Halden Place in Halden Lane, Cranbrook, served as Mrs Kinthley 's hop garden, Wentwood Cottage in Swain Road served as Charley and Mariette 's cottage, and the Kent & East Sussex Railway was the location of Charley 's arrival in Kent, and the station used by Ma, Charley and Mariette shopping for her wedding dress. Other scenes shot in Kent included the exteriors of "Bristow 's Brewery '', filmed at Shepherd Neame Brewery in Faversham, and scenes of the Larkin 's beach holiday, filmed in Folkestone, including a backdrop of the Leas Lift. Mlle. Dupont is met by the Larkin 's at Folkestone Harbour after her channel crossing.
Little filming was done inside the farmhouse, the interiors having been shot in a studio at Yorkshire Television. Scenes shot in the former Wennington School in Yorkshire were included.
To mark the series ' 20th anniversary, Kent County Council established a tourist trail featuring the various film locations and other local attractions and Kent food.
The series ' music producer Pip Burley wrote the title theme, "Perfick! ''. He had submitted the piece anonymously, having deemed the submissions received from a shortlist of composers missed the point of the essential romanticism of the show. Although it also featured lyrics, drawn from the words used in the novels, the theme music for the series did not feature them. The song with lyrics was later sung by David Jason for the radio adaptation of the last book in the Larkin series, A Little of What You Fancy.
After the series ended, Ferris wished to film more episodes. Having performed it for radio in 1996, she theorised in 2008 that the reason the fifth book was never adapted for television was because the storyline featured Pop recovering from a heart attack, something the producers likely thought the audience would not want to see.
In 2016, having filmed a cinema adaptation of another classic TV series, Dad 's Army, Zeta - Jones responded positively to suggestions that The Darling Buds of May might also be similarly remade, stating "I 'd be playing Ma Larkin, but I 'm up for it ''.
Locally produced food and drink intentionally played a core role in the series. Due to not being ripe at the right time, the strawberries used in the series were imported from Holland. One of the most iconic scenes featuring Pop and Ma eating a meal together while having a bath. With several scenes featuring eating, the fact Ferris was a vegetarian had to be worked around by the production staff. Both Ferris and Jason gained weight due to the amount of food they had to consume, often in multiple times and for multiple scenes at one time, to make the scenes look realistic.
Another theme of the series was the Larkin family 's habit of giving their children unusual or themed first and middle names. Mariette was created by combining ' Marie ' and ' Antoinette '. Montgomery was named after wartime officer Field Marshall Montgomery. Victoria was named for being born during the plum season (Victoria plum). While Monty and Victoria have no middle names, the other children have multiple instances of them: Primrose Violet Anemone Iris Magnolia Narcissa, twins Petunia June Florence Nightingale and Zinnia June Florence Nightingale, and Oscar Columbus Septimus Dupont, the last one being in tribute to the French hotelleir Mademoiselle Dupont, who features in the series. In comparison, Mariette 's wedding ceremony reveals her middle name is simply Jane. Mariette and Charlie continue the family tradition by naming their son John Marlborough Churchill Blenheim.
The first episode was transmitted on the ITV channel at 8pm on a Sunday night.
When the series was first released on video, it sold £ 1m worth of copies in the first four days.
DVD releases:
Note: The 2008 and 2011 DVD sets from ITV Studios list that there are 11 episodes; this is due to the fact that all episodes in series 1 - 3 (not including the specials) contain two parts making them count as a whole.
A 16 track soundtrack of the series was released by EMI on CD in 1991.
The series was a ratings success, its "feel - good '' factor during economic recession often noted as the reason. While Yorkshire TV classified it as a drama, audiences and critics have generally considered it a comedy / drama.
The first episode broke a British broadcasting record, becoming the first instance of a new series topping the national ratings, beating the soap opera Coronation Street (also an ITV production) on the night. This came as a shock to producers, although they had been hopeful of good ratings, based on the dull weather and the belief people would be looking for something to lift their spirits following the end of the Gulf War.
Jason attributed the series ' popularity to the public wanting a more wholesome, inclusive and inoffensive viewing option, at a time when violence on television was increasing. This was one of the main reasons he decided to take the role.
The series generated an upsurge in sales of H.E. Bates ' novels.
The series is based on the works of H.E. Bates, who died in 1974. Having moved from the industrialised English Midlands to a granary in Little Chart in Kent in 1930 in search of new inspirations for his work, he was initially frustrated in his efforts to create a novel based on the Kent way of life. His inspiration for the Larkin stories eventually came in 1955 while on a trip to Sittingbourne. Pausing at Faversham, he observed the joyful camaraderie of a large boisterous family as they emerged from a shop and departed in a large blue truck. Combining this with observations of another family on a nearby small - holding, he set about writing about how these families might live. Originally a short story, he expanded it into a novel, followed by a further four books, the titles of the first four of which were used as episode titles for the TV series:
The first novel in the series was originally adapted to the screen in 1959 as The Mating Game, starring Debbie Reynolds and Tony Randall as Mariette and Charley.
The fifth novel, A Little of What You Fancy?, was never adapted for television, but it was adapted into a six - part series by Eric Pringle for BBC Radio, with Jason and Ferris reprising their roles, first airing in February 1996.
In May 2011 a stage production of the series was put on at Buss Farm.
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what's the name of the first chucky movie | Child 's Play (franchise) - wikipedia
Child 's Play (also called Chucky) is an American horror comedy franchise centered on a series of seven films created by Don Mancini. The films mainly focus on Chucky (voiced by Brad Dourif), a notorious serial killer known as the "Lakeshore Strangler '' whose soul is transferred inside a Good Guy doll following a voodoo ritual in order to avoid the afterlife and possibly avoid going to Hell. The original film, Child 's Play, was released on November 9, 1988. The film has spawned six sequels and has gone into other media, such as comic books, a video game, tie - in merchandise, and an upcoming television show. The first, second, and fourth films were box office successes with all of the films earning over $182 million worldwide. Including revenues from sales of videos, DVDs, VOD and merchandise, the franchise has generated over $250 million. It also won a Saturn Award for Best Horror Franchise.
The film series originally started out as straight horror with the first installment Child 's Play, which appears to have more psychological horror elements, while its successors are straightforward slasher films with elements of dark humor. As the films progressed, they became satirical and campy, until the series briefly became a horror comedy, with 1998 's Bride of Chucky and 2004 's Seed of Chucky. In 2012, it was confirmed that a new film would be made under the title Curse of Chucky and be released direct - to - video. Unlike Bride and Seed, Curse of Chucky is a full - fledged horror film much like the original three installments. However, it does maintain the campy humor to a small degree. Since Bride of Chucky, titles have no longer been released under the Child 's Play brand name and now use Chucky and will continue to do so with future films. The latest installment to the series, titled Cult of Chucky, was released on October 3, 2017.
Several short films have been made featuring the Chucky character: on the DVD release of Seed of Chucky, a short film entitled Chucky 's Vacation Slides, set during the events of the film, was included, and a series of short films inserting Chucky into the events of other horror films entitled Chucky Invades was released in the run - up to the release of Curse of Chucky. On television, Chucky has appeared in commercials and also on Saturday Night Live, with a separate voice actor voicing the character. Chucky appeared in a pretaped segment during an October 1998 episode of World Championship Wrestling 's Monday Nitro program as a heel, taunting wrestler Rick Steiner who was a face at the time and promoting Bride of Chucky.
Child 's Play is the first and only in the series to be distributed by Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer / United Artists (until Seed of Chucky which is distributed by Rogue) before the franchise was sold by Universal Pictures. The film is directed by Tom Holland, written by Holland, John Lafia, and Don Mancini, and starring Catherine Hicks, Chris Sarandon, Alex Vincent, and Brad Dourif. The film was released on November 9, 1988. In the film, a serial killer and voodoo practitioner named Charles Lee "Chucky '' Ray is mortally wounded and transfers his soul via a voodoo ritual into a child - sized "Good Guy '' doll. The doll is found by a homeless peddler and sold to Karen Barclay, who gives it to her son Andy as a birthday gift. As time goes on Chucky has to get his soul out of the doll before it turns human and the transfer becomes permanent, and thus has to possess the first person he told his secret to - Andy. Desperate to leave his doll body, Chucky terrorizes the Barclays in order to restore his soul.
Child 's Play 2 is the second film in the series and the first film distributed by Universal Pictures. The film directed by John Lafia, written by Mancini, Vincent and Dourif reprise their roles as Andy Barclay and the voice of Chucky. The film was released on November 9, 1990. The movie takes place two years after the events of the first film. While Andy is living in foster care, the doll 's manufacturer has taken a positive corporate stance and remade it to prove there is nothing wrong with the Good Guy brand. After a freak electrical malfunction brings Chucky back to life in a new Good Guy doll, he continues to follow Andy in order to transfer his soul from his doll body before it will once again becomes his permanent form.
Child 's Play 3, also known as Child 's Play 3: Look Who 's Stalking!, is third film in the series, and last film to be titled as Child 's Play, before title change as Chucky. The film directed by Jack Bender, written by Mancini, and had Dourif reprise once again his role as Chucky, Alex Vincent replaced as Andy Barclay by Justin Whalin as an older version of Andy and a supporting cast of Perrey Reeves and Jeremy Sylvers. The film was released on August 20, 1991. Set eight years after the events of the second film, the Good Guy factory has re-opened after the negative publicity, and as Chucky 's remains are removed, some blood from his destroyed human - doll body drips into a vat of melted plastic used to re-mould the Good Guy line. Chucky returns in a new body, going on a hunt for the now 16 - year - old Andy Barclay, who has left to attend a military academy after the results of the first two films. While attempting to reach Andy, Chucky finds a new boy, Ronald Tyler, who he shares his "secret '' with. With a new "Good Guy '' doll body brings the possibility of possessing a new human body, Chucky attempts to restore his soul to human form through Tyler as Andy attempts to stop the killer Good Guy doll once and for all.
The film picks up about a year after the events of the Child 's Play 3. Unlike the first three films, this film focuses entirely on Chucky and Tiffany. Charles Lee Ray 's former girlfriend and his accomplice, Tiffany, acquires Chucky 's remains, stitches them together and via a voodoo ritual revives Charles Lee Ray, albeit in a much different form. Chucky kills Tiffany, transferring her soul into a bride doll, and the two maniacs force a young couple to bring them to Ray 's grave, where Chucky plans to use a voodoo amulet to finally get a new body. In the end, the Tiffany doll gives birth to a new form of life (Glen / Glenda) as it flies out of a now dead Tiffany and attacks a detective. No one knows whether the detective is dead or alive as the screen cuts to black and closing credits roll.
Seed of Chucky is the fifth installment, and the first film other than the original Child 's Play not to be distributed by Universal Pictures. Chucky and Tiffany 's child Glen finds his parents six years later and brings them back to life, but is horrified by their murders. Chucky and Tiffany force a pregnancy on actress Jennifer Tilly, which is accelerated by voodoo magic. Glen suffers a split personality disorder, having both a male and female soul in his / her body, and dismembers his father. Tiffany uses the ritual to take over Tilly 's body and as Tilly bears twins, Glen 's dual personality now has a body each of its own. In an epilogue set five years later, one of Chucky 's severed arms is mailed to the home of his family, where it attacks the now - human Glen.
Curse of Chucky is the first direct - to - video film in the series. Nine years after the events of the fifth film, Chucky is delivered to the family home of Nica and Sarah Pierce, where Chucky terrorizes and kills the family one by one. Chucky is driven by revenge, as Sarah was the one who called the police on him while he was still human, leading to his original death in the first film by detective Mike Norris. Nica survives, but is institutionalized, and blamed for the murders. Chucky is collected by Tiffany, who delivers him to Alice. Chucky successfully transfers his soul into Alice 's body which will be explained in Cult of Chucky, as he does the soul ritual the camera moves to reveal Alice 's grandmother emerging from the basement, with a plastic bag around her head, slowly dying. Six months later, Chucky is mailed to his next victim, who just so happens to be none other than his longtime original nemesis from the original first three films, Andy Barclay, who points a shotgun at Chucky and shoots him through the head.
Four years after Curse of Chucky, Chucky returns to terrorize Nica at the mental institution where she is admitted. Chucky goes on yet another murderous rampage, killing disbelieved employees & tenants at the institution with various dramatic tricks. When a now vigilante Andy Barclay figures out Chucky 's plan, he breaks into the institution in an attempt to disarm his newly created voodoo plot. But in the end, Nica ends up being possessed by Chucky, which causes her to gain the ability to walk and leaves with Tiffany.
In October 2017, Don Mancini stated that he intends in having Glen and Glenda from Seed of Chucky return in a future film, and acknowledged that most references to that character had been cut from Cult of Chucky. In February 2018, it was announced that a Child 's Play television series will be a continuation of the film 's story arc. Mancini also stated that following the TV show, feature films will continue to be developed in the future.
In an interview with Bloody Disgusting Mancini discussed the potential of a Child 's Play film set on a train as well as revealing plans for a crossover film with the Nightmare on Elm Street franchise, tentatively referred to as Child 's Play on Elm Street.
I would like to do Freddy and Chucky, just because I think they would be a fun double act, '' he explains. "I 'm more really interested in the characters. My pitch for Freddy vs. Chucky is Child 's Play on Elm Street. Chucky ends up in some kid 's house on Elm Street, and Chucky and Freddy inevitably meet in the dreamscape. Chucky sleeps. Why not? Chucky sleeps, Chucky dreams. And they have this admiration for each other. But they realize quickly that Elm Street is n't big enough for the two of them, so in a riff on Dirty Rotten Scoundrels they have a contest: who can kill the most teenagers before the sun comes up?
In September 2017 in a separate interview with Cinema Blend, Mancini confirmed his intent to make the crossover film, describing it as "cool and doable '', confirming that the film would be titled Child 's Play on Elm Street and that he was currently in discussion with New Line Cinema about the film. The foundation for a crossover film was previously laid in Bride of Chucky, in which Freddy Krueger 's bladed glove had appeared in the Lockport police evidence depository at the beginning of the film.
In July 2018, Collider reported that a modern - day version of Child 's Play, a reboot, is in development at MGM without the involvement of Mancini or Kirschner. Lars Klevberg will direct the film, with a script from Tyler Burton Smith (of Polaroid and Quantum Break fame, respectively). David Katzenberg and Seth Grahame - Smith will serve as producers. The plot will reportedly feature a group of kids, similar to Stranger Things, and a hi - tech version of the Good Guy Doll. Production will begin in September, later that year.
Later, in September 2018, Gabriel Bateman, Aubrey Plaza and Brian Tyree Henry as Andy Barclay, and Karen Barclay, and Detective Mike Norris, respectively.
In February 2018, it was announced that a television series titled Child 's Play: The TV Series, is in development with involvement from franchise creator Don Mancini, and producer David Kirschner. The show will share continuity with the original film series, and be a continuation of that story. Mancini stated that besides the TV series, feature films will still continue to be developed. By June of the same year, it was confirmed that Brad Dourif would return for the 8 - part series to voice Charles Lee "Chucky '' Ray.
On the home media DVD and Blu - ray release of Seed of Chucky in 2005, a short film entitled Chucky 's Vacation Slides was included in the special features. The short, set during the events of Seed of Chucky, follows Chucky, Tiffany, and Glen after having returned from a family vacation. The film implies that the events of Seed of Chucky take place over the course of 5 -- 10 years. While browsing through their photographs of their vacation on a slide projector, Tiffany notices various corpses in the background of certain photographs, realizing that Chucky has been killing people again. Tiffany leaves, with a distraught and sickened Glen, while Chucky continues to view the photographs. After a delivery man arrives with a pizza, Chucky leads him to his garage and kills him off - screen. Brad Dourif, Jennifer Tilly and Billy Boyd all reprise their roles from the films.
Leading up to the DVD release of Curse of Chucky in 2013, a series of short film videos were released. The clips showed Chucky interrupting the events of several other horror films. Brad Dourif and Edan Gross reprised their roles as Chucky and the Good Guy Doll, respectively.
Joe Renzetti composed the first Child 's Play, followed by Graeme Revell, who composed the soundtrack for Child 's Play 2 and Bride of Chucky. John D'Andrea and Cory Lerios wrote the score for Child 's Play 3, while Pino Donaggio composed Seed of Chucky. Joseph LoDuca composed the score for Curse of Chucky and Cult of Chucky.
The following crimes have been associated with the Child 's Play films:
In December 1992 four people who tortured and killed 16 - year - old Suzanne Capper were said to be influenced by one of the Child 's Play movies. During the torturing of the girl, the perpetrators taunted her by playing her a song, (Hi, I 'm Chucky (Wanna Play?) by 150 Volts, featuring samples from the movie Child 's Play.
In 1993, two youths who abducted and murdered a toddler named James Bulger were said to have been influenced by the film Child 's Play 3. The supposed link between the murder and the film was denied by film censor James Ferman.
According to a relative of two boys aged 10 and 12 who brutally attacked a nine - year - old and 11 - year - old boy in Edlington, South Yorkshire in April 2009, the attackers watched horror movies, including Chucky films, from the age of about six or seven. Elena Lobacheva, a Russian serial killer arrested in 2015, was reportedly obsessed with the film Bride of Chucky, which she cited as being an inspiration for the murders that she and her gang committed throughout Moscow.
Beginning in 1992, Innovation Publishing released the first comic books based on the films, in the form of a three - issue adaptation of Child 's Play 2. It was later collected in a trade paperback. The success of the adaptation led to a monthly series of new stories starting in 1991. The series, titled Child 's Play: The Series, ended in 1992 after only five issues. This was followed by a three - issue adaptation of Child 's Play 3.
In 2007, Devil 's Due Publishing obtained the license to publish Child 's Play comics and released a one - shot crossover with Hack / Slash titled Hack / Slash vs. Chucky which takes place after the events of the Seed of Chucky film. This was followed by a four - issue series called Chucky. A second volume began in early 2009 but ceased publication after only one issue.
Slimstown Studios announced an endless runner video game titled Chucky: Slash & Dash. The game is scheduled to be released on iPhone, iPad, iPod Touch and Android devices. It is the result of an agreement with Universal Partnerships & Licensing to develop and publish the first officially licensed smartphone and tablet Child 's Play video game. The gameplay is actually inspired by the second film 's climax.
In the game, Chucky is stuck in a never - ending nightmare in which he 's endlessly running through the factory that produces Good Guys dolls. Players control Chucky while sprinting through the factory floor, the catwalks, the warehouse, or even outside, and need to avoid conveyor belts, forklifts, acid pools, barrels and other obstacles. Chucky can also eliminate security guards patrolling the factory using his classic knife or other more outlandish weapons like a cleaver, screwdriver, or hatchet. As they play, gamers collect batteries that can be used to purchase in - game items or power - ups, such as a double battery bonus, a fast start, or extra lives that can extend a run after dying.
The app was released on November 1, 2013.
Since 1992, Chucky has starred in his own shows at Universal Studios Halloween Horror Nights, entitled, Chucky 's In - Your - Face Insults and Chucky 's Insult Emporium.
In 2009, the climax of Child 's Play 3 received its own maze, entitled Chucky 's Fun House. Curse of Chucky has also received its own scarezone in the 2013 lineup.
In 2017, Chucky played host to the Titans of Terror Tram which featured iconic horror villains Leatherface, Freddy Krueger, and Jason Voorhees.
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who owns the toll roads in austin tx | List of toll roads in Texas - wikipedia
There are approximately 25 current toll roads in the state of Texas. Toll roads are more common in Texas than in many other U.S. states, since the relatively low revenues from the state 's gasoline tax limits highway planners ' means to fund the construction and operation of highways.
Toll roads, sometimes are seen as a recent addition to travel options for commuters. However, this is not the case. In fact the need for, use of, and discussion of toll roads can be traced back to 1939. According to Richard Weingroff at the Federal Highway Administration:
In the 1939 report to Congress, Toll Roads and Free Roads, the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads (BPR) rejected the toll option for financing Interstate construction because most Interstate corridors would not generate enough toll revenue to retire the bonds that would be issued to finance them. In part, the report attributed this conclusion to "the traffic - repelling tendency of the proposed toll - road system. '' Although some corridors had enough traffic to support bond financing, the report predicted that motorists would stay on the parallel toll - free roads to a large extent. That conclusion was called into question when the first segment of the Pennsylvania Turnpike, from Carlisle to Irwin, opened on October 1, 1940. It was an instant financial success. Following World War II, the turnpike 's continued success prompted other States to use the same financing method. Each State established a toll authority to issue bonds. Revenue from the bonds provided the funds, up front, to pay for construction. Toll revenue allowed the toll authority to repay bond holders with interest and finance administration, maintenance, and operation of the highway.
The use of this toll system is related to the state of Texas as one might infer. For the state of Texas, and more specifically Central Texas has seen a significant growth in recent years. The United States Census Bureau reports that in 2010 Texas had a population just over 25 million citizens. It is estimated that the population grew over five percent in just three years to nearly 26.5 million people. This growth is great for the state of Texas, but has exposed an area of concern. This area of concern is the infrastructure; specifically the lack of thoroughfares that can effectively move the increased vehicle traffic. An answer that that has been provided to address this concern is the implementation of toll roads. While not a recent phenomena toll road construction is more prevalent now than in recent years.
The toll roads in Central Texas are governed through the Central Texas Regional Mobility Authority (CTRMA), which is stated to be the creating agency for transportation models to keep up with today 's population growth. to promote future road construction which is to alleviate traffic issues within Travis and Williamson Counties Texas is one of few states that has allowed private toll roads.
The idea that toll roads should be privatized, is an idea that stemmed from European models that are evident in Spain, Italy, and England. The European model is called a, BOT or build operate transfer; which is simply a public -- private ownership of a roadway (toll road). The idea of a BOT is that a private company will fund, design and construct the planned toll roads and will operate them at the beginning of a project until their contract is fulfilled with a government, in which at the end of the contract the toll road will go under the ownership of... (such) government. Despite the fact for which the CTRMA stands for or wishes to promote, there are many opposers to the expansion of toll roads within Central Texas.
A reason in favor of toll roads mentioned in The Texas Tribune was, "that tolls: are "vital '' to the state 's future mobility planning as Texas tries to close the gap on road funding shortfall. The article explains how the gas tax (38.4 cents per gallon of gas) has n't been increased since 1993 and costs of building roadways has increased throughout time supporting the construction of toll roads.
A reason against one of the Central Texas toll projects is that the company that runs the SH 130 toll road has been said by Moody 's business rating to have the possibility of defaulting on its debt in 2014 therefore Moody 's lowered the business rating to B1. A B1 classification "indicates that the business is pretty risky to lend money to ''. The sponsors of the toll road are Zachary (a San Antonio, Texas based company), which sponsored 65 %, and Cintra (a company based out of Spain) that sponsored 35 %. The lenders to the project: TIFIA program under the Federal Highway Administration which contributed $475 million, and several other banks that funded $686 million.
Despite the fact that the partner companies (Cintra and Zachary) are defaulting on debt, the chairman for the SH 130 (130 Toll) Concession Company reiterated that in time the project would, "prove a wise investment as drivers look for an alternative to Interstate 35. '' Even though traffic volume has been low on SH130 Krier (Chairman for the SH 130 Concession Company) went on to state that the company, "... is pretty confident that in the long term, this is going to be a huge transportation asset for the region. ''
TxDOT is in favor of the toll roads, claiming that it simply does not have the funds to provide the anticipated service requirements of the Texas populace. Phil Russell, director of TxDOT 's Texas Turnpike Authority Division, said in a statement, "We simply ca n't continue to rely on the gas tax as our sole source of highway funding. In fact, projections are that the state gas tax would need to be raised 600 percent to meet our transportation needs over the next 25 years. Texans tell us that they want relief from traffic congestion now, not later. Toll roads allow us to build roads sooner. ''
In Texas the backlash against Toll Roads has culminated in several organizations including the Texas Toll Lawsuit website where approximately 10,000 Texans are building a class action lawsuit against the state. Another organization performing similar activities is Texans United for Reform & Freedom. The purpose of these organizations is to combat what they claim as egregious tolling fines and illegal / immoral practices by the toll road authorities.
Due to the enduring controversy over the future of Texas toll roads, the state legislature overwhelmingly passed a moratorium on all new toll roads in Texas in 2007. The moratorium effectively banned all new proposals for toll roads for two years, until 2009. However, this moratorium was deemed the "Swiss cheese moratorium, '' as it had a multitude of exemptions placed in it. Specifically, the exemptions allowed almost all the projects in the North Texas / Dallas regions to go forward. The primary concern leading to the moratorium was that the state was hurting taxpayers in the long run by deviating from its tollway authority model and contracting out roads entirely to private companies. Many legislators saw this as problematic, as the primary function of these toll roads would not be to serve the public but to serve as an instrument of profit for private corporations. These companies could raise tolls to whatever the market could bear with little or virtually no public input, and the tolls would continue long after the construction costs were paid for.
The Toll Operations Division of the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) operates the Central Texas Turnpike System (CTTS) as well as other toll roads around the state. TxDOT established the Grand Parkway Transportation Corporation for the purpose of developing the Grand Parkway toll project, a portion of which is now open.
Regional tollway authorities are political subdivisions of the state established by two or more counties. The North Texas Tollway Authority (NTTA) is the only regional tollway authority. NTTA operates all toll roads in the Dallas -- Fort Worth Metroplex. NTTA provides tolling services for the managed lanes in the region, but does not own or operate any managed lanes.
County toll road authorities (TRAs) are established by single counties. A county toll road authority is a division of the county in which it is established.
In 2001 the State Legislature authorized the creation of the regional mobility authorities (RMAs). These authorities are designed as a means for individual or multiple counties to build, operate, and maintain local toll roads or other transportation projects. These authorities are authorized to issue bonds as well as designate local revenue sources to pay for the initial costs of the projects. The primary purpose for creating the RMAs was to reduce the time and bureaucratic "red tape '' in the toll road building process.
The Dallas / Fort Worth International Airport operates International Parkway as a toll road.
Sections 5 and 6 of State Highway 130 extend from SH 45 to I - 10. The highway is owned by the State of Texas and is operated by the SH 130 Concession Company.
The Central Texas Regional Mobility Authority has provided a program to assist disabled drivers. The HERO Program, is a combined effort of "the Central Texas Regional Mobility Authority, in partnership with the Texas Department of Transportation, operates the Highway Emergency Response Operator (HERO) Program -- a free roadside assistance program that provides aid to stranded motorists, minimizes traffic congestion and improves highway safety along Interstate 35 in Central Texas... The program is being paid for through a combination of federal and state funds, and it costs roughly $2.3 million a year to provide the service. '' The Houston area has a similar Motor Assistance Program (M.A.P.) operated by a partnership with Houston 's METRO, Texas Department of Transportation, Harris County Sheriff 's Department, Houston Automobile Dealers Association, Verizon Wireless and Houston TranStar
The cost of operating and maintaining the roads ways used by commuters is quite costly. Yet, these cost are often not considered when the need for a road strikes the public 's mind. To this end (financing), tolls collected help the end be reached. The Central Texas Regional Mobility Authority is charged with the management and construction of toll ways of toll ways in central Texas. According to the CTRMA 's Financial / Investor Information information page, "The Mobility Authority uses innovative financial strategies to expedite the funding of needed transportation projects. Our nationally recognized, award - winning approach is using a mix of toll revenue bonds, government loans, toll equity grants, right - of - way donations and other funding sources to develop a transportation network that will help address the region 's growing congestion problems. '' Detailed earnings and investment statements are available for each road under the CTRMA 's authority. Use of funds generated by the commuters in central Texas are explained here, as well. One use / benefit of the toll system is the HERO Program.
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who played the talking cow in family guy | Seth MacFarlane - wikipedia
Seth Woodbury MacFarlane (born October 26, 1973) is an American actor, filmmaker, comedian, and singer, working primarily in animation and comedy, as well as live - action and other genres. MacFarlane is the creator of the TV series Family Guy (1999 -- 2003, 2005 -- present) and The Orville (2017), and co-creator of the TV series American Dad! (2005 -- present) and The Cleveland Show (2009 -- 2013). He also wrote, directed, and starred in the films Ted (2012), its sequel Ted 2 (2015), and A Million Ways to Die in the West (2014).
MacFarlane is a graduate of the Rhode Island School of Design, where he studied animation. Recruited to Hollywood, he was an animator and writer for Hanna - Barbera for several television series, including Johnny Bravo, Cow and Chicken, Dexter 's Laboratory, I Am Weasel, and Larry & Steve. As an actor, he has made guest appearances on series, such as Gilmore Girls, The War at Home and FlashForward. In 2008, he created his own YouTube series titled Seth MacFarlane 's Cavalcade of Cartoon Comedy. He won several awards for his work on Family Guy, including four Primetime Emmy Awards and an Annie Award. In 2009, he won the Webby Award for Film & Video Person of the Year. He occasionally speaks at universities and colleges throughout the United States, and is an active supporter of gay rights.
As a singer, MacFarlane has performed at several venues, including Carnegie Hall and the Royal Albert Hall. MacFarlane has released four studio albums, in the same vein of his musical idol Frank Sinatra, beginning with Music Is Better Than Words in 2011. He has been nominated for four Grammy Awards for his musical work. MacFarlane hosted the 85th Academy Awards in 2013 and was also nominated for Best Original Song for the song "Everybody Needs a Best Friend '' from Ted.
MacFarlane served as executive producer of the Neil deGrasse Tyson - hosted Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey, an update of the 1980s Cosmos series hosted by Carl Sagan. MacFarlane was instrumental in providing funding for the series, as well as securing studio support for it from other entertainment executives.
MacFarlane was born and raised in Kent, Connecticut. His parents, Ronald Milton MacFarlane (born 1946) and Ann Perry (née Sager; 1947 -- 2010), were born in Newburyport, Massachusetts. His sister is voice actress Rachael Ann MacFarlane (born 1976). He has roots in New England going back to the 1600s, and is a descendant of Mayflower passenger William Brewster. MacFarlane 's parents met in 1970, when they both lived and worked in Boston, Massachusetts, and married later that year. The couple moved to Kent in 1972, where Ann began working in the Admissions Office at South Kent School. She later worked in the College Guidance and Admissions Offices at the Kent School, a selective college preparatory school, where Ronald was a teacher.
During his childhood, MacFarlane developed an interest in illustration and began drawing cartoon characters Fred Flintstone and Woody Woodpecker, as early as two years old. By the age of five, MacFarlane knew that he would want to pursue a career in animation, and began by creating flip books, after his parents found a book on the subject for him. Four years later, aged nine, MacFarlane began publishing a weekly comic strip titled "Walter Crouton '' for The Kent Good Times Dispatch, the local newspaper in Kent, Connecticut, which paid him five dollars per week. In one anecdote from the time, MacFarlane said in an October 2011 interview that as a child he was always "weirdly fascinated by the Communion ceremony ''. He created a strip with a character kneeling at the altar taking Communion and asking "Can I have fries with that? '' The paper printed it and he got an "angry letter '' from the local priest; it led to "sort of a little mini-controversy '' in the town.
MacFarlane received his high school diploma in 1991 from the Kent School. While there, he continued experimenting with animation, and his parents gave him an 8 mm camera. MacFarlane went on to study film, video and animation at the Rhode Island School of Design (RISD), where he earned a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree. As a student, he had originally intended to work for Disney, but changed his mind upon graduating. At RISD MacFarlane created a series of independent films, eventually meeting future Family Guy cast member Mike Henry, whose brother Patrick was MacFarlane 's classmate. During his time at RISD, MacFarlane performed stand - up comedy. In his senior year at RISD MacFarlane created a thesis film titled The Life of Larry, which eventually would become the inspiration for Family Guy. MacFarlane 's professor submitted his film to the animation studio Hanna - Barbera, where he was later hired.
MacFarlane was recruited during the senior film festival by development executive Ellen Cockrill and President Fred Seibert. He went to work at Hanna - Barbera (then Hanna - Barbera Cartoons) based on the writing content of The Life of Larry, rather than on cartooning ability. He was one of only a few people hired by the company solely based on writing talent. He worked as an animator and writer for Cartoon Network 's Cartoon Cartoons series. He described the atmosphere at Hanna - Barbera as resembling an "old - fashioned Hollywood structure, where you move from one show to another or you jump from a writing job on one show to a storyboard job on another ''. MacFarlane worked on four television series during his tenure at the studio: Dexter 's Laboratory, Cow and Chicken, I Am Weasel, and Johnny Bravo. Working as both a writer and storyboard artist, MacFarlane spent the most time on Johnny Bravo. He found it easier to develop his own style at Johnny Bravo through the show 's process of scriptwriting, which Dexter 's Laboratory, Cow and Chicken, and I Am Weasel did not use. As a part of the Johnny Bravo crew, MacFarlane met actors and voiceover artists such as Adam West and Jack Sheldon of Schoolhouse Rock! fame. Meeting these individuals later became significant to the production and success of his Family Guy series.
He also did freelance work for Walt Disney Television Animation, writing for Jungle Cubs, and for Nelvana, where he wrote for Ace Ventura: Pet Detective. Through strict observation of writing elements such as story progression, character stakes and plot points, MacFarlane found the work for Disney was, from a writing standpoint, very valuable in preparation for his career (particularly on Ace Ventura). MacFarlane also created and wrote a short titled Zoomates for Frederator Studios ' Oh Yeah! Cartoons on Nickelodeon. In 1996, MacFarlane created a sequel to The Life of Larry entitled Larry & Steve, which features a middle - aged character named Larry and an intellectual dog, Steve. The short was broadcast as one of Cartoon Network 's World Premiere Toons. Executives at Fox saw both Larry shorts and negotiations soon began for a prime - time animated series.
Although MacFarlane enjoyed working at Hanna - Barbera, he felt his real calling was for prime - time animation, which would allow a much edgier style of humor. He first pitched Family Guy to Fox during his tenure at Hanna - Barbera. A development executive for Hanna - Barbera, who was trying to get back into the prime - time business at the time, introduced MacFarlane to Leslie Kolins and Mike Darnell, heads of the alternative comedy department at Fox. After the success of King of the Hill in 1997, MacFarlane called Kolins once more to ask about a possible second pitch for the series. The company offered the young writer a strange deal: Fox gave him a budget of US $50,000 to produce a pilot that could lead to a series (most episodes of animated prime - time productions cost at least US $1 million). Recalling the experience in an interview with The New York Times, MacFarlane stated, "I spent about six months with no sleep and no life, just drawing like crazy in my kitchen and doing this pilot ''.
After six months, MacFarlane returned to Fox with a "very, very simply, crudely animated film -- with just enough to get the tone of the show across '' to present to the executives, who loved the pilot and ordered the series immediately. In July 1998, the Fox Broadcast Company announced the purchase of Family Guy for a January 1999 debut. Family Guy was originally intended to be a series of shorts on MADtv, much in the same way The Simpsons had begun on The Tracey Ullman Show a decade earlier. Negotiations for the show 's MADtv connection fell through early on as a result of budgetary concerns. At age 24, MacFarlane was television 's youngest executive producer.
Family Guy first aired January 31, 1999. MacFarlane 's work in animating Family Guy has been influenced by Jackie Gleason and Hanna - Barbera along with examples from The Simpsons and All in the Family. In addition to writing three episodes, "Death Has a Shadow '', "Family Guy Viewer Mail 1 '' and "North by North Quahog '', MacFarlane voices Family Guy 's main male characters -- Peter Griffin, Stewie Griffin, Brian Griffin, and Glenn Quagmire as well as Tom Tucker, his son Jake Tucker, and additional characters. Bolstered by high DVD sales and established fan loyalty, Family Guy developed into a US $1 - billion franchise. On May 4, 2008, after approximately two and a half years of negotiations, MacFarlane reached a US $100 - million agreement with Fox to keep Family Guy and American Dad! until 2012. The agreement makes him the world 's highest paid television writer.
MacFarlane 's success with Family Guy has opened doors to other ventures relating to the show. On April 26, 2005, he and composer Walter Murphy created Family Guy: Live in Vegas. The soundtrack features a Broadway show tune theme, and MacFarlane voiced Stewie in the track "Stewie 's Sexy Party ''. A fan of Broadway musicals, MacFarlane comments on using musicals as a component to Family Guy:
I love the lush orchestration and old - fashioned melody writing... it just gets you excited, that kind of music ", he said. "It 's very optimistic. And it 's fun. The one thing that 's missing for me from popular music today is fun. Guys like (Bing) Crosby, or (Frank) Sinatra, or Dean Martin, or Mel Tormé (...) these are guys who sounded like they were having a great time.
In addition, a Family Guy video game was released in 2006. Two years later, in August 2007, he closed a digital content production deal with AdSense. MacFarlane takes cast members on the road to voice characters in front of live audiences. Family Guy Live provides fans with the opportunity to hear future scripts. In mid-2007, Chicago fans had the opportunity to hear the then upcoming sixth - season premiere "Blue Harvest ''. Shows have been played in Montreal, New York City, Chicago, and Los Angeles.
On July 22, 2007, in an interview with The Hollywood Reporter, MacFarlane announced that he may start working on a feature film, although "nothing 's official ''. In September 2007, Ricky Blitt gave TV.com an interview confirming that he had already started working on the script. Then in TV Week on July 18, 2008, MacFarlane confirmed plans to produce a theatrically released Family Guy feature film sometime "within the next year ''. He came up with an idea for the story, "something that you could not do on the show, which (to him) is the only reason to do a movie ''. He later went on to say he imagines the film to be "an old - style musical with dialogue '' similar to The Sound of Music, saying that he would "really be trying to capture, musically, that feel ''. On October 13, 2011, MacFarlane confirmed that a deal for a Family Guy film had been made, and that it would be written by himself and series co-producer Ricky Blitt. On November 30, 2012, MacFarlane confirmed plans to produce a Family Guy film.
Despite its popularity, Family Guy has often been criticized. The Parents Television Council frequently criticizes the show for its content, once organized a letter - writing campaign aimed at removing it from Fox 's lineup, and has filed complaints with the Federal Communications Commission alleging that some episodes of the show contained indecent content. MacFarlane has responded to the PTC 's criticism by saying, among other things, "That 's like getting hate mail from Hitler. They 're literally terrible human beings. ''
Family Guy has been cancelled twice, although strong fan support and DVD sales have caused Fox to reconsider. MacFarlane mentioned how these cancellations affected the lineup of writers each time Fox approved the show. "One of the positive aspects of Family Guy constantly being pulled off (the air) is that we were always having to restaff writers ''.
During the sixth season, episodes of Family Guy and American Dad! were delayed from regular broadcast due to the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike (which MacFarlane participated in to support the writers while Fox aired three Family Guy episodes without MacFarlane 's permission). On February 12, 2008, the strike ended, and the series resumed airing regularly, beginning with "Back to the Woods ''.
MacFarlane has a second long - running, successful adult animated series in American Dad! which has been in production since early 2005. To date, American Dad! is MacFarlane 's only animated series never to have suffered an official cancellation, though it did undergo a network relocation from Fox to TBS on October 20, 2014, following the show 's 11th season. TBS announced on July 16, 2013, that they had picked up the series for a 15 - episode 12th season. Reportedly, the purpose of the network relocation was originally to make room for new animated broadcasts on Fox 's now - defunct "Animation Domination '' lineup. It was reported that the relocation of American Dad! allowed room for other shows, such as Mulaney and another animated series from Seth MacFarlane called Bordertown. Bordertown ran during the 2015 -- 16 television season.
While MacFarlane regularly does extensive voice acting work for American Dad!, he has left much of the show 's creative direction up to Weitzman and Barker. MacFarlane has credited this move with helping to give the series its own distinct voice and identity. Though, as announced on November 4, 2013, Barker departed American Dad! after 10 seasons of serving as the show 's producer / co-showrunner, resulting from creative differences as production for season 11 on TBS commenced. American Dad! was first shown after Super Bowl XXXIX, debuting with the episode "Pilot. '' This February 6, 2005 series premiere was somewhat of an early sneak preview as the program would not begin airing regularly as part of Fox 's Animation Domination until May 1, 2005.
Because of atypical scheduling of the show 's first 7 episodes, American Dad! has a controversial season number discrepancy in which many are divided as to how many seasons the program has had. Beyond division between media journalists and fans, there has been conflicting reports as to what season the show is in even between American Dad! creators and the show 's official website -- both from its original Fox website and now from TBS website. At Comic - Con 2013 on July 20, American Dad! co-creator Mike Barker hinted that an American Dad! movie -- centering on the Roger character and set from his birth planet -- is in the works and partially written. What with Barker 's departure from the series however, it is unclear if any of these plans have been scrapped or modified in any way.
MacFarlane has described the initial seasons of American Dad! as being similar to All in the Family, likening title character Stan Smith 's originally bigoted persona to Archie Bunker. MacFarlane has also stated that his inspiration to create American Dad! derived from his and Weitzman 's exasperation with George W. Bush 's policies as former United States President. After the early couple of seasons however, the series discontinued using these elements of political satire and began to serve up its own brand of entertainment and humor. MacFarlane was described as having difficulty understanding the series in its early going; however, he heavily warmed up to the series after its early seasons once he felt the show truly came into its own. His fellow co-creators have sensed this through MacFarlane 's greatly increased attention to the series after its early seasons. MacFarlane has also revealed he is an American Dad! fan himself. He has taken note of the positive reaction to the "Roger '' character by fans via his Twitter.
The show focuses on the Smith family: Stan Smith, the endangering, dog - eat - dog, rash and inconsiderate head of the household. He has an exaggeratedly large chin and masculine manner about him. As the family 's breadwinner, he works as a CIA officer and was initially portrayed in the series as an old - fashioned conservative bigot but has since grown out of these traits (the show is known for its story arc elements and other distinguishing plot techniques); Stan 's paradoxically moralistic yet simultaneously inappropriate, corrupt wife, Francine; and their two children, new - age hippie daughter Hayley and nerdy son Steve. Accompanying the Smith family are three additional main characters, two of which belong to non-human species: zany, shocking, blithely cruel and rascally alien Roger, who 's full of disguises / alter egos and has few if any limits on his behaviors. He was rescued by Stan from Area 51; Klaus, the man - in - a-fish - body pet. Klaus 's unenviable situation came about from the brain of an East German Olympic skier being shrunk and transplanted into a fish body; and Jeff Fischer, Hayley 's boyfriend turned "whipped '' husband, known for his infatuation with Hayley 's mom, Francine. Together, the Smiths and their three housemates run what is only at a first glance the typical middle - class American lifestyle, but is anything but.
Seth MacFarlane provides the voices of Stan and Roger, basing Roger 's voice on Paul Lynde (who played Uncle Arthur in Bewitched). His sister Rachael MacFarlane provides the voice of Hayley.
MacFarlane developed a Family Guy spin - off called The Cleveland Show, which focuses on the character of Cleveland Brown and his family. The idea for the show originated from a suggestion by Family Guy writer and voice of Cleveland, Mike Henry. Fox ordered 22 episodes and the series first aired on September 27, 2009. The show, which was picked up to air a first season consisting of 22 episodes, was picked up by Fox for a second season, consisting of 13 episodes, bringing the total number to 35 episodes. The announcement was made on May 3, 2009 before the first season even premiered. Due to strong ratings, Fox picked up the back nine episodes of season 2, making a 22 - episode season and bringing the total episode count of the show to 44. The series ended on May 19, 2013, with a total of 4 seasons and 88 episodes, and the character of Cleveland returned to Family Guy in the episode He 's Bla - ack!. This is the only animated series created by MacFarlane that does not have him voicing the main character.
Seth MacFarlane played Tim the Bear up until season 3 episode 10. Jess Harnell voices Tim from season 3 episode 11 onwards.
On September 10, 2008, MacFarlane released a series of webisodes known as Seth MacFarlane 's Cavalcade of Cartoon Comedy with its animated shorts sponsored by Burger King and released weekly.
On May 4, 2016, FOX picked up a sci - fi comedy - drama series called The Orville. The show is created, executive - produced, and starred in by MacFarlane. The show is set 400 years in the future aboard the Orville, a not - so - top - of - the - line exploratory ship in the Union interstellar fleet.
The series premiered during the 2017 -- 2018 season, on Sunday, September 10, 2017.
MacFarlane was the executive producer of a live - action sitcom starring Rob Corddry called The Winner. The plot has a man named Glen discussing the time he matured at 32 and has him pursuing his only love after she moves in next door. Glen meets her son and both become good friends. The show ran on Fox for six episodes in Spring 2007.
In August 2011, Fox ordered a 13 - part updated series of Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey. MacFarlane co-produced the series with Ann Druyan and Steven Soter. The new series is hosted by Neil deGrasse Tyson and began airing on the channel in March 2014, with repeats airing on the National Geographic Channel on the next night. In addition to serving as one of the executive producers, MacFarlane provided voices for characters during the animated portions of the series.
In 2013 and 2014, MacFarlane produced one season of a live - action sitcom called Dads. The series, revolves around Eli, played by Seth Green, and Warner, played by Giovanni Ribisi, two successful guys in their 30 's whose world is turned upside down when their dads move in with them. MacFarlane, Alec Sulkin and Wellesley Wild executive - produced the series, with Sulkin and Wild writing.
In 2014, MacFarlane executive - produced a two - season, 20 - episode series called Blunt Talk for Starz. The series followed an English newscaster who moves to Los Angeles with his alcoholic manservant and the baggage of several failed marriages to host a sanctimonious talk show.
In 2009 MacFarlane began work on the animated series Bordertown. The series is set in Texas and follows a border patrol agent and a Mexican immigrant, satirizing America 's changing cultural landscape. It ran for 13 episodes in the first half of 2016, on Fox.
MacFarlane often participates as one of the "roasters '' in the annual Comedy Central Roasts. MacFarlane is the only person to serve as roastmaster for more than one Comedy Central roast. In 2010, he filled this role for The Comedy Central Roast of David Hasselhoff. The following year he was roastmaster of Comedy Central roasts of Donald Trump and Charlie Sheen.
On October 1, 2012, it was announced that MacFarlane would host the 85th Academy Awards on February 24, 2013. He also presented the nominees with actress Emma Stone, on January 10, 2013. In addition to hosting, MacFarlane was also nominated in the Academy Award for Best Original Song category for co-writing the theme song "Everybody Needs a Best Friend '' for his film Ted with Walter Murphy. Critical response to MacFarlane 's performance was mixed. Columnist Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly commented "By calling constant attention to the naughty factor, '' MacFarlane created "an echo chamber of outrage, working a little too hard to top himself with faux - scandalous gags about race, Jews in Hollywood, and the killing of Abraham Lincoln. '' Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter praised MacFarlane 's performance saying that he did "impressively better than one would have wagered. '' He also noted that he added "plenty of niceties with a little bit of the Ricky Gervais bite - the - hand - that - feeds - you thing and worked the juxtaposition rather nicely. '' He stirred up controversy in the form of a musical number titled "We Saw Your Boobs ''.
On October 29, 2014, it was announced that MacFarlane would host the Breakthrough Prize ceremony. The event was held on Silicon Valley and televised on November 15, 2014 on Discovery Channel and Science, and globally on November 22, 2014 on BBC World News. He returned to host the following year.
MacFarlane made his directorial live - action film debut with the release of Ted in 2012. He announced that he was directing it on an episode of Conan that aired on February 10, 2011. Along with directing the film, he also wrote the screenplay, served as producer, and starred as the title character.
Ted tells the story of John Bennett (Mark Wahlberg) and his talking teddy bear (MacFarlane) who keeps John and his girlfriend Lori Collins (Mila Kunis) from moving on with their lives. The film received generally favorable reviews from both critics and audiences, and was a box office success, opening with the highest weekend gross of all time for an original R - rated comedy. Internationally, the movie is currently the highest - grossing original R - rated comedy of all time, beating The Hangover. A sequel, Ted 2, was released on June 26, 2015.
MacFarlane co-wrote and starred in his second film, A Million Ways to Die in the West. Alec Sulkin and Wellesley Wild were also co-writers for the film. The film follows a cowardly sheep farmer (MacFarlane) who loses a gunfight and sees his girlfriend leave him for another man. When a mysterious woman rides into town, she helps him find his courage. But when her outlaw husband arrives seeking revenge, the farmer must put his newfound courage to the test. The film was met with mixed to negative reviews from critics.
On January 27, 2014, MacFarlane announced that he wrote a companion novel based on the film 's script, which was released on March 4, 2014. An audio - book version was also made available, narrated by Jonathan Frakes. MacFarlane wrote the book on weekends during shooting for the film, partially due to boredom.
He signed a record deal with Universal Republic Records and released a big band / standards album in 2011. MacFarlane 's debut studio album, Music Is Better Than Words, was released on September 27, 2011, drawing on his training in and attraction to "the Great American Songbook and particularly the early - to late - ' 50s era of orchestration ''. The singer, asked about his experience with the music, said he did "old Nelson Riddle, Billy May charts (with) one of my composers, Ron Jones, (who) has a group called the Influence Jazz Orchestra that he performs with throughout L.A. '' His album was nominated in the Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album category at the 54th Grammy Awards. Music Is Better Than Words received a score of 52 out of 100 on Metacritic 's compilation of music critic reviews.
MacFarlane was featured on Calabria Foti 's 2013 single "Let 's Fall in Love ''. In September 2013, it was announced that MacFarlane was working on a Christmas album scheduled for release in 2014. The album, which contains collaborations with Norah Jones and Sara Bareilles, is titled Holiday for Swing, and was released on September 30, 2014. The album was recorded between Christmas Day and New Year 's Eve 2013 in Los Angeles and in studio 2 at Abbey Road Studios in London. The album received mostly positive reviews.
MacFarlane released his third studio album on September 30, 2015. Titled No One Ever Tells You, it received mostly positive reviews, and earned MacFarlane a Grammy Award nomination for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album. Due to the success of his musical endeavors, MacFarlane was honored by Barbara Sinatra at the 28th annual Frank Sinatra Celebrity Invitational on February 20, 2016. Later on in the year, MacFarlane recorded the song "Pure Imagination '' as a duet with Barbra Streisand for her album Encore: Movie Partners Sing Broadway, released in August 2016.
In 2011, it was announced that MacFarlane would be reviving The Flintstones for the Fox network, with the first episode airing in 2013. MacFarlane said that he would provide the voice of Barney Rubble. However, at the San Diego Comic - Con in July 2012, while promoting Ted, MacFarlane revealed that the project had been shelved due to the unimpressed response garnered by Fox.
Regarding Broadway, MacFarlane told The Hollywood Reporter, "If I did a Broadway musical, I 'd probably want to do something a little bit more old - fashioned '', and went on saying "I would n't necessarily do something that was as edgy as what they (Matt Stone and Trey Parker) have done. The challenge to me would be more along the lines of, gosh, can somebody write Oklahoma! for 2011? '' He has also said that, "The good thing about Broadway is that you do n't have to worry about an airdate. It gets done when it gets done. ''
In late 2011, it was confirmed that MacFarlane is working on another animated series with Alex Borstein and Gary Janetti. Currently not much is known about the series other than it will be about a family and will have a female lead role. Janetti stated that the series has not yet been greenlit by Fox.
MacFarlane has appeared in sitcoms, comedy and news programs, independent films, and other animated shows. In 2002, MacFarlane appeared in the Gilmore Girls episode "Lorelai 's Graduation Day ''. Four years later on November 5, 2006, MacFarlane guest starred on Fox 's The War at Home as "Hillary 's Date '', an unnamed 33 - year - old man who secretly dates teenaged Hillary in the episode "I Wash My Hands of You ''. MacFarlane also appeared as the engineer Ensign Rivers on Star Trek: Enterprise in the third - season episode "The Forgotten '' and the fourth - season episode "Affliction ''. During 2006, MacFarlane had a role in the independent film Life is Short. He portrayed Dr. Ned, a psychologist who advises a short man (played by Freaks and Geeks star Samm Levine) to have relationships with taller women. He is a frequent guest on the radio talkshow Loveline, hosted by Dr. Drew Pinsky.
MacFarlane appeared on the November 11, 2006 episode of Fox 's comedy show MADtv and performed a live action re-enactment of a scene from the Family Guy episode "Fast Times at Buddy Cianci Jr. High ''. In the scene, Peter and Lois suspect Chris of murdering his teacher 's husband. As a reaction, a terrified Meg jumps out the window. A version with MacFarlane as Peter, Nicole Parker as Kathy Griffin as Lois, Ike Barinholtz as Dane Cook as Chris, Nicole Randall Johnson as Queen Latifah as Meg, and Keegan - Michael Key as Snoop Dogg as Stewie was recorded over the original cartoon. MacFarlane served as a host to the Canadian Awards for the Electronic & Animated Arts 's Second Annual Elan Awards on February 15, 2008.
MacFarlane has also appeared on news shows and late night television shows such as Jimmy Kimmel Live! and Late Show with David Letterman. On January 19, 2007, MacFarlane appeared on Countdown with Keith Olbermann on MSNBC to discuss Stephen Colbert 's appearance on The O'Reilly Factor and Bill O'Reilly 's return appearance on The Colbert Report. MacFarlane introduced the segment by saying in Stewie 's voice "Oh, wait Bill. Hold still, allow me to soil myself on you. Victory is mine! '' Three months later on March 24, 2007, MacFarlane was interviewed on Fox 's Talkshow with Spike Feresten, and closed the show by singing the Frank Sinatra song "You Make Me Feel So Young ''. He also provided Stewie 's voice when he appeared as a brain tumor - induced hallucination to Seeley Booth in an episode of Bones, writing his own dialogue for the episode. On May 8, 2009, MacFarlane was a guest on Real Time with Bill Maher.
Other than Family Guy and American Dad!, MacFarlane voices characters in other cartoon shows and films. He voiced Wayne "The Brain '' McClain in an episode of Aqua Teen Hunger Force. He has also voiced various characters on Adult Swim 's Robot Chicken, including a parody of Lion - O and Emperor Palpatine as well as Peter Griffin in the Season 2 premiere -- he even parodied himself in the Season 4 premiere, in which he renewed the show simply by mentioning it in a Family Guy - like cutaway after its fictitious cancellation at the end of Season 3. He also played the villain "The Manotaur '' in Bob Boyle 's animated kids series Yin Yang Yo!. In addition, MacFarlane voiced Johann Kraus in the 2008 film Hellboy II: The Golden Army. He also had a guest appearance in the animated film Futurama: Into the Wild Green Yonder where he sings "That Was Then (And This is Too) '', the opening theme. He had also starred in a commercial for Hulu in which he plays an alien presenting Hulu as an "evil plot to destroy the world '', progressively as his famous Family Guy and American Dad! characters. He also lent his voice to the series finale movie of the Comedy Central series, Drawn Together.
MacFarlane played Ziggy in the 2010 film Tooth Fairy. In August 2010, he appeared as a guest voice - over in a sci - fi themed episode of Disney 's Phineas and Ferb entitled "Nerds of a Feather ''. On September 15, 2012, MacFarlane hosted the season premiere of Saturday Night Live, with musical guest Frank Ocean. The episode was MacFarlane 's first appearance on the show. MacFarlane had a cameo in the 2013 film Movie 43. MacFarlane collaborated with Matt Groening on an episode of The Simpsons and Futurama. In 2016, he had a voice role in the animated film Sing, as well as serving as a major performer on the film 's soundtrack. In 2017, he appeared in Steven Soderbergh 's heist comedy Logan Lucky, alongside Channing Tatum and Adam Driver.
In 2009, he appeared as a vocalist at the BBC Proms with the John Wilson Orchestra in Prom 22 A Celebration of Classic MGM Film Musicals. In 2010, he reappeared at the Proms with the John Wilson Orchestra in a Christmas concert special. In 2012, it was announced he would again appear at the Proms with the John Wilson Orchestra in a concert celebrating Broadway musicals. Regarding his musical passion, MacFarlane has said, "I love and am fascinated by exciting orchestration -- what you can do with a band that size -- and I think in many ways it 's a lost art. '' MacFarlane 's sound of music is predominantly traditional pop, easy listening, jazz, vocal, vocal jazz, show tunes, swing, and big band He will occasionally use musical comedy for either his shows or movies.
In 2015, MacFarlane again appeared at The Proms as a vocalist with the John Wilson Orchestra, this time in a Sinatra programme.
MacFarlane has a baritone voice. He is a pianist and singer who, in his early years, trained with Lee and Sally Sweetland, the vocal coaches of Barbra Streisand and Frank Sinatra. In an interview with NPR, MacFarlane commented on their vocal training, to which he said "They really drill you, '' he said. "They teach you the old - style way of singing, back when you had no electronic help... (They teach you to) show your teeth. If you look at old photos of Sinatra while he 's singing, there 's a lot of very exposed teeth. That was something that Lee Sweetland hit on day in and day out, and correctly so, because it just brightens the whole performance. '' His comedy influences include people like Woody Allen, Jackie Gleason, Mel Brooks, and the creators of Monty Python. While his musical influences include people like Frank Sinatra, Dean Martin, Vic Damone, Johnny Mercer, Bing Crosby, Bobby Darin, Gordon MacRae, and the Rat Pack.
MacFarlane is a supporter of the Democratic Party. He has donated over US $200,000 to various Democratic congressional committees and to the 2008 presidential campaign of then - U.S. Senator Barack Obama. He has stated that he supports the legalization of cannabis. MacFarlane serves on the board of directors of People for the American Way, a progressive advocacy organization.
In 2015, MacFarlane revealed support for Bernie Sanders in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, and he introduced Sanders onstage at a Los Angeles rally. After the primaries, MacFarlane then supported Hillary Clinton for president during the general election.
MacFarlane is passionate about his support for gay rights. In 2008 he called it "infuriating and idiotic '' that two gay partners "have to go through this fucking dog and pony act when they stop at a hotel and the guy behind the counter says, ' You want one room or two? ' '' He went on to say, "I 'm incredibly passionate about my support for the gay community and what they 're dealing with at this current point in time ''. MacFarlane continued, "Why is it that Johnny Spaghetti Stain in fucking Georgia can knock a woman up, legally be married to her, and then beat the shit out of her, but these two intelligent, sophisticated writers who have been together for 20 years ca n't get married? ''
MacFarlane, in recognition of "his active, passionate commitment to humanist values, and his fearless support of equal marriage rights and other social justice issues '', was named the Harvard Humanist of the Year in 2011.
However, MacFarlane was criticized for his portrayal of transsexualism in the Family Guy episode "Quagmire 's Dad ''. Gay novelist Brent Hartinger found the episode 's inclusion of transphobic remarks from Peter and Lois Griffin -- as well as a scene of Brian vomiting profusely upon discovering his new girlfriend to be Glenn Quagmire 's father -- to be "shockingly insensitive ''. Hartinger continued, "Frankly, it 's literally impossible for me to reconcile last night 's episode with MacFarlane 's words, unless I come to the conclusion that the man is pretty much a complete idiot ''. The Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation, a LGBT media watchdog organization, shared "serious concerns being voiced from members of the community '' about the episode. MacFarlane said he was "surprised '' by the negative reaction to "Quagmire 's Dad '', saying that "it seemed that (gay commentators) were not picking up on the fact that it was a very sympathetic portrayal of a transsexual character ''. He further added, "Look, Brian happens to be a heterosexual character, as I am. If I found out that I had slept with a transsexual, I might throw up in the same way that a gay guy looks at a vagina and goes, ' Oh, my God, that 's disgusting. ' ''
MacFarlane is a frequent speaking guest on college campuses. On April 16, 2006, he was invited by Stanford University 's ASSU Speakers ' Bureau to address an audience of over 1,000 at Memorial Auditorium. MacFarlane was invited by Harvard University 's class of 2006 to deliver the "class day '' address on June 7, 2006. He spoke as himself, and also as Peter Griffin, Stewie Griffin and Glenn Quagmire. He also has delivered speeches at George Washington University, Washington University in St. Louis, the University of Texas, the University of Missouri, University of Toledo, Bowling Green State University, and Loyola Marymount University.
During the 2007 -- 08 Writers Guild of America strike, MacFarlane publicly sided with the Writers Guild, and fully participated in the strike. Official production of Family Guy was halted for most of December 2007 and various periods afterwards. Fox continued producing episodes without MacFarlane 's final approval, and although he refused to work on the show during the strike, his contract with Fox required him to contribute to any episodes it subsequently produced. Rumors of continued production on Family Guy prompted the statement from MacFarlane that "... it would just be a colossal dick move if they did that ''. During the strike, MacFarlane wrote an inside joke into an episode of Family Guy about Jon Stewart 's choice to return to the air and undermine the writers of The Daily Show, causing Stewart to respond with an hour - long call in which he questioned how MacFarlane could consider himself the "moral arbiter '' of Hollywood. The strike ended on February 12, 2008.
MacFarlane donated money to create The Seth MacFarlane Collection of the Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan Archive at the Library of Congress. MacFarlane said, "The work of Carl Sagan has been a profound influence in my life, and the life of every individual who recognizes the importance of humanity 's ongoing commitment to the exploration of our universe (...) The continuance of our journey outward into space should always occupy some part of our collective attention, regardless of whatever Snooki did last week. ''
In a 2004 interview with The Daily Princetonian, MacFarlane noted his similarities to Brian Griffin from Family Guy, revealing, "I have some Brian type issues from time to time -- looking for the right person -- but I date as much as the next guy ''. In 2012, he dated Game of Thrones star Emilia Clarke for about six months. MacFarlane is a fan of Game of Thrones, and the two remained friends after they broke up.
On July 16, 2010, MacFarlane 's mother, Ann Perry Sager, died after a long battle with cancer. Her death was reported by Larry King on his show Larry King Live, who acknowledged a conversation he had with her during an interview with her son in May 2010.
On the morning of September 11, 2001, MacFarlane was scheduled to return to Los Angeles on American Airlines Flight 11 from Boston. Suffering from a hangover after the previous night 's celebrations that followed his speech at his alma mater, the Rhode Island School of Design, and with an incorrect departure time (8: 15 a.m. instead of 7: 45 a.m.) from his travel agent, he arrived at Logan International Airport about ten minutes too late to board the flight as the gates had been closed. Fifteen minutes after departure, American Airlines Flight 11 was hijacked, and at 8: 46 a.m. it was flown into the North Tower of the World Trade Center, killing everyone on board. MacFarlane said,
The only reason it has n't really affected me as it maybe could have is I did n't really know that I was in any danger until after it was over, so I never had that panic moment. After the fact, it was sobering, but people have a lot of close calls; you 're crossing the street and you almost get hit by a car... this one just happened to be related to something massive. I really ca n't let it affect me because I 'm a comedy writer. I have to put that in the back of my head.
On October 3, 2007, Bourne Co. Music Publishers filed a lawsuit accusing Family Guy of infringing its copyright on the song "When You Wish upon a Star '', through a parody song entitled "I Need a Jew '' appearing in the episode "When You Wish Upon a Weinstein ''. Bourne Co., which holds the copyright, alleged the parody pairs a "thinly veiled '' copy of their music with antisemitic lyrics. Named in the suit were MacFarlane, 20th Century Fox Film Corp., Fox Broadcasting Co., Cartoon Network, and Walter Murphy; the suit sought to stop the program 's distribution and asked for unspecified damages. Bourne argued that "I Need a Jew '' uses the copyrighted melody of "When You Wish Upon a Star '' without commenting on that song, and that it was therefore not a First Amendment - protected parody per the ruling in Campbell v. Acuff - Rose Music, Inc. On March 16, 2009, United States District Judge Deborah Batts held that Family Guy did not infringe on Bourne 's copyright when it transformed the song for comical use in an episode.
In December 2007, Family Guy was again accused of copyright infringement when actor Art Metrano filed a lawsuit regarding a scene in Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story, in which Jesus performs Metrano 's signature magic parody act, involving absurd faux magical hand gestures while humming the distinctive tune "Fine and Dandy ''. MacFarlane, 20th Century Fox, Steve Callaghan, and Alex Borstein were all named in the suit. In July 2009, a federal district court judge rejected Fox 's motion to dismiss, saying that the first three fair use factors involved -- "purpose and character of the use '', "nature of the infringed work '', and "amount and substantiality of the taking '' -- counted in Metrano 's favor, while the fourth -- "economic impact '' -- had to await more fact - finding. In denying the dismissal, the court held that the reference in the scene made light of Jesus and his followers -- not Metrano or his act. The case was settled out of court in 2010 with undisclosed terms.
On July 16, 2014, MacFarlane was served with a lawsuit from the production company of a series of Internet videos called Charlie the Abusive Teddy Bear claiming that Ted infringes on the copyright of its videos due to the Ted bear largely matching the background story, persona, voice tone, attitude, and dialogue of the Charlie bear. The suit was dropped on March 23, 2015, after the plaintiffs withdrew the suit.
MacFarlane has won four Primetime Emmy Awards for his work on Family Guy and has been nominated twenty times, winning in 2000, 2002 and 2016. He has been nominated for four Grammy Awards for his work in Family Guy: Live in Vegas, Music Is Better Than Words, Family Guy and No One Ever Tells You. He was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song for co-writing the opening song, "Everybody Needs a Best Friend '', from his film Ted with the film 's composer Walter Murphy.
He has received numerous awards from other organizations, including the Annie Award for Best Voice Acting in an Animated Television Production and the Saturn Award for Best Television Presentation for the Family Guy episode titled "Blue Harvest '', the MTV Movie Award for Best On - Screen Duo and the Empire Award for Best Comedy for Ted.
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where did the new york accent come from | New York City English - wikipedia
New York City English, or Metropolitan New York English, is a regional dialect of American English spoken by many people in New York City and much of its surrounding metropolitan area. Described by sociolinguist William Labov as the most recognizable dialect in North America, the dialect is known through its association in the media with many public figures and fictional characters. Its features are most densely concentrated in New York City proper and its immediate suburbs (whose residents often commute to New York City), but they also extend somewhat to the wider metropolitan area and the New York City diaspora in other regions.
The dialect is widely known for its pronunciation system, the New York accent, which comprises a number of both conservative and innovative features. Major features of the accent include a high, gliding / ɔː / vowel (in words like talk and caught); a split of the "short a '' vowel / æ / into two separate sounds; dropping of r sounds (except before a vowel); and a lack of the cot -- caught, Mary -- marry -- merry, and hurry -- furry mergers.
The origins of New York City English are diverse, and the sources of many features are probably not recoverable. New York City English, largely with the same major pronunciation system popularly recognized today, was first reproduced in literature and also scientifically documented in the 1890s. It was then, and still mostly is, associated with ethnically diverse European - American native - English speakers. New York City English likely evolved from an older English variety that encompassed much of the larger Mid-Atlantic region, including the Delaware Valley (whose unique dialect today centers around Philadelphia and Baltimore), since the New York City dialect and the Delaware Valley dialectal offshoots all still share certain key features originating nowhere else the United States, such as a high / ɔː / vowel with a glide (sometimes called the aww vowel) as well as a phonemic split of the short a vowel, / æ / (making gas and gap, for example, have different vowels sounds), though the New York City variant of this split remains distinct from the Delaware Valley variants. Linguist William Labov has pointed out that a similarly - structured but distinct - sounding short - a split, often called the trap -- bath split, is found today in the southern half of England, including London, and that both this short - a split and the distinctive one now heard in the New York City and Delaware Valley dialects may therefore have a common ancestor originating in the 1800s.
The more linguistically conservative features of New York City English remained from the prestigious social status of English colonists in the city after it became an urban economic power in the 1700s, with the city 's financial elites maintaining close ties with the British Empire even after the Revolutionary War. According to Labov, New York speakers ' loss of the r sound after vowels (which, incidentally, is not found in the nearby Delaware Valley) is an imitation of the prestigious British pronunciation, consistently starting among the upper classes in New York City in the 1800s before spreading to other socioeconomic classes. This non-rhotic (r - dropping) aristocratic pronunciation can be heard, for instance, in recordings of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. After World War II, perceptions reversed, and the r - ful (rhotic) pronunciation became the prestige norm throughout the whole United States; what was once the upper - class pronunciation then became perceived as more of a vernacular one, due to the loss of Britain 's imperial status, the mainstreaming of a more rhotic American accent that originated away from the British - influenced East Coast, and widespread postwar migrations of rhotic speakers directly to New York from other regions of the country. Today, most New York City English is variably rhotic, a remnant of the older non-rhotic pronunciation.
Other vernacular pronunciations, such as the dental d and t, as well as th - stopping, may come from contact with languages such as Italian and Yiddish as brought into New York City by its huge immigration waves of the past century and before. Grammatical structures, such as the lack of inversion in indirect questions, have the flavor of contact with an immigrant language. As stated above, many words common in the city are of immigrant roots.
Although some of New York City English 's features are receding among younger generations of speakers, Labov concludes that, in terms of any major recent developments, the New York accent appears to be stable.
Philadelphians born in the twentieth century exhibit a short - a split system that some linguists regard as a simplification of the similar New York City short - a system; therefore, New York City English is a possible influence on Philadelphia English. The Philadelphia dialect is now retreating from many of the traditional features it once shared in common with New York City.
Due to an influx of immigrants from New York City and neighboring New Jersey to Florida, some residents of southern Florida now speak with an accent reminiscent of New York City English. Additionally, as a result of social and commercial contact between the two cities, and the influx of immigrants from the same countries, the traditional dialect of New Orleans, Louisiana, known locally as Yat, bears distinctive similarities with the New York dialect, including the (moribund) coil -- curl merger, raising of / ɔː / to (ɔə), a similar split in the short - a system, and th - stopping. Therefore, older New York City English presumably influenced dialect evolution in the white working class of New Orleans (and possibly vice versa), as well as in Cincinnati, Ohio and Albany, New York, whose older speakers today may still exhibit a short - a split system that appears to be an expanded or generalized variant of the New York City short - a system. Unsurprisingly, some New York City dialect features also appear in New York Latino English.
Though William Labov argues that the New York accent is generally stable at the moment, some recent studies have revealed a trend of recession in certain features of the accent, especially among younger speakers from middle - class or higher backgrounds. Documented loss of New York City accent features includes the loss of: the coil -- curl merger (now almost completely extinct), non-rhoticity, and the extremely raised long vowel (ɔː) (as in talk, cough, or law). Researchers proposed that the motivation behind these recessive trends is the stigmatization against the typical New York accent since the mid-1900s as being associated with a poorer or working - class background, often also corresponding with particular ethnic identities. While earlier projects detected trends of emphasizing New York accents as part of a process of social identification, recent researches attribute the loss of typical accent features to in - group ethnic distancing. In other words, many of the young generations of ethnic groups who formerly were the most representative speakers of the accent are currently avoiding its features in order to not stand out socially and / or ethnically.
The pronunciation of New York City English, most popularly acknowledged by the term "New York accent '', is readily noticed and stereotyped, garnering considerable attention in American culture. Some well - known phonological features include its traditional dropping of r, a split short - a system (in which, for example, the a in passive is not assonant to the a in passing), a high gliding vowel in words like talk, thought, all, etc. (and thus an absence of the cot - caught merger), absence of the Mary - marry - merry merger, and the stigmatized (and largely now - extinct) coil -- curl merger.
There are some words used mainly in Greater New York City. For instance, a "stoop '' (from the Dutch word "stoep '') is the front steps of a building. In the black and Latino communities, the word punk tends to be used as a synonym for weak, someone unwilling or unable to defend himself or perhaps loser, though it appears to descend from an outdated African - American English meaning of male receptive participant in anal sex.
New Yorkers tend to say they stand on line, whereas most other American - English speakers tend to stand in line. Small convenience stores are, in recent decades, often called bodegas, from the Spanish term originally meaning "a wine storehouse '' via the Puerto Rican Spanish term for "small store; corner store '', or delis, which is the short form of delicatessens.
New York speakers have some unique conversational styles. Linguistic professor Deborah Tannen notes in a New York Times article it has "an emphasis to involve the other person, rather than being considerate. It would be asking questions as a show of interest in the other person, whereas in other parts of (the) country, people do n't ask because it might put the person on the spot. '' New Yorkers "stand closer, talk louder, and leave shorter pauses between exchanges, '' Tannen said. "I call it ' cooperative overlap '. It 's a way of showing interest and enthusiasm, but it 's often mistaken for interrupting by people from elsewhere in the country. '' On the other hand, linguist William Labov demurs, "there 's nothing known to linguists about ' normal New York City conversation ' ''
The accent has a strong presence in media; pioneer variationist sociolinguist William Labov describes it as the most recognizable variety of North American English. The following famous people or fictional characters are often heard in public as speaking with features typical of a New York accent. Most, but not all, are native New Yorkers. Their pronunciation and vocabulary can be useful guides to the subtleties of speaking New York.
New York City English is confined to a geographically small but densely populated area, including all five boroughs of New York City, but not all of New York State; an entirely separate dialect predominates in central and western New York State, especially along the Great Lakes. However, New York City English does extend beyond the city proper, including in western Long Island (although the boundaries there are not clearly established). Moreover, the English of the Hudson Valley forms a continuum of speakers who gather more features of New York City English the closer they are in geographic relation to the city itself; some of the dialect 's features may be heard as far north as the city of Albany.
The northeast quarter of New Jersey, prominently Bergen, Hudson, and Passaic counties, including the cities Weehawken, Hoboken, Jersey City, Bayonne, and Newark, plus Middlesex and Monmouth Counties, are all within the New York City metropolitan area and thus also home to the major features of New York City English. With the exception of New York City 's immediate neighbors like Jersey City and Newark, the New York metropolitan dialect as spoken in New Jersey is rhotic (or fully r - pronouncing), so that, whereas a Brooklynite might pronounce "over there '' something like "ovah theah / deah '' (oʊvə ˈd̪ɛə), an Elizabeth native might say "over there / dare '' (oʊvɚ ˈd̪ɛɚ). The Atlas of North American English by William Labov et al. shows that the New York City short - a pattern has diffused to many r - pronouncing communities in northern New Jersey like Rutherford (Labov 's birthplace) and North Plainfield. However, in these communities, the function word constraint is lost and the open syllable constraint is variable.
The following is a list of notable lifelong native speakers of the rhotic New York City English of northeastern New Jersey:
And these are non-rhotic speakers from New Jersey.
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different types of boats with names in tamil | List of boat types - wikipedia
This is a list of boat types. For sailing ships, see: List of sailing boat types.
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who is the only bowler who have taken hattrick in both innings of a test match | List of Test cricket hat - tricks - wikipedia
In the sport of cricket, a hat - trick is an occasion where a bowler takes three wickets in consecutive deliveries. As of 31 July 2017, this feat has only been achieved 43 times in more than two thousand Test matches, the form of the sport in which national representative teams compete in matches of up to five days ' duration. The first Test hat - trick was recorded on 2 January 1879, in only the third Test match to take place, by the Australian pace bowler Fred Spofforth, nicknamed "The Demon Bowler '', who dismissed three English batsmen with consecutive deliveries at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. The most recent bowler to achieve the feat was English spin bowler Moeen Ali against South Africa on 31 July 2017. At least one bowler from each of the ten nations that have played Test cricket have taken a Test hat - trick.
A player has taken two hat - tricks in the same Test match only once. Playing for Australia against South Africa in the first match of the 1912 Triangular Tournament at Old Trafford, Manchester, England, leg spinner Jimmy Matthews took a hat - trick in South Africa 's first and second innings, both taken on 28 May 1912. He completed both hat - tricks by dismissing South Africa 's Tommy Ward. Only three other cricketers have taken more than one Test hat - trick: Australian off spinner Hugh Trumble (two years apart, between the same teams at the same ground), Pakistani fast bowler Wasim Akram (just over a week apart, in consecutive matches between the same teams) and English fast bowler Stuart Broad. Three players have taken a hat - trick on their Test debut: English medium pace bowler Maurice Allom in 1930, New Zealand off - spinner Peter Petherick in 1976, and Australian pace bowler Damien Fleming in 1994. Geoff Griffin took the fewest total Test wickets of any player who recorded a hat - trick, taking only eight wickets in his entire Test career. During the match in which he took his hat - trick, Griffin was repeatedly called for throwing by the umpires and never bowled again in a Test match. Australian Peter Siddle is the only bowler to take a hat - trick on his birthday, and Bangladeshi off spinner Sohag Gazi is the only player to score a century and take a hat - trick in the same Test match.
Australian Merv Hughes is the only bowler to take a hat - trick where the wickets fell over three overs. He took a wicket with the final ball of an over. With the first ball of the next over he took the final wicket of the West Indies innings. He then removed the opener Gordon Greenidge with the first ball of the West Indies second innings.
In the five - match series between a Rest of the World XI and England in 1970, a hat - trick was taken by South African Eddie Barlow in the fourth match, at Headingley (the last three of four wickets in five balls). These matches were considered to be Tests at the time, but that status was later removed.
England and Australia combined have taken over half of all Test match hat - tricks to date, 25 of 43 (58.14 %).
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how old do you have to be in texas to own a gun | Gun laws in Texas - wikipedia
Gun laws in Texas regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition in the U.S. state of Texas.
Public four - year universities (as of August 1, 2016) and public two - year colleges (as of August 1, 2017) must allow concealed carry in campus buildings as well. Universities will be allowed to designate certain sensitive areas as "gun free zones ''; these will be subject to legislative analysis.
Texas has no laws regarding possession of any firearm regardless of age, without felony convictions; all existing restrictions in State law mirror Federal law. A person of any age, except certain Felons, can possess a firearm such as at a firing range. Texas and Federal law only regulate the ownership of all firearms to 18 years of age or older, and regulate the transfer of handguns to 21 years or older by FFL dealers. However, a private citizen may sell, gift, lease etc. a handgun to anyone over 18 who is not Felon. NFA weapons are also only subject to Federal restrictions; no State regulations exist. Municipal and county ordinances on possession and carry are generally overridden (preempted) due to the wording of the Texas Constitution, which gives the Texas Legislature (and it alone) the power to "regulate the wearing of arms, with a view to prevent crime ''. Penal Code Section 1.08 also prohibits local jurisdictions from enacting or enforcing any law that conflicts with State statute. Local ordinances restricting discharge of a firearm are generally allowed as State law has little or no specification thereof, but such restrictions do not preempt State law concerning justification of use of force and deadly force.
In Texas a convicted felon may possess a firearm in the residence in which he lives once five years have elapsed from his release from prison or parole, whichever is later. Under Texas Penal Code § § 12.33, 46.04, the unlawful possession of a firearm is a third degree felony with a punishment range of two to ten years for a defendant with one prior felony conviction and fine up to $10,001.
There is no legal statute specifically prohibiting the carry of a firearm other than a handgun (pre-1899 black powder weapons, and replicas of such, are not legally firearms in Texas). However, if the firearm is displayed in a manner "calculated to cause alarm, '' then it is "disorderly conduct ''. Open carry of a handgun in public had long been illegal in Texas, except when the carrier was on property he / she owned or had lawful control over, was legally hunting, or was participating in some gun - related public event such as a gun show. However, the 2015 Texas Legislature passed a bill to allow concealed handgun permit holders to begin carrying handguns openly. The bill was signed into law on June 13, 2015, and took effect on January 1, 2016. A License to Carry (LTC) is still required to carry a handgun openly or concealed in public.
The Texas handgun carry permit was previously called a "Concealed Handgun License '' or CHL. This has changed on Jan 1. 2016 to LTC "License To Carry '' and at the same time the laws changed to include "Open Carry ''. Permits are issued on a non-discretionary ("shall - issue '') basis to all eligible, qualified applicants. Texas has full reciprocity agreements with 30 states, not including Vermont (which is an "unrestricted '' state and neither issues nor requires permits), most of these having some residency restrictions (the holder must either be a resident of Texas or a non-resident of the reciprocal state for the Texas license to be valid in that state). Texas recognizes an additional 11 states ' concealed - carry permits unilaterally; those states do not recognize Texas ' own permit as valid within their jurisdiction, usually due to some lesser requirement of the Texas permit compared to their own.
The handgun licensing law sets out the eligibility criteria that must be met. For example, an applicant must be eligible to purchase a handgun under the State and Federal laws (including an age restriction of 21), however an exception is granted to active members of the military who are age 18 and over. Additionally, a number of factors may make a person ineligible (temporarily or permanently) to obtain a license, including:
This last category, though having little to do with a person 's ability to own a firearm, is in keeping with Texas policy for any licensing; those who are delinquent or in default on State - regulated debts or court judgments are generally barred from obtaining or renewing any State - issued license (including driver licenses), as an incentive to settle those debts.
"Information regarding any psychiatric, drug, alcohol, or criminal history '' is required only from new users. Renewals are required every five years, but are granted without further inquiry into or update of this information.
An eligible person wishing to obtain an LTC (formerly CHL) must take a State - set instruction course taught by a licensed instructor for a minimum of 4 hours and a maximum of 6 hours, covering topics such as applicable laws, conflict resolution, criminal / civil liability, and handgun safety, and pass a practical qualification at a firing range with a handgun. The caliber requirement was repealed on September 1, 2017. Such courses vary in cost, but are typically around $100 -- $125 for new applicants (usually not including the cost of ammunition and other shooting supplies; the practical qualification requires firing 50 rounds of ammunition). They may then apply, providing a picture, fingerprints, other documentation, and a $40 application fee (as of September 1, 2017; previously $140 and $70 for renewals), -- active and discharged military are eligible for discounts -- to the DPS, which processes the application, runs a federal background check, and if all is well, issues the permit. Permits are valid for five years, and allow resident holders to carry in 29 other states (nonresidents may carry in all but four of those), due to reciprocity agreements. Discounted LTC fees vary from $0 for active duty military (through one year after discharge), to $25 for military veterans.
Public four - year universities (as of August 1, 2016) and public two - year colleges (as of August 1, 2017) must allow concealed carry in campus buildings as well. Universities will be allowed to designate certain sensitive areas as "gun free zones ''; these will be subject to legislative analysis.
While a permitted resident of Texas (or a nonresident holding a recognized permit) is generally authorized to carry in most public places, there are State and Federal laws that still restrict a permit holder from carrying a weapon in certain situations. These include:
TPC section 30.06 covers "Trespass by a person licensed to carry a concealed handgun ''. It allows a residential or commercial landowner to post signage that preemptively bars licensed persons from entering the premises while carrying concealed. It is a Class A misdemeanor to fail to heed compliant signage. As of January 1, 2016, the charge for failing to heed signage has been reduced to a Class C misdemeanor, unless it can be shown at trial that the actor was given oral notice and failed to depart, in which case it remains a Class A misdemeanor. This is a significant difference, in that conviction of a Class A or B misdemeanor will result in the loss of your handgun license for at least 5 years, this is not the case if convicted of a Class C misdemeanor.
Signs posted in compliance with TPC 30.06 are colloquially called "30.06 signs '' or "30.06 signage ''.
"Pursuant to Section 30.06, Penal Code (trespass by license holder with a concealed handgun), a person licensed under Subchapter H, Chapter 411, Government Code (handgun licensing law), may not enter this property with a concealed handgun ''
As of January 1, 2016, holders of a Texas CHL or LTC are able to openly carry handguns in the same places that allow concealed carry with some exceptions. Openly carried handguns must be in a shoulder or belt holster.
Existing CHL holders may continue to carry with a valid license. New applicants will be required to complete training on the use of restraint holsters and methods to ensure the secure carry of openly carried handguns.
Exceptions to Open Carry
This law took effect January 1, 2016, and covers the new Open Carry law. Section 30.07 is substantially similar to Section 30.06 which covers concealed carry.
TPC section 30.07 covers "Trespass by license holder with an openly carried handgun '' This allows a residential or commercial landowner to post signage that preemptively bars licensed persons from entering the premises while openly carrying a handgun. An offense under section 30.07 is a Class C misdemeanor, unless it is shown at trial that the actor was given oral notice and failed to depart, in which case the offense is a Class A misdemeanor. The 30.07 sign differs from the 30.06 sign in that it must be displayed at each entrance to the property. (In both cases the sign must be "clearly visible to the public ''.)
The law states that notice may be given orally by the owner of the property, or someone with apparent authority to act for the owner, or by written communication.
Written communication consists of a card or other document consisting the 30.07 language below, or a sign posted on the property.
Both written communication and a posted sign must contain language identical to the following (30.07 notice):
On March 27, 2007, Governor Rick Perry signed Senate Bill 378 into law, making Texas a "Castle Doctrine '' state which came into effect September 1, 2007. Residents lawfully occupying a dwelling may use deadly force against a person who "unlawfully, and with force, enters or attempts to enter the dwelling '', or who unlawfully and with force removes or attempts to remove someone from that dwelling, or who commits or attempts to commit a "qualifying '' felony such as "aggravated kidnapping, murder, sexual assault, aggravated sexual assault, robbery, or aggravated robbery '' (TPC 9.32 (b)).
Senate Bill 378 also contains a "Stand Your Ground '' clause; A person who has a legal right to be wherever he / she is at the time of a defensive shooting has no "duty to retreat '' before being justified in shooting. The "trier of fact '' (the jury in a jury trial, otherwise the judge) may not consider whether the person retreated when deciding whether the person was justified in shooting (TPC 9.32 (c, d)).
In addition, two statutes of the Texas Civil Practice And Remedies Code protect people who justifiably threaten or use deadly force. Chapter 86 prohibits a person convicted of a misdemeanor or felony from filing suit to recover any damages suffered as a result of the criminal act or any justifiable action taken by others to prevent the criminal act or to apprehend the person, including the firing of a weapon. Chapter 83 of the same code states that a person who used force or deadly force against an individual that is justified under TPC Chapter 9 is immune from liability for personal injury or death of the individual against whom the force was used. This does not relieve a person from liability for use of force or deadly force on someone against whom the force would not be justified, such as a bystander hit by an errant shot.
This law does not prevent a person from being sued for using deadly force. The civil court will determine if the defendant was justified under chapter 9 of the Penal Code.
Gov. Perry also signed H.B. 1815 after passage by the 2007 Legislature, a bill that allows any Texas resident to carry a handgun in the resident 's motor vehicle without a CHL or other permit. The bill revised Chapter 46, Section 2 of the Penal Code to state that it is in fact not "Unlawful Carry of a Weapon '', as defined by the statute, for a person to carry a handgun while in a motor vehicle they own or control, or to carry while heading directly from the person 's home to that car. However, lawful carry while in a vehicle requires these four critical qualifiers: (1) the weapon must not be in plain sight (in Texas law, "plain sight '' and "concealed '' are mutually exclusive opposing terms); (2) the carrier can not be involved in criminal activities, other than Class C traffic misdemeanors; (3) the carrier can not be prohibited by state or federal law from possessing a firearm; and (4) the carrier can not be a member of a criminal gang.
Previous legislation (H.B. 823) enacted in the 2005 session of the Legislature had modified TPC 46.15 ("Non-Applicability '') to include the "traveller assumption ''; a law enforcement officer who encounters a firearm in a vehicle was required to presume that the driver of that vehicle was "travelling '' under a pre-existing provision of 46.15, and thus the Unlawful Carry statute did not apply, absent evidence that the person was engaged in criminal activity, a member of a gang, or prohibited from possessing a firearm. However, attorneys and law enforcement officials in several municipalities including DA Chuck Rosenthal of Houston stated that they would continue to prosecute individuals found transporting firearms in their vehicles despite this presumption, leading to the more forceful statement of non-applicability in the 2007 H.B. 1815.
Possession of destructive devices, automatic firearms (machine guns), short - barrel shotguns (SBS), short - barrel rifles (SBR), suppressors, smoothbore pistols and other such NFA - restricted weapons is permitted by Texas law as long the owner has registered the item (s) into the NFA registry. This registration is legal if the owner possesses the proper forms, processed in accordance with the National Firearms Act which includes a paid tax stamp and approval by the NFA branch of the BATFE.
Certain local preemptions exist within the state of Texas which prohibit city or county governments from passing ordinances further restricting the lawful carrying of handguns in certain instances beyond that of state law.
In 2015, the legislature passed penal code 411.209 which prohibited an agency or political subdivision from excluding from government property any concealed handgun license holder from carrying a gun unless firearms are prohibited on the premises by state law.
Furthermore, Texas penal code 235.023 states the commissioners court of a county (i.e. county legislative body) is not authorized to regulate the transfer, ownership, possession, or transportation of firearms or require the registration of firearms
More general prohibitions on restrictions on the sale, transfer, ownership, possession, etc. of firearms and knives under local law are listed under Local Government Code Title 7, Subtitle A, Chapter 229, Subchapter A
Further Attorney General decisions also exist. For example, in August 1995 under DM - 0364, Attorney General Dan Morales passed an opinion that municipalities are prohibited from regulating the carrying of concealed handguns in city parks by persons licensed to carry a handgun: "... we believe that a municipality does not have the power to prohibit licensees from carrying handguns in city parks but that a county does have such power over county parks ''
Dan Morales also held that municipal housing authorities are subject to the preemption statute and this precludes authorities from adopting a regulation to evict a tenant for the otherwise legal possession of a firearm.
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who is charlie writing to perks of being a wallflower | The Perks of Being a Wallflower - wikipedia
The Perks of Being a Wallflower is a coming - of - age epistolary novel by American writer Stephen Chbosky which was first published on February 1, 1999, by Pocket Books. Set in the early 1990s, the novel follows Charlie, an introverted teenager, through his freshman year of high school in a Pittsburgh suburb. The novel details Charlie 's unconventional style of thinking as he navigates between the worlds of adolescence and adulthood, and attempts to deal with poignant questions spurred by his interactions with both his friends and family.
Chbosky took five years to develop and publish The Perks of Being a Wallflower, creating the characters and other aspects of the story from his own memories. The novel addresses themes permeating adolescence, including introversion, sexuality, and drug use, while also making several references to other literary works, films, and pop culture in general.
Although Chbosky 's first book was a commercial success, it was banned in some American schools for its content. In 2012, he adapted and directed a film version starring Logan Lerman, Ezra Miller and Emma Watson. The film boosted the novel 's sales, and the book reached The New York Times Best Seller list.
The story begins with a quiet, sensitive 15 - year - old boy named Charlie writing letters about his life to an unknown recipient. Charlie chooses that person because he said that he heard the person was nice and thought that this person would not be judgmental. He discusses his first year at high school, grappling with two traumatic experiences from his past: the suicide of his only middle - school friend, Michael Dobson, a year before, and the death of his favorite aunt, Helen, during his early childhood.
His English teacher, who encourages Charlie to call him Bill, notices Charlie 's passion for reading and writing, and acts as a mentor by assigning him extracurricular books and reports. Although he is a wallflower, Charlie is befriended by two seniors: Patrick and Sam. Patrick is secretly dating Brad, a closeted football player, and Sam is Patrick 's stepsister. Charlie quickly develops a crush on Sam and subsequently admits his feelings to her. It is revealed that Sam was sexually abused as a child, and she kisses Charlie to ensure that his first kiss is from someone who truly loves him.
In parallel, Charlie witnesses his sister 's boyfriend hit her across the face, but she forbids him from telling their parents. He eventually mentions the occurrence to Bill, who tells Charlie 's parents about it. Charlie 's relationship with his sister rapidly deteriorates and she continues to see her boyfriend against her parents ' wishes. Eventually, he discovers that his sister is pregnant and agrees to bring her to an abortion clinic without telling anyone. His sister breaks up with her boyfriend, after which her and Charlie 's relationship begins to improve significantly.
Charlie is accepted by Sam and Patrick 's group of friends and begins experimenting with tobacco, alcohol and other drugs. At a party Charlie trips on LSD. He can not control his flashbacks of Aunt Helen, who died in a car crash on her way to buy him a birthday gift. He ends up in the hospital after falling asleep in the snow. At a regular Rocky Horror Picture Show performance, Charlie is asked to fill in as Rocky for Sam 's boyfriend Craig, who is unavailable. Their friend Mary Elizabeth is impressed and asks Charlie to the Sadie Hawkins dance and they enter into a desultory relationship. The relationship ends, however, during a game of truth or dare when Charlie is dared to kiss the prettiest girl in the room. He kisses Sam, and Mary Elizabeth storms out of the room in response. Following this, Patrick suggests that Charlie stay away from Sam for a while, and the rest of the friend group shuns him. His flashbacks of Aunt Helen return.
Patrick and Brad 's relationship is discovered by Brad 's abusive father, and Brad disappears from school for a few days. Upon returning, Brad is cold and mean towards Patrick, while Patrick attempts to reconnect with him. However, when Brad derogatorily attacks Patrick 's sexuality in public, Patrick physically attacks Brad until other football players join in and gang up on Patrick. Charlie joins in the fight to help Patrick, and breaks it up, regaining the respect of Sam and her friends. Patrick begins spending much of his time with Charlie and Patrick kisses Charlie impulsively and then apologizes, but Charlie understands that he is recovering from his romance with Brad. Soon Patrick sees Brad engaging with a stranger in the park and Patrick is able to move on from the relationship.
As the school year ends, Charlie is anxious about losing his older friends -- especially Sam, who is leaving for a summer college - preparatory program and has learned that her boyfriend cheated on her. When Charlie helps her pack, they talk about his feelings for her; she is angry that he never acted on them. They begin to engage sexually, but Charlie suddenly grows inexplicably uncomfortable and stops Sam. Charlie begins to realize that his sexual contact with Sam has stirred up repressed memories of him being molested by his Aunt Helen as a little boy. Charlie shows signs of PTSD from the incident and the revelation of his abuse helps the reader understand his view of relationships and love.
In an epilogue, Charlie is discovered by his parents in a catatonic state and does not show any movement despite being hit reluctantly by his father. After being admitted to a mental hospital, it is revealed that Helen actually sexually abused him when he was young, and his love for her (and empathy for her troubled youth) caused him to repress his traumatic memories. This psychological damage explains his flashbacks and derealization phases throughout the book. In two months Charlie is released, and Sam and Patrick visit him. In the epilogue, Sam, Patrick and Charlie go through the tunnel again and Charlie stands up and exclaims that he felt infinite.
Charlie eventually comes to terms with his past: "Even if we do n't have the power to choose where we come from, we can still choose where we go from there ''. Charlie decides to "participate '' in life, and his letter - writing ends.
Chbosky first conceived random ideas, including "a kid standing up in a tunnel '', a girl he likes, and parties he goes to. After five years with these elements in mind, he had the idea of writing the novel during a difficult period in his life. He was experiencing an unpleasant breakup of his own which led him to ask, "Why good people let themselves get treated so badly? '' The author tried to answer the question with the sentence "we accept the love we think we deserve ''. This answer meant to be an advice to remark that one is in charge of one 's life as he is referring to self love, encompassing one 's life and hope for the future, and not just romantic love.
The story began when Chbosky was in school, evolving from another book on which he was working. In that book he wrote the sentence, "I guess that 's just one of the perks of being a wallflower '', which led him to realize "that somewhere in that... was the kid I was really trying to find. '' Chbosky began writing the novel in the summer of 1996 while he was in college, and within ten weeks he completed the story. He rewrote it into two more drafts, concluding the published version in the summer of 1998.
Charlie, whom Chbosky has said is "(his) hope in the form of a character '', is loosely based on the author. In the novel, Chbosky included much of his own memories from the time he lived in Pittsburgh. The other characters were manifestations of people Chbosky had known throughout his life; Chbosky focused on people 's struggles and what they are passionate about, attempting to pin down the very nature of each of the characters The characters of Sam and Patrick were an "amalgamate and celebration '' of several people Chbosky has met; Sam was based on girls who confided in him, and Patrick was "all the kids I knew who were gay and finding their way to their own identity. ''
The idea of anonymous letters came from a real experience; during his senior year in high school, Chbosky wrote an anonymous letter to Stewart Stern about how Rebel Without a Cause had influenced him. A year and a half later, Stern found Chbosky and became his mentor. By using a series of letters from Charlie to an anonymous character, Chbosky found "the most intimate way '' to talk directly to the reader. He thought the letters would help him keep the story cohesive, "to convey the highs and lows of being young -- one day, you 're on top of the world and you 've had the greatest of times ''.
Critics have identified primary themes of teenage reality and nostalgia. According to David Edelstein of the New York Magazine, Chbosky captures the "feeling you belong when among friends, yet you 'd soon be alone '' and notes that "the pain of loss... (is) almost as intense as the bliss... it 's nostalgia with an emphasis on nostos, pain (sic). '' Marty Beckerman of Word Riot says that The Perks of Being a Wallflower connects with young people because its scenes are "so universal and happen to so many teenagers. '' Chbosky wanted to convey respect for teenagers, to "validate and respect and celebrate what (teenagers) are going through every day '', and said the novel is for "anyone who 's felt like an outcast. ''
Read by all ages, The Perks of Being a Wallflower is targeted at a teenage audience. The book addresses a range of themes dispassionately. These themes include drugs, friendship, body image, first love, suicide, eating disorders and sexuality. Chbosky appreciates the importance of entertainment in adolescence: "Books, songs, and movies are more than entertainment when we 're young. They help all of us discover who we are, what we believe, and what we hope our life can be. '' As such, the book contains several cultural references across all mediums: musically the book references The Smiths and Fleetwood Mac, literarily the book references This Side of Paradise, On the Road, To Kill a Mockingbird and theatrically the book references The Rocky Horror Picture Show.
The Perks of Being a Wallflower was first published on February 1, 1999 by Pocket Books through its MTV Books imprint. It became the subsidiary 's best - selling book with 100,000 copies in print as of 2000, and was included on school reading lists and gathered a cult following. By 2012, the novel had been published in 16 countries in 13 languages, and that same year it placed at number 16 on NPR 's list of the "100 Best - Ever Teen Novels ''.
Critical response was mixed; Publishers Weekly called the novel "trite '', dealing with "standard teenage issues '' in which "Chbosky infuses a droning insistence on Charlie 's supersensitive disposition. '' Although Kirkus Review said it had "the right combination of realism and uplift '', the reviewer criticized Chbosky 's "rip - off '' of J.D. Salinger 's The Catcher in the Rye. Although other reviewers made similar comparisons, Chbosky said he "was not trying to mimic (Salinger 's) style as a writer ''; he saw "how readers could compare Charlie to Salinger 's Holden Caulfield '', but "they are very different people with unique problems and perspectives ''.
Further objections to the book include the use of "profanity '', "drug abuse '', "sexually explicit '' scenes, and "torture ''. Groups like PABBIS (Parents Against Bad Books in School) work to restrict literature considered "controversial '' from being accessed by younger children. The group believes these "bad books '' should be moved to the adult section. In 2009, Perks was repeatedly challenged for descriptions of masturbation, sexually explicit conduct, drug use, and talk of suicide and there have been multiple pushes across the United States to move this literary work from the children and young adults section to the adult section. Parents have raised issues with the novel for it 's "pornographic '' content and "vulgarity '', but others have argued that the book deals with real and common teen issues concerned with growing up, so it presents a truthful viewpoint. Issues are also raised surrounding the books themes of homosexuality, as well as a "glorification '' of the use of drugs and alcohol.
Francisca Goldsmith of the School Library Journal said the novel "cleverly '' makes the readers the recipients of Charlie 's letters, and it "will engage teen readers for years to come. '' Common Sense Media 's Kate Pavao praised its relevant themes for teenagers: "Readers will find themselves quickly feeling sorry for the protagonist and worrying about him throughout his transformative journey. '' For The A.V. Club, Marah Eakin wrote that although for an adult "Perks suffers from an overabundance of pure, raw angst... unlike some more arrested development - friendly young adult fare like Harry Potter, Perks speaks to a more specific age range and does it well. ''
The Perks of Being a Wallflower has appeared six times on the American Library Association 's list of 10 most - frequently - challenged books for its content. A Wisconsin school board refused to ban the book, angering local parents, and the Glen Ellyn District 41 school board in suburban Chicago unanimously voted to reinstate the novel after it was removed from eighth - grade classrooms at Hadley Junior High School because of a parent 's objection to its sexual content. In an interview, Chbosky said that he knew of two school boards which have banned the book (in Massachusetts and on Long Island). Since he "did n't write it to be a controversial book, '' he was "surprised '' by the bans.
With the announcement of a film adaptation the novel received more attention; it sales increased from 88,847 copies in 2011 to 425,933 in 2012, and it reached the New York Times bestseller lists. It entered the Children 's Paperback Books category on the June 23, 2012 list, and had 1.5 million copies in print in November 2012. As of May 11, 2014 it appeared on The New York Times top 10 list for the 71st non-consecutive week, and was in the top 15 on the November 23 list.
Since he wrote The Perks of Being a Wallflower, Chbosky aspired to adapt it into a film, calling this "a lifelong dream of mine ''. After the publication of the novel, the author said he received film offers, refusing them because he "owed the fans a movie that was worthy of their love for the book ''. In 2010 Mr. Mudd began developing a film version, and the author was signed to write and direct the film by producers John Malkovich, Lianne Halfon and Russell Smith. The film, shot in the Pittsburgh area from May 9 to June 29, 2011, starred Logan Lerman as Charlie, Emma Watson as Sam, Ezra Miller as Patrick, and Nina Dobrev as Charlie 's sister, Candace.
It premiered on September 8, 2012 at the Toronto International Film Festival, and was released theatrically in the United States by Summit Entertainment on September 21. According to Metacritic it has received "generally favorable reviews '', with an average of 67 out of 100 based on 36 reviews. Rotten Tomatoes reported an 85 % approval rate, based on 151 reviews. The film grossed over $33 million worldwide from a $13 million production budget.
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where does the mississippi river start and end map | Mississippi River - wikipedia
The Mississippi River is the chief river of the second - largest drainage system on the North American continent, second only to the Hudson Bay drainage system. Flowing entirely in the United States (although its drainage basin reaches into Canada), it rises in northern Minnesota and meanders slowly southwards for 2,320 miles (3,730 km) to the Mississippi River Delta at the Gulf of Mexico. With its many tributaries, the Mississippi 's watershed drains all or parts of 31 U.S. states and 2 Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains. The Mississippi ranks as the fourth - longest and fifteenth - largest river in the world by discharge. The river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana.
Native Americans long lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries. Most were hunter - gatherers, but some, such as the Mound Builders, formed prolific agricultural societies. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the native way of life as first explorers, then settlers, ventured into the basin in increasing numbers. The river served first as a barrier, forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States, and then as a vital transportation artery and communications link. In the 19th century, during the height of the ideology of manifest destiny, the Mississippi and several western tributaries, most notably the Missouri, formed pathways for the western expansion of the United States.
Formed from thick layers of the river 's silt deposits, the Mississippi embayment is one of the most fertile agricultural regions of the country, which resulted in the river 's storied steamboat era. During the American Civil War, the Mississippi 's capture by Union forces marked a turning point towards victory due to the river 's importance as a route of trade and travel, not least to the Confederacy. Because of substantial growth of cities and the larger ships and barges that supplanted riverboats, the first decades of the 20th century saw the construction of massive engineering works such as levees, locks and dams, often built in combination.
Since modern development of the basin began, the Mississippi has also seen its share of pollution and environmental problems -- most notably large volumes of agricultural runoff, which has led to the Gulf of Mexico dead zone off the Delta. In recent years, the river has shown a steady shift towards the Atchafalaya River channel in the Delta; a course change would be an economic disaster for the port city of New Orleans.
The word itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe (Ojibwe or Algonquin) name for the river, Misi - ziibi (Great River).
In the 18th century, the river was the primary western boundary of the young United States, and since the country 's expansion westward, the Mississippi River has been widely considered a convenient if approximate dividing line between the Eastern, Southern, and Midwestern United States, and the Western United States. This is exemplified by the Gateway Arch in St. Louis and the phrase "Trans - Mississippi '' as used in the name of the Trans - Mississippi Exposition.
It is common to qualify a regionally superlative landmark in relation to it, such as "the highest peak east of the Mississippi '' or "the oldest city west of the Mississippi ''. The FCC also uses it as the dividing line for broadcast callsigns, which begin with W to the east and K to the west, mixing together in media markets along the river.
The geographical setting of the Mississippi River includes considerations of the course of the river itself, its watershed, its outflow, its prehistoric and historic course changes, and possibilities of future course changes. The New Madrid Seismic Zone along the river is also noteworthy. These various basic geographical aspects of the river in turn underlie its human history and present uses of the waterway and its adjacent lands.
The Mississippi River can be divided into three sections: the Upper Mississippi, the river from its headwaters to the confluence with the Missouri River; the Middle Mississippi, which is downriver from the Missouri to the Ohio River; and the Lower Mississippi, which flows from the Ohio to the Gulf of Mexico.
The Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. It is divided into two sections:
The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as Lake Itasca, 1,475 feet (450 m) above sea level in Itasca State Park in Clearwater County, Minnesota. The name "Itasca '' was chosen to designate the "true head '' of the Mississippi River as a combination of the last four letters of the Latin word for truth (veritas) and the first two letters of the Latin word for head (caput). However, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams.
From its origin at Lake Itasca to St. Louis, Missouri, the waterway 's flow is moderated by 43 dams. Fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis in the headwaters region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all contain locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river. Taken as a whole, these 43 dams significantly shape the geography and influence the ecology of the upper river. Beginning just below Saint Paul, Minnesota, and continuing throughout the upper and lower river, the Mississippi is further controlled by thousands of wing dikes that moderate the river 's flow in order to maintain an open navigation channel and prevent the river from eroding its banks.
The head of navigation on the Mississippi is the Coon Rapids Dam in Coon Rapids, Minnesota. Before it was built in 1913, steamboats could occasionally go upstream as far as Saint Cloud, Minnesota, depending on river conditions.
The uppermost lock and dam on the Upper Mississippi River is the Upper St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam in Minneapolis. Above the dam, the river 's elevation is 799 feet (244 m). Below the dam, the river 's elevation is 750 feet (230 m). This 49 - foot (15 m) drop is the largest of all the Mississippi River locks and dams. The origin of the dramatic drop is a waterfall preserved adjacent to the lock under an apron of concrete. Saint Anthony Falls is the only true waterfall on the entire Mississippi River. The water elevation continues to drop steeply as it passes through the gorge carved by the waterfall.
After the completion of the St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam in 1963, the river 's head of navigation moved upstream, to the Coon Rapids Dam. However, the Locks were closed in 2015 to control the spread of invasive Asian carp, making Minneapolis once again the site of the head of navigation of the river.
The Upper Mississippi has a number of natural and artificial lakes, with its widest point being Lake Winnibigoshish, near Grand Rapids, Minnesota, over 11 miles (18 km) across. Lake Onalaska, created by Lock and Dam No. 7, near La Crosse, Wisconsin, is more than 4 miles (6.4 km) wide. Lake Pepin, a natural lake formed behind the delta of the Chippewa River of Wisconsin as it enters the Upper Mississippi, is more than 2 miles (3.2 km) wide.
By the time the Upper Mississippi reaches Saint Paul, Minnesota, below Lock and Dam No. 1, it has dropped more than half its original elevation and is 687 feet (209 m) above sea level. From St. Paul to St. Louis, Missouri, the river elevation falls much more slowly, and is controlled and managed as a series of pools created by 26 locks and dams.
The Upper Mississippi River is joined by the Minnesota River at Fort Snelling in the Twin Cities; the St. Croix River near Prescott, Wisconsin; the Cannon River near Red Wing, Minnesota; the Zumbro River at Wabasha, Minnesota; the Black, La Crosse, and Root rivers in La Crosse, Wisconsin; the Wisconsin River at Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin; the Rock River at the Quad Cities; the Iowa River near Wapello, Iowa; the Skunk River south of Burlington, Iowa; and the Des Moines River at Keokuk, Iowa. Other major tributaries of the Upper Mississippi include the Crow River in Minnesota, the Chippewa River in Wisconsin, the Maquoketa River and the Wapsipinicon River in Iowa, and the Illinois River in Illinois.
The Upper Mississippi is largely a multi-thread stream with many bars and islands. From its confluence with the St. Croix River downstream to Dubuque, Iowa, the river is entrenched, with high bedrock bluffs lying on either side. The height of these bluffs decreases to the south of Dubuque, though they are still significant through Savanna, Illinois. This topography contrasts strongly with the Lower Mississippi, which is a meandering river in a broad, flat area, only rarely flowing alongside a bluff (as at Vicksburg, Mississippi).
The Mississippi River is known as the Middle Mississippi from the Upper Mississippi River 's confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri, for 190 miles (310 km) to its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois.
The Middle Mississippi is relatively free - flowing. From St. Louis to the Ohio River confluence, the Middle Mississippi falls 220 feet (67 m) over 180 miles (290 km) for an average rate of 1.2 feet per mile (23 cm / km). At its confluence with the Ohio River, the Middle Mississippi is 315 feet (96 m) above sea level. Apart from the Missouri and Meramec rivers of Missouri and the Kaskaskia River of Illinois, no major tributaries enter the Middle Mississippi River.
The Mississippi River is called the Lower Mississippi River from its confluence with the Ohio River to its mouth at the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of about 1,000 miles (1,600 km). At the confluence of the Ohio and the Middle Mississippi, the long - term mean discharge of the Ohio at Cairo, Illinois is 281,500 cubic feet per second (7,970 cubic metres per second), while the long - term mean discharge of the Mississippi at Thebes, Illinois (just upriver from Cairo) is 208,200 cu ft / s (5,900 m / s). Thus, by volume, the main branch of the Mississippi River system at Cairo can be considered to be the Ohio River (and the Allegheny River further upstream), rather than the Middle Mississippi.
In addition to the Ohio River, the major tributaries of the Lower Mississippi River are the White River, flowing in at the White River National Wildlife Refuge in east central Arkansas; the Arkansas River, joining the Mississippi at Arkansas Post; the Big Black River in Mississippi; and the Yazoo River, meeting the Mississippi at Vicksburg, Mississippi. The widest point of the Mississippi River is in the Lower Mississippi portion where it exceeds 1 mile (1.6 km) in width in several places.
Deliberate water diversion at the Old River Control Structure in Louisiana allows the Atchafalaya River in Louisiana to be a major distributary of the Mississippi River, with 30 % of the Mississippi flowing to the Gulf of Mexico by this route, rather than continuing down the Mississippi 's current channel past Baton Rouge and New Orleans on a longer route to the Gulf. Although the Red River is commonly thought to be a tributary, it is actually not, because its water flows separately into the Gulf of Mexico through the Atchafalaya River.
The Mississippi River has the world 's fourth - largest drainage basin ("watershed '' or "catchment ''). The basin covers more than 1,245,000 square miles (3,220,000 km), including all or parts of 31 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces. The drainage basin empties into the Gulf of Mexico, part of the Atlantic Ocean. The total catchment of the Mississippi River covers nearly 40 % of the landmass of the continental United States. The highest point within the watershed is also the highest point of the Rocky Mountains, Mount Elbert at 14,440 feet (4,400 m).
In the United States, the Mississippi River drains the majority of the area between the crest of the Rocky Mountains and the crest of the Appalachian Mountains, except for various regions drained to Hudson Bay by the Red River of the North; to the Atlantic Ocean by the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River; and to the Gulf of Mexico by the Rio Grande, the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers, the Chattahoochee and Appalachicola rivers, and various smaller coastal waterways along the Gulf.
The Mississippi River empties into the Gulf of Mexico about 100 miles (160 km) downstream from New Orleans. Measurements of the length of the Mississippi from Lake Itasca to the Gulf of Mexico vary somewhat, but the United States Geological Survey 's number is 2,320 miles (3,730 km). The retention time from Lake Itasca to the Gulf is typically about 90 days.
The Mississippi River discharges at an annual average rate of between 200 and 700 thousand cubic feet per second (7,000 -- 20,000 m / s). Although it is the fifth - largest river in the world by volume, this flow is a small fraction of the output of the Amazon, which moves nearly 7 million cubic feet per second (200,000 m / s) during wet seasons. On average, the Mississippi has only 8 % the flow of the Amazon River.
Fresh river water flowing from the Mississippi into the Gulf of Mexico does not mix into the salt water immediately. The images from NASA 's MODIS (to the right) show a large plume of fresh water, which appears as a dark ribbon against the lighter - blue surrounding waters. These images demonstrate that the plume did not mix with the surrounding sea water immediately. Instead, it stayed intact as it flowed through the Gulf of Mexico, into the Straits of Florida, and entered the Gulf Stream. The Mississippi River water rounded the tip of Florida and traveled up the southeast coast to the latitude of Georgia before finally mixing in so thoroughly with the ocean that it could no longer be detected by MODIS.
Before 1900, the Mississippi River transported an estimated 400 million metric tons of sediment per year from the interior of the United States to coastal Louisiana and the Gulf of Mexico. During the last two decades, this number was only 145 million metric tons per year. The reduction in sediment transported down the Mississippi River is the result of engineering modification of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio rivers and their tributaries by dams, meander cutoffs, river - training structures, and bank revetments and soil erosion control programs in the areas drained by them.
Over geologic time, the Mississippi River has experienced numerous large and small changes to its main course, as well as additions, deletions, and other changes among its numerous tributaries, and the lower Mississippi River has used different pathways as its main channel to the Gulf of Mexico across the delta region.
Through a natural process known as avulsion or delta switching, the lower Mississippi River has shifted its final course to the mouth of the Gulf of Mexico every thousand years or so. This occurs because the deposits of silt and sediment begin to clog its channel, raising the river 's level and causing it to eventually find a steeper, more direct route to the Gulf of Mexico. The abandoned distributaries diminish in volume and form what are known as bayous. This process has, over the past 5,000 years, caused the coastline of south Louisiana to advance toward the Gulf from 15 to 50 miles (24 to 80 km). The currently active delta lobe is called the Birdfoot Delta, after its shape, or the Balize Delta, after La Balize, Louisiana, the first French settlement at the mouth of the Mississippi.
The current form of the Mississippi River basin was largely shaped by the Laurentide Ice Sheet of the most recent Ice Age. The southernmost extent of this enormous glaciation extended well into the present - day United States and Mississippi basin. When the ice sheet began to recede, hundreds of feet of rich sediment were deposited, creating the flat and fertile landscape of the Mississippi Valley. During the melt, giant glacial rivers found drainage paths into the Mississippi watershed, creating such features as the Minnesota River, James River, and Milk River valleys. When the ice sheet completely retreated, many of these "temporary '' rivers found paths to Hudson Bay or the Arctic Ocean, leaving the Mississippi Basin with many features "oversized '' for the existing rivers to have carved in the same time period.
Ice sheets during the Illinoian Stage about 300,000 to 132,000 years before present, blocked the Mississippi near Rock Island, Illinois, diverting it to its present channel farther to the west, the current western border of Illinois. The Hennepin Canal roughly follows the ancient channel of the Mississippi downstream from Rock Island to Hennepin, Illinois. South of Hennepin, to Alton, Illinois, the current Illinois River follows the ancient channel used by the Mississippi River before the Illinoian Stage.
Timeline of outflow course changes
In March 1876, the Mississippi suddenly changed course near the settlement of Reverie, Tennessee, leaving a small part of Tipton County, Tennessee, attached to Arkansas and separated from the rest of Tennessee by the new river channel. Since this event was an avulsion, rather than the effect of incremental erosion and deposition, the state line still follows the old channel. The town of Kaskaskia, Illinois once stood on a peninsula at the confluence of the Mississippi and Kaskaskia (Okaw) Rivers. Founded as a French colonial community, it later became the capital of the Illinois Territory and was the first state capital of Illinois until 1819. Beginning in 1844, successive flooding caused the Mississippi River to slowly encroach east. A major flood in 1881 caused it to overtake the lower 10 miles of the Kaskaskia River, forming a new Mississippi channel and cutting off the town from the rest of the state. Later flooding destroyed most of the remaining town, including the original State House. Today, the remaining 2,300 acre island and community of 14 residents is known as an enclave of Illinois and is accessible only from the Missouri side.
The New Madrid Seismic Zone, along the Mississippi River near New Madrid, Missouri, between Memphis and St. Louis, is related to an aulacogen (failed rift) that formed at the same time as the Gulf of Mexico. This area is still quite active seismically. Four great earthquakes in 1811 and 1812, estimated at approximately 8 on the Richter magnitude scale, had tremendous local effects in the then sparsely settled area, and were felt in many other places in the midwestern and eastern U.S. These earthquakes created Reelfoot Lake in Tennessee from the altered landscape near the river.
The Mississippi River runs through or along 10 states, from Minnesota to Louisiana, and was used to define portions of these states ' borders, with Wisconsin, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Mississippi along the east side of the river, and Iowa, Missouri, and Arkansas along its west side. Substantial parts of both Minnesota and Louisiana are on either side of the river, although the Mississippi defines part of the boundary of each of these states.
In all of these cases, the middle of the riverbed at the time the borders were established was used as the line to define the borders between adjacent states. In various areas, the river has since shifted, but the state borders have not changed, still following the former bed of the Mississippi River as of their establishment, leaving several small isolated areas of one state across the new river channel, contiguous with the adjacent state. Also, due to a meander in the river, a small part of western Kentucky is contiguous with Tennessee, but isolated from the rest of its state.
Many of the communities along the Mississippi River are listed below; most have either historic significance or cultural lore connecting them to the river. They are sequenced from the source of the river to its end.
The road crossing highest on the Upper Mississippi is a simple steel culvert, through which the river (locally named "Nicolet Creek '') flows north from Lake Nicolet under "Wilderness Road '' to the West Arm of Lake Itasca, within Itasca State Park.
The earliest bridge across the Mississippi River was built in 1855. It spanned the river in Minneapolis, Minnesota where the current Hennepin Avenue Bridge is located. No highway or railroad tunnels cross under the Mississippi River.
The first railroad bridge across the Mississippi was built in 1856. It spanned the river between the Rock Island Arsenal in Illinois and Davenport, Iowa. Steamboat captains of the day, fearful of competition from the railroads, considered the new bridge a hazard to navigation. Two weeks after the bridge opened, the steamboat Effie Afton rammed part of the bridge, setting it on fire. Legal proceedings ensued, with Abraham Lincoln defending the railroad. The lawsuit went to the Supreme Court of the United States, which ruled in favor of the railroad.
Below is a general overview of selected Mississippi bridges which have notable engineering or landmark significance, with their cities or locations. They are sequenced from the Upper Mississippi 's source to the Lower Mississippi 's mouth.
A clear channel is needed for the barges and other vessels that make the main stem Mississippi one of the great commercial waterways of the world. The task of maintaining a navigation channel is the responsibility of the United States Army Corps of Engineers, which was established in 1802. Earlier projects began as early as 1829 to remove snags, close off secondary channels and excavate rocks and sandbars.
Steamboats entered trade in the 1820s, so the period 1830 -- 1850 became the golden age of steamboats. As there were few roads or rails in the lands of the Louisiana Purchase, river traffic was an ideal solution. Cotton, timber and food came down the river, as did Appalachian coal. The port of New Orleans boomed as it was the trans - shipment point to deep sea ocean vessels. As a result, the image of the twin stacked, wedding cake Mississippi steamer entered into American mythology. Steamers worked the entire route from the trickles of Montana, to the Ohio River; down the Missouri and Tennessee, to the main channel of the Mississippi. Only with the arrival of the railroads in the 1880s did steamboat traffic diminish. Steamboats remained a feature until the 1920s. Most have been superseded by pusher tugs. A few survive as icons -- the Delta Queen and the River Queen for instance.
A series of 29 locks and dams on the upper Mississippi, most of which were built in the 1930s, is designed primarily to maintain a 9 - foot - deep (2.7 m) channel for commercial barge traffic. The lakes formed are also used for recreational boating and fishing. The dams make the river deeper and wider but do not stop it. No flood control is intended. During periods of high flow, the gates, some of which are submersible, are completely opened and the dams simply cease to function. Below St. Louis, the Mississippi is relatively free - flowing, although it is constrained by numerous levees and directed by numerous wing dams.
On the lower Mississippi, from Baton Rouge to the mouth of the Mississippi, the navigation depth is 45 feet (14 m), allowing container ships and cruise ships to dock at the Port of New Orleans and bulk cargo ships shorter than 150 - foot (46 m) air draft that fit under the Huey P. Long Bridge to traverse the Mississippi to Baton Rouge. There is a feasibility study to dredge this portion of the river to 50 feet (15 m) to allow New Panamax ship depths.
In 1829, there were surveys of the two major obstacles on the upper Mississippi, the Des Moines Rapids and the Rock Island Rapids, where the river was shallow and the riverbed was rock. The Des Moines Rapids were about 11 miles (18 km) long and just above the mouth of the Des Moines River at Keokuk, Iowa. The Rock Island Rapids were between Rock Island and Moline, Illinois. Both rapids were considered virtually impassable.
In 1848, the Illinois and Michigan Canal was built to connect the Mississippi River to Lake Michigan via the Illinois River near Peru, Illinois. The canal allowed shipping between these important waterways. In 1900, the canal was replaced by the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal. The second canal, in addition to shipping, also allowed Chicago to address specific health issues (typhoid fever, cholera and other waterborne diseases) by sending its waste down the Illinois and Mississippi river systems rather than polluting its water source of Lake Michigan.
The Corps of Engineers recommended the excavation of a 5 - foot - deep (1.5 m) channel at the Des Moines Rapids, but work did not begin until after Lieutenant Robert E. Lee endorsed the project in 1837. The Corps later also began excavating the Rock Island Rapids. By 1866, it had become evident that excavation was impractical, and it was decided to build a canal around the Des Moines Rapids. The canal opened in 1877, but the Rock Island Rapids remained an obstacle. In 1878, Congress authorized the Corps to establish a 4.5 - foot - deep (1.4 m) channel to be obtained by building wing dams which direct the river to a narrow channel causing it to cut a deeper channel, by closing secondary channels and by dredging. The channel project was complete when the Moline Lock, which bypassed the Rock Island Rapids, opened in 1907.
To improve navigation between St. Paul, Minnesota, and Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, the Corps constructed several dams on lakes in the headwaters area, including Lake Winnibigoshish and Lake Pokegama. The dams, which were built beginning in the 1880s, stored spring run - off which was released during low water to help maintain channel depth.
In 1907, Congress authorized a 6 - foot - deep (1.8 m) channel project on the Mississippi, which was not complete when it was abandoned in the late 1920s in favor of the 9 - foot - deep (2.7 m) channel project.
In 1913, construction was complete on Lock and Dam No. 19 at Keokuk, Iowa, the first dam below St. Anthony Falls. Built by a private power company (Union Electric Company of St. Louis) to generate electricity (originally for streetcars in St. Louis), the Keokuk dam was one of the largest hydro - electric plants in the world at the time. The dam also eliminated the Des Moines Rapids. Lock and Dam No. 1 was completed in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1917. Lock and Dam No. 2, near Hastings, Minnesota, was completed in 1930.
Before the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, the Corps 's primary strategy was to close off as many side channels as possible to increase the flow in the main river. It was thought that the river 's velocity would scour off bottom sediments, deepening the river and decreasing the possibility of flooding. The 1927 flood proved this to be so wrong that communities threatened by the flood began to create their own levee breaks to relieve the force of the rising river.
The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1930 authorized the 9 - foot (2.7 m) channel project, which called for a navigation channel 9 feet (2.7 m) feet deep and 400 feet (120 m) wide to accommodate multiple - barge tows. This was achieved by a series of locks and dams, and by dredging. Twenty - three new locks and dams were built on the upper Mississippi in the 1930s in addition to the three already in existence.
Until the 1950s, there was no dam below Lock and Dam 26 at Alton, Illinois. Chain of Rocks Lock (Lock and Dam No. 27), which consists of a low - water dam and an 8.4 - mile - long (13.5 km) canal, was added in 1953, just below the confluence with the Missouri River, primarily to bypass a series of rock ledges at St. Louis. It also serves to protect the St. Louis city water intakes during times of low water.
U.S. government scientists determined in the 1950s that the Mississippi River was starting to switch to the Atchafalaya River channel because of its much steeper path to the Gulf of Mexico. Eventually the Atchafalaya River would capture the Mississippi River and become its main channel to the Gulf of Mexico, leaving New Orleans on a side channel. As a result, the U.S. Congress authorized a project called the Old River Control Structure, which has prevented the Mississippi River from leaving its current channel that drains into the Gulf via New Orleans.
Because the large scale of high - energy water flow threatened to damage the structure, an auxiliary flow control station was built adjacent to the standing control station. This $300 million project was completed in 1986 by the Corps of Engineers. Beginning in the 1970s, the Corps applied hydrological transport models to analyze flood flow and water quality of the Mississippi. Dam 26 at Alton, Illinois, which had structural problems, was replaced by the Mel Price Lock and Dam in 1990. The original Lock and Dam 26 was demolished.
The Corps now actively creates and maintains spillways and floodways to divert periodic water surges into backwater channels and lakes, as well as route part of the Mississippi 's flow into the Atchafalaya Basin and from there to the Gulf of Mexico, bypassing Baton Rouge and New Orleans. The main structures are the Birds Point - New Madrid Floodway in Missouri; the Old River Control Structure and the Morganza Spillway in Louisiana, which direct excess water down the west and east sides (respectively) of the Atchafalaya River; and the Bonnet Carré Spillway, also in Louisiana, which directs floodwaters to Lake Pontchartrain (see diagram). Some experts blame urban sprawl for increases in both the risk and frequency of flooding on the Mississippi River.
Some of the pre-1927 strategy is still in use today, with the Corps actively cutting the necks of horseshoe bends, allowing the water to move faster and reducing flood heights.
The area of the Mississippi River basin was first settled by hunting and gathering Native American peoples and is considered one of the few independent centers of plant domestication in human history. Evidence of early cultivation of sunflower, a goosefoot, a marsh elder and an indigenous squash dates to the 4th millennium BCE. The lifestyle gradually became more settled after around 1000 BCE during what is now called the Woodland period, with increasing evidence of shelter construction, pottery, weaving and other practices. A network of trade routes referred to as the Hopewell interaction sphere was active along the waterways between about 200 and 500 CE, spreading common cultural practices over the entire area between the Gulf of Mexico and the Great Lakes. A period of more isolated communities followed, and agriculture introduced from Mesoamerica based on the Three Sisters (maize, beans and squash) gradually came to dominate. After around 800 CE there arose an advanced agricultural society today referred to as the Mississippian culture, with evidence of highly stratified complex chiefdoms and large population centers. The most prominent of these, now called Cahokia, was occupied between about 600 and 1400 CE and at its peak numbered between 8,000 and 40,000 inhabitants, larger than London, England of that time. At the time of first contact with Europeans, Cahokia and many other Mississippian cities had dispersed, and archaeological finds attest to increased social stress.
Modern American Indian nations inhabiting the Mississippi basin include Cheyenne, Sioux, Ojibwe, Potawatomi, Ho - Chunk, Fox, Kickapoo, Tamaroa, Moingwena, Quapaw and Chickasaw.
The word Mississippi itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe (Ojibwe or Algonquin) name for the river, Misi - ziibi (Great River). The Ojibwe called Lake Itasca Omashkoozo - zaaga'igan (Elk Lake) and the river flowing out of it Omashkoozo - ziibi (Elk River). After flowing into Lake Bemidji, the Ojibwe called the river Bemijigamaag - ziibi (River from the Traversing Lake). After flowing into Cass Lake, the name of the river changes to Gaa - miskwaawaakokaag - ziibi (Red Cedar River) and then out of Lake Winnibigoshish as Wiinibiigoonzhish - ziibi (Miserable Wretched Dirty Water River), Gichi - ziibi (Big River) after the confluence with the Leech Lake River, then finally as Misi - ziibi (Great River) after the confluence with the Crow Wing River. After the expeditions by Giacomo Beltrami and Henry Schoolcraft, the longest stream above the juncture of the Crow Wing River and Gichi - ziibi was named "Mississippi River ''. The Mississippi River Band of Chippewa Indians, known as the Gichi - ziibiwininiwag, are named after the stretch of the Mississippi River known as the Gichi - ziibi. The Cheyenne, one of the earliest inhabitants of the upper Mississippi River, called it the Máʼxe - éʼometaaʼe (Big Greasy River) in the Cheyenne language. The Arapaho name for the river is Beesniicíe. The Pawnee name is Kickaátit.
The Mississippi was spelled Mississipi or Missisipi during French Louisiana and was also known as the Rivière Saint - Louis.
On May 8, 1541, Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto became the first recorded European to reach the Mississippi River, which he called Río del Espíritu Santo ("River of the Holy Spirit ''), in the area of what is now Mississippi. In Spanish, the river is called Río Mississippi.
French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette began exploring the Mississippi in the 17th century. Marquette traveled with a Sioux Indian who named it Ne Tongo ("Big river '' in Sioux language) in 1673. Marquette proposed calling it the River of the Immaculate Conception.
When Louis Jolliet explored the Mississippi Valley in the 17th century, natives guided him to a quicker way to return to French Canada via the Illinois River. When he found the Chicago Portage, he remarked that a canal of "only half a league '' (less than 2 miles (3.2 km), 3 km) would join the Mississippi and the Great Lakes. In 1848, the continental divide separating the waters of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Valley was breached by the Illinois and Michigan canal via the Chicago River. This both accelerated the development, and forever changed the ecology of the Mississippi Valley and the Great Lakes.
In 1682, René - Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle and Henri de Tonti claimed the entire Mississippi River Valley for France, calling the river Colbert River after Jean - Baptiste Colbert and the region La Louisiane, for King Louis XIV. On March 2, 1699, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville rediscovered the mouth of the Mississippi, following the death of La Salle. The French built the small fort of La Balise there to control passage.
In 1718, about 100 miles (160 km) upriver, New Orleans was established along the river crescent by Jean - Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, with construction patterned after the 1711 resettlement on Mobile Bay of Mobile, the capital of French Louisiana at the time.
Following Britain 's victory in the Seven Years War the Mississippi became the border between the British and Spanish Empires. The Treaty of Paris (1763) gave Great Britain rights to all land east of the Mississippi and Spain rights to land west of the Mississippi. Spain also ceded Florida to Britain to regain Cuba, which the British occupied during the war. Britain then divided the territory into East and West Florida.
Article 8 of the Treaty of Paris (1783) states, "The navigation of the river Mississippi, from its source to the ocean, shall forever remain free and open to the subjects of Great Britain and the citizens of the United States ''. With this treaty, which ended the American Revolutionary War, Britain also ceded West Florida back to Spain to regain the Bahamas, which Spain had occupied during the war. In 1800, under duress from Napoleon of France, Spain ceded an undefined portion of West Florida to France. When France then sold the Louisiana Territory to the U.S. in 1803, a dispute arose again between Spain and the U.S. on which parts of West Florida exactly had Spain ceded to France, which would in turn decide which parts of West Florida were now U.S. property versus Spanish property. These aspirations ended when Spain was pressured into signing Pinckney 's Treaty in 1795.
France reacquired ' Louisiana ' from Spain in the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1800. The United States then secured effective control of the river when it bought the Louisiana Territory from France in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. The last serious European challenge to U.S. control of the river came at the conclusion of War of 1812 when British forces mounted an attack on New Orleans -- the attack was repulsed by an American army under the command of General Andrew Jackson.
In the Treaty of 1818, the U.S. and Great Britain agreed to fix the border running from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains along the 49th parallel north. In effect, the U.S. ceded the northwestern extremity of the Mississippi basin to the British in exchange for the southern portion of the Red River basin.
So many settlers traveled westward through the Mississippi river basin, as well as settled in it, that Zadok Cramer wrote a guide book called The Navigator, detailing the features and dangers and navigable waterways of the area. It was so popular that he updated and expanded it through 12 editions over a period of 25 years.
The colonization of the area was barely slowed by the three earthquakes in 1811 and 1812, estimated at approximately 8 on the Richter magnitude scale, that were centered near New Madrid, Missouri.
Mark Twain 's book, Life on the Mississippi, covered the steamboat commerce which took place from 1830 to 1870 on the river before more modern ships replaced the steamer. The book was published first in serial form in Harper 's Weekly in seven parts in 1875. The full version, including a passage from the then unfinished Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and works from other authors, was published by James R. Osgood & Company in 1885.
The first steamboat to travel the full length of the Lower Mississippi from the Ohio River to New Orleans was the New Orleans in December 1811. Its maiden voyage occurred during the series of New Madrid earthquakes in 1811 -- 12. The Upper Mississippi was treacherous, unpredictable and to make traveling worse, the area was not properly mapped out or surveyed. Until the 1840s only two trips a year to the Twin Cities landings were made by steamboats which suggests it was not very profitable.
Steamboat transport remained a viable industry, both in terms of passengers and freight until the end of the first decade of the 20th century. Among the several Mississippi River system steamboat companies was the noted Anchor Line, which, from 1859 to 1898, operated a luxurious fleet of steamers between St. Louis and New Orleans.
Italian explorer Giacomo Beltrami, wrote about his journey on the Virginia, which was the first steam boat to make it to Fort St. Anthony in Minnesota. He referred to his voyage as a promenade that was once a journey on the Mississippi. The steamboat era changed the economic and political life of the Mississippi, as well as the nature of travel itself. The Mississippi was completely changed by the steamboat era as it transformed into a flourishing tourists trade.
Control of the river was a strategic objective of both sides in the American Civil War. In 1862 Union forces coming down the river successfully cleared Confederate defenses at Island Number 10 and Memphis, Tennessee, while Naval forces coming upriver from the Gulf of Mexico captured New Orleans, Louisiana. The remaining major Confederate stronghold was on the heights overlooking the river at Vicksburg, Mississippi, and the Union 's Vicksburg Campaign (December 1862 to July 1863), and the fall of Port Hudson, completed control of the lower Mississippi River. The Union victory ending the Siege of Vicksburg on July 4, 1863, was pivotal to the Union 's final victory of the Civil War.
The "Big Freeze '' of 1918 -- 19 blocked river traffic north of Memphis, Tennessee, preventing transportation of coal from southern Illinois. This resulted in widespread shortages, high prices, and rationing of coal in January and February.
In the spring of 1927, the river broke out of its banks in 145 places, during the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and inundated 27,000 sq mi (70,000 km) to a depth of up to 30 feet (9.1 m).
In 1962 and 1963, industrial accidents spilled 3.5 million US gallons (13,000,000 L) of soybean oil into the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers. The oil covered the Mississippi River from St. Paul to Lake Pepin, creating an ecological disaster and a demand to control water pollution.
On October 20, 1976, the automobile ferry, MV George Prince, was struck by a ship traveling upstream as the ferry attempted to cross from Destrehan, Louisiana, to Luling, Louisiana. Seventy - eight passengers and crew died; only eighteen survived the accident.
In 1988, the water level of the Mississippi fell to 10 feet (3.0 m) below zero on the Memphis gauge. The remains of wooden - hulled water craft were exposed in an area of 4.5 acres (18,000 m) on the bottom of the Mississippi River at West Memphis, Arkansas. They dated to the late 19th to early 20th centuries. The State of Arkansas, the Arkansas Archeological Survey, and the Arkansas Archeological Society responded with a two - month data recovery effort. The fieldwork received national media attention as good news in the middle of a drought.
The Great Flood of 1993 was another significant flood, primarily affecting the Mississippi above its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois.
Two portions of the Mississippi were designated as American Heritage Rivers in 1997: the lower portion around Louisiana and Tennessee, and the upper portion around Iowa, Illinois, Minnesota and Missouri. The Nature Conservancy 's project called "America 's Rivershed Initiative '' announced a ' report card ' assessment of the entire basin in October 2015 and gave the grade of D+. The assessment noted the aging navigation and flood control infrastructure along with multiple environmental problems.
In 2002, Slovenian long - distance swimmer Martin Strel swam the entire length of the river, from Minnesota to Louisiana, over the course of 68 days. In 2005, the Source to Sea Expedition paddled the Mississippi and Atchafalaya Rivers to benefit the Audubon Society 's Upper Mississippi River Campaign.
Geologists believe that the lower Mississippi could take a new course to the Gulf. Either of two new routes -- through the Atchafalaya Basin or through Lake Pontchartrain -- might become the Mississippi 's main channel if flood - control structures are overtopped or heavily damaged during a severe flood.
Failure of the Old River Control Structure, the Morganza Spillway, or nearby levees would likely re-route the main channel of the Mississippi through Louisiana 's Atchafalaya Basin and down the Atchafalaya River to reach the Gulf of Mexico south of Morgan City in southern Louisiana. This route provides a more direct path to the Gulf of Mexico than the present Mississippi River channel through Baton Rouge and New Orleans. While the risk of such a diversion is present during any major flood event, such a change has so far been prevented by active human intervention involving the construction, maintenance, and operation of various levees, spillways, and other control structures by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
The Old River Control Structure, between the present Mississippi River channel and the Atchafalaya Basin, sits at the normal water elevation and is ordinarily used to divert 30 % of the Mississippi 's flow to the Atchafalaya River. There is a steep drop here away from the Mississippi 's main channel into the Atchafalaya Basin. If this facility were to fail during a major flood, there is a strong concern the water would scour and erode the river bottom enough to capture the Mississippi 's main channel. The structure was nearly lost during the 1973 flood, but repairs and improvements were made after engineers studied the forces at play. In particular, the Corps of Engineers made many improvements and constructed additional facilities for routing water through the vicinity. These additional facilities give the Corps much more flexibility and potential flow capacity than they had in 1973, which further reduces the risk of a catastrophic failure in this area during other major floods, such as that of 2011.
Because the Morganza Spillway is slightly higher and well back from the river, it is normally dry on both sides. Even if it failed at the crest during a severe flood, the flood waters would have to erode to normal water levels before the Mississippi could permanently jump channel at this location. During the 2011 floods, the Corps of Engineers opened the Morganza Spillway to 1 / 4 of its capacity to allow 150,000 ft / sec of water to flood the Morganza and Atchafalaya floodways and continue directly to the Gulf of Mexico, bypassing Baton Rouge and New Orleans. In addition to reducing the Mississippi River crest downstream, this diversion reduced the chances of a channel change by reducing stress on the other elements of the control system.
Some geologists have noted that the possibility for course change into the Atchafalaya also exists in the area immediately north of the Old River Control Structure. Army Corps of Engineers geologist Fred Smith once stated, "The Mississippi wants to go west. 1973 was a forty - year flood. The big one lies out there somewhere -- when the structures ca n't release all the floodwaters and the levee is going to have to give way. That is when the river 's going to jump its banks and try to break through. ''
Another possible course change for the Mississippi River is a diversion into Lake Pontchartrain near New Orleans. This route is controlled by the Bonnet Carré Spillway, built to reduce flooding in New Orleans. This spillway and an imperfect natural levee about 4 -- 6 meters (12 to 20 feet) high are all that prevents the Mississippi from taking a new, shorter course through Lake Pontchartrain to the Gulf of Mexico. Diversion of the Mississippi 's main channel through Lake Pontchartrain would have consequences similar to an Atchafalaya diversion, but to a lesser extent, since the present river channel would remain in use past Baton Rouge and into the New Orleans area.
The sport of water skiing was invented on the river in a wide region between Minnesota and Wisconsin known as Lake Pepin. Ralph Samuelson of Lake City, Minnesota, created and refined his skiing technique in late June and early July 1922. He later performed the first water ski jump in 1925 and was pulled along at 80 mph (130 km / h) by a Curtiss flying boat later that year.
There are seven National Park Service sites along the Mississippi River. The Mississippi National River and Recreation Area is the National Park Service site dedicated to protecting and interpreting the Mississippi River itself. The other six National Park Service sites along the river are (listed from north to south):
The Mississippi basin is home to a highly diverse aquatic fauna and has been called the "mother fauna '' of North American fresh water.
About 375 fish species are known from the Mississippi basin, far exceeding other North Hemisphere river basin exclusively within temperate / subtropical regions, except the Yangtze. Within the Mississippi basin, streams that have their source in the Appalachian and Ozark highlands contain especially many species. Among the fish species in the basin are numerous endemics, as well as relicts such as paddlefish, sturgeon, gar and bowfin.
Because of its size and high species diversity, the Mississippi basin is often divided into subregions. The Upper Mississippi River alone is home to about 120 fish species, including walleye, sauger, large mouth bass, small mouth bass, white bass, northern pike, bluegill, crappie, channel catfish, flathead catfish, common shiner, freshwater drum and shovelnose sturgeon.
In addition to fish, several species of turtles (such as snapping, musk, mud, map, cooter, painted and softshell turtles), American alligator, aquatic amphibians (such as hellbender, mudpuppy, three - toed amphiuma and lesser siren), and cambarid crayfish (such as the red swamp crayfish) are native to the Mississippi basin.
Numerous introduced species are found in the Mississippi and some of these are invasive. Among the introductions are fish such as Asian carp, including the silver carp that have become infamous for outcompeting native fish and their potentially dangerous jumping behavior. They have spread throughout much of the basin, even approaching (but not yet invading) the Great Lakes. The Minnesota Department of Natural Resources has designated much of the Mississippi River in the state as infested waters by the exotic species zebra mussels and Eurasian watermilfoil.
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when did the movie players club come out | The Players club - wikipedia
The Players Club is a 1998 American comedy / drama film written and directed by Ice Cube making his directorial debut. The film stars Bernie Mac, Monica Calhoun, Jamie Foxx, John Amos, A.J. Johnson, Alex Thomas, Charlie Murphy, Terrence Howard, Faizon Love and LisaRaye in her first starring role.
The movie takes place as a flashback of Diana Armstrong (LisaRaye), sparked by her arrival at the scene of the raunchy, dysfunctional Players Club. She narrates that she used to work at the club; she begun working there after getting pregnant with her son and getting into a heated argument with her father, prompting her to move out of her parents ' home. Initially, Diana ends up working at a shoe store. There she meets Ronnie (Chrystale Wilson) and Tricks (Adele Givens), who work for Dollar Bill (Bernie Mac) at The Players Club. They convince Diana she would make better money stripping, saying, "Use what you got to get what you want. ''
Dollar Bill gives Diana a job, giving her the name Diamond. Her job initially goes well. However, four years later her younger cousin Ebony Armstrong (Monica Calhoun) comes to live with her. After listening to Dollar 's rendition of "The Strippin ' Game '', she starts working at the club.
Ebony is soon out of control - drinking excessively, staying out all night, and influenced more and more by Ronnie and Tricks, who encourage Ebony to do more out - of - club parties for groups of men. Diana tries to warn Ebony to stay away from Ronnie and Tricks and to quit doing house parties, but Ebony rebels against being told what to do and ignores Diana 's advice.
After a heated confrontation with Ebony, Diana has a flashback to a time when she was at a private party with Ronnie and Tricks. Diamond passes out on the bed drunk, and the men at the party offer to pay Ronnie to perform cunnilingus on Diamond. Ronnie accepts the offer and proceeds to assault Diamond. The flashback encourages Diana to continue to try to protect Ebony. Clyde (Alex Thomas) and Reggie (Ice Cube) - two watchmen who work for a drug lord named St. Louis - offer Ebony money to come off and have sex with them, but Diana intervenes.
Meanwhile, Dollar Bill gets confronted by a man who works for St. Louis, a drug lord to whom Dollar Bill owes $60,000. He warns Dollar Bill if he does n't make a payment of $10,000 to St. Louis, he will hunt him down. That same night, St. Louis comes to his club to collect. L'il Man, the doorman of the club, tells St. Louis that Dollar Bill is not at the club; St. Louis and his men leave. The next day as Dollar Bill tries to leave the club, St. Louis ' men Brooklyn (Charlie Murphy) and KC (Terrence Howard) confront him. They beat him unconscious and throw him into the back of his car. Luckily for him, they are stopped by Freeman (John Amos) and Peters (Faizon Love), two crooked cops. Dollar Bill is found in the trunk and is arrested on warrants; he is later bailed out and returns to the club.
The following night rapper Luther "Luke '' Campbell comes to the strip club, Reggie and Clyde discuss him. When Dollar Bill is notified that Luke is at his club, he alerts the strippers via a money alarm, believing he will make a fortune. Clyde attempts to meet Luke, but Luke 's bodyguard (Michael Clarke Duncan) informs Clyde that Luke is trying to relax and not meet with fans. Clyde insults the bodyguard, causing him to hit Clyde in the back of his head as he starts to walk away. In retaliation, Reggie beats down the bodyguard and belligerently fights against Luke and his friends, only for him to be gang - beaten and thrown into a glass window. The dazed Reggie opens fire wildly before being knocked out by the bouncer XL (Tiny Lister). Clyde then gets up and begins throwing punches himself.
Further tension develops between Ebony and Diana when Diana returns home one night after fleeing her obsessive customer Myrin, who admitted to stalking her and then tried to force entry to her apartment, to find Ebony in bed with her boyfriend Lance. Diana chases Lance out with her gun, shooting at him several times. Diana threatens and taunts Ebony. When Diana feigns leaving, Ebony is hit when she opens the door and is thrown out the apartment.
Diana then begins dating Blue (Jamie Foxx), a DJ at the Player 's Club. Meanwhile, Ebony is offered a gig to dance at Ronnie 's brother Junior 's (Samuel Monroe Jr.) bachelor party, under the pretense from Ronnie that other girls from the club will be dancing there as well (In actuality, Ronnie lied to use her as a way out of stripping for her brother 's friends at the party so Ebony can strip for them instead). When Ebony realizes that she will be the only woman in a hotel room full of horny men, she desperately tries calling Diana to come and pick her up, but to no avail.
Reggie and Clyde, both feeling insulted by Diana and Ebony from a previous encounter (she tells them she 's not interested anymore), tell Junior that Ebony will have sex with him, claiming that they "ran a train '' on her. Excited, Junior bursts in on Ebony while she is changing. Ebony resists, prompting Junior to brutally beat and rape her, leaving his friends to listen to it in full disgust and disbelief. Soon, Reggie, Clyde and the other guests leave, wanting no further involvement with Junior. When Ronnie discovers Ebony unconscious, she and Junior flee the hotel room as she scolds him. Later, Diana has a change of heart and she and Blue decide to check up on Ebony at the hotel, only to discover her bloodied and unconscious body on the bed.
Furious, Diana grabs her gun and goes to the Players Club, where Ronnie and Tricks are hiding out. After scaring the other strippers away by firing a warning shot, Diana gives the gun to Blue to cover her while she gets into a brutal fistfight with Ronnie, leaving Ronnie badly beaten. She quits in front of Dollar Bill, punches Tricks and leaves along with Blue.
Ronnie and Tricks are arrested by the police on charges of the rape of Ebony, and Junior had been arrested moments before. Later that night, Diana 's timing proves to be perfect when St. Louis, comes to collect. He personally shoots up the club (though he does give warning to the customers beforehand, allowing them to leave). As he desperately tries to escape, Dollar is captured by Reggie, Clyde, and St. Louis ' associate, whom Dollar Bill met earlier. Later, one of St. Louis ' men Brooklyn destroy the club with a LAW rocket.
Ebony, still sporting the bruises from her rape, now has a job working at the shoe store. Having been berated by two strippers who work at a new club, called Club Sugar Daddy 's, with the same slogan that influenced her to strip, she firmly stands her ground. In the end, Diamond narrates that Ebony moved back to Tallahassee, FL to be with her mother. Blue is a top DJ at a radio station, and that he and Diamond are moving further in their relationship. Ronnie and Tricks got jobs at Club Sugar Daddy 's after their release from jail. Junior is serving time in prison for raping Ebony, and that he never got married. Reggie and Clyde were last seen at the Freaknik in Atlanta. St. Louis is still "running the South '' along with his hired guns, Brooklyn and KC. Peters and Freeman are still harassing people all day. Little Man is managing a different strip club in Chicago. Dollar Bill was never heard from again (Notwithstanding, it can be safely assumed that he was murdered by St. Louis ' men for his debts as he was last seen being stuffed into the trunk of their car). Diana is now a successful reporter, putting the past behind for good and move onto a perfect normal life with her son and now boyfriend, Blue.
A successful soundtrack was released on March 17, 1998, peaking at # 10 on the Billboard 200 and # 2 on the Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums. It featured artists such as the film 's star, Ice Cube, DMX, Master P and Jay - Z, among others.
The movie debuted at No. 5. It went on to gross $23,047,939 domestically, and $213,546 in foreign markets for a total lifetime gross of $23,261,485.
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where does the peace river start in florida | Peace River (Florida) - wikipedia
The Peace River is a river in the southwestern part of the Florida peninsula, in the U.S.A.. It originates at the juncture of Saddle Creek and Peace Creek northeast of Bartow in Polk County and flows south through Fort Meade (Polk County) Hardee County to Arcadia in DeSoto County and then southwest into the Charlotte Harbor estuary at Port Charlotte in Charlotte County. It is 106 miles (171 km) long and has a drainage basin of 1,367 square miles (3,540 km). U.S. Highway 17 runs near and somewhat parallel to the river for much of its course. The river was called Rio de la Paz (River of Peace) on 16th century Spanish charts. It appeared as Peas Creek or Pease Creek on later maps. The Creek (and later, Seminole) Indians call it Talakchopcohatchee, River of Long Peas. Other cities along the Peace River include Fort Meade, Wauchula and Zolfo Springs.
Fresh water from the Peace River is vital to maintain the delicate salinity of Charlotte Harbor that hosts several endangered species, as well as commercial and recreational harvests of shrimp, crabs, and fish. The river has always been a vital resource to the people in its watershed. Historically, the abundant fishery and wildlife of Charlotte Harbor supported large populations of people of the Caloosahatchee culture (in early historic times, the Calusa). Today, the Peace River supplies over six million gallons per day of drinking water to the people in the region. The river is also popular for canoeing.
There were many Pleistocene and Miocene fossils found throughout the Peace River area, eventually leading to the discovery of phosphate deposits. Most of the northern watershed of the Peace River comprises an area known as the Bone Valley.
The Peace River is a popular destination for fossil hunters who dig and sift the river gravel for fossilized shark teeth and prehistoric mammal bones. Several campgrounds and canoe rental operations cater to fossil hunters, with Wauchula, Zolfo Springs, and Arcadia being the main points of entry.
Backflow from Peace River after hurricanes
Streamflow changes along upper Peace River
Flow changes along upper Peace River
Zolfo Springs on the Peace River
Media related to Peace River (Florida) at Wikimedia Commons
Coordinates: 26 ° 55 ′ 02 '' N 82 ° 08 ′ 33 '' W / 26.9172844 ° N 82.1425909 ° W / 26.9172844; - 82.1425909
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where was the movie first kill filmed at | First Kill (2017 film) - Wikipedia
First Kill is an American direct - to - video action film directed by Steven C. Miller and written by Nick Gordon. The film stars Hayden Christensen and Bruce Willis.
Wall Street broker Will Beamon (Hayden Christensen) has been struggling with being present for his wife Laura (Megan Leonard) and son Danny (Ty Shelton). Shortly after hearing of Danny being bullied at school, Will decides to take his family to his hometown, Granville, Ohio in order to bond with Danny. Upon entering Granville, Will is reacquainted with Police Chief Marvin Howell (Bruce Willis), a family friend who at one point dated his aunt, Dottie (Deb G. Girdler). Howell advises Will on taking precaution after informing him of a recent bank robbery. While teaching Danny how to hunt with a rifle, Will and Danny witness a heated exchange between two men, one of them holding the other at gunpoint. The unarmed man (Gethin Anthony) is shot in the shoulder after throwing a key near Will 's position at a shooting station, attracting the gunman 's attention. The gunman opens fire on Will, prompting Will to shoot him with his hunting rifle in self - defense. Upon inspecting the gunman, discovers that the gunman was a police officer who failed to identify himself. Distraught, Will brings the wounded man to the family cabin in order for Laura, a hospital nurse, to provide first aid.
Shortly after being treated, the man takes Danny hostage at knife - point, demanding that Will help him retrieve the discarded key in exchange for Danny 's freedom. While attempting to retrieve the key at a shooting shack, a uniformed officer, Richie Stechel (William DeMeo), opens fire on Will and the gunman. The gunman tells Will to meet him at a bulletin board after retrieving the key. After a failed attempt at pursuing his son, Will learns of the gunman 's name from Howell as Levi Barrett, and that the deceased officer was Richie 's brother, Charlie (Shea Buckner). Will waits until nightfall to retrieve the key, only to be confronted by Richie. Will successfully subdues Richie, and heads to the bulletin board for further instructions. Meanwhile, Danny bonds with Levi and learns the reasons behind robbing the bank. Howell and the Stechel brothers engineered the heist and intended to use Levi as the fall guy. Levi agreed to the heist in order to financially support Mabel Fantion (Christine Dye), Adele 's (Magi Avila) cancer - ridden mother. Levi was supposed to drop off the stolen money at a drop - site, but did not arrive due to fear of the site being compromised with a potential assassin. Howell also deduces Levi 's predicament after a uniformed officer investigates Barrett 's apartment.
Howell and Will converge on Mabel 's hospital bed, with Howell questioning Will. While Howell is distracted with a radio call by an officer, Will receives a map from Mabel revealing the location of the post office where the stolen money was stashed and the location of an underground bunker to make the exchange at. The key is used to unlock the mailbox containing the stolen cash. Will briefly eludes Howell, and is caught again after retrieving the money. Seemingly sympathetic to Will 's situation, Howell provides Will transport to the bunker in order to apprehend Levi. Will gives the money to Levi and is reunited with Danny. During this reunion, Richie kidnaps Laura from the family cabin and drives her to Howell 's location for leverage.
While attempting to flee, Adele is murdered by Howell. Left with nothing to lose, Levi attacks Howell and Richie only to be wounded. Will takes Danny to a hunter 's watchtower, where the latter pushes a pursuing Richie off a ladder to knock him out. Howell holds Laura at gunpoint, threatening to shoot her. Danny retrieves Richie 's pistol and attempts to shoot Howell, only for Will to stop him. In an attempt to taunt Will, Howell reveals himself as the person that murdered Will 's father years earlier. Levi walks after Howell, only to be shot dead, providing Will the opportunity to shoot Howell in the head.
During the aftermath, Richie is questioned by the rest of the police department, and Mabel was found dead on the hospital bed, presumably murdered by Howell by removing her life support system. The Beamon family returns home to deal with their daily lives.
Principal photography on the film began in August 2016 in Granville, Ohio.
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who is the star is born movie about | A Star Is Born (2018 film) - wikipedia
A Star Is Born is a 2018 American music - themed romantic drama film produced and directed by Bradley Cooper (in his directorial debut) and written by Cooper, Eric Roth and Will Fetters. A remake of the 1937 film of the same name, it stars Cooper, Lady Gaga, Andrew Dice Clay, Dave Chappelle, and Sam Elliott, and follows a hard - drinking musician (Cooper) who discovers and falls in love with a young singer (Gaga). It marks the fourth remake of the original 1937 film, after the 1954 musical, the 1976 rock musical and the 2013 Bollywood romance film.
Talks of a remake of A Star Is Born began in 2011, with Clint Eastwood attached to direct and Beyoncé set to star. The film was in development hell for several years with various actors approached to co-star, including Christian Bale, Leonardo DiCaprio, Will Smith, and Tom Cruise. In March 2016, Cooper signed on to star and direct, and Lady Gaga joined the cast in August 2016. Principal photography began at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in April 2017.
A Star Is Born premiered at the 75th Venice International Film Festival on August 31, 2018, and was theatrically released in the United States on October 5, 2018, by Warner Bros. The film has grossed over $255 million worldwide and received critical acclaim, with praise for Cooper, Gaga and Elliott 's performances and Cooper 's direction, as well as the screenplay, cinematography and music.
Jackson Maine, a famous country music singer privately battling an alcohol and drug addiction, plays a concert in California. His main support is Bobby, his manager and significantly older half - brother. After the show, Jackson happens upon a drag bar where he witnesses a performance by Ally, a waitress and singer - songwriter. Jackson is amazed by her talent; they spend the night speaking to each other, where Ally discloses to him the troubles she has faced in pursuing a professional music career.
Jackson invites Ally to his next show. Despite her initial refusal she attends and, with Jackson 's encouragement, sings on stage with him. Jackson invites Ally to go on tour with him, and they form a romantic relationship. In Arizona, Ally and Jackson visit the ranch where Jackson grew up and where his father is buried, only to discover that Bobby sold the land. Angered at his betrayal, Jackson punches Bobby, who subsequently quits as his manager. Before doing so, Bobby reveals that he did inform Jackson about the sale, but the latter was too inebriated to notice.
While on tour Ally meets Rez, a record producer who offers her a contract. Although visibly bothered, Jackson still supports her decision. Rez refocuses Ally away from country music and towards pop. Jackson misses one of Ally 's performances after he passes out drunk in public; he recovers at the home of his friend Noodles, and later makes up with Ally. There he proposes to Ally with a ring made from a loop of guitar string, and they are married that same day.
During Ally 's performance on Saturday Night Live, Bobby reconciles with Jackson. Later, Jackson and Ally fight after he drunkenly voices his disapproval of Ally 's new image and music, which is nominated for Grammy Awards. At the Grammys, a visibly intoxicated Jackson performs in a tribute to Roy Orbison, and Ally wins the Best New Artist award. When she goes up on stage to receive her award, Jackson follows her, where he wets himself and passes out. Ally 's father Lorenzo berates Jackson and Ally helps him sober up. Jackson joins a drug rehabilitation program shortly thereafter.
Jackson recovers in rehab, where he discloses to his counselor that he attempted suicide as a teenager. He tearfully apologizes to Ally for his behavior, and returns home. Ally wishes to bring Jackson to perform with her on the European leg of her tour; Rez refuses, prompting Ally to cancel the remainder of the tour so she can care for Jackson.
Rez later confronts Jackson, informing him of Ally 's decision to cancel her tour and accusing him of holding Ally back. That evening, Ally lies to Jackson, and tells him that her record label has cancelled her tour so she can focus on her second album. Jackson promises that he will come to her concert that night, but after Ally leaves, he hangs himself in their garage.
Ally becomes inconsolable after Jackson 's death. She is visited by Bobby, who explains Jackson 's death was his own fault and not hers. Ally takes a song that Jackson had written but never performed and sings it at a tribute concert, introducing herself as Ally Maine.
Additionally, Rebecca Field appears as Gail, Shangela Laquifa Wadley as the drag bar emcee, Willam Belli as drag queen Emerald, Greg Grunberg as Jackson 's driver Phil, and Ron Rifkin as Carl. Lukas Nelson & Promise of the Real appear as Jackson 's band, Eddie Griffin appears as a local preacher and Luenell appears as a cashier. Marlon Williams, Brandi Carlile, Halsey, Alec Baldwin, and Don Roy King cameo as themselves.
In January 2011, it was announced that Clint Eastwood was in talks to direct Beyoncé in a third American remake of the 1937 film A Star Is Born; however, the project was delayed due to Beyoncé 's pregnancy. In April 2012, writer Will Fetters told Collider that the script was inspired by Kurt Cobain. Talks with Christian Bale, Leonardo DiCaprio, Tom Cruise, Johnny Depp, and Will Smith to play the male lead failed to come to fruition. On October 9, 2012, Beyoncé left the project, and it was reported that Bradley Cooper was in talks to star. Eastwood was interested in Esperanza Spalding to play the female lead.
On March 24, 2015, Warner Bros. announced that Cooper was in final talks to make his directorial debut with the film, and potentially to star with Beyoncé, who was again in talks to join; Cooper did become the male lead. On August 16, 2016, it was reported that Lady Gaga had officially become attached and the studio had green - lit the project to begin production early 2017. It marks the fourth remake of the original 1937 film, after the 1954 musical, the 1976 rock musical and the 2013 Bollywood romance film. On November 9, 2016, it was reported that Ray Liotta was in talks to join the film in the role of the manager to Cooper 's character, though he ultimately was not involved. On March 17, 2017, Sam Elliott joined the film, with Andrew Dice Clay entering negotiations to play Lorenzo, the father of Lady Gaga 's character. Clay was selected over Robert De Niro, John Turturro and John Travolta. In April 2017, Rafi Gavron, Michael Harney, and Rebecca Field also joined the cast.
Filming began on April 17, 2017. In May, Dave Chappelle was cast in the film. In April 2018, it was announced that Halsey would have a small role.
After seeing him perform at Desert Trip festival, Cooper approached Lukas Nelson (son of country music singer Willie Nelson) and asked him to help work on the film. Nelson agreed and wrote several songs, which he sent to the producers. Nelson subsequently met Lady Gaga and began writing songs with her and she, in turn, provided backing vocals on two tracks on his self - titled 2017 album. The soundtrack, performed by Gaga and Cooper, was released on October 5, 2018, by Interscope Records. The studio announced that the album "features 19 songs in a wide range of musical styles + 15 dialogue tracks that will take you on a journey that mirrors the experience of seeing the film. ''
A Star Is Born had its world premiere at the Venice Film Festival on August 31, 2018. It also screened at the Toronto International Film Festival, the San Sebastián International Film Festival, and the Zurich Film Festival in September 2018. The film was theatrically released in the United States on October 5, 2018, distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures, after initially having been set for September 28, 2018, and May 18, 2018, releases.
As of October 29, 2018, A Star Is Born has grossed $149.9 million in the United States and Canada, and $106 million in other territories, for a total worldwide gross of $255.9 million, against a production budget of $36 -- 40 million.
In the United States and Canada, A Star Is Born grossed $1.35 million from select Tuesday and Wednesday night screenings, and $15.8 million on its first day, including $3.2 million from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $42.9 million for the weekend and finished second at the box office, behind fellow newcomer Venom. The film remained in second place in its second, third and fourth weekends, grossing a respective $28 million, $19.3 million and $14.1 million.
Outside North America, the film was released day - and - date with the U.S. in 31 other countries, and made $14.2 million in its opening weekend; its largest markets were the United Kingdom ($5.3 million), France ($2.1 million) and Germany ($1.9 million).
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, A Star Is Born holds an approval rating of 90 % based on 394 reviews, with an average rating of 8.1 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "With appealing leads, deft direction, and an affecting love story, A Star Is Born is a remake done right -- and a reminder that some stories can be just as effective in the retelling. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 88 out of 100, based on 60 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported film - goers gave it a 90 % positive score.
Alonso Duralde of TheWrap gave the film a positive review, saying, "Cooper and Lady Gaga are dynamite together; this is a story that lives and dies by the central relationship and the instant chemistry that must blossom between them, and these two have it in spades, '' and praised the musical numbers, describing them as "electrifying ''. Owen Gleiberman of Variety lauded Cooper 's directing, co-writing, and acting, and called the film "a transcendent Hollywood movie ''. Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B+, singling out Gaga 's performance, saying, "she deserves praise for her restrained, human - scale performance as a singer whose real - girl vulnerability feels miles away from the glittery meat - dress delirium of her own stage persona. '' Stephanie Zacharek of Time magazine found the film superior to its previous iterations and similarly praised Cooper 's direction, the writing, as well the performances and chemistry of Cooper and Gaga. She stated: "You come away feeling something for these people, flawed individuals who are trying to hold their cracked pieces of self together -- or to mend the cracks of those they love, '' also describing Gaga 's performance as a "knockout. ''
In his review for Los Angeles Times, Justin Chang called the film "remarkable, '' and praised Cooper for his fresh take on the well - worn formula of 1937 film, as well his direction, the performances, writing, and the cinematography. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film 4.5 out of five stars, and deemed it as a "modern classic, '' hailing the performances of Cooper and Gaga, and Cooper 's direction. He found the film 's screenplay and the original songs "seamless '' and "terrific, '' and also called the film a major Oscar contender of the year and one of the year 's best films. The Washington Post 's Ann Hornaday described the film as "lavishly delightful '' and "earthly convincing, '' and added that it "offers a suitably jaundiced glimpse of starmaking machinery at its most cynical, but also its most thrilling and gratifying. '' She similarly praised Cooper 's direction, the performances and chemistry of Cooper and Gaga, and the supporting performances, particularly Andrew Dice Clay and Sam Elliott.
While praising the direction, acting, and writing, Michael Phillips in the Chicago Tribune argues that a A Star is Born 's formula has always been very seductive to audiences, even when it has been written poorly, and Cooper 's few missteps include being a bit of a scene hog. Admitting audiences love it, and he just liked it, Phillips drew attention to a skeptical review by Lindsey Romaine of Medium.com who criticized the story 's marginalization of the Gaga character in dealing with Cooper 's manipulative addict. She at least wanted a scene where Gaga 's character processed her behavior of letting the addict boyfriend get away with it. Phillips argued that it is in part the skillful musicianship which gets audiences to blow past such flaws.
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what is the length of year on mars | Timekeeping on Mars - wikipedia
Various schemes have been used or proposed for timekeeping on the planet Mars independently of Earth time and calendars.
Mars has an axial tilt and a rotation period similar to those of Earth. Thus it experiences seasons of spring, summer, autumn and winter much like Earth, and its day is about the same length. Its year is almost twice as long as Earth 's, and its orbital eccentricity is considerably larger, which means among other things that the lengths of various Martian seasons differ considerably, and sundial time can diverge from clock time more than on Earth.
The average length of a Martian sidereal day is 24 h 37 m 22.663 s (88,642.66300 seconds based on SI units), and the length of its solar day (often called a sol) is 24 h 39 m 35.244147 s (88,775.244147 seconds). The corresponding values for Earth are 23 h 56 m 4.0916 s and 24h 00 m 00.002 s, respectively. This yields a conversion factor of 1.02749125170 days / sol. Thus Mars ' solar day is only about 2.7 % longer than Earth 's.
A convention used by spacecraft lander projects to date has been to keep track of local solar time using a 24 - hour "Mars clock '' on which the hours, minutes and seconds are 2.7 % longer than their standard (Earth) durations. For the Mars Pathfinder, Mars Exploration Rover (MER), Phoenix, and Mars Science Laboratory missions, the operations team has worked on "Mars time '', with a work schedule synchronized to the local time at the landing site on Mars, rather than the Earth day. This results in the crew 's schedule sliding approximately 40 minutes later in Earth time each day. Wristwatches calibrated in Martian time, rather than Earth time, were used by many of the MER team members.
Local solar time has a significant impact on planning the daily activities of Mars landers. Daylight is needed for the solar panels of landed spacecraft. Its temperature rises and falls rapidly at sunrise and sunset because Mars does not have the Earth 's thick atmosphere and oceans that buffer such fluctuations.
Alternative clocks for Mars have been proposed, but no mission has chosen to use them. These include a metric time schema, with "millidays '' and "centidays '', and an extended day which uses standard units but which counts to 24 h 39 m 35 s before ticking over to the next day.
As on Earth, on Mars there is also an equation of time that represents the difference between sundial time and uniform (clock) time. The equation of time is illustrated by an analemma. Because of orbital eccentricity, the length of the solar day is not quite constant. Because its orbital eccentricity is greater than that of Earth, the length of day varies from the average by a greater amount than that of Earth, and hence its equation of time shows greater variation than that of Earth: on Mars, the Sun can run 50 minutes slower or 40 minutes faster than a Martian clock (on Earth, the corresponding figures are 14m 22s slower and 16m 23s faster).
Mars has a prime meridian, defined as passing through the small crater Airy - 0. However, Mars does not have time zones defined at regular intervals from the prime meridian, as on Earth. Each lander so far has used an approximation of local solar time as its frame of reference, as cities did on Earth before the introduction of standard time in the 19th century. (The two Mars Exploration Rovers happen to be approximately 12 hours and one minute apart.)
Note that the modern standard for measuring longitude on Mars is "planetocentric longitude '', which is measured from 0 ° -- 360 ° East and measures angles from the center of Mars. The older "planetographic longitude '' was measured from 0 ° -- 360 ° West and used coordinates mapped onto the surface.
MTC is a proposed Mars analog to Universal Time (UT1) on Earth. It is defined as the mean solar time at Mars 's prime meridian. The prime meridian was first proposed by German astronomers Wilhelm Beer and Johann Heinrich Mädler in 1830 as marked by the fork in the albedo feature later named Sinus Meridiani by Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli. This convention was readily adopted by the astronomical community, the result being that Mars had a universally accepted prime meridian half a century before the International Meridian Conference of 1884 established one for Earth. The definition of the Martian prime meridian has since been refined on the basis of spacecraft imagery as the center of the crater Airy - 0 in Terra Meridiani. The name "MTC '' is intended to parallel the Terran Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), but this is somewhat misleading: what distinguishes UTC from other forms of UT is its leap seconds, but MTC does not use any such scheme. MTC is more closely analogous to UT1.
Use of the term "MTC '' as the name of a planetary standard time for Mars first appeared in the Mars24 sunclock coded by the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies. It replaced Mars24 's previous use of the term "Airy Mean Time '' (AMT), which was a direct parallel of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). In an astronomical context, "GMT '' is a deprecated name for Universal Time, or sometimes more specifically for UT1.
AMT has not yet been employed in official mission timekeeping. This is partially attributable to uncertainty regarding the position of Airy - 0 (relative to other longitudes), which meant that AMT could n't be realized as accurately as local time at points being studied. At the start of the Mars Exploration Rover missions, the positional uncertainty of Airy - 0 corresponded to roughly a 20 - second uncertainty in realizing AMT.
Each lander mission so far has used its own time zone, corresponding to average local solar time at the landing location. Of the six successful Mars landers to date, five employed offsets from local mean solar time (LMST) for the lander site while the sixth (Mars Pathfinder) used local true solar time (LTST).
Mars Pathfinder used the local apparent solar time at its location of landing. Its time zone was AAT - 02: 13: 01, where "AAT '' is Airy Apparent Time, meaning apparent solar time at Airy - 0.
The two Mars Exploration Rovers do not use precisely the LMST of the landing points. For mission operations purposes, they defined a time scale that would match the clock used for the mission to the apparent solar time about halfway through the nominal 90 - sol prime mission. This is referred to in mission planning as "Hybrid Local Solar Time '' (HLST). The time scales are uniform in the sense of mean solar time (they are actually mean time of some longitude), and are not adjusted as the rovers travel. (The rovers have traveled distances that make a few seconds difference to local solar time.) The HLST of Spirit is AMT + 11: 00: 04 whereas the LMST at its landing site is AMT + 11: 41: 55. The HLST of Opportunity is AMT - 01: 01: 06 whereas the LMST at its landing site is AMT - 00: 22: 06. Neither rover is likely to ever reach the longitude at which its mission time scale matches local mean time. For science purposes, Local True Solar Time is used.
The Mars Phoenix project specified timekeeping that matched Local Mean Solar Time at its the planned landing longitude of - 126.65 ° E (the actual landing site was about 0.7 ° east of that). This corresponds to a mission clock of AMT - 08: 26: 36.
The MSL Curiosity Rover project opted for the use of Local Mean Solar Time at its originally planned landing longitude of 137.42 ° E (the actual landing site was about 0.2 ° east of that). This corresponds to a mission clock of AMT + 09: 09: 40.8.
With the location of Airy - 0 now known much more precisely than when these missions landed, it is technically feasible for future missions to use a convenient offset from Airy Mean Time, rather than completely non-standard time zones. Although there are currently no official timezone system for Mars other than AMT / MTC, Ares Astronautics has also put forward a solution to this problem based upon the USGS Martian Quadrangles officially known as the Arean Time Zone System.
The term sol is used by planetary astronomers to refer to the duration of a solar day on Mars. A mean Martian solar day, or "sol '', is 24 hours, 39 minutes, and 35.244 seconds.
When a spacecraft lander begins operations on Mars, the passing Martian days (sols) are tracked using a simple numerical count. The two Viking missions, Mars Phoenix and the Mars Science Laboratory rover Curiosity count the sol on which each lander touched down as "Sol 0 '', as will the InSight mission. Mars Pathfinder and the two Mars Exploration Rovers instead defined touchdown as "Sol 1 ''.
Although lander missions have twice occurred in pairs, no effort was made to synchronize the sol counts of the two landers within each pair. Thus, for example, although Spirit and Opportunity were sent to operate simultaneously on Mars, each counted its landing date as "Sol 1 '', putting their calendars approximately 21 sols out of sync. Spirit and Opportunity differ in longitude by 179 degrees, so when it is daylight for one it is night for the other, and they carried out activities independently while both were operational.
On Earth, astronomers often use Julian Dates -- a simple sequential count of days -- for timekeeping purposes. "For historical utility with respect to the Earth - based atmospheric, visual mapping, and polar - cap observations of Mars..., a sequential count of sol - numbers '' the Mars Sol Date (MSD) was proposed starting "prior to the 1877 perihelic opposition. '' This Mars Sol Date (MSD), is a running count of sols since December 29, 1873 (the birth date of astronomer Carl Otto Lampland). Another proposal suggests a start date (or epoch) in the year 1608 (invention of the telescope). Either choice is intended to ensure that all historically recorded events related to Mars occur after it. The Mars Sol Date is defined mathematically as MSD = (Julian Date using International Atomic Time - 2451549.5 + k) / 1.02749125 + 44796.0, where k is a small correction of approximately 0.00014 d (or 12 s) due to uncertainty in the exact geographical position of the prime meridian at Airy - 0 crater.
The word "yestersol '' was coined by the NASA Mars operations team early during the MER mission to refer to the previous sol (the Mars version of "yesterday ''), and came into fairly wide use within that organization during the Mars Exploration Rover Mission of 2003. It was eventually picked up and used by the press. Other neologisms include "tosol '' (for "today '' on Mars), as well as one of three Mars versions of "tomorrow '': "nextersol '', "morrowsol '', or "solmorrow ''. NASA planners coined the term "soliday '' at least as far back as 2012 to refer to days off due to time phasing or the synching of planetary schedules.
The length of time for Mars to complete one orbit around the Sun is its sidereal year, and is about 686.98 Earth solar days, or 668.5991 sols. Because of the eccentricity of Mars ' orbit, the seasons are not of equal length. Assuming that seasons run from equinox to solstice or vice versa, the season L 0 to L 90 (northern - hemisphere spring / southern - hemisphere autumn) is the longest season lasting 194 Martian sols, and L 180 to L 270 (northern hemisphere autumn / southern - hemisphere spring) is the shortest season, lasting only 142 Martian sols. One commonly used system in the scientific literature denotes year number relative to Mars Year 1 (MY1) beginning with the northern Spring equinox of April 11, 1955.
As on Earth, the sidereal year is not the quantity that is needed for calendar purposes. Rather, the tropical year would be likely to be used because it gives the best match to the progression of the seasons. It is slightly shorter than the sidereal year due to the precession of Mars ' rotational axis. The precession cycle is 93,000 Martian years (175,000 Earth years), much longer than on Earth. Its length in tropical years can be computed by dividing the difference between the sidereal year and tropical year by the length of the tropical year.
Tropical year length depends on the starting point of measurement, due to the effects of Kepler 's second law of planetary motion. It can be measured in relation to an equinox or solstice, or can be the mean of various possible years including the March (northward) equinox year, June (northern) solstice year, the September (southward) equinox year, the December (southern) solstice year, and other such years. The Gregorian calendar uses the March equinox year.
On Earth, the variation in the lengths of the tropical years is small, but on Mars it is much larger. The northward equinox year is 668.5907 sols, the northern solstice year is 668.5880 sols, the southward equinox year is 668.5940 sols, and the southern solstice year is 668.5958 sols. Averaging over an entire orbital period gives a tropical year of 668.5921 sols. (Since, like Earth, the northern and southern hemispheres of Mars have opposite seasons, equinoxes and solstices must be labelled by hemisphere to remove ambiguity.)
Long before mission control teams on Earth began scheduling work shifts according to the Martian sol while operating spacecraft on the surface of Mars, it was recognized that humans probably could adapt to this slightly longer diurnal period. This suggested that a calendar based on the sol and the Martian year might be a useful timekeeping system for astronomers in the short term and for explorers in the future. For most day - to - day activities on Earth, people do not use Julian days, as astronomers do, but the Gregorian calendar, which despite its various complications is quite useful. It allows for easy determination of whether one date is an anniversary of another, whether a date is in winter or spring, and what is the number of years between two dates. This is much less practical with Julian days count. For similar reasons, if it is ever necessary to schedule and co-ordinate activities on a large scale across the surface of Mars it would be necessary to agree on a calendar.
American astronomer Percival Lowell expressed the time of year on Mars in terms of Mars dates that were analogous to Gregorian dates, with 20 March, 21 June, 22 September, and 21 December marking the southward equinox, southern solstice, northward equinox, and northern solstice, respectively; Lowell 's focus was on the southern hemisphere of Mars because it is the hemisphere that is more easily observed from Earth during favorable oppositions. Lowell 's system was not a true calendar, since a Mars date could span nearly two entire sols; rather it was a convenient device for expressing the time of year in the southern hemisphere in lieu of heliocentric longitude, which would have been less comprehensible to a general readership.
Italian astronomer Mentore Maggini 's 1939 book describes a calendar developed years earlier by American astronomers Andrew Ellicott Douglass and William H. Pickering, in which the first nine months contain 56 sols and the last three months contain 55 sols. Their calendar year begins with the northward equinox on 1 March, thus imitating the original Roman calendar. Other dates of astronomical significance are: northern solstice, 27 June; southward equinox, 36 September; southern solstice, 12 December; perihelion, 31 November; and aphelion, 31 May. Pickering 's inclusion of Mars dates in a 1916 report of his observations may have been the first use of a Martian calendar in an astronomical publication. Maggini states: "These dates of the Martian calendar are frequently used by observatories... '' Despite his claim, this system eventually fell into disuse, and in its place new systems were proposed periodically which likewise did not gain sufficient acceptance to take permanent hold.
In 1936, when the calendar reform movement was at its height, American astronomer Robert G. Aitken published an article outlining a Martian calendar. In each quarter there are three months of 42 sols and a fourth month of 41 sols. The pattern of seven - day weeks repeats over a two - year cycle, i.e., the calendar year always begins on a Sunday in odd - numbered years, thus effecting a perpetual calendar for Mars.
Whereas previous proposals for a Martian calendar had not included an epoch, American astronomer I.M. Levitt developed a more complete system in 1954. In fact, Ralph Mentzer, an acquaintance of Levitt 's who was a watchmaker for the Hamilton Watch Company, built several clocks designed by Levitt to keep time on both Earth and Mars. They could also be set to display the date on both planets according to Levitt 's calendar and epoch (the Julian day epoch of 4713 BCE).
Charles F. Capen included references to Mars dates in a 1966 Jet Propulsion Laboratory technical report associated with the Mariner 4 flyby of Mars. This system stretches the Gregorian calendar to fit the longer Martian year, much as Lowell had done in 1895, the difference being that 20 March, 21 June, 22 September, and 21 December marks the northward equinox, northern solstice, southward equinox, southern solstice, respectively. Similarly, Conway B. Leovy et al. also expressed time in terms of Mars dates in a 1973 paper describing results from the Mariner 9 Mars orbiter.
British astronomer Sir Patrick Moore described a Martian calendar of his own design in 1977. His idea was to divide up a Martian year into 18 months. Months 6, 12 and 18, have 38 sols, while the rest of the months contain 37 sols.
American aerospace engineer and political scientist Thomas Gangale first published regarding the Darian calendar in 1986, with additional details published in 1998 and 2006. It has 24 months to accommodate the longer Martian year while keeping the notion of a "month '' that is reasonably similar to the length of an Earth month. On Mars, a "month '' would have no relation to the orbital period of any moon of Mars, since Phobos and Deimos orbit in about 7 hours and 30 hours respectively. However, Earth and Moon would generally be visible to the naked eye when they were above the horizon at night, and the time it takes for the Moon to move from maximum separation in one direction to the other and back as seen from Mars is close to a Lunar month.
Czech astronomer Josef Šurán offered a Martian calendar design in 1997, in which a common year has 672 Martian days distributed into 24 months of 28 days (or 4 weeks of 7 days each); in skip years an entire week at the end of the twelfth month is omitted.
Allusions to timekeeping on Mars in fiction tend to be cursory, meant only as part as the exotic ambience of another world.
The first known reference to time on Mars appears in Percy Greg 's 1880 novel Across the Zodiac. The primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary divisions of the sol are based on the number 12. Sols are numbered 0 through the end of the year, with no additional structure to the calendar. The epoch is "the union of all races and nations in a single State, a union which was formally established 13,218 years ago ''.
Edgar Rice Burroughs described the divisions of the sol into zodes, xats, and tals; he may have been the first to make the mistake of describing the Martian year as lasting 687 Martian days, but he was far from the last.
In Robert A. Heinlein 's 1949 novel Red Planet, humans living on Mars use a 24 - month calendar, alternating between familiar Earth months and newly created months such as Ceres and Zeus. For example, Ceres comes after March and before April, while Zeus comes after October and before November.
Arthur C. Clarke 's 1951 novel The Sands of Mars mentions in passing that "Monday followed Sunday in the usual way '' and "the months also had the same names, but were fifty to sixty days in length ''.
In H. Beam Piper 's 1957 short story "Omnilingual '', the Martian calendar and the periodic table are the keys to archaeologists ' deciphering of the records left by the long dead Martian civilization.
Kurt Vonnegut 's 1959 novel The Sirens of Titan describes a Martian calendar divided into twenty - one months: "twelve with thirty sols, and nine with thirty - one sols '', for a total of only 639 sols.
D.G. Compton states in his 1966 novel Farewell, Earth 's Bliss, during the prison ship 's journey to Mars, "Nobody on board had any real idea how the people in the settlement would have organised their six - hundred - and - eighty - seven - day year ''.
In Kim Stanley Robinson 's Mars Trilogy, clocks retain Earth - standard seconds, minutes, and hours, but freeze at midnight for 39.5 minutes. As the fictional colonization of Mars progresses, this "timeslip '' becomes a sort of witching hour, a time when inhibitions can be shed, and the emerging identity of Mars as a separate entity from Earth is celebrated. (It is not said explicitly whether this occurs simultaneously all over Mars, or at local midnight in each longitude.) Also in the Mars Trilogy, the calendar year is divided into twenty - four months. The names of the months are the same as the Gregorian calendar, except for a "1 '' or "2 '' in front to indicate the first or second occurrence of that month (for example, 1 January, 2 January, 1 February, 2 February).
In the manga and anime series Aria by Kozue Amano, set on a terraformed Mars, the calendar year is also divided into twenty - four months. Following the modern Japanese calendar, the months are not named but numbered sequentially, running from 1st Month to 24th Month.
The Darian calendar is mentioned in several works of fiction set on Mars:
In Andy Weir 's 2011 novel The Martian and its 2015 feature film adaptation, sols are counted and referenced frequently with onscreen title cards, in order to emphasize the amount of time the main character spends on Mars.
In Ian McDonald 's Desolation Road, set on a terraformed Mars (referred to by the book 's characters as "Ares ''), characters follow an implied 24 - month calendar whose months are portmanteaus of Gregorian months, such as "Julaugust, '' "Augtember '' and "Novodecember. ''
MSD can be computed from the Julian date referred to Terrestrial Time (TT), as
Terrestrial time, however, is not as easily available as Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). TT can be computed from UTC by first adding the difference TAI − UTC, which is a positive integer number of seconds occasionally updated by the introduction of leap seconds (see current number of leap seconds), then adding the constant difference TT − TAI = 32.184 s. This leads to the following formula giving MSD from the UTC - referred Julian date:
where the difference TAI − UTC is in seconds. JD can in turn be computed from any epoch - based time stamp, by adding the Julian date of the epoch to the time stamp in days. For example, if t is a Unix timestamp in seconds, then
It follows, by a simple substitution:
MTC is simply the fractional part of MSD, in hours, minutes and seconds:
For example, at the time this page was last generated (28 May 2018, 02: 25: 57 UTC):
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when did gender testing of female olympic athletes begin | Sex verification in sports - wikipedia
Sex verification in sports (also known as gender verification, or loosely as gender determination or a sex test) is the issue of verifying the eligibility of an athlete to compete in a sporting event that is limited to a single sex. The issue has arisen multiple times in the Olympic games and other sporting competitions where it has been alleged that male athletes attempted to compete as women, or that a woman has an intersex condition giving an alleged unfair advantage.
The first mandatory sex test issued by the IAAF for woman athletes was in July 1950 in the month before the European Championships in Belgium. All athletes were tested in their own countries. Sex testing at the games began at the 1966 European Athletics Championships in response to suspicion that several of the best women athletes from the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe were actually men. At the Olympics, testing was introduced in 1968.
Initially, sex verification took the form of physical examinations. It subsequently evolved into chromosome testing, and later testosterone testing. It is not always a simple case of checking for XX vs. XY chromosomes, or sex hormone levels, to determine whether an athlete is unambiguously a woman or a man. Fetuses start out as undifferentiated, and the Y chromosome turns on a variety of hormones that differentiate the baby as a male. Sometimes this does not occur, and people with two X chromosomes can develop hormonally or phenotypically as a male, and people with an X and a Y can develop hormonally or phenotypically as a female.
Reports have shown how elite women athletes have been humiliated, excluded, and suffered human rights violations as a result of sex verification testing. Such cases have included female genital mutilation and sterilization. Not only have reports shown that the tests have physically affected women athletes, but they have also shown that such tests can cause psychological harm to women. Sex verification tests can create sex and identity crises, demeaning reactions, social isolation, depression, and suicide. Essentially, research shows that the benefits to gender testing do not outweigh the disadvantages.
United States Olympic Committee president Avery Brundage requested, during or shortly after the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, that a system be established to examine female athletes. According to a Time magazine article about hermaphrodites, Brundage felt the need to clarify "sex ambiguities '' after observing the performance of Czechoslovak runner and jumper Zdeňka Koubková and English shotputter and javelin thrower Mary Edith Louise Weston. Both individuals later had sex change surgery and legally changed their names, to Zdeněk Koubek and Mark Weston, respectively.
Sex verification tests began in the 1966 with the International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF), using physical examinations. The International Olympic Committee followed suit two years later. Initially, women athletes "were asked to parade nude before a panel of doctors ''. For a period of time these tests were mandatory for female athletes, due to fears that male athletes would pose as female athletes and have an unfair advantage over their competitors.
Zdeňka Koubková
Mary Edith Louise Weston
Chromosome testing was introduced by the International Olympic Committee in 1968, at the Mexico City Olympics. This tested for the presence of the SRY gene, which is found on the Y - chromosome, and was designed to identify males potentially disguised as females. This method of testing was later abolished, as it was shown to be inconclusive in identifying maleness.
The International Association of Athletics Federations ceased sex screening for all athletes in 1992, but retained the option of assessing the sex of a participant should suspicions arise. A resolution was passed at the 1996 International Olympic Committee (IOC) World Conference on Women and Health "to discontinue the current process of gender verification during the Olympic Games ''. The International Olympic Committee 's board voted to discontinue the practice in June 1999. Chromosome testing was last performed at the Atlanta Olympic Games in 1996.
The practice of chromosome testing came under scrutiny from those who feel that the testing was humiliating, socially insensitive, and not entirely accurate or effective. The testing is especially difficult in the case of people who could be considered intersex. Genetic differences can allow a person to have a male genetic make - up and female anatomy or body chemistry. In the Journal of the American Medical Association, Simpson, Ljungqvist and others stated,
Gender verification tests are difficult, expensive, and potentially inaccurate. Furthermore, these tests fail to exclude all potential impostors (eg, some 46, XX males), are discriminatory against women with disorders of sexual development, and may have shattering consequences for athletes who ' fail ' a test...
Gender verification has long been criticized by geneticists, endocrinologists, and others in the medical community. One major problem was unfairly excluding women who had a birth defect involving gonads and external genitalia (i.e., male pseudohermaphroditism)...
A second problem is that only women, not men, were subjected to gender verification testing. Systematic follow - up was rarely available for athletes "failing '' the test, which often was performed under very public circumstances. Follow - up was crucial because the subjects were not male impostors, but intersexed individuals.
In August 2009, South African athlete Caster Semenya was subjected to mandatory sex verification testing. In the wake of the Semenya case, testosterone testing was introduced to identify cases where testosterone levels were elevated above an arbitrary level, termed hyperandrogenism, with national Olympics committees tasked by the IOC to "actively investigate any perceived deviation in sex characteristics ''.
In football, FIFA 's current gender verification policy dates to May 30, 2011 In June 2012, in advance of the 2012 Summer Olympics, the IOC released IOC Regulations on Female Hyperandrogenism, which addressed cases of female hyperandrogenism. The regulation includes the statement, "Nothing in these Regulations is intended to make any determination of sex. Instead, these Regulations are designed to identify circumstances in which a particular athlete will not be eligible (by reason of hormonal characteristics) to participate in 2012 OG Competitions in the female category. In the event that the athlete has been declared ineligible to compete in the female category, the athlete may be eligible to compete as a male athlete, if the athlete qualifies for the male event of the sport. ''
As with previous forms of sex testing, testosterone testing has been regarded as humiliating, unnecessary and discriminatory. Katrina Karkazis, Rebecca Jordan - Young, Georgiann Davis and Silvia Camporesi argued that the new IAAF policies on hyperandrogenism in female athletes will not protect against breaches of privacy, will require athletes to undergo unnecessary treatment in order to compete, and will intensify "gender policing ''. They recommend that athletes be able to compete in accordance with their legal gender.
In 2013, it was reported by Patrick Fénichel, Stéphane Bermon and others that four elite female athletes from developing countries were subjected to partial clitoridectomies and gonadectomies (sterilization) after testosterone testing revealed that they had an intersex condition. Members of the same clinical hormone evaluation team report there is no evidence that innate hyperandrogenism in elite women athletes confers an advantage in sport. The case has been criticized as showing vulnerability of women athletes to unnecessary medical interventions under duress, with no evidence of cheating and no evidence of athletic advantage.
Policies on hyperandrogenism were suspended following the case of Dutee Chand v. Athletics Federation of India (AFI) & The International Association of Athletics Federations, in the Court of Arbitration for Sport, decided in July 2015. Chand had been dropped from the 2014 Commonwealth Games at the last minute after the Athletic Federation of India stated that hyperandrogenism made her ineligible to compete as a female athlete. The ruling found that there was insufficient evidence that testosterone increased female athletic performance. In doing so the court suspended the practice of hyperandrogenism regulation used by the IAAF. The practice will be declared void if the organization fails to present better evidence by July 2017.
In November 2015, the IOC held a meeting to address both its hyperandrogenism and transgender policies. In regards to hyperadrogenism in female athletes, the IOC encouraged reinstatement of the IAAF policies suspended by the Court of Arbitration for Sport. It also repeated an earlier policy statement that, to "avoid discrimination, if not eligible for female competition the athlete should be eligible to compete in male competition ''. In February 2016, it was made known that the IOC would not introduce its own policies that would impose a maximum testosterone level for the 2016 Summer Olympics.
In April 2016, the United Nations Special Rapporteur on health, Dainius Pūras, criticized current and historic sex verification policies, describing how "a number of athletes have undergone gonadectomy (removal of reproductive organs) and partial cliteroidectomy (a form of female genital mutilation) in the absence of symptoms or health issues warranting those procedures ''.
Sporting organizations must implement policies in accordance with human rights norms and refrain from introducing policies that force, coerce or otherwise pressure women athletes into undergoing unnecessary, irreversible and harmful medical procedures in order to participate as women in competitive sport. States should also adopt legislation incorporating international human rights standards to protect the rights of intersex persons at all levels of sport, given that they frequently report bullying and discriminatory behaviour, and should take steps to protect the health rights of intersex women in their jurisdiction from interference by third parties.
The cases of Dutee Chand and Caster Semenya were widely reported during the 2016 Rio Olympics. Immediately preceding the games, Genel, Simpson and de la Chapelle were again published in the Journal of the American Medical Association starting "One of the fundamental recommendations published almost 25 years ago... that athletes born with a disorder of sex development and raised as females be allowed to compete as women remains appropriate '':
with the passage of time and the recurring public spectacle of young women... having their underlying biology indiscriminately scrutinized in the world media, it has become evident that the hyperandrogenism policies are no more salutary than earlier attempts to define sharp sex boundaries.
Sex verification is not conducted on male athletes, those competing in the male category, and little data is available on their chromosomes or hormone profiles. However, a post-competition study of 693 elite athletes by Healy et al, published in 2014, found significant sex differences in many variables. The authors found that:
16.5 % of men had low testosterone levels, whereas 13.7 % of women had high levels with complete overlap between the sexes.
Using this data, Scientific American estimated that "almost 2 percent '' of male competitors had testosterone levels in the typical female range. The study authors also stated that average lean body mass differences might account for performance differences between sexes.
Stanisława Walasiewicz (aka Stella Walsh)
Dora Ratjen
Foekje Dillema
Sisters Tamara and Irina Press
Ewa Kłobukowska
Erik Schinegger in 2014
In November 2015, the IOC held a meeting to address both its transgender and hyperandrogenism policies. In regards to transgender athletes it stated that transgender athletes can not be excluded from an opportunity to participate in sporting competition. Transgender athletes who identified themselves as female, would be allowed to compete in that category as long as their testosterone levels were below 10 nanomoles per liter for at least 12 months prior to the competition. There would be no restrictions on transgender athletes identifying themselves as male and competing in that category. The IOC stated that requiring surgical anatomical changes as a requirement for participation may be considered as a violation of notions of human rights.
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where does the last name fox come from | Fox (surname) - wikipedia
Fox or Foxe or Foxx is a surname originating in England and Ireland. The derivation is from the Middle English "fox '', itself coming from the Old English pre 7th century "fox ''. The surname first appears on record in the latter part of the 13th century, with the first recorded spelling in 1273 to be that of John Fox in the "Hundred Rolls of Yorkshire '', England. In Ireland, Fox is mainly an Anglicised form of the Old Gaelic "Mac a'tSionnaigh '' (son of the Fox).
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do most mushrooms belong to the fungi group zygomycota | Fungus - wikipedia
Dikarya (inc. Deuteromycota)
Subphyla incertae sedis
A fungus (plural: fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from the other eukaryotic life kingdoms of plants and animals.
A characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from plants, bacteria, and some protists is chitin in their cell walls. Similar to animals, fungi are heterotrophs; they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, typically by secreting digestive enzymes into their environment. Fungi do not photosynthesise. Growth is their means of mobility, except for spores (a few of which are flagellated), which may travel through the air or water. Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems. These and other differences place fungi in a single group of related organisms, named the Eumycota (true fungi or Eumycetes), which share a common ancestor (form a monophyletic group), an interpretation that is also strongly supported by molecular phylogenetics. This fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes (slime molds) and oomycetes (water molds). The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology (from the Greek μύκης mykes, mushroom). In the past, mycology was regarded as a branch of botany, although it is now known fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants.
Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of the small size of their structures, and their cryptic lifestyles in soil or on dead matter. Fungi include symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi and also parasites. They may become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or as molds. Fungi perform an essential role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and exchange in the environment. They have long been used as a direct source of human food, in the form of mushrooms and truffles; as a leavening agent for bread; and in the fermentation of various food products, such as wine, beer, and soy sauce. Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for the production of antibiotics, and, more recently, various enzymes produced by fungi are used industrially and in detergents. Fungi are also used as biological pesticides to control weeds, plant diseases and insect pests. Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins, such as alkaloids and polyketides, that are toxic to animals including humans. The fruiting structures of a few species contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies. Fungi can break down manufactured materials and buildings, and become significant pathogens of humans and other animals. Losses of crops due to fungal diseases (e.g., rice blast disease) or food spoilage can have a large impact on human food supplies and local economies.
The fungus kingdom encompasses an enormous diversity of taxa with varied ecologies, life cycle strategies, and morphologies ranging from unicellular aquatic chytrids to large mushrooms. However, little is known of the true biodiversity of Kingdom Fungi, which has been estimated at 2.2 million to 3.8 million species, of which only 120,000 have been described. 8000 of them are detrimental to plants and 300 can be pathogenic to humans. Ever since the pioneering 18th and 19th century taxonomical works of Carl Linnaeus, Christian Hendrik Persoon, and Elias Magnus Fries, fungi have been classified according to their morphology (e.g., characteristics such as spore color or microscopic features) or physiology. Advances in molecular genetics have opened the way for DNA analysis to be incorporated into taxonomy, which has sometimes challenged the historical groupings based on morphology and other traits. Phylogenetic studies published in the last decade have helped reshape the classification within Kingdom Fungi, which is divided into one subkingdom, seven phyla, and ten subphyla.
The English word fungus is directly adopted from the Latin fungus (mushroom), used in the writings of Horace and Pliny. This in turn is derived from the Greek word sphongos (σφογγος "sponge ''), which refers to the macroscopic structures and morphology of mushrooms and molds; the root is also used in other languages, such as the German Schwamm ("sponge '') and Schimmel ("mold ''). The use of the word mycology, which is derived from the Greek mykes (μύκης "mushroom '') and logos (λόγος "discourse ''), to denote the scientific study of fungi is thought to have originated in 1836 with English naturalist Miles Joseph Berkeley 's publication The English Flora of Sir James Edward Smith, Vol. 5. A group of all the fungi present in a particular area or geographic region is known as mycobiota (plural noun, no singular), e.g., "the mycobiota of Ireland ''.
Before the introduction of molecular methods for phylogenetic analysis, taxonomists considered fungi to be members of the plant kingdom because of similarities in lifestyle: both fungi and plants are mainly immobile, and have similarities in general morphology and growth habitat. Like plants, fungi often grow in soil and, in the case of mushrooms, form conspicuous fruit bodies, which sometimes resemble plants such as mosses. The fungi are now considered a separate kingdom, distinct from both plants and animals, from which they appear to have diverged around one billion years ago. Some morphological, biochemical, and genetic features are shared with other organisms, while others are unique to the fungi, clearly separating them from the other kingdoms:
Shared features:
Unique features:
Most fungi lack an efficient system for the long - distance transport of water and nutrients, such as the xylem and phloem in many plants. To overcome this limitation, some fungi, such as Armillaria, form rhizomorphs, which resemble and perform functions similar to the roots of plants. As eukaryotes, fungi possess a biosynthetic pathway for producing terpenes that uses mevalonic acid and pyrophosphate as chemical building blocks. Plants and some other organisms have an additional terpene biosynthesis pathway in their chloroplasts, a structure fungi and animals do not have. Fungi produce several secondary metabolites that are similar or identical in structure to those made by plants. Many of the plant and fungal enzymes that make these compounds differ from each other in sequence and other characteristics, which indicates separate origins and convergent evolution of these enzymes in the fungi and plants.
Fungi have a worldwide distribution, and grow in a wide range of habitats, including extreme environments such as deserts or areas with high salt concentrations or ionizing radiation, as well as in deep sea sediments. Some can survive the intense UV and cosmic radiation encountered during space travel. Most grow in terrestrial environments, though several species live partly or solely in aquatic habitats, such as the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a parasite that has been responsible for a worldwide decline in amphibian populations. This organism spends part of its life cycle as a motile zoospore, enabling it to propel itself through water and enter its amphibian host. Other examples of aquatic fungi include those living in hydrothermal areas of the ocean.
Around 120,000 species of fungi have been described by taxonomists, but the global biodiversity of the fungus kingdom is not fully understood. A 2017 estimate suggests there may be between 2.2 and 3.8 million species. In mycology, species have historically been distinguished by a variety of methods and concepts. Classification based on morphological characteristics, such as the size and shape of spores or fruiting structures, has traditionally dominated fungal taxonomy. Species may also be distinguished by their biochemical and physiological characteristics, such as their ability to metabolize certain biochemicals, or their reaction to chemical tests. The biological species concept discriminates species based on their ability to mate. The application of molecular tools, such as DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis, to study diversity has greatly enhanced the resolution and added robustness to estimates of genetic diversity within various taxonomic groups.
Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the systematic study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy, and their use to humans as a source of medicine, food, and psychotropic substances consumed for religious purposes, as well as their dangers, such as poisoning or infection. The field of phytopathology, the study of plant diseases, is closely related because many plant pathogens are fungi.
The use of fungi by humans dates back to prehistory; Ötzi the Iceman, a well - preserved mummy of a 5,300 - year - old Neolithic man found frozen in the Austrian Alps, carried two species of polypore mushrooms that may have been used as tinder (Fomes fomentarius), or for medicinal purposes (Piptoporus betulinus). Ancient peoples have used fungi as food sources -- often unknowingly -- for millennia, in the preparation of leavened bread and fermented juices. Some of the oldest written records contain references to the destruction of crops that were probably caused by pathogenic fungi.
Mycology is a relatively new science that became systematic after the development of the microscope in the 17th century. Although fungal spores were first observed by Giambattista della Porta in 1588, the seminal work in the development of mycology is considered to be the publication of Pier Antonio Micheli 's 1729 work Nova plantarum genera. Micheli not only observed spores but also showed that, under the proper conditions, they could be induced into growing into the same species of fungi from which they originated. Extending the use of the binomial system of nomenclature introduced by Carl Linnaeus in his Species plantarum (1753), the Dutch Christian Hendrik Persoon (1761 -- 1836) established the first classification of mushrooms with such skill so as to be considered a founder of modern mycology. Later, Elias Magnus Fries (1794 -- 1878) further elaborated the classification of fungi, using spore color and various microscopic characteristics, methods still used by taxonomists today. Other notable early contributors to mycology in the 17th -- 19th and early 20th centuries include Miles Joseph Berkeley, August Carl Joseph Corda, Anton de Bary, the brothers Louis René and Charles Tulasne, Arthur H.R. Buller, Curtis G. Lloyd, and Pier Andrea Saccardo. The 20th century has seen a modernization of mycology that has come from advances in biochemistry, genetics, molecular biology, and biotechnology. The use of DNA sequencing technologies and phylogenetic analysis has provided new insights into fungal relationships and biodiversity, and has challenged traditional morphology - based groupings in fungal taxonomy.
Most fungi grow as hyphae, which are cylindrical, thread - like structures 2 -- 10 μm in diameter and up to several centimeters in length. Hyphae grow at their tips (apices); new hyphae are typically formed by emergence of new tips along existing hyphae by a process called branching, or occasionally growing hyphal tips fork, giving rise to two parallel - growing hyphae. Hyphae also sometimes fuse when they come into contact, a process called hyphal fusion (or anastamosis). These growth processes lead to the development of a mycelium, an interconnected network of hyphae. Hyphae can be either septate or coenocytic. Septate hyphae are divided into compartments separated by cross walls (internal cell walls, called septa, that are formed at right angles to the cell wall giving the hypha its shape), with each compartment containing one or more nuclei; coenocytic hyphae are not compartmentalized. Septa have pores that allow cytoplasm, organelles, and sometimes nuclei to pass through; an example is the dolipore septum in fungi of the phylum Basidiomycota. Coenocytic hyphae are in essence multinucleate supercells.
Many species have developed specialized hyphal structures for nutrient uptake from living hosts; examples include haustoria in plant - parasitic species of most fungal phyla, and arbuscules of several mycorrhizal fungi, which penetrate into the host cells to consume nutrients.
Although fungi are opisthokonts -- a grouping of evolutionarily related organisms broadly characterized by a single posterior flagellum -- all phyla except for the chytrids have lost their posterior flagella. Fungi are unusual among the eukaryotes in having a cell wall that, in addition to glucans (e.g., β - 1, 3 - glucan) and other typical components, also contains the biopolymer chitin.
Fungal mycelia can become visible to the naked eye, for example, on various surfaces and substrates, such as damp walls and spoiled food, where they are commonly called molds. Mycelia grown on solid agar media in laboratory petri dishes are usually referred to as colonies. These colonies can exhibit growth shapes and colors (due to spores or pigmentation) that can be used as diagnostic features in the identification of species or groups. Some individual fungal colonies can reach extraordinary dimensions and ages as in the case of a clonal colony of Armillaria solidipes, which extends over an area of more than 900 ha (3.5 square miles), with an estimated age of nearly 9,000 years.
The apothecium -- a specialized structure important in sexual reproduction in the ascomycetes -- is a cup - shaped fruit body that is often macroscopic and holds the hymenium, a layer of tissue containing the spore - bearing cells. The fruit bodies of the basidiomycetes (basidiocarps) and some ascomycetes can sometimes grow very large, and many are well known as mushrooms.
The growth of fungi as hyphae on or in solid substrates or as single cells in aquatic environments is adapted for the efficient extraction of nutrients, because these growth forms have high surface area to volume ratios. Hyphae are specifically adapted for growth on solid surfaces, and to invade substrates and tissues. They can exert large penetrative mechanical forces; for example, many plant pathogens, including Magnaporthe grisea, form a structure called an appressorium that evolved to puncture plant tissues. The pressure generated by the appressorium, directed against the plant epidermis, can exceed 8 megapascals (1,200 psi). The filamentous fungus Paecilomyces lilacinus uses a similar structure to penetrate the eggs of nematodes.
The mechanical pressure exerted by the appressorium is generated from physiological processes that increase intracellular turgor by producing osmolytes such as glycerol. Adaptations such as these are complemented by hydrolytic enzymes secreted into the environment to digest large organic molecules -- such as polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids -- into smaller molecules that may then be absorbed as nutrients. The vast majority of filamentous fungi grow in a polar fashion (extending in one direction) by elongation at the tip (apex) of the hypha. Other forms of fungal growth include intercalary extension (longitudinal expansion of hyphal compartments that are below the apex) as in the case of some endophytic fungi, or growth by volume expansion during the development of mushroom stipes and other large organs. Growth of fungi as multicellular structures consisting of somatic and reproductive cells -- a feature independently evolved in animals and plants -- has several functions, including the development of fruit bodies for dissemination of sexual spores (see above) and biofilms for substrate colonization and intercellular communication.
The fungi are traditionally considered heterotrophs, organisms that rely solely on carbon fixed by other organisms for metabolism. Fungi have evolved a high degree of metabolic versatility that allows them to use a diverse range of organic substrates for growth, including simple compounds such as nitrate, ammonia, acetate, or ethanol. In some species the pigment melanin may play a role in extracting energy from ionizing radiation, such as gamma radiation. This form of "radiotrophic '' growth has been described for only a few species, the effects on growth rates are small, and the underlying biophysical and biochemical processes are not well known. This process might bear similarity to CO fixation via visible light, but instead uses ionizing radiation as a source of energy.
Fungal reproduction is complex, reflecting the differences in lifestyles and genetic makeup within this diverse kingdom of organisms. It is estimated that a third of all fungi reproduce using more than one method of propagation; for example, reproduction may occur in two well - differentiated stages within the life cycle of a species, the teleomorph and the anamorph. Environmental conditions trigger genetically determined developmental states that lead to the creation of specialized structures for sexual or asexual reproduction. These structures aid reproduction by efficiently dispersing spores or spore - containing propagules.
Asexual reproduction occurs via vegetative spores (conidia) or through mycelial fragmentation. Mycelial fragmentation occurs when a fungal mycelium separates into pieces, and each component grows into a separate mycelium. Mycelial fragmentation and vegetative spores maintain clonal populations adapted to a specific niche, and allow more rapid dispersal than sexual reproduction. The "Fungi imperfecti '' (fungi lacking the perfect or sexual stage) or Deuteromycota comprise all the species that lack an observable sexual cycle. Deuteromycota is not an accepted taxonomic clade, and is now taken to mean simply fungi that lack a known sexual stage.
Sexual reproduction with meiosis has been directly observed in all fungal phyla except Glomeromycota (genetic analysis suggests meiosis in Glomeromycota as well). It differs in many aspects from sexual reproduction in animals or plants. Differences also exist between fungal groups and can be used to discriminate species by morphological differences in sexual structures and reproductive strategies. Mating experiments between fungal isolates may identify species on the basis of biological species concepts. The major fungal groupings have initially been delineated based on the morphology of their sexual structures and spores; for example, the spore - containing structures, asci and basidia, can be used in the identification of ascomycetes and basidiomycetes, respectively. Some species may allow mating only between individuals of opposite mating type, whereas others can mate and sexually reproduce with any other individual or itself. Species of the former mating system are called heterothallic, and of the latter homothallic.
Most fungi have both a haploid and a diploid stage in their life cycles. In sexually reproducing fungi, compatible individuals may combine by fusing their hyphae together into an interconnected network; this process, anastomosis, is required for the initiation of the sexual cycle. Many ascomycetes and basidiomycetes go through a dikaryotic stage, in which the nuclei inherited from the two parents do not combine immediately after cell fusion, but remain separate in the hyphal cells (see heterokaryosis).
In ascomycetes, dikaryotic hyphae of the hymenium (the spore - bearing tissue layer) form a characteristic hook at the hyphal septum. During cell division, formation of the hook ensures proper distribution of the newly divided nuclei into the apical and basal hyphal compartments. An ascus (plural asci) is then formed, in which karyogamy (nuclear fusion) occurs. Asci are embedded in an ascocarp, or fruiting body. Karyogamy in the asci is followed immediately by meiosis and the production of ascospores. After dispersal, the ascospores may germinate and form a new haploid mycelium.
Sexual reproduction in basidiomycetes is similar to that of the ascomycetes. Compatible haploid hyphae fuse to produce a dikaryotic mycelium. However, the dikaryotic phase is more extensive in the basidiomycetes, often also present in the vegetatively growing mycelium. A specialized anatomical structure, called a clamp connection, is formed at each hyphal septum. As with the structurally similar hook in the ascomycetes, the clamp connection in the basidiomycetes is required for controlled transfer of nuclei during cell division, to maintain the dikaryotic stage with two genetically different nuclei in each hyphal compartment. A basidiocarp is formed in which club - like structures known as basidia generate haploid basidiospores after karyogamy and meiosis. The most commonly known basidiocarps are mushrooms, but they may also take other forms (see Morphology section).
In glomeromycetes (formerly zygomycetes), haploid hyphae of two individuals fuse, forming a gametangium, a specialized cell structure that becomes a fertile gamete - producing cell. The gametangium develops into a zygospore, a thick - walled spore formed by the union of gametes. When the zygospore germinates, it undergoes meiosis, generating new haploid hyphae, which may then form asexual sporangiospores. These sporangiospores allow the fungus to rapidly disperse and germinate into new genetically identical haploid fungal mycelia.
Both asexual and sexual spores or sporangiospores are often actively dispersed by forcible ejection from their reproductive structures. This ejection ensures exit of the spores from the reproductive structures as well as traveling through the air over long distances.
Specialized mechanical and physiological mechanisms, as well as spore surface structures (such as hydrophobins), enable efficient spore ejection. For example, the structure of the spore - bearing cells in some ascomycete species is such that the buildup of substances affecting cell volume and fluid balance enables the explosive discharge of spores into the air. The forcible discharge of single spores termed ballistospores involves formation of a small drop of water (Buller 's drop), which upon contact with the spore leads to its projectile release with an initial acceleration of more than 10,000 g; the net result is that the spore is ejected 0.01 -- 0.02 cm, sufficient distance for it to fall through the gills or pores into the air below. Other fungi, like the puffballs, rely on alternative mechanisms for spore release, such as external mechanical forces. The bird 's nest fungi use the force of falling water drops to liberate the spores from cup - shaped fruiting bodies. Another strategy is seen in the stinkhorns, a group of fungi with lively colors and putrid odor that attract insects to disperse their spores.
Besides regular sexual reproduction with meiosis, certain fungi, such as those in the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus, may exchange genetic material via parasexual processes, initiated by anastomosis between hyphae and plasmogamy of fungal cells. The frequency and relative importance of parasexual events is unclear and may be lower than other sexual processes. It is known to play a role in intraspecific hybridization and is likely required for hybridization between species, which has been associated with major events in fungal evolution.
In contrast to plants and animals, the early fossil record of the fungi is meager. Factors that likely contribute to the under - representation of fungal species among fossils include the nature of fungal fruiting bodies, which are soft, fleshy, and easily degradable tissues and the microscopic dimensions of most fungal structures, which therefore are not readily evident. Fungal fossils are difficult to distinguish from those of other microbes, and are most easily identified when they resemble extant fungi. Often recovered from a permineralized plant or animal host, these samples are typically studied by making thin - section preparations that can be examined with light microscopy or transmission electron microscopy. Researchers study compression fossils by dissolving the surrounding matrix with acid and then using light or scanning electron microscopy to examine surface details.
The earliest fossils possessing features typical of fungi date to the Paleoproterozoic era, some 2,400 million years ago (Ma); these multicellular benthic organisms had filamentous structures capable of anastomosis. Other studies (2009) estimate the arrival of fungal organisms at about 760 -- 1060 Ma on the basis of comparisons of the rate of evolution in closely related groups. For much of the Paleozoic Era (542 -- 251 Ma), the fungi appear to have been aquatic and consisted of organisms similar to the extant chytrids in having flagellum - bearing spores. The evolutionary adaptation from an aquatic to a terrestrial lifestyle necessitated a diversification of ecological strategies for obtaining nutrients, including parasitism, saprobism, and the development of mutualistic relationships such as mycorrhiza and lichenization. Recent (2009) studies suggest that the ancestral ecological state of the Ascomycota was saprobism, and that independent lichenization events have occurred multiple times.
It is presumed that the fungi colonized the land during the Cambrian (542 -- 488.3 Ma), long before land plants. Fossilized hyphae and spores recovered from the Ordovician of Wisconsin (460 Ma) resemble modern - day Glomerales, and existed at a time when the land flora likely consisted of only non-vascular bryophyte - like plants. Prototaxites, which was probably a fungus or lichen, would have been the tallest organism of the late Silurian. Fungal fossils do not become common and uncontroversial until the early Devonian (416 -- 359.2 Ma), when they occur abundantly in the Rhynie chert, mostly as Zygomycota and Chytridiomycota. At about this same time, approximately 400 Ma, the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota diverged, and all modern classes of fungi were present by the Late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian, 318.1 -- 299 Ma).
Lichen - like fossils have been found in the Doushantuo Formation in southern China dating back to 635 -- 551 Ma. Lichens formed a component of the early terrestrial ecosystems, and the estimated age of the oldest terrestrial lichen fossil is 400 Ma; this date corresponds to the age of the oldest known sporocarp fossil, a Paleopyrenomycites species found in the Rhynie Chert. The oldest fossil with microscopic features resembling modern - day basidiomycetes is Palaeoancistrus, found permineralized with a fern from the Pennsylvanian. Rare in the fossil record are the Homobasidiomycetes (a taxon roughly equivalent to the mushroom - producing species of the Agaricomycetes). Two amber - preserved specimens provide evidence that the earliest known mushroom - forming fungi (the extinct species Archaeomarasmius leggetti) appeared during the late Cretaceous, 90 Ma.
Some time after the Permian -- Triassic extinction event (251.4 Ma), a fungal spike (originally thought to be an extraordinary abundance of fungal spores in sediments) formed, suggesting that fungi were the dominant life form at this time, representing nearly 100 % of the available fossil record for this period. However, the relative proportion of fungal spores relative to spores formed by algal species is difficult to assess, the spike did not appear worldwide, and in many places it did not fall on the Permian -- Triassic boundary.
Although commonly included in botany curricula and textbooks, fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants and are placed with the animals in the monophyletic group of opisthokonts. Analyses using molecular phylogenetics support a monophyletic origin of the Fungi. The taxonomy of the Fungi is in a state of constant flux, especially due to recent research based on DNA comparisons. These current phylogenetic analyses often overturn classifications based on older and sometimes less discriminative methods based on morphological features and biological species concepts obtained from experimental matings.
There is no unique generally accepted system at the higher taxonomic levels and there are frequent name changes at every level, from species upwards. Efforts among researchers are now underway to establish and encourage usage of a unified and more consistent nomenclature. Fungal species can also have multiple scientific names depending on their life cycle and mode (sexual or asexual) of reproduction. Web sites such as Index Fungorum and ITIS list current names of fungal species (with cross-references to older synonyms).
The 2007 classification of Kingdom Fungi is the result of a large - scale collaborative research effort involving dozens of mycologists and other scientists working on fungal taxonomy. It recognizes seven phyla, two of which -- the Ascomycota and the Basidiomycota -- are contained within a branch representing subkingdom Dikarya, the most species rich and familiar group, including all the mushrooms, most food - spoilage molds, most plant pathogenic fungi, and the beer, wine, and bread yeasts. The accompanying cladogram depicts the major fungal taxa and their relationship to opisthokont and unikont organisms, based on the work of Philippe Silar and "The Mycota: A Comprehensive Treatise on Fungi as Experimental Systems for Basic and Applied Research ''. The lengths of the branches are not proportional to evolutionary distances.
Cristidiscoidea
Aphelida
Cryptomycota
Metchnikovellea
Microsporea
Neocallimastigomycetes
Chytridiomycetes
Hyaloraphidiomycetes
Monoblepharidomycetes
Blastocladiomycetes
Olpidiales
Basidiobolomycetes
Neozygitomycetes
Entomophthoromycetes
Zoopagomycetes
Kickxellomycetes
Mortierellomycetes
Mucoromycetes
Glomeromycetes
Entorrhizomycetes
Basidiomycota
Ascomycota
Tritirachiomycetes
Mixiomycetes
Agaricostilbomycetes
Cystobasidiomycetes
Classiculaceae
Microbotryomycetes
Cryptomycocolacomycetes
Atractiellomycetes
Pucciniomycetes
Monilielliomycetes
Malasseziomycetes
Ustilaginomycetes
Exobasidiomycetes
Wallemiomycetes
Bartheletiomycetes
Tremellomycetes
Dacrymycetes
Agaricomycetes
Neolectomycetes
Taphrinomycetes
Archaeorhizomycetes
Pneumocystidomycetes
Schizosaccharomycetes
Saccharomycetes
? Thelocarpales
? Vezdaeales
? Lahmiales
? Triblidiales
Orbiliomycetes
Pezizomycetes
Xylonomycetes
Geoglossomycetes
Leotiomycetes
Laboulbeniomycetes
Sordariomycetes
Coniocybomycetes
Lichinomycetes
Eurotiomycetes
Lecanoromycetes
Collemopsidiales
Arthoniomycetes
Dothideomycetes
The major phyla (sometimes called divisions) of fungi have been classified mainly on the basis of characteristics of their sexual reproductive structures. Currently, seven phyla are proposed: Microsporidia, Chytridiomycota, Blastocladiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Glomeromycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota.
Phylogenetic analysis has demonstrated that the Microsporidia, unicellular parasites of animals and protists, are fairly recent and highly derived endobiotic fungi (living within the tissue of another species). One 2006 study concludes that the Microsporidia are a sister group to the true fungi; that is, they are each other 's closest evolutionary relative. Hibbett and colleagues suggest that this analysis does not clash with their classification of the Fungi, and although the Microsporidia are elevated to phylum status, it is acknowledged that further analysis is required to clarify evolutionary relationships within this group.
The Chytridiomycota are commonly known as chytrids. These fungi are distributed worldwide. Chytrids and their close relatives Neocallimastigomycota and Blastocladiomycota (below) are the only fungi with active motility, producing zoospores that are capable of active movement through aqueous phases with a single flagellum, leading early taxonomists to classify them as protists. Molecular phylogenies, inferred from rRNA sequences in ribosomes, suggest that the Chytrids are a basal group divergent from the other fungal phyla, consisting of four major clades with suggestive evidence for paraphyly or possibly polyphyly.
The Blastocladiomycota were previously considered a taxonomic clade within the Chytridiomycota. Recent molecular data and ultrastructural characteristics, however, place the Blastocladiomycota as a sister clade to the Zygomycota, Glomeromycota, and Dikarya (Ascomycota and Basidiomycota). The blastocladiomycetes are saprotrophs, feeding on decomposing organic matter, and they are parasites of all eukaryotic groups. Unlike their close relatives, the chytrids, most of which exhibit zygotic meiosis, the blastocladiomycetes undergo sporic meiosis.
The Neocallimastigomycota were earlier placed in the phylum Chytridomycota. Members of this small phylum are anaerobic organisms, living in the digestive system of larger herbivorous mammals and in other terrestrial and aquatic environments enriched in cellulose (e.g., domestic waste landfill sites). They lack mitochondria but contain hydrogenosomes of mitochondrial origin. As in the related chrytrids, neocallimastigomycetes form zoospores that are posteriorly uniflagellate or polyflagellate.
Members of the Glomeromycota form arbuscular mycorrhizae, a form of mutualist symbiosis wherein fungal hyphae invade plant root cells and both species benefit from the resulting increased supply of nutrients. All known Glomeromycota species reproduce asexually. The symbiotic association between the Glomeromycota and plants is ancient, with evidence dating to 400 million years ago. Formerly part of the Zygomycota (commonly known as ' sugar ' and ' pin ' molds), the Glomeromycota were elevated to phylum status in 2001 and now replace the older phylum Zygomycota. Fungi that were placed in the Zygomycota are now being reassigned to the Glomeromycota, or the subphyla incertae sedis Mucoromycotina, Kickxellomycotina, the Zoopagomycotina and the Entomophthoromycotina. Some well - known examples of fungi formerly in the Zygomycota include black bread mold (Rhizopus stolonifer), and Pilobolus species, capable of ejecting spores several meters through the air. Medically relevant genera include Mucor, Rhizomucor, and Rhizopus.
The Ascomycota, commonly known as sac fungi or ascomycetes, constitute the largest taxonomic group within the Eumycota. These fungi form meiotic spores called ascospores, which are enclosed in a special sac - like structure called an ascus. This phylum includes morels, a few mushrooms and truffles, unicellular yeasts (e.g., of the genera Saccharomyces, Kluyveromyces, Pichia, and Candida), and many filamentous fungi living as saprotrophs, parasites, and mutualistic symbionts (e.g. lichens). Prominent and important genera of filamentous ascomycetes include Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Claviceps. Many ascomycete species have only been observed undergoing asexual reproduction (called anamorphic species), but analysis of molecular data has often been able to identify their closest teleomorphs in the Ascomycota. Because the products of meiosis are retained within the sac - like ascus, ascomycetes have been used for elucidating principles of genetics and heredity (e.g., Neurospora crassa).
Members of the Basidiomycota, commonly known as the club fungi or basidiomycetes, produce meiospores called basidiospores on club - like stalks called basidia. Most common mushrooms belong to this group, as well as rust and smut fungi, which are major pathogens of grains. Other important basidiomycetes include the maize pathogen Ustilago maydis, human commensal species of the genus Malassezia, and the opportunistic human pathogen, Cryptococcus neoformans.
Because of similarities in morphology and lifestyle, the slime molds (mycetozoans, plasmodiophorids, acrasids, Fonticula and labyrinthulids, now in Amoebozoa, Rhizaria, Excavata, Opisthokonta and Stramenopiles, respectively), water molds (oomycetes) and hyphochytrids (both Stramenopiles) were formerly classified in the kingdom Fungi, in groups like Mastigomycotina, Gymnomycota and Phycomycetes. The slime molds were studied also as protozoans, leading to a ambiregnal, duplicated taxonomy.
Unlike true fungi, the cell walls of oomycetes contain cellulose and lack chitin. Hyphochytrids have both chitin and cellulose. Slime molds lack a cell wall during the assimilative phase (except labyrinthulids, which have a wall of scales), and ingest nutrients by ingestion (phagocytosis, except labyrinthulids) rather than absorption (osmotrophy, as fungi, labyrinthulids, oomycetes and hyphochytrids). Neither water molds nor slime molds are closely related to the true fungi, and, therefore, taxonomists no longer group them in the kingdom Fungi. Nonetheless, studies of the oomycetes and myxomycetes are still often included in mycology textbooks and primary research literature.
The Eccrinales and Amoebidiales are opisthokont protists, previously thought to be zygomycete fungi. Other groups now in Opisthokonta (e.g., Corallochytrium, Ichthyosporea) were also at given time classified as fungi. The genus Blastocystis, now in Stramenopiles, was originally classified as a yeast. Ellobiopsis, now in Alveolata, was considered a chytrid. The bacteria were also included in fungi in some classifications, as the group Schizomycetes.
The Rozellida clade, including the "ex-chytrid '' Rozella, is a genetically disparate group known mostly from environmental DNA sequences that is a sister group to fungi. Members of the group that have been isolated lack the chitinous cell wall that is characteristic of fungi.
The nucleariids, protists currently grouped in the Choanozoa (Opisthokonta), may be the next sister group to the eumycete clade, and as such could be included in an expanded fungal kingdom.
Many Actinomycetales (Actinobacteria), a group with many filamentous bacteria, were also long believed to be fungi.
Although often inconspicuous, fungi occur in every environment on Earth and play very important roles in most ecosystems. Along with bacteria, fungi are the major decomposers in most terrestrial (and some aquatic) ecosystems, and therefore play a critical role in biogeochemical cycles and in many food webs. As decomposers, they play an essential role in nutrient cycling, especially as saprotrophs and symbionts, degrading organic matter to inorganic molecules, which can then re-enter anabolic metabolic pathways in plants or other organisms.
Many fungi have important symbiotic relationships with organisms from most if not all Kingdoms. These interactions can be mutualistic or antagonistic in nature, or in the case of commensal fungi are of no apparent benefit or detriment to the host.
Mycorrhizal symbiosis between plants and fungi is one of the most well - known plant -- fungus associations and is of significant importance for plant growth and persistence in many ecosystems; over 90 % of all plant species engage in mycorrhizal relationships with fungi and are dependent upon this relationship for survival.
The mycorrhizal symbiosis is ancient, dating to at least 400 million years ago. It often increases the plant 's uptake of inorganic compounds, such as nitrate and phosphate from soils having low concentrations of these key plant nutrients. The fungal partners may also mediate plant - to - plant transfer of carbohydrates and other nutrients. Such mycorrhizal communities are called "common mycorrhizal networks ''. A special case of mycorrhiza is myco - heterotrophy, whereby the plant parasitizes the fungus, obtaining all of its nutrients from its fungal symbiont. Some fungal species inhabit the tissues inside roots, stems, and leaves, in which case they are called endophytes. Similar to mycorrhiza, endophytic colonization by fungi may benefit both symbionts; for example, endophytes of grasses impart to their host increased resistance to herbivores and other environmental stresses and receive food and shelter from the plant in return.
Lichens are a symbiotic relationship between fungi and photosynthetic algae or cyanobacteria. The photosynthetic partner in the relationship is referred to in lichen terminology as a "photobiont ''. The fungal part of the relationship is composed mostly of various species of ascomycetes and a few basidiomycetes. Lichens occur in every ecosystem on all continents, play a key role in soil formation and the initiation of biological succession, and are prominent in some extreme environments, including polar, alpine, and semiarid desert regions. They are able to grow on inhospitable surfaces, including bare soil, rocks, tree bark, wood, shells, barnacles and leaves. As in mycorrhizas, the photobiont provides sugars and other carbohydrates via photosynthesis to the fungus, while the fungus provides minerals and water to the photobiont. The functions of both symbiotic organisms are so closely intertwined that they function almost as a single organism; in most cases the resulting organism differs greatly from the individual components. Lichenization is a common mode of nutrition for fungi; around 20 % of fungi -- between 17,500 and 20,000 described species -- are lichenized. Characteristics common to most lichens include obtaining organic carbon by photosynthesis, slow growth, small size, long life, long - lasting (seasonal) vegetative reproductive structures, mineral nutrition obtained largely from airborne sources, and greater tolerance of desiccation than most other photosynthetic organisms in the same habitat.
Many insects also engage in mutualistic relationships with fungi. Several groups of ants cultivate fungi in the order Agaricales as their primary food source, while ambrosia beetles cultivate various species of fungi in the bark of trees that they infest. Likewise, females of several wood wasp species (genus Sirex) inject their eggs together with spores of the wood - rotting fungus Amylostereum areolatum into the sapwood of pine trees; the growth of the fungus provides ideal nutritional conditions for the development of the wasp larvae. At least one species of stingless bee has a relationship with a fungus in the genus Monascus, where the larvae consume and depend on fungus transferred from old to new nests. Termites on the African savannah are also known to cultivate fungi, and yeasts of the genera Candida and Lachancea inhabit the gut of a wide range of insects, including neuropterans, beetles, and cockroaches; it is not known whether these fungi benefit their hosts. Fungi ingrowing dead wood are essential for xylophagous insects (e.g. woodboring beetles). They deliver nutrients needed by xylophages to nutritionally scarce dead wood. Thanks to this nutritional enrichment the larvae of woodboring insect is able to grow and develop to adulthood. The larvae of many families of fungicolous flies, particularly those within the superfamily Sciaroidea such as the Mycetophilidae and some Keroplatidae feed on fungal fruiting bodies and sterile mycorrhizae.
Many fungi are parasites on plants, animals (including humans), and other fungi. Serious pathogens of many cultivated plants causing extensive damage and losses to agriculture and forestry include the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae, tree pathogens such as Ophiostoma ulmi and Ophiostoma novo - ulmi causing Dutch elm disease and Cryphonectria parasitica responsible for chestnut blight, and plant pathogens in the genera Fusarium, Ustilago, Alternaria, and Cochliobolus. Some carnivorous fungi, like Paecilomyces lilacinus, are predators of nematodes, which they capture using an array of specialized structures such as constricting rings or adhesive nets.
Some fungi can cause serious diseases in humans, several of which may be fatal if untreated. These include aspergillosis, candidiasis, coccidioidomycosis, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, mycetomas, and paracoccidioidomycosis. Furthermore, persons with immuno - deficiencies are particularly susceptible to disease by genera such as Aspergillus, Candida, Cryptoccocus, Histoplasma, and Pneumocystis. Other fungi can attack eyes, nails, hair, and especially skin, the so - called dermatophytic and keratinophilic fungi, and cause local infections such as ringworm and athlete 's foot. Fungal spores are also a cause of allergies, and fungi from different taxonomic groups can evoke allergic reactions.
The organisms which parasitize fungi are known as mycoparasitic organisms. Certain species of the Pythium genus, which are oomycetes, have potential as biocontrol agents against certain fungi. Fungi can also act as mycoparasites or antagonists of other fungi, such as Hypomyces chrysospermus, which grows on bolete mushrooms.
Fungi can become the target of infection by mycoviruses.
Many fungi produce biologically active compounds, several of which are toxic to animals or plants and are therefore called mycotoxins. Of particular relevance to humans are mycotoxins produced by molds causing food spoilage, and poisonous mushrooms (see above). Particularly infamous are the lethal amatoxins in some Amanita mushrooms, and ergot alkaloids, which have a long history of causing serious epidemics of ergotism (St Anthony 's Fire) in people consuming rye or related cereals contaminated with sclerotia of the ergot fungus, Claviceps purpurea. Other notable mycotoxins include the aflatoxins, which are insidious liver toxins and highly carcinogenic metabolites produced by certain Aspergillus species often growing in or on grains and nuts consumed by humans, ochratoxins, patulin, and trichothecenes (e.g., T - 2 mycotoxin) and fumonisins, which have significant impact on human food supplies or animal livestock.
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites (or natural products), and research has established the existence of biochemical pathways solely for the purpose of producing mycotoxins and other natural products in fungi. Mycotoxins may provide fitness benefits in terms of physiological adaptation, competition with other microbes and fungi, and protection from consumption (fungivory). Many fungal secondary metabolites (or derivatives) are used medically, as described under Human Use below.
Ustilago maydis is a pathogenic plant fungus that causes smut disease in maize and teosinte. Plants have evolved efficient defense systems against pathogenic microbes such as U. maydis. A rapid defense reaction after pathogen attack is the oxidative burst where the plant produces reactive oxygen species at the site of the attempted invasion. U. maydis can respond to the oxidative burst with an oxidative stress response, regulated by the gene YAP1. The response protects U. maydis from the host defense, and is necessary for the pathogen 's virulence. Furthermore, U. maydis has a well - established recombinational DNA repair system which acts during mitosis and meiosis. The system may assist the pathogen in surviving DNA damage arising from the host plant 's oxidative defensive response to infection.
Cryptococcus neoformans is an encapsulated yeast that can live in both plants and animals. C. neoformans usually infects the lungs, where it is phagocytosed by alveolar macrophages. Some C. neoformans can survive inside macrophages, which appears to be the basis for latency, disseminated disease, and resistance to antifungal agents. One mechanism by which C. neoformans survives the hostile macrophage environment is by up - regulating the expression of genes involved in the oxidative stress response. Another mechanism involves meiosis. The majority of C. neoformans are mating "type a ''. Filaments of mating "type a '' ordinarily have haploid nuclei, but they can become diploid (perhaps by endoduplication or by stimulated nuclear fusion) to form blastospores. The diploid nuclei of blastospores can undergo meiosis, including recombination, to form haploid basidiospores that can be dispersed. This process is referred to as monokaryotic fruiting. this process requires a gene called DMC1, which is a conserved homologue of genes recA in bacteria and RAD51 in eukaryotes, that mediates homologous chromosome pairing during meiosis and repair of DNA double - strand breaks. Thus, C. neoformans can undergo a meiosis, monokaryotic fruiting, that promotes recombinational repair in the oxidative, DNA damaging environment of the host macrophage, and the repair capability may contribute to its virulence.
The human use of fungi for food preparation or preservation and other purposes is extensive and has a long history. Mushroom farming and mushroom gathering are large industries in many countries. The study of the historical uses and sociological impact of fungi is known as ethnomycology. Because of the capacity of this group to produce an enormous range of natural products with antimicrobial or other biological activities, many species have long been used or are being developed for industrial production of antibiotics, vitamins, and anti-cancer and cholesterol - lowering drugs. More recently, methods have been developed for genetic engineering of fungi, enabling metabolic engineering of fungal species. For example, genetic modification of yeast species -- which are easy to grow at fast rates in large fermentation vessels -- has opened up ways of pharmaceutical production that are potentially more efficient than production by the original source organisms.
Many species produce metabolites that are major sources of pharmacologically active drugs. Particularly important are the antibiotics, including the penicillins, a structurally related group of β - lactam antibiotics that are synthesized from small peptides. Although naturally occurring penicillins such as penicillin G (produced by Penicillium chrysogenum) have a relatively narrow spectrum of biological activity, a wide range of other penicillins can be produced by chemical modification of the natural penicillins. Modern penicillins are semisynthetic compounds, obtained initially from fermentation cultures, but then structurally altered for specific desirable properties. Other antibiotics produced by fungi include: ciclosporin, commonly used as an immunosuppressant during transplant surgery; and fusidic acid, used to help control infection from methicillin - resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. Widespread use of antibiotics for the treatment of bacterial diseases, such as tuberculosis, syphilis, leprosy, and others began in the early 20th century and continues to date. In nature, antibiotics of fungal or bacterial origin appear to play a dual role: at high concentrations they act as chemical defense against competition with other microorganisms in species - rich environments, such as the rhizosphere, and at low concentrations as quorum - sensing molecules for intra - or interspecies signaling. Other drugs produced by fungi include griseofulvin isolated from Penicillium griseofulvum, used to treat fungal infections, and statins (HMG - CoA reductase inhibitors), used to inhibit cholesterol synthesis. Examples of statins found in fungi include mevastatin from Penicillium citrinum and lovastatin from Aspergillus terreus and the oyster mushroom.
Certain mushrooms enjoy usage as therapeutics in folk medicines, such as Traditional Chinese medicine. Notable medicinal mushrooms with a well - documented history of use include Agaricus subrufescens, Ganoderma lucidum, and Ophiocordyceps sinensis. Research has identified compounds produced by these and other fungi that have inhibitory biological effects against viruses and cancer cells. Specific metabolites, such as polysaccharide - K, ergotamine, and β - lactam antibiotics, are routinely used in clinical medicine. The shiitake mushroom is a source of lentinan, a clinical drug approved for use in cancer treatments in several countries, including Japan. In Europe and Japan, polysaccharide - K (brand name Krestin), a chemical derived from Trametes versicolor, is an approved adjuvant for cancer therapy.
Baker 's yeast or Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a unicellular fungus, is used to make bread and other wheat - based products, such as pizza dough and dumplings. Yeast species of the genus Saccharomyces are also used to produce alcoholic beverages through fermentation. Shoyu koji mold (Aspergillus oryzae) is an essential ingredient in brewing Shoyu (soy sauce) and sake, and the preparation of miso, while Rhizopus species are used for making tempeh. Several of these fungi are domesticated species that were bred or selected according to their capacity to ferment food without producing harmful mycotoxins (see below), which are produced by very closely related Aspergilli. Quorn, a meat substitute, is made from Fusarium venenatum.
Edible mushrooms are well - known examples of fungi. Many are commercially raised, but others must be harvested from the wild. Agaricus bisporus, sold as button mushrooms when small or Portobello mushrooms when larger, is a commonly eaten species, used in salads, soups, and many other dishes. Many Asian fungi are commercially grown and have increased in popularity in the West. They are often available fresh in grocery stores and markets, including straw mushrooms (Volvariella volvacea), oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus), shiitakes (Lentinula edodes), and enokitake (Flammulina spp.).
There are many more mushroom species that are harvested from the wild for personal consumption or commercial sale. Milk mushrooms, morels, chanterelles, truffles, black trumpets, and porcini mushrooms (Boletus edulis) (also known as king boletes) demand a high price on the market. They are often used in gourmet dishes.
Certain types of cheeses require inoculation of milk curds with fungal species that impart a unique flavor and texture to the cheese. Examples include the blue color in cheeses such as Stilton or Roquefort, which are made by inoculation with Penicillium roqueforti. Molds used in cheese production are non-toxic and are thus safe for human consumption; however, mycotoxins (e.g., aflatoxins, roquefortine C, patulin, or others) may accumulate because of growth of other fungi during cheese ripening or storage.
Many mushroom species are poisonous to humans, with toxicities ranging from slight digestive problems or allergic reactions as well as hallucinations to severe organ failures and death. Genera with mushrooms containing deadly toxins include Conocybe, Galerina, Lepiota, and, the most infamous, Amanita. The latter genus includes the destroying angel (A. virosa) and the death cap (A. phalloides), the most common cause of deadly mushroom poisoning. The false morel (Gyromitra esculenta) is occasionally considered a delicacy when cooked, yet can be highly toxic when eaten raw. Tricholoma equestre was considered edible until it was implicated in serious poisonings causing rhabdomyolysis. Fly agaric mushrooms (Amanita muscaria) also cause occasional non-fatal poisonings, mostly as a result of ingestion for its hallucinogenic properties. Historically, fly agaric was used by different peoples in Europe and Asia and its present usage for religious or shamanic purposes is reported from some ethnic groups such as the Koryak people of north - eastern Siberia.
As it is difficult to accurately identify a safe mushroom without proper training and knowledge, it is often advised to assume that a wild mushroom is poisonous and not to consume it.
In agriculture, fungi may be useful if they actively compete for nutrients and space with pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria or other fungi via the competitive exclusion principle, or if they are parasites of these pathogens. For example, certain species may be used to eliminate or suppress the growth of harmful plant pathogens, such as insects, mites, weeds, nematodes, and other fungi that cause diseases of important crop plants. This has generated strong interest in practical applications that use these fungi in the biological control of these agricultural pests. Entomopathogenic fungi can be used as biopesticides, as they actively kill insects. Examples that have been used as biological insecticides are Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium spp, Hirsutella spp, Paecilomyces (Isaria) spp, and Lecanicillium lecanii. Endophytic fungi of grasses of the genus Neotyphodium, such as N. coenophialum, produce alkaloids that are toxic to a range of invertebrate and vertebrate herbivores. These alkaloids protect grass plants from herbivory, but several endophyte alkaloids can poison grazing animals, such as cattle and sheep. Infecting cultivars of pasture or forage grasses with Neotyphodium endophytes is one approach being used in grass breeding programs; the fungal strains are selected for producing only alkaloids that increase resistance to herbivores such as insects, while being non-toxic to livestock.
Certain fungi, in particular "white rot '' fungi, can degrade insecticides, herbicides, pentachlorophenol, creosote, coal tars, and heavy fuels and turn them into carbon dioxide, water, and basic elements. Fungi have been shown to biomineralize uranium oxides, suggesting they may have application in the bioremediation of radioactively polluted sites.
Several pivotal discoveries in biology were made by researchers using fungi as model organisms, that is, fungi that grow and sexually reproduce rapidly in the laboratory. For example, the one gene - one enzyme hypothesis was formulated by scientists using the bread mold Neurospora crassa to test their biochemical theories. Other important model fungi are Aspergillus nidulans and the yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe, each of which with a long history of use to investigate issues in eukaryotic cell biology and genetics, such as cell cycle regulation, chromatin structure, and gene regulation. Other fungal models have more recently emerged that address specific biological questions relevant to medicine, plant pathology, and industrial uses; examples include Candida albicans, a dimorphic, opportunistic human pathogen, Magnaporthe grisea, a plant pathogen, and Pichia pastoris, a yeast widely used for eukaryotic protein production.
Fungi are used extensively to produce industrial chemicals like citric, gluconic, lactic, and malic acids, and industrial enzymes, such as lipases used in biological detergents, cellulases used in making cellulosic ethanol and stonewashed jeans, and amylases, invertases, proteases and xylanases. Several species, most notably Psilocybin mushrooms (colloquially known as magic mushrooms), are ingested for their psychedelic properties, both recreationally and religiously.
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which of the following is not a part of the pick 'n stick process | Pick - up sticks - wikipedia
Pick - up sticks or pick - a-stick is a game of physical and mental skill in which a bundle of "sticks '', between 8 and 20 centimeters long, are dropped as a loose bunch onto a table top, jumbling into a random pile. Each player in turn tries to remove a stick from the pile without disturbing any of the others. The game is known by several names including jackstraws (or jack straws), spellicans, and spillikins, and appears in a line of a nursery rhyme: "... five, six, pick - up sticks! ''
The sticks may be made of almost any material, such as ivory, bone, wood, bamboo, straw, reed, rush, yarrow, or plastics. Some Haida First Nation pick - up sticks are plain maple wood decorated with abalone shell and copper.
Today, the most common pick - up sticks game is Mikado. It remains difficult in all variations.
The object of the game is to pick up the most sticks.
To begin the game, a bundle of sticks is randomly distributed so that they end up in a tangled pile. The more tangled the resulting disarray, the more challenging the game. In some versions of the game, any isolated sticks, or sticks lying alone, are removed.
The players attempt to remove a single stick, without moving any other stick. In some versions of the game, players use a tool to move the stick away from the pile; this "tool '' may be one of the sticks, held aside before the game begins. In other versions, players must pick up the sticks by hand. In either case, players must not move any other things while attempting to remove the said stick; if any other stick moves, his turn ends immediately and he loses a turn. Players who successfully pick up a stick can then have another turn; the player keeps removing sticks until he causes a secondary stick to move.
In some versions of the game, different - coloured sticks are worth different numbers of points, and the winner is the person with the highest score.
The pieces in a jackstraw set are often thematically related to farmyard tools, such as ladders, rakes, shovels, and hoes. There are typically around 45 pieces in a set and made of wood, plastic, bone, or ivory. In addition to the jackstraws themselves, the game typically includes a helper piece with a hooked edge to help people grasp and manipulate pieces. Each piece in the game also has a point value, with more challenging pieces being worth more points at the end of the game.
Players try to win points by removing jackstraws -- in the shapes of various tools -- from the pile, one at a time.
At the end of the game, players total the point values of their jackstraws. The players with the most points wins.
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what is the name of the time zone for london | Time in the United Kingdom - wikipedia
The United Kingdom uses Greenwich Mean Time or Western European Time (UTC) and British Summer Time or Western European Summer Time (UTC + 01: 00).
Until the advent of the railways, the United Kingdom used Local Mean Time. Greenwich Mean Time was adopted first by the Great Western Railway in 1840 and a few others followed suit in the following years. In 1847 it was adopted by the Railway Clearing House, and by almost all railway companies by the following year. It was from this initiative that the term "railway time '' was derived.
It was gradually adopted for other purposes, but a legal case in 1858 held "local mean time '' to be the official time. On 14 May 1880, a letter signed by ' Clerk to Justices ' appeared in ' The Times ', stating that ' Greenwich time is now kept almost throughout England, but it appears that Greenwich time is not legal time. This was changed later in 1880, when Greenwich Mean Time was legally adopted throughout the island of Great Britain under the Statutes (Definition of Time) Act 1880 (43 & 44 Vict.). GMT was adopted on the Isle of Man in 1883, Jersey in 1898 and Guernsey in 1913. Ireland adopted GMT in 1916, supplanting Dublin Mean Time.
Daylight saving time was introduced by the Summer Time Act 1916 (6 & 7 Geo. V), which was implemented in 1916 as GMT plus one hour and Dublin Mean Time plus one hour. The length of DST could be extended by Order in Council, and was extended for the duration of World War I. For 1916, DST extended from 21 May to 1 October, with transitions at 02: 00 standard time. On 1 October 1916, Greenwich Mean Time was introduced to Ireland.
At the beginning of the 20th century, Sandringham Time (UTC + 00: 30) was used by the royal household. This practice was halted by King Edward VIII, in an effort to reduce confusions over time.
The dates of British Summer Time are the subject of the Summer Time Act 1972. From 1972 to 1980, the day following the 3rd Saturday in March was the start of British Summer Time (unless that day was Easter Sunday, in which case BST began a week earlier), with the day following the 4th Sunday in October being the end of British Summer Time. From 1981 to 2001, the dates were set in line with various European Directives. Since 2002 the Act has specified the last Sunday in March as the start of British Summer Time with the last Sunday in October being end of British Summer Time.
The United Kingdom experimentally adopted Central European Time by maintaining Summer Time throughout the year from 1968 to 1971. In a House of Lords debate, Richard Butler, 17th Viscount Mountgarret said that the change was welcomed at the time, but the experiment was eventually halted after a debate in 1971, in which the outcome might have been influenced by a major accident on the morning of the debate.
Proposals to adopt CET have been raised by various politicians over the years, including a proposal in 2011 to conduct an analysis of the costs and benefits.
Authority over the time zone in Northern Ireland is devolved to the Northern Ireland Assembly but the power has never been used. In Scotland and Wales, time zone is a reserved matter, meaning that only the Parliament of the United Kingdom has power to legislate.
The IANA time zone database contains one zone for the United Kingdom in the file zone. tab, named Europe / London. This refers to the area having the ISO 3166 - 1 alpha - 2 country code "GB ''. The zone names Europe / Guernsey, Europe / Isle_of_Man and Europe / Jersey exist because they have their own ISO 3166 - 1 alpha - 2 but the zone. tab entries are links to Europe / London. There are several entries for UK possessions around the world.
Data directly from zone. tab of the IANA time zone database. Columns marked with * are the columns from zone. tab itself.
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the supply in glower is ac or dc | Growler (electrical device) - wikipedia
A growler is an electrical device used for testing insulation of a motor for shorted coils. A growler consists of a coil of wire wrapped around an iron core and connected to a source of AC current. When placed on the armature or stator core of a motor the growler acts as the primary of a transformer and the armature coils act as the secondary. A "feeler '', a thin strip of steel (hacksaw blade) can be used as the short detector.
The alternating magnetic flux set up by the growler passes through the windings of the armature coil, generating an alternating voltage in the coil. A short in the coil creates a closed circuit that will act like the secondary coil of a transformer, with the growler acting like the primary coil. This will induce an alternating current in the shorted armature that will in turn cause an alternating magnetic field to encircle the shorted armature coil. A flat, broad, flexible piece of metal containing iron is used to detect the magnetic field generated by a shorted armature. A hacksaw blade is commonly used as a feeler. The alternating magnetic field induced by a shorted armature is strong at the surface of the armature, and when the feeler is lightly touched to the iron core of an armature winding, small currents are induced in the feeler that generate a third alternating magnetic field surrounding the feeler.
With the growler energized, the feeler is moved from slot to slot. When the feeler is moved over a slot containing the shorted coil, the alternating magnetic field will alternately attract and release the feeler, causing it to vibrate in synch with the alternating current. A strong vibration of the feeler accompanied by a growling noise indicated that the coil is shorted.
Along with the standard application the growler can be used:
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who were the members of the animals band | The Animals - wikipedia
The Animals are an English rhythm and blues and rock band, formed in Newcastle upon Tyne in the early 1960s. The band moved to London upon finding fame in 1964. The Animals were known for their gritty, bluesy sound and deep - voiced frontman Eric Burdon, as exemplified by their signature song and transatlantic No. 1 hit single, "House of the Rising Sun '', as well as by hits such as "We Gotta Get Out of This Place '', "It 's My Life '', "I 'm Crying '' and "Do n't Let Me Be Misunderstood ''. The band balanced tough, rock - edged pop singles against rhythm and blues - orientated album material and were part of the British Invasion of the US.
The Animals underwent numerous personnel changes in the mid-1960s and suffered from poor business management. Under the name Eric Burdon and the Animals, the much - changed act moved to California and achieved commercial success as a psychedelic and hard rock band with hits like "San Franciscan Nights '', "When I Was Young '' and "Sky Pilot '', before disbanding at the end of the decade. Altogether, the group had ten Top Twenty hits in both the UK Singles Chart and the US Billboard Hot 100.
The original lineup of Burdon, Alan Price, Chas Chandler, Hilton Valentine and John Steel reunited for a one off benefit concert in Newcastle in 1968. They later had brief comebacks in 1975 and 1983. There have been several partial regroupings of the original era members since then under various names. The Animals were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1994.
Formed in Newcastle upon Tyne during 1962 and 1963, when Burdon joined the Alan Price Rhythm and Blues Combo, the original line - up was Eric Burdon (vocals), Alan Price (organ and keyboards), Hilton Valentine (guitar), John Steel (drums), and Bryan "Chas '' Chandler (bass).
It has often been said they were dubbed "animals '' because of their wild stage act, and the name stuck. In a 2013 interview, Eric Burdon denied this, stating it came from a gang of friends they used to hang out with, one of whom was "Animal '' Hogg and the name was intended as a kind of tribute to him. The Animals ' success in their hometown and a connection with Yardbirds manager Giorgio Gomelsky motivated them to move to London in 1964 in the immediate wake of Beatlemania and the beat boom take - over of the popular music scene, just in time to play an important role in the so - called British Invasion of the US music charts.
The Animals performed fiery versions of the staple rhythm and blues repertoire, covering songs by Jimmy Reed, John Lee Hooker, Nina Simone, and others. Signed to EMI 's Columbia label, a rocking version of the standard "Baby Let Me Follow You Down '' (retitled "Baby Let Me Take You Home '') was their first single.
It was followed in June 1964 by the transatlantic number one hit "House of the Rising Sun ''. Burdon 's howling vocals and the dramatic arrangement, featuring Alan Price 's haunting organ riffs, created arguably the first folk rock hit. There is ongoing debate regarding the Animals ' inspiration for their arrangement of the song, which has variously been ascribed to prior versions by Bob Dylan, folk singer Dave Van Ronk, blues singer Josh White (who recorded it twice in 1944 and 1949), and singer / pianist Nina Simone (who recorded it in 1962 on Nina at the Village Gate)
It has been said that the intense arrangement of the song owes much to their desire to be the most memorable band on the multi-act tours of the U.K. they were booked on in the early days. The repeating guitar riff and Burdon 's screaming vocals did seem to ensure that of all the bands a crowd might see, the Animals were the group that people could n't stop talking about and the song the one they could n't get out of their heads.
The Animals ' two - year chart career, produced by Mickie Most, featured intense, gritty pop music covers such as Sam Cooke 's "Bring It On Home To Me '' and the Nina Simone - popularised number "Do n't Let Me Be Misunderstood ''. In contrast, their album tracks stayed with rhythm and blues, with John Lee Hooker 's "Boom Boom '' and Ray Charles ' "I Believe to My Soul '' as notable examples.
In October 1964, the group was poised to make their American debut on The Ed Sullivan Show and begin a short residency performing regularly in theatres across New York City. The group arrived in New York City direct from John F. Kennedy International Airport in a motorcade formed of Sunbeam Alpine Series IV convertibles, with each car featuring a band member riding with a fashion model in the back seat and the rooftop down. The group drove to their hotel accompanied by the occasional shrieks of girls who had chased them down once they discovered who they were. The Animals sang "I 'm Crying '' and "The House of the Rising Sun '' to a packed audience of hysterical girls screaming throughout both performances on Sullivan 's show. In December, the MGM movie Get Yourself a College Girl was released with the Animals headlining with the Dave Clark Five. The Animals sang a Chuck Berry song, "Around and Around '', in the movie.
By May 1965, the group was starting to feel internal pressures. Price left due to personal and musical differences as well as fear of flying on tour. He went on to a successful career as a solo artist and with The Alan Price Set. Mick Gallagher filled in for him on keyboards for a short time until Dave Rowberry replaced him and was on hand for the hit songs "We Gotta Get out of This Place '' and "It 's My Life ''.
Around that time, the Animals put together a big band to play at the 5th Annual British Jazz & Blues Festival in Richmond. The Animals Big Band made their one public appearance on 5 August 1965. As well as Burdon, Rowberry, Valentine, Chandler, and Steel, they featured a brass / horn section of Ian Carr, Kenny Wheeler, and Greg Brown on trumpets, and Stan Robinson, Al Gay, Dick Morrissey, and Paul Carroll on saxophones.
Many of the Animals ' hits had come from Brill Building songwriters recruited by Mickie Most; the group, and Burdon in particular, felt this too creatively restrictive. As 1965 ended, the group ended its association with Most, signed a new deal with their American label MGM Records for the US and Canada, and switched to Decca Records for the rest of the world and MGM Records producer Tom Wilson, who gave them more artistic freedom. In early 1966 MGM collected their hits on The Best of the Animals; it became their best - selling album in the US. In February 1966, Steel left and was replaced by Barry Jenkins. A leftover rendition of Goffin -- King 's "Do n't Bring Me Down '' was the last hit as the Animals. For the single "See See Rider '' the band changed its name to Eric Burdon & the Animals. By September 1966, this lineup of the group had dissipated.
Burdon began work on a solo album, called Eric Is Here, which also featured Burdon 's UK number 14 solo hit single, "Help Me, Girl '', which he heavily promoted on TV shows such as Ready Steady Go! and Top of the Pops in late 1966. Eric Is Here was Burdon 's final release for Decca Records.
By this time their business affairs "were in a total shambles '' according to Chandler (who went on to manage Jimi Hendrix and produce Slade) and the group disbanded. Even by the standards of the day, when artists tended to be financially naïve, the Animals made very little money, eventually claiming mismanagement and theft on the part of their manager Michael Jeffery.
A group with Burdon, Jenkins, and new sidemen John Weider (guitar / violin / bass), Vic Briggs (guitar / piano), and Danny McCulloch (bass) were formed under the name Eric Burdon and Animals (or sometimes Eric Burdon and the New Animals) in December 1966 and changed direction. The hard driving blues was transformed into Burdon 's version of psychedelia as the former heavy drinking Geordie (who later said he could never get used to Newcastle "where the rain comes at you sideways '') relocated to California and became a spokesman for the Love Generation.
Early performances of this group did not include any of the Animals hits for which the original Animals had become known. Some of this group 's hits included "San Franciscan Nights '', "Monterey '' (a tribute to the 1967 Monterey Pop Festival), and "Sky Pilot ''. Their sound was much heavier than the original group. Burdon screamed more and louder on live versions of "Paint It Black '' and "Hey Gyp ''. In 1968, they had a more experimental sound on songs like "We Love You Lil '' and the 19 - minute record "New York 1963 - America 1968 ''. The songs had a style of being silent at the beginning and then becoming psychedelic and raw straight to the end with screaming, strange lyrics and "scrubbing '' instruments.
There were further changes to this lineup: Zoot Money was added in April 1968, initially as organist / pianist only, but upon McCulloch 's departure he also took on bass and occasional lead vocals. In July 1968, Andy Summers replaced Briggs. Both Money and Summers were formerly of British psychedelic outfit Dantalian 's Chariot, and much of this new lineup 's set was composed of Dantalian 's Chariot songs which caught Burdon 's interest. Due to Money 's multi-instrumental load, in live settings bass was played alternately by Weider and Summers. Summers was to eventually go on to great success as the guitarist for The Police.
By December 1968, these Animals had dissolved, and both their double album Love Is and the singles "Ring of Fire '' and "River Deep -- Mountain High '' were internationally released. Numerous reasons have been cited for the breakup, the most famous being an aborted Japanese tour. The tour had been scheduled for September 1968 but was delayed until November, due to difficulty obtaining visas. Only a few dates into the tour, the promoters -- who, unbeknownst to the band, were yakuza -- kidnapped the band 's manager and threatened him at gunpoint to write an IOU for $25,000 to cover losses incurred by the tour 's delay. The manager wrote out the IOU but, correctly surmising that none of his captors could read English, added a note that it was written under duress. The yakuza released him but warned that he and the band would have to leave Japan the next day or be killed. The Animals promptly fled the country, leaving all their tour equipment behind. Money and Summers both subsequently pursued solo careers (though this pursuit was swiftly aborted in Summers ' case), Weider signed up with Family, and Burdon joined forces with a Latin group from Long Beach, California, called War.
The original Animals line - up of Burdon, Price, Valentine, Chandler and Steel reunited for a benefit concert in Newcastle in December 1968 and re-formed in late 1975 to record again. Burdon later said nobody understood why they did this short reunion. They did a mini-tour in 1976 and shot a few videos of their new songs like "Lonely Avenue '' and "Please Send Me Someone to Love ''. They released the album in 1977 aptly called Before We Were So Rudely Interrupted. The album received critical praise. Burdon and Valentine also recorded some demos at that time, which were never released. On 12 December 1982, Burdon performed together with Alan Price and a complete line - up, foreshadowing later events.
All five original band members reunited again in 1983 for the album Ark and a world concert tour, supplemented by Zoot Money on keyboards, Nippy Noya on percussion, Steve Gregory on saxophone and Steve Grant on guitar. The first single "The Night '' reached # 48 at the US Pop Singles and # 34 at the Mainstream Rock Charts, also gaining success in Greece. They released a second single called "Love Is For All Time ''.
The Ark tour consisted of about one - third material from the original 1960s and two - thirds material from Ark or other songs. The latter included the songs "Heart Attack '', "No More Elmore '' (both released a year earlier by Burdon), "Oh Lucky Man '' (from the 1973 soundtrack album to O Lucky Man! by Price), "It 's Too Late '', "Tango '', and "Young Girls '' (later released on Burdon 's compilation, The Night). On 9 September, they had their first show in New York at the Mid-Hudson Civic Center, the tickets for which sold out. A Wembley Arena concert followed on 31 December (supporting The Police) which was released on the Rip it To Shreds live album in 1984 after they had disbanded again. Their concert at the Royal Oak Theatre in Royal Oak, Michigan on 29 November 1983 was released on 27 February 2008, as Last Live Show. A film about the reunion tour was shot but never released.
Chas Chandler died from an aneurysm in 1996, putting an end to any possibility of another reunion of the full original line - up.
During the 1990s and 2000s there have been several groups calling themselves Animals in part:
In 2008, an adjudicator determined that original Animals drummer John Steel owned "the Animals '' name in the UK, by virtue of a trademark registration Steel had made in relation to the name. Eric Burdon had objected to the trademark registration, arguing that Burdon personally embodied any goodwill associated with "the Animals '' name. Burdon 's argument was rejected, in part based on the fact that he had billed himself as "Eric Burdon and the Animals '' as early as 1967, thus separating the goodwill associated with his own name from that of the band. On 9 September 2013 Burdon 's appeal was allowed; he is now entitled to use the name "the Animals ''.
The original Animals were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1994, although Eric Burdon did not attend and the band did not perform. In 2003, the band 's version of "The House of the Rising Sun '' ranked No. 123 on Rolling Stone magazine 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list. Their 1965 hit single "We Gotta Get out of This Place '' was ranked No. 233 on the same list. Both songs are included in The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll.
On 15 March 2012, in a keynote speech to an audience at the South by Southwest music festival, Bruce Springsteen discussed the Animals ' influence on his music at length, stating, "To me, the Animals were a revelation. They were the first records with full - blown class consciousness that I 'd ever heard. '' He said of "We Gotta Get Out of This Place '' (written by two New York songwriters, Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil): "That 's every song I 've ever written... That 's ' Born to Run, ' ' Born in the U.S.A., ' everything I 've done for the past 40 years including all the new ones. That struck me so deep. It was the first time I felt I heard something come across the radio that mirrored my home life, my childhood. '' Saying that his album Darkness on the Edge of Town was "filled with Animals, '' Springsteen played the opening riffs to "Do n't Let Me Be Misunderstood '' and his own "Badlands '' back to back, then said, "Listen up, youngsters! This is how successful theft is accomplished! ''
Tony Banks, the keyboard player of British progressive rock band Genesis drew influence from Alan Price, whom he regarded as "(t) he first person who made me aware of the organ in a rock context ''.
Disbanded
Disbanded
Disbanded
"Do n't Let Me Be Misunderstood '' by The Animals is featured as the title of Chapter 7 in the 2015 novel "Dying in June, '' by Amy Magness.
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linkin park leave out all the rest song meaning | Leave Out All the Rest - wikipedia
"Leave Out All the Rest '' is a song by the American rock band Linkin Park, which was released as the fifth and final single from their third album Minutes to Midnight. Because of the song 's popularity of digital sales during the release week of the album, it charted in the Billboard Pop 100 for that week. On the album, the song segues into "Bleed It Out ''. The single was released on July 15, 2008.
The song 's working titles were "Fear '' and "When My Time Comes '' according to the booklet. While writing, the group went through over thirty lyrical variations before completing the album version. The song combines various synths and samples with raw guitars and drums and powerful vocals. A demo which features Mike Shinoda doing lead vocals can be heard on the Making of Minutes to Midnight documentary, as well as the Linkin Park Underground 9.0 CD where it is entitled "Fear ''. The song starts with a string sample and electric piano intro, followed by the verse. At the end of the song of the album version, a crowd can be heard which leads into "Bleed It Out '', a song that features the background sound of a crowd throughout.
In a Kerrang! review / interview of the band, and the album, vocalist Chester Bennington had this to say about the song, "We knew this was going to be a single from the very beginning, so we worked really hard on making sure it had great lyrics. I 'm singing ' Pretending someone else can come and save me from myself ' during it because it 's supposed to feel like an apology letter, as though I 'm moving on but I want people to remember the good things and not the bad things. A lot of the song is about humility. '' Mike Shinoda has also stated that Rick Rubin (producer for Minutes to Midnight) was the first to have said "This sounds like a massive single ''.
The intro to the song was featured on an English advert for the US television series Law & Order for Sky One.
It was also featured on the original motion picture soundtrack for the 2008 film Twilight. It is played during the end credits. Also, the performance from "Road to Revolution '' is available on the Twilight special edition DVD.
"Leave Out All the Rest '' was the title of a CSI episode that aired on November 6, 2008. The band made a deal with CBS to work the song into the episode. It contained several elements of the song throughout, and pieces of the verses, as well as the chorus, were played at the opening and end of the episode.
In 2011 the German action - series Alarm für Cobra 11 used a part of the song (the chorus) in an especially sad scene, it was the fifth time that a Linkin Park title was used in the series.
In an interview with MTV, Mike said that the video, directed by bandmate Joe Hahn, takes place in a futuristic, science fiction influenced setting, and depicts what the daily life of the band 's members would be like if they lived in outer space. The band lives in a rundown, artificial habitat that is making its way across the galaxy. At first, they are seen passing the time performing mundane tasks, but then gravity is lost on board the vessel, sending the members floating into what looks like the Sun or a star. The video features no performance footage, though Chester Bennington is seen singing during most of his solo scenes. The video has respectively been influenced by the British movie Sunshine, borrowing similar imagery and a similar concept. Hahn said:
We 're explorers in space, just like when we go on tour. We 're leaving our home life behind, and I guess it kind of ties into ' Leave Out All the Rest ', in that we have to leave things behind in order to do something better.
The video leaked on May 30, 2008, the same day the band released a statement on their widget at MySpace, saying that the premiere for the video would be on June 2, 2008. It featured in the top ten songs of the week on VH1.
While playing a show in Germany (München) in June 2008, Shinoda spoke with Warner Bros. Records Germany and they told him that the music video they 've made for "Leave Out All the Rest '' was not going to be released just yet due to the high success for the single "Given Up '' in Germany. He later told this to the fans at the show.
The song managed to spend one week on the Billboard Pop 100 without being officially released as a single, at # 98. The song debuted on the US Billboard Hot Modern Rock Tracks at # 35 and peaked at # 11. It is one of Linkin Park 's lowest charting songs in the UK to date, peaking at # 90, as well as on the Billboard Modern Rock chart, peaking at only # 11. "Leave Out All the Rest '' debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at # 99 and the Billboard Hot Digital Songs at # 72. The single would later peak on the Billboard Hot 100 at # 94. Despite its mediocre chart performance, the single was still certified Gold by the RIAA in 2009, and later reached Platinum in 2017.
All tracks written by Linkin Park.
All tracks written by Linkin Park.
All tracks written by Linkin Park.
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when does the new day of the dead movie come out | Coco (2017 film) - wikipedia
Coco is a 2017 American 3D computer - animated musical fantasy adventure film produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures. Based on an original idea by Lee Unkrich, it is directed by Unkrich and co-directed by Adrian Molina. The story follows a 12 - year - old boy named Miguel Rivera who is accidentally transported to the land of the dead, where he seeks the help of his deceased musician great - great - grandfather to return him to his family among the living.
The concept of the film is based on the Mexican holiday of the Day of the Dead. The film was scripted by Molina and Matthew Aldrich from a story by Unkrich, Jason Katz, Aldrich and Molina. Pixar began developing the animation in 2016; Unkrich and some of the film 's crew visited Mexico for inspiration. Composer Michael Giacchino, who had worked on prior Pixar animated features, composed the score. The film 's voice cast stars Anthony Gonzalez, Gael García Bernal, Benjamin Bratt, Alanna Ubach, Renée Victor, Ana Ofelia Murguía, and Edward James Olmos. It is the first - ever film with a nine - figure budget to feature an all - Latino cast, with a cost of $175 -- 200 million.
Coco premiered on October 20, 2017, during the Morelia International Film Festival in Morelia, Mexico. It was theatrically released in Mexico the following week, the weekend before Día de Muertos, and became the highest - grossing film of all - time in the country. It was released in the United States on November 22, 2017, and has grossed $739 million worldwide. The film received praise for its animation, vocal performances, musical score, songs, emotional story and respect to Mexican culture. It earned numerous accolades, was chosen by the National Board of Review as the best animated film of 2017, and received a BAFTA Award and an Annie Award for Best Animated Feature Film. It also won for Best Animated Feature Film and was nominated for Best Original Song ("Remember Me '') at the 75th Golden Globe Awards, as well as winning the Best Animated Feature and Best Song at the 23rd Critics ' Choice Awards. It also earned Academy Award nominations for Best Animated Feature and Best Original Song at the 90th Academy Awards.
In Santa Cecilia, Mexico, Imelda Rivera was the wife of a musician who left her and their 3 - year - old daughter Coco, to pursue a career in music. She banned music in the family and opened a shoemaking family business. Ninety - six years later, her great - great - grandson, 12 - year - old Miguel, now lives with Coco and their family. He secretly dreams of becoming a musician like Ernesto de la Cruz, a popular actor and singer of Coco 's generation. One day, Miguel inadvertently damages the photo of Coco with her parents at the center of the family ofrenda and removes it, discovering that her father (whose face is torn out) was holding Ernesto 's famous guitar.
Concluding that Ernesto is Miguel 's great - great - grandfather, Miguel leaves to enter a talent show for the Day of the Dead over his grandmother Elena 's objections. He enters Ernesto 's mausoleum and steals his guitar to use in the show, but becomes invisible to everyone in the village plaza. However, he can see and be seen by his Xoloitzcuintli dog Dante and his skeletal dead relatives who are visiting from the Land of the Dead for the holiday. Taking him there, they realize that Imelda can not visit as Miguel removed her photo from the ofrenda. Discovering that he is cursed for stealing from the dead, Miguel must return to the Land of the Living before sunrise or he will become one of the dead: to do so, he must receive a blessing from a member of his family using an Aztec marigold petal that can undo the curse placed upon him by stealing Ernesto 's guitar. Imelda offers Miguel a blessing but on the condition that he abandon his musical pursuits when he returns to the Land of the Living; Miguel refuses and attempts to seek Ernesto 's blessing.
Miguel encounters Héctor, a down - on - his - luck skeleton who once played with Ernesto and offers to help Miguel reach him. In return, Héctor asks Miguel to take his photo back to the Land of the Living so he can visit his daughter before she forgets him and he disappears completely. Héctor attempts to return Miguel to his relatives, but Miguel escapes and infiltrates Ernesto 's mansion, learning along the way that an old friendship between the two deteriorated before Héctor 's death. Ernesto welcomes Miguel as his descendant, but Héctor confronts them, imploring Miguel to take his photo. Miguel soon realizes that Ernesto murdered Héctor using a poisoned drink and stole the songs he had written, passing them off as his own to become famous. To maintain his legacy, Ernesto steals the photo and has Miguel and Héctor thrown into a cenote pit.
Miguel realizes that Héctor is his actual great - great - grandfather and that Coco is Héctor 's daughter, the only living person who still remembers him. With the help of Dante -- who turns into an alebrije -- the dead Riveras find and rescue them. Miguel reveals that Héctor 's decision to return home to her and Coco resulted in his death, and Imelda and Héctor reconcile. They infiltrate Ernesto 's sunrise concert to retrieve Héctor 's photo from Ernesto and expose his crimes. Ernesto is crushed by a falling church bell as in his previous life, but the photo falls into the water and disappears.
As the sun rises, Héctor is in danger of being forgotten by Coco and disappearing. Imelda blesses Miguel with no conditions attached so he can return to the Land of the Living, where he plays a song for Coco that Héctor wrote for her during her childhood. The song sparks her memory of Héctor and revitalizes her, and she gives Miguel the torn - out piece of the photo from the ofrenda, which shows Héctor 's face. Elena reconciles with Miguel and apologizes to him, accepting both him and music back into the family.
One year later, Miguel proudly presents the family ofrenda -- featuring a photo of the now deceased Coco and the restored photo of Héctor and Imelda -- to his new baby sister. Letters saved by Coco contain proof that Ernesto stole Héctor 's music; as a result, Ernesto 's legacy is destroyed and the public honors Héctor in his place. In the Land of the Dead, Héctor and Imelda join Coco for a visit to the living Riveras as Miguel sings and plays for his dead and living relatives.
Lee Unkrich first pitched an idea for the film in 2010, when Toy Story 3, which he also directed, was released. Initially the film was to be about an American child, learning about his Mexican heritage, while dealing with the death of his mother. Eventually the team realized that this was the wrong approach and reformed the film to focus on a Mexican child instead. Of the original version Unkrich noted that it "reflected the fact that none of us at the time were from Mexico. '' The fact that the film depicted "a real culture '' caused anxiety for Unkrich who "felt an enormous responsibility on my shoulders to do it right. ''
The Pixar team made several trips to Mexico to help define the characters and story of Coco. Unkrich said, "I 'd seen it portrayed in folk art. It was something about the juxtaposition of skeletons with bright, festive colors that captured my imagination. It has led me down a winding path of discovery. And the more I learn about (el) Día de los Muertos, the more it affects me deeply. '' The team found it difficult working with skeletal creatures, as they lacked any muscular system, and as such had to be animated differently from their human counterparts. Coco also took inspiration from Hayao Miyazaki 's anime films Spirited Away (2001) and Howl 's Moving Castle (2004) as well as the action film John Wick (2014).
On April 13, 2016, Unkrich announced that they had begun work on the animation. The film 's writer, Adrian Molina, was promoted to co-director in 2016.
Disney made a request to trademark the phrase "Día de los Muertos '' for merchandising applications. This was met with criticism from the Mexican American community in the United States. Lalo Alcaraz, a Mexican American cartoonist, drew a film poster titled "Muerto Mouse '', depicting a skeletal Godzilla - sized Mickey Mouse with the byline "It 's coming to trademark your cultura. '' More than 21,000 people signed a petition on Change.org stating that the trademark was "cultural appropriation and exploitation at its worst. '' A week later, Disney cancelled the attempt, with the official statement saying that the "trademark filing was intended to protect any title for our film and related activities. It has since been determined that the title of the film will change, and therefore we are withdrawing our trademark filing. '' In 2015, Pixar hired Alcaraz to consult on the film, joining playwright Octavio Solis and former CEO of the Mexican Heritage Corp. Marcela Davison Aviles, to form a cultural consultant group.
The film 's score was composed by Michael Giacchino. Germaine Franco, Adrian Molina, Robert Lopez, and Kristen Anderson - Lopez wrote the songs. Recording for the score began on August 14, 2017. The score was released on November 10, 2017.
All music composed by Michael Giacchino except where indicated.
Coco was released in Mexico on October 27, 2017, the weekend before Día de Muertos. The film was released in the United States on November 22, 2017, during the Thanksgiving weekend, and three weeks after Día de Muertos, and in the United Kingdom on January 19, 2018. The film was released in a crowded market, preceded by Thor: Ragnarok, Justice League and another animated film, The Star, and followed by Star Wars: The Last Jedi and another animated film, Ferdinand three weeks after Thanksgiving. It is one of the three Disney film productions being released in the November -- December corridor. It is the second Pixar offering of the year, following Cars 3, with 2017 being the second year Pixar released two films, after 2015 (with Inside Out and The Good Dinosaur). The film was accompanied in theaters by Walt Disney Animation Studios ' 21 - minute featurette Olaf 's Frozen Adventure as a limited time offering, featuring the characters from Frozen, making Coco the first musical film not to be accompanied by a Pixar short in theaters since their first film, Toy Story, in 1995.
The first teaser trailer was released on March 15, 2017, two days before Disney 's Beauty and the Beast opened worldwide. The teaser trailer introduced the basic concept of the film, while highlighting its focus on music. Scott Mendelson of Forbes praised the trailer as "a terrific old - school Pixar sell, mostly consisting of a single sequence and offering just the barest hint of what 's to come. '' The film 's themes and imagery drew comparison to another animated film that centered around Día de Muertos, The Book of Life (2014). A two - minute short film, titled Dante 's Lunch -- A Short Tail, was released online on March 29, 2017. It introduces the film 's supporting character, a Xoloitzcuintle named Dante. The short was created early in the animation process by Unkrich and his team to have a better sense of the character. The first official trailer was released on June 7, 2017, followed by a second trailer on September 13. The film was marketed extensively in Mexico, including traditional wall - painted advertising usually used for local events and never for films. A movie chain in the country held a contest for dubbing a character in the film, and another movie chain held a contest to become an interviewer for the cast and crew of the film.
The film will also have its own VR game, Pixar 's first VR development.
Coco was released on Digital HD on February 13, 2018 and on DVD, Blu - ray, and 4K Ultra HD Blu - ray on February 27, 2018, by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment.
As of February 25, 2018, Coco has grossed $208.0 million in the United States and Canada, and $531.5 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $739.5 million.
In the United States and Canada, Coco was projected to gross $55 -- 65 million from 3,987 theaters in its first five days, including around $40 million in its opening weekend. It made $2.3 million from Tuesday night previews, landing between Disney 's previous two November releases Moana ($2.6 million) and The Good Dinosaur ($1.3 million), and $13.2 million on its first day. It went on to debut to $50.8 million (including a five - day total of $72.9 million), finishing first at the box office. It was the 4th - biggest Thanksgiving opening weekend ever, behind fellow animated films Frozen, Moana and Toy Story 2. In its second weekend, the film dropped by 46 % to $27.5 million, a smaller drop than Moana, Frozen, Tangled, and The Good Dinosaur, and again topping the box office. It topped the box office once again in its third weekend, dropping by 33 % and grossing $18.5 million, a similar hold to Moana. It became the fourth film of 2017 to top the box office three times, following Split, The Fate of the Furious and The Hitman 's Bodyguard, before being overtaken by Disney 's own Star Wars: The Last Jedi and another animated film, Ferdinand, in its fourth weekend.
It fell to number six in its fifth weekend, due to competition from three new releases -- Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle, Pitch Perfect 3, and The Greatest Showman -- despite a small drop again; it grossed $2.8 million on Christmas Day. On the holiday week of December 22 -- 28, the film finished at number six with a gross of $16.3 million, which was 6 % up from the previous week, despite losing over 1,000 theaters. It finished at number six in its sixth weekend, going up 39 % and 87 %, respectively, during the three - day and four - day weekends; it grossed $2.6 million on New Year 's Day. It fell outside the top 10 in its eighth weekend (which included Martin Luther King Jr. Day), dropping 38 % and 14 % respectively, during the three - day and four - day weekends.
Coco was released in Mexico on October 27, nearly a month before its release in the United States. It grossed $9.3 million on its opening weekend, the biggest opening weekend for an original animated film and the biggest debut for an animated film outside of the summer movie season in the market. In its second weekend, it earned another $10.8 million, a 12 % increase over its first weekend, bringing its total to $28 million. It became the fastest ten - day grosser ever for an animated feature in Mexico, as well as the biggest original animated release ever in the territory. It dropped by 23 % in its third weekend, grossing $8.4 million. That brought its total to MX $792 million (US $41.4 million), making it the highest - grossing animated film and the second - highest grossing film of all time in Mexico, behind Disney 's own The Avengers, in local currency. A few days later, on November 15, it passed The Avengers to become the highest - grossing film in the market of Mexico.
In China, Coco finished number one at the weekend box office, with a three - day total of $18.2 million, making it the second - highest opening ever for a Disney or Pixar animated release in that market, behind Zootopia. After seeing increases each weekday on its first week, the film increased by 148 % on its second weekend, bringing its total to $75.6 million in the market. It dropped by 21 % in its third weekend, finishing first once again and grossing $35 million. The film fell to number three in its fourth weekend, due to competition from two new domestic releases, grossing an additional $17.1 million. Coco 's success in China came as a surprise to most box office analysts who were projecting a gross of $30 -- 40 million. By its second weekend, it had become the highest - grossing Pixar release ever in China, nearly doubling previous record - holder Finding Dory, and by its fifth weekend, it had surpassed Despicable Me 3 to become the second highest - grossing animated movie of all time in the country, behind Zootopia. As of December 25, 2017, the film 's largest markets were China ($189.2 million), Mexico ($57.8 million), France ($28.6 million), Spain ($16.8 million), Italy ($11.1) and Germany ($9.9 million).
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 97 %, based on 269 reviews, with an average rating of 8.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Coco 's rich visual pleasures are matched by a thoughtful narrative that takes a family - friendly -- and deeply affecting -- approach to questions of culture, family, life, and death. '' It was the site 's highest - rated animated film and ninth highest - rated wide release of 2017. On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 81 out of 100, based on 48 critics, indicating "universal acclaim. '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A + '' on an A+ to F scale, one of fewer than 80 films in the history of the service to receive such a score; it was also the sixth Pixar film to earn the rating, and the first since Up in 2009. It also earned a 95 % positive score, including a rare five - out - of - five stars, from comScore, along with a 76 % "definite recommend ''.
Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter said, "At every imaginative juncture, the filmmakers (the screenplay is credited to Pixar veteran Molina and Matthew Aldrich) create a richly woven tapestry of comprehensively researched storytelling, fully dimensional characters, clever touches both tender and amusingly macabre, and vivid, beautifully textured visuals. '' Robert Abele of TheWrap praised the film, saying: "If an animated movie is going to offer children a way to process death, it 's hard to envision a more spirited, touching and breezily entertaining example than Coco. '' In his review for Variety, Peter Debruge wrote, "In any case, it works: Coco 's creators clearly had the perfect ending in mind before they 'd nailed down all the other details, and though the movie drags in places, and features a few too many childish gags... the story 's sincere emotional resolution earns the sobs it 's sure to inspire. '' Debruge also described the film as "(An) effective yet hardly exceptional addition to the Pixar oeuvre. '' Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com gave the film four out of four stars, writing that "There 's a touch of Japanese master Hayao Miyazaki in the film 's matter - of - fact depiction of the dead interacting with the living, as well as its portrayal of certain creatures '' such as Dante and Pepita. He concluded his review by stating, "I had some minor quibbles about (Coco) while I was watching it, but I ca n't remember what they were. This film is a classic. ''
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone rated the film 3.5 stars out of four, calling it a "loving tribute to Mexican culture '', while praising the animation, vocal performances (particularly Gonzalez, Bernal, and Bratt), and its emotional and thematic tone and depth. The Chicago Tribune 's Michael Phillips called the film "vividly good, beautifully animated '', praising Giacchino 's musical score and the songs, as well drawing a comparison to the emotional tone of Inside Out. A.O. Scott of The New York Times praised the film as "a time - tested tune with captivating originality and flair, and with roving, playful pop - culture erudition '', and called the film 's cultural vibe "inclusive '' and "a 21st - century Disney hallmark ''. Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times found the film to be "full of life '' and deemed it "a bouncy and heart - tugging adventure '', while lauding the vocal performances as "fantastic '' and "first - rate ''. Brian Truitt of USA Today described the film as "effervescent, clever and thoughtful, '' calling it one of "Pixar 's most gorgeously animated outings '', and "the most musical Pixar film, with a host of catchy tunes ''. Stephen Whitty of the Newark Star - Ledger wrote that the backgrounds "have a vibrancy, and its atmosphere carries a warmth. And even after it 's done, both linger, just a bit -- like a perfectly struck guitar chord ''.
Coco was nominated for various awards and won a number of them, including several for Best Animated Feature. The song "Remember Me '' was particularly praised. At the 75th Golden Globe Awards, it won Best Animated Feature Film and was nominated for Best Original Song. It led the 45th Annie Awards with most nominations, garnering thirteen, among them Best Animated Feature, Outstanding Achievement for Directing in an Animated Feature Production, Outstanding Achievement for Writing in an Animated Feature Production, and Outstanding Achievement for Voice Acting in an Animated Feature Production for Gonzalez.
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most jobs in the united states are from the primary and secondary sectors of the economy | Tertiary sector of the economy - wikipedia
The tertiary sector or service sector is the third of the three economic sectors of the three - sector theory. The others are the secondary sector (approximately the same as manufacturing), and the primary sector (raw materials).
The service sector consists of the production of services instead of end products. Services (also known as "intangible goods '') include attention, advice, access, experience, discussion, and affective labor. The production of information has long been regarded as a service, but some economists now attribute it to a fourth sector, the quaternary sector.
The tertiary sector of industry involves the provision of services to other businesses as well as final consumers. Services may involve the transport, distribution and sale of goods from producer to a consumer, as may happen in wholesaling and retailing, pest control or entertainment. The goods may be transformed in the process of providing the service, as happens in the restaurant industry. However, the focus is on people interacting with people and serving the customer rather than transforming physical goods.
It is sometimes hard to define whether a given company is part of the secondary or tertiary sector. And it is not only companies that have been classified as part of that sector in some schemes; government and its services such as police or military, and non-profit organizations such as charities or research associations can also be seen as part of that sector.
In order to classify a business as a service, one can use classification systems such as the United Nations ' International Standard Industrial Classification standard, the United States ' Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) code system and its new replacement, the North American Industrial Classification System (NAICS), the Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Community (NACE) in the EU and similar systems elsewhere. These governmental classification systems have a first - level hierarchy that reflects whether the economic goods are tangible or intangible.
For purposes of finance and market research, market - based classification systems such as the Global Industry Classification Standard and the Industry Classification Benchmark are used to classify businesses that participate in the service sector. Unlike governmental classification systems, the first level of market - based classification systems divides the economy into functionally related markets or industries. The second or third level of these hierarchies then reflects whether goods or services are produced.
For the last 100 years, there has been a substantial shift from the primary and secondary sectors to the tertiary sector in industrialised countries. This shift is called tertiarisation. The tertiary sector is now the largest sector of the economy in the Western world, and is also the fastest - growing sector. In examining the growth of the service sector in the early Nineties, the globalist Kenichi Ohmae noted that:
Economies tend to follow a developmental progression that takes them from a heavy reliance on agriculture and mining, toward the development of manufacturing (e.g. automobiles, textiles, shipbuilding, steel) and finally toward a more service - based structure. The first economy to follow this path in the modern world was the United Kingdom. The speed at which other economies have made the transition to service - based (or "post-industrial '') economies has increased over time.
Historically, manufacturing tended to be more open to international trade and competition than services. However, with dramatic cost reduction and speed and reliability improvements in the transportation of people and the communication of information, the service sector now includes some of the most intensive international competition, despite residual protectionism.
Service providers face obstacles selling services that goods - sellers rarely face. Services are intangible, making it difficult for potential customers to understand what they will receive and what value it will hold for them. Indeed, some, such as consultants and providers of investment services, offer no guarantees of the value for price paid.
Since the quality of most services depends largely on the quality of the individuals providing the services, "people costs '' are usually a high fraction of service costs. Whereas a manufacturer may use technology, simplification, and other techniques to lower the cost of goods sold, the service provider often faces an unrelenting pattern of increasing costs.
Product differentiation is often difficult. For example, how does one choose one investment adviser over another, since they are often seen to provide identical services? Charging a premium for services is usually an option only for the most established firms, who charge extra based upon brand recognition.
Examples of tertiary industries may include
Below is a list of countries by service output at market exchange rates in 2016.
The twenty largest countries by tertiary output in 2016, according to the IMF and CIA World Factbook.
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when was sugar how you get so fly released | Suga Suga - Wikipedia
"Suga Suga '' is a song recorded by American rapper Baby Bash, featuring Frankie J. It was released in August 2003 as the second and final single from his album Tha Smokin ' Nephew. It is Baby Bash 's highest - charting song at number seven, on the Billboard Hot 100 and charted on many international ranking, including number one in New Zealand.
The song was written by Baby Bash, Stewart Magee, Frankie J and it samples "I 'm Gonna Love You Just a Little More Baby '' by Barry White. In turn, it was sampled in the Robin Schulz song "Sugar '' in 2015.
"Suga Suga (Reggae Remix) '' is featured in the 2005 film Be Cool.
The music video was filmed in New York City.
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where is coal found and how is it formed | Coal - Wikipedia
Coal is a combustible black or brownish - black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon, along with variable quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen. Coal is a fossil fuel that forms when dead plant matter is converted into peat, which in turn is converted into lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after that bituminous coal, and lastly anthracite. This involves biological and geological processes. The geological processes take place over millions of years.
Throughout human history, coal has been used as an energy resource, primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat, and is also used for industrial purposes, such as refining metals. Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, as well as one of the largest worldwide anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide releases. The extraction of coal, its use in energy production and its byproducts are all associated with environmental and health effects including climate change. Therefore as part of the worldwide energy transition many countries have transitioned away from coal.
China mines almost half the world 's coal followed by India with about a tenth. Australia accounts for about a third of world coal exports followed by Indonesia and Russia; while the largest importer is Japan.
The word originally took the form col in Old English, from Proto - Germanic * kula (n), which in turn is hypothesized to come from the Proto - Indo - European root * g (e) u-lo - "live coal ''. Germanic cognates include the Old Frisian kole, Middle Dutch cole, Dutch kool, Old High German chol, German Kohle and Old Norse kol, and the Irish word gual is also a cognate via the Indo - European root.
At various times in the geologic past, the Earth had dense forests in low - lying wetland areas. Due to natural processes such as flooding, these forests were buried underneath soil. As more and more soil deposited over them, they were compressed. The temperature also rose as they sank deeper and deeper. As the process continued the plant matter was protected from biodegradation and oxidation, usually by mud or acidic water. This trapped the carbon in immense peat bogs that were eventually covered and deeply buried by sediments. Under high pressure and high temperature, dead vegetation was slowly converted to coal. As coal contains mainly carbon, the conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbonization.
The wide, shallow seas of the Carboniferous Period provided ideal conditions for coal formation, although coal is known from most geological periods. The exception is the coal gap in the Permian -- Triassic extinction event, where coal is rare. Coal is known from Precambrian strata, which predate land plants -- this coal is presumed to have originated from residues of algae.
As geological processes apply pressure to dead biotic material over time, under suitable conditions, its metamorphic grade increases successively into:
The classification of coal is generally based on the content of volatiles. However, the exact classification varies between countries. According to the German classification, coal is classified as follows:
The middle six grades in the table represent a progressive transition from the English - language sub-bituminous to bituminous coal. The last class is an approximate equivalent to anthracite, but more inclusive. (US anthracite has < 6 % volatiles.)
Cannel coal (sometimes called "candle coal '') is a variety of fine - grained, high - rank coal with significant hydrogen content. It consists primarily of "exinite '' macerals, now termed "liptinite ''.
Hilt 's law is a geological observation that (within in a small area) the deeper the coal is found, the higher its rank (or grade). It applies if the thermal gradient is entirely vertical; however, metamorphism may cause lateral changes of rank, irrespective of depth.
The earliest recognized use is from the Shenyang area of China 4000 BC where Neolithic inhabitants had begun carving ornaments from black lignite. Coal from the Fushun mine in northeastern China was used to smelt copper as early as 1000 BC. Marco Polo, the Italian who traveled to China in the 13th century, described coal as "black stones... which burn like logs '', and said coal was so plentiful, people could take three hot baths a week. In Europe, the earliest reference to the use of coal as fuel is from the geological treatise On stones (Lap. 16) by the Greek scientist Theophrastus (c. 371 -- 287 BC):
Among the materials that are dug because they are useful, those known as anthrakes (coals) are made of earth, and, once set on fire, they burn like charcoal. They are found in Liguria... and in Elis as one approaches Olympia by the mountain road; and they are used by those who work in metals.
Outcrop coal was used in Britain during the Bronze Age (3000 -- 2000 BC), where it has been detected as forming part of the composition of funeral pyres. In Roman Britain, with the exception of two modern fields, "the Romans were exploiting coals in all the major coalfields in England and Wales by the end of the second century AD ''. Evidence of trade in coal (dated to about AD 200) has been found at the Roman settlement at Heronbridge, near Chester, and in the Fenlands of East Anglia, where coal from the Midlands was transported via the Car Dyke for use in drying grain. Coal cinders have been found in the hearths of villas and Roman forts, particularly in Northumberland, dated to around AD 400. In the west of England, contemporary writers described the wonder of a permanent brazier of coal on the altar of Minerva at Aquae Sulis (modern day Bath), although in fact easily accessible surface coal from what became the Somerset coalfield was in common use in quite lowly dwellings locally. Evidence of coal 's use for iron - working in the city during the Roman period has been found. In Eschweiler, Rhineland, deposits of bituminous coal were used by the Romans for the smelting of iron ore.
No evidence exists of the product being of great importance in Britain before the High Middle Ages, after about AD 1000. Mineral coal came to be referred to as "seacoal '' in the 13th century; the wharf where the material arrived in London was known as Seacoal Lane, so identified in a charter of King Henry III granted in 1253. Initially, the name was given because much coal was found on the shore, having fallen from the exposed coal seams on cliffs above or washed out of underwater coal outcrops, but by the time of Henry VIII, it was understood to derive from the way it was carried to London by sea. In 1257 -- 1259, coal from Newcastle upon Tyne was shipped to London for the smiths and lime - burners building Westminster Abbey. Seacoal Lane and Newcastle Lane, where coal was unloaded at wharves along the River Fleet, are still in existence. (See Industrial processes below for modern uses of the term.)
These easily accessible sources had largely become exhausted (or could not meet the growing demand) by the 13th century, when underground extraction by shaft mining or adits was developed. The alternative name was "pitcoal '', because it came from mines. The development of the Industrial Revolution led to the large - scale use of coal, as the steam engine took over from the water wheel. In 1700, five - sixths of the world 's coal was mined in Britain. Britain would have run out of suitable sites for watermills by the 1830s if coal had not been available as a source of energy. In 1947, there were some 750,000 miners in Britain, but by 2004, this had shrunk to some 5,000 miners working in around 20 collieries.
Coal is primarily used as a solid fuel to produce electricity and heat through combustion. Efforts around the world to reduce the use of coal have led some regions to switch to natural gas.
When coal is used for electricity generation, it is usually pulverized and then burned in a furnace with a boiler. The furnace heat converts boiler water to steam, which is then used to spin turbines which turn generators and create electricity. The thermodynamic efficiency of this process has been improved over time; some older coal - fired power stations have thermal efficiencies in the vicinity of 25 % whereas the newest supercritical and "ultra-supercritical '' steam cycle turbines, operating at temperatures over 600 ° C and pressures over 27 MPa (over 3900 psi), can achieve thermal efficiencies in excess of 45 % (LHV basis) using anthracite fuel, or around 43 % (LHV basis) even when using lower - grade lignite fuel. Further thermal efficiency improvements are also achievable by improved pre-drying (especially relevant with high - moisture fuel such as lignite or biomass) and cooling technologies.
An alternative approach of using coal for electricity generation with improved efficiency is the integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power plant. Instead of pulverizing the coal and burning it directly as fuel in the steam - generating boiler, the coal is gasified (see coal gasification) to create syngas, which is burned in a gas turbine to produce electricity (just like natural gas is burned in a turbine). Hot exhaust gases from the turbine are used to raise steam in a heat recovery steam generator which powers a supplemental steam turbine. Thermal efficiencies of current IGCC power plants range from 39 % to 42 % (HHV basis) or ≈ 42 -- 45 % (LHV basis) for bituminous coal and assuming utilization of mainstream gasification technologies (Shell, GE Gasifier, CB&I). IGCC power plants outperform conventional pulverized coal - fueled plants in terms of pollutant emissions, and allow for relatively easy carbon capture.
In 2017 38 % of the world 's electricity came from coal, the same percentage as 30 years previously. In 2016, 30 % of the United States ' electricity came from coal, down from approximately 49 % in 2008. As of 2012 in the United States, use of coal to generate electricity was declining, as plentiful supplies of natural gas obtained by hydraulic fracturing of tight shale formations became available at low prices.
In Denmark, a net electric efficiency of > 47 % has been obtained at the coal - fired Nordjyllandsværket CHP Plant and an overall plant efficiency of up to 91 % with cogeneration of electricity and district heating. The multifuel - fired Avedøreværket CHP Plant just outside Copenhagen can achieve a net electric efficiency as high as 49 %. The overall plant efficiency with cogeneration of electricity and district heating can reach as much as 94 %.
An alternative form of coal combustion is as coal - water slurry fuel (CWS), which was developed in the Soviet Union. Other ways to use coal are combined heat and power cogeneration and an MHD topping cycle.
The total known deposits recoverable by current technologies, including highly polluting, low - energy content types of coal (i.e., lignite, bituminous), is sufficient for many years. Consumption is increasing and maximal production could be reached within a few years (see world coal reserves, below). On the other hand, much may have to be left in the ground to avoid climate change.
Worldwide natural gas generated power has increased from 740 TW in 1973 to 5140 TW in 2014, generating 22 % of the worlds total electricity, less than generated with coal. In addition to generating electricity, natural gas is also popular in some countries for heating and as an automotive fuel.
The use of coal in the United Kingdom declined as a result of the development of North Sea oil and the subsequent Dash for Gas from the 1990s to 2000.
In Canada some coal power plants such as the Hearn Generating Station have stopped burning coal by switching the plant to natural gas.
In the United States, 27 gigawatts of capacity from coal - fired generators was slated to be retired from 175 US coal - fired power plants between 2012 and 2016. Natural gas showed a corresponding jump, increasing by a third over 2011. Coal 's share of US electricity generation dropped to just over 36 %. Due to emergence of shale gas, coal consumption declined from 2009. Natural gas accounted for 81 % of new power generation in the US between 2000 and 2010. Coal - fired generation puts out about twice the amount of carbon dioxide -- around a tonne for every megawatt hour generated -- than electricity generated by burning natural gas at 500kg of greenhouse gas per megawatt hour. As the fuel mix in the United States has changed to reduce coal and increase natural gas generation, carbon dioxide emissions have unexpectedly fallen. Those measured in the first quarter of 2012 were the lowest of any recorded for the first quarter of any year since 1992.
Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from coking coal (a low - ash, low - sulfur bituminous coal, also known as metallurgical coal), which is used in manufacturing steel and other iron products. Coke is made from coking coal by baking in an oven without oxygen at temperatures as high as 1,000 ° C (1,832 ° F), driving off the volatile constituents and fusing together the fixed carbon and residual ash. Metallurgical coke is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in smelting iron ore in a blast furnace. The result is pig iron, and is too rich in dissolved carbon, so it must be treated further to make steel.
Coking coal should be low in ash, sulfur, and phosphorus, so that these do not migrate to the metal. Based on the ash percentage, the coking coal can be divided into various grades. These grades are:
The coke must be strong enough to resist the weight of overburden in the blast furnace, which is why coking coal is so important in making steel using the conventional route. However, the alternative route is direct reduced iron, where any carbonaceous fuel can be used to make sponge or pelletised iron. Coke from coal is grey, hard, and porous and has a heating value of 24.8 million Btu / ton (29.6 MJ / kg). Some cokemaking processes produce valuable byproducts, including coal tar, ammonia, light oils, and coal gas.
Petroleum coke is the solid residue obtained in oil refining, which resembles coke, but contains too many impurities to be useful in metallurgical applications.
Coal gasification can be used to produce syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H) gas. Often syngas is used to fire gas turbines to produce electricity, but the versatility of syngas also allows it to be converted into transportation fuels, such as gasoline and diesel, through the Fischer - Tropsch process; alternatively, syngas can be converted into methanol, which can be blended into fuel directly or converted to gasoline via the methanol to gasoline process. Gasification combined with Fischer - Tropsch technology is currently used by the Sasol chemical company of South Africa to make motor vehicle fuels from coal and natural gas. Alternatively, the hydrogen obtained from gasification can be used for various purposes, such as powering a hydrogen economy, making ammonia, or upgrading fossil fuels.
During gasification, the coal is mixed with oxygen and steam while also being heated and pressurized. During the reaction, oxygen and water molecules oxidize the coal into carbon monoxide (CO), while also releasing hydrogen gas (H). This process has been conducted in both underground coal mines and in the production of town gas which was piped to customers to burn for illumination, heating, and cooking.
If the refiner wants to produce gasoline, the syngas is collected at this state and routed into a Fischer - Tropsch reaction. If hydrogen is the desired end - product, however, the syngas is fed into the water gas shift reaction, where more hydrogen is liberated.
Coal can also be converted into synthetic fuels equivalent to gasoline or diesel by several different direct processes (which do not intrinsically require gasification or indirect conversion). In the direct liquefaction processes, the coal is either hydrogenated or carbonized. Hydrogenation processes are the Bergius process, the SRC - I and SRC - II (Solvent Refined Coal) processes, the NUS Corporation hydrogenation process and several other single - stage and two - stage processes. In the process of low - temperature carbonization, coal is coked at temperatures between 360 and 750 ° C (680 and 1,380 ° F). These temperatures optimize the production of coal tars richer in lighter hydrocarbons than normal coal tar. The coal tar is then further processed into fuels. An overview of coal liquefaction and its future potential is available.
Coal liquefaction methods involve carbon dioxide (CO) emissions in the conversion process. If coal liquefaction is done without employing either carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies or biomass blending, the result is lifecycle greenhouse gas footprints that are generally greater than those released in the extraction and refinement of liquid fuel production from crude oil. If CCS technologies are employed, reductions of 5 -- 12 % can be achieved in Coal to Liquid (CTL) plants and up to a 75 % reduction is achievable when co-gasifying coal with commercially demonstrated levels of biomass (30 % biomass by weight) in coal / biomass - to - liquids plants. For future synthetic fuel projects, carbon dioxide sequestration is proposed to avoid releasing CO into the atmosphere. Sequestration adds to the cost of production.
Refined coal is the product of a coal - upgrading technology that removes moisture and certain pollutants from lower - rank coals such as sub-bituminous and lignite (brown) coals. It is one form of several precombustion treatments and processes for coal that alter coal 's characteristics before it is burned. The goals of precombustion coal technologies are to increase efficiency and reduce emissions when the coal is burned. Depending on the situation, precombustion technology can be used in place of or as a supplement to postcombustion technologies to control emissions from coal - fueled boilers.
Finely ground bituminous coal, known in this application as sea coal, is a constituent of foundry sand. While the molten metal is in the mould, the coal burns slowly, releasing reducing gases at pressure, and so preventing the metal from penetrating the pores of the sand. It is also contained in ' mould wash ', a paste or liquid with the same function applied to the mould before casting. Sea coal can be mixed with the clay lining (the "bod '') used for the bottom of a cupola furnace. When heated, the coal decomposes and the bod becomes slightly friable, easing the process of breaking open holes for tapping the molten metal.
Coal is an important feedstock in production of a wide range of chemical fertilizers and other chemical products. The main route to these products is coal gasification to produce syngas. Primary chemicals that are produced directly from the syngas include methanol, hydrogen and carbon monoxide, which are the chemical building blocks from which a whole spectrum of derivative chemicals are manufactured, including olefins, acetic acid, formaldehyde, ammonia, urea and others. The versatility of syngas as a precursor to primary chemicals and high - value derivative products provides the option of using relatively inexpensive coal to produce a wide range of valuable commodities.
Historically, production of chemicals from coal has been used since the 1950s and has become established in the market. According to the 2010 Worldwide Gasification Database, a survey of current and planned gasifiers, from 2004 to 2007 chemical production increased its gasification product share from 37 % to 45 %. From 2008 to 2010, 22 % of new gasifier additions were to be for chemical production.
Because the slate of chemical products that can be made via coal gasification can in general also use feedstocks derived from natural gas and petroleum, the chemical industry tends to use whatever feedstocks are most cost - effective. Therefore, interest in using coal tends to increase for higher oil and natural gas prices and during periods of high global economic growth that may strain oil and gas production. Also, production of chemicals from coal is of much higher interest in countries like South Africa, China, India and the United States where there are abundant coal resources. The abundance of coal combined with lack of natural gas resources in China is strong inducement for the coal to chemicals industry pursued there. In the United States, the best example of the industry is Eastman Chemical Company which has been successfully operating a coal - to - chemicals plant at its Kingsport, Tennessee, site since 1983. Similarly, Sasol has built and operated coal - to - chemicals facilities in South Africa.
Coal to chemical processes do require substantial quantities of water. As of 2013 much of the coal to chemical production was in the People 's Republic of China where environmental regulation and water management was weak.
China mines almost half the world 's coal followed by India with about a tenth. Australia accounts for about a third of world coal exports followed by Indonesia and Russia; while the largest importers are Japan and India.
In North America, Central Appalachian coal futures contracts are currently traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange (trading symbol QL). The trading unit is 1,550 short tons (1,410 t) per contract, and is quoted in U.S. dollars and cents per ton. Coal futures contracts provide coal producers and the electric power industry an important tool for hedging and risk management.
In addition to the NYMEX contract, the Intercontinental Exchange (ICE) has European (Rotterdam) and South African (Richards Bay) coal futures available for trading. The trading unit for these contracts is 5,000 tonnes (5,500 short tons), and are also quoted in U.S. dollars and cents per ton.
The price of coal increased from around $30.00 per short ton in 2000 to around $150.00 per short ton as of September 2008. As of October 2008, the price per short ton had declined to $111.50. Prices further declined to $71.25 as of October 2010. In early 2015, it was trading near $56 / ton.
The use of coal as fuel causes adverse health impacts and deaths.
The deadly London smog was caused primarily by the heavy use of coal. In the United States coal - fired power plants were estimated in 2004 to cause nearly 24,000 premature deaths every year, including 2,800 from lung cancer. Annual health costs in Europe from use of coal to generate electricity are € 42.8 billion, or $55 billion. Yet the disease and mortality burden of coal use today falls most heavily upon China.
Breathing in coal dust causes coalworker 's pneumoconiosis which is known colloquially as "black lung '', so - called because the coal dust literally turns the lungs black from their usual pink color. In the United States alone, it is estimated that 1,500 former employees of the coal industry die every year from the effects of breathing in coal mine dust.
Around 10 % of coal is ash, Coal ash is hazardous and toxic to human beings and other living things. Coal ash contains the radioactive elements uranium and thorium. Coal ash and other solid combustion byproducts are stored locally and escape in various ways that expose those living near coal plants to radiation and environmental toxics.
Huge amounts of coal ash and other waste is produced annually. In 2013, the US alone consumed on the order of 983 million short tonnes of coal per year. Use of coal on this scale generates hundreds of millions of tons of ash and other waste products every year. These include fly ash, bottom ash, and flue - gas desulfurization sludge, that contain mercury, uranium, thorium, arsenic, and other heavy metals, along with non-metals such as selenium.
The American Lung Association, the American Nurses ' Association, and the Physicians for Social Responsibility released a report in 2009 which details in depth the detrimental impact of the coal industry on human health, including workers in the mines and individuals living in communities near plants burning coal as a power source. This report provides medical information regarding damage to the lungs, heart, and nervous system of Americans caused by the burning of coal as fuel. It details how the air pollution caused by the plume of coal smokestack emissions is a cause of asthma, strokes, reduced intelligence, artery blockages, heart attacks, congestive heart failure, cardiac arrhythmias, mercury poisoning, arterial occlusion, and lung cancer.
More recently, the Chicago School of Public Health released a largely similar report, echoing many of the same findings.
Though coal burning has increasingly been supplanted by less - toxic natural gas use in recent years, a 2010 study by the Clean Air Task Force still estimated that "air pollution from coal - fired power plants accounts for more than 13,000 premature deaths, 20,000 heart attacks, and 1.6 million lost workdays in the U.S. each year. '' The total monetary cost of these health impacts is over $100 billion annually.
A 2017 study in the Economic Journal found that for Britain during the period 1851 -- 1860, "a one standard deviation increase in coal use raised infant mortality by 6 -- 8 % and that industrial coal use explains roughly one - third of the urban mortality penalty observed during this period. ''
Coal mining and coal fueling of power station and industrial processes can cause major environmental damage.
Water systems are affected by coal mining. For example, mining affects groundwater and water table levels and acidity. Spills of fly ash, such as the Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill, can also contaminate land and waterways, and destroy homes. Power stations that burn coal also consume large quantities of water. This can affect the flows of rivers, and has consequential impacts on other land uses.
One of the earliest known impacts of coal on the water cycle was acid rain. Approximately 75 Tg / S per year of sulfur dioxide (SO) is released from burning coal. After release, the sulfur dioxide is oxidized to gaseous H SO which scatters solar radiation, hence its increase in the atmosphere exerts a cooling effect on climate. This beneficially masks some of the warming caused by increased greenhouse gases. However, the sulfur is precipitated out of the atmosphere as acid rain in a matter of weeks, whereas carbon dioxide remains in the atmosphere for hundreds of years. Release of SO also contributes to the widespread acidification of ecosystems.
Disused coal mines can also cause issues. Subsidence can occur above tunnels, causing damage to infrastructure or cropland. Coal mining can also cause long lasting fires, and it has been estimated that thousands of coal seam fires are burning at any given time. For example, there is a coal seam fire in Germany that has been burning since 1668, and is still burning in the 21st century.
The production of coke from coal produces ammonia, coal tar, and gaseous compounds as by - products which if discharged to land, air or waterways can act as environmental pollutants. The Whyalla steelworks is one example of a coke producing facility where liquid ammonia is discharged to the marine environment.
The largest and most long term effect of coal use is the release of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that causes climate change and global warming. Coal is the largest contributor to the human - made increase of CO in the atmosphere.
In 1999, world gross carbon dioxide emissions from coal usage were 8,666 million tonnes of carbon dioxide. In 2011, world gross emissions from coal usage were 14,416 million tonnes. For every megawatt - hour generated, coal - fired electric power generation emits around a tonne of carbon dioxide, which is double the approximately 500kg of carbon dioxide released by a natural gas - fired electric plant. Because of this higher carbon efficiency of natural gas generation, as the market in the United States has changed to reduce coal and increase natural gas generation, carbon dioxide emissions may have fallen. Those measured in the first quarter of 2012 were the lowest of any recorded for the first quarter of any year since 1992. In 2013, the head of the UN climate agency advised that most of the world 's coal reserves should be left in the ground to avoid catastrophic global warming.
"Clean '' coal technology is a collection of technologies being developed to mitigate the environmental impact of coal energy generation. Those technologies are being developed to remove or reduce pollutant emissions to the atmosphere. Some of the techniques that would be used to accomplish this include chemically washing minerals and impurities from the coal, gasification (see also IGCC), improved technology for treating flue gases to remove pollutants to increasingly stringent levels and at higher efficiency, carbon capture and storage technologies to capture the carbon dioxide from the flue gas and dewatering lower rank coals (brown coals) to improve the calorific value, and thus the efficiency of the conversion into electricity. Figures from the United States Environmental Protection Agency show that these technologies have made today 's coal - based generating fleet 77 percent cleaner on the basis of regulated emissions per unit of energy produced.
Clean coal technology usually addresses atmospheric problems resulting from burning coal. Historically, the primary focus was on SO and NO, the most important gases in causation of acid rain, and particulates which cause visible air pollution and deleterious effects on human health. More recent focus has been on carbon dioxide (due to its impact on global warming) and concern over toxic species such as mercury. Concerns exist regarding the economic viability of these technologies and the timeframe of delivery, potentially high hidden economic costs in terms of social and environmental damage, and the costs and viability of disposing of removed carbon and other toxic matter.
Several different technological methods are available for the purpose of carbon capture as demanded by the clean coal concept:
The Kemper County IGCC Project, a 582 MW coal gasification - based power plant, will use pre-combustion capture of CO to capture 65 % of the CO the plant produces, which will be utilized / geologically sequestered in enhanced oil recovery operations. If the technology used at the Kemper Project is successful, it will be the United States ' first clean coal plant.
The Saskatchewan Government 's Boundary Dam Power Station Integrated Carbon Capture and Sequestration Demonstration Project will use post-combustion, amine - based scrubber technology to capture 90 % of the CO emitted by Unit 3 of the power plant; this CO will be pipelined to and utilized for enhanced oil recovery in the Weyburn oil fields. However, only about a half of this CO2 will actually be permanently stored, the remainder is released into the atmosphere during capturing, and the processing in the oil field.
An early example of a coal - based plant using (oxy - fuel) carbon - capture technology is Swedish company Vattenfall 's Schwarze Pumpe power station located in Spremberg, Germany, built by German firm Siemens, which went on - line in September 2008. The facility captures CO and acid rain producing pollutants, separates them, and compresses the CO into a liquid. Plans are to inject the CO into depleted natural gas fields or other geological formations. Vattenfall opines that this technology is considered not to be a final solution for CO reduction in the atmosphere, but provides an achievable solution in the near term while more desirable alternative solutions to power generation can be made economically practical. In 2014 research and development were discontinued due to high costs making the technology unviable.
Many countries have now transitioned away from coal some using the ideas of a "just transition '', for example to use some of the benefits of transition to provide early pensions for coal miners.
The white rot fungus Trametes versicolor can grow on and metabolize naturally occurring coal. The bacteria Diplococcus has been found to degrade coal, raising its temperature.
In the long term coal and oil could cost the world trillions of dollars. Coal alone may cost Australia billions, whereas costs to some smaller companies or cities could be on the scale of millions of dollars. The economies most damaged by coal (via climate change) may be India and the USA as they are the countries with the highest social cost of carbon.
China is the largest producer of coal in the world. It is the world 's largest energy consumer, and relies on coal to supply 69 % of its energy needs. An estimated 5 million people worked in China 's coal - mining industry in 2007.
Air pollution from coal storage and handling costs the USA almost 200 dollars for every extra ton stored, due to PM2. 5. Coal pollution costs the EU € 43 billion each year. Measures to cut air pollution have beneficial long - term economic impacts for individuals and countries.
The energy density of coal, i.e. its heating value, is roughly 24 megajoules per kilogram (approximately 6.7 kilowatt - hours per kg). For a coal power plant with a 40 % efficiency, it takes an estimated 325 kg (717 lb) of coal to power a 100 W lightbulb for one year.
As of 2006, the average efficiency of electricity - generating power stations was 31 %; in 2002, coal represented about 23 % of total global energy supply, an equivalent of 3.4 billion tonnes of coal, of which 2.8 billion tonnes were used for electricity generation.
Thousands of coal fires are burning around the world. Those burning underground can be difficult to locate and many can not be extinguished. Fires can cause the ground above to subside, their combustion gases are dangerous to life, and breaking out to the surface can initiate surface wildfires. Coal seams can be set on fire by spontaneous combustion or contact with a mine fire or surface fire. Lightning strikes are an important source of ignition. The coal continues to burn slowly back into the seam until oxygen (air) can no longer reach the flame front. A grass fire in a coal area can set dozens of coal seams on fire. Coal fires in China burn an estimated 120 million tons of coal a year, emitting 360 million metric tons of CO, amounting to 2 -- 3 % of the annual worldwide production of CO from fossil fuels. In Centralia, Pennsylvania (a borough located in the Coal Region of the United States), an exposed vein of anthracite ignited in 1962 due to a trash fire in the borough landfill, located in an abandoned anthracite strip mine pit. Attempts to extinguish the fire were unsuccessful, and it continues to burn underground to this day. The Australian Burning Mountain was originally believed to be a volcano, but the smoke and ash come from a coal fire that has been burning for some 6,000 years.
At Kuh i Malik in Yagnob Valley, Tajikistan, coal deposits have been burning for thousands of years, creating vast underground labyrinths full of unique minerals, some of them very beautiful. Local people once used this method to mine ammoniac. This place has been well - known since the time of Herodotus, but European geographers misinterpreted the Ancient Greek descriptions as the evidence of active volcanism in Turkestan (up to the 19th century, when the Russian army invaded the area).
The reddish siltstone rock that caps many ridges and buttes in the Powder River Basin in Wyoming and in western North Dakota is called porcelanite, which resembles the coal burning waste "clinker '' or volcanic "scoria ''. Clinker is rock that has been fused by the natural burning of coal. In the Powder River Basin approximately 27 to 54 billion tons of coal burned within the past three million years. Wild coal fires in the area were reported by the Lewis and Clark Expedition as well as explorers and settlers in the area.
In 2006, China was the top producer of coal with 38 % share followed by the United States and India, according to the British Geological Survey. As of 2012 coal production in the United States was falling at the rate of 7 % annually with many power plants using coal shut down or converted to natural gas; however, some of the reduced domestic demand was taken up by increased exports with five coal export terminals being proposed in the Pacific Northwest to export coal from the Powder River Basin to China and other Asian markets; however, as of 2013, environmental opposition was increasing. High - sulfur coal mined in Illinois which was unsaleable in the United States found a ready market in Asia as exports reached 13 million tons in 2012.
The 948 billion short tons of recoverable coal reserves estimated by the Energy Information Administration are equal to about 4,196 BBOE (billion barrels of oil equivalent). The amount of coal burned during 2007 was estimated at 7.075 billion short tons, or 133.179 quadrillion BTUs. This is an average of 18.8 million BTU per short ton. In terms of heat content, this is about 57,000,000 barrels (9,100,000 m) of oil equivalent per day. By comparison in 2007, natural gas provided 51,000,000 barrels (8,100,000 m) of oil equivalent per day, while oil provided 85,800,000 barrels (13,640,000 m) per day.
British Petroleum, in its 2007 report, estimated at 2006 end that there were 147 years reserves - to - production ratio based on proven coal reserves worldwide. This figure only includes reserves classified as "proven ''; exploration drilling programs by mining companies, particularly in under - explored areas, are continually providing new reserves. In many cases, companies are aware of coal deposits that have not been sufficiently drilled to qualify as "proven ''. However, some nations have n't updated their information and assume reserves remain at the same levels even with withdrawals.
Of the three fossil fuels, coal has the most widely distributed reserves; coal is mined in over 100 countries, and on all continents except Antarctica. The largest reserves are found in the United States, Russia, China, Australia and India. Note the table below.
The reserve life is an estimate based only on current production levels and proved reserves level for the countries shown, and makes no assumptions of future production or even current production trends. Countries with annual production higher than 100 million tonnes are shown. For comparison, data for the European Union is also shown. Shares are based on data expressed in tonnes oil equivalent.
Countries with annual consumption higher than 100 million tonnes are shown. For comparison, data for the European Union is also shown. Shares are based on data expressed in tonnes oil equivalent.
Countries with annual gross export higher than 10 million tonnes are shown. In terms of net export the largest exporters are still Australia (328.1 millions tonnes), Indonesia (316.2) and Russia (100.2).
Countries with annual gross import higher than 20 million tonnes are shown. In terms of net import the largest importers are still Japan (206.0 millions tonnes), China (172.4) and South Korea (125.8).
Coal is the official state mineral of Kentucky. and the official state rock of Utah; both U.S. states have a historic link to coal mining.
Some cultures hold that children who misbehave will receive only a lump of coal from Santa Claus for Christmas in their christmas stockings instead of presents.
It is also customary and considered lucky in Scotland and the North of England to give coal as a gift on New Year 's Day. This occurs as part of First - Footing and represents warmth for the year to come.
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where was movie free state of jones filmed | Free State of Jones (film) - wikipedia
Free State of Jones is a 2016 American historical period war film inspired by the life of Newton Knight and his armed revolt against the Confederacy in Jones County, Mississippi, throughout the American Civil War. Written and directed by Gary Ross, the film stars Matthew McConaughey, Gugu Mbatha - Raw, Mahershala Ali, and Keri Russell.
It was released in the United States by STXfilms on June 24, 2016. It received mixed reviews from critics and grossed only $25 million against its $50 million production budget.
The story is based on the history of Jones County, Mississippi during the Civil War and the immediately following period. The overall story follows the history of Jones County, and many of the events portrayed are true. The film is credited as being "based on the books The Free State of Jones by Victoria E. Bynum and The State of Jones by Sally Jenkins and John Stauffer ''.
After surviving the 1862 Battle of Corinth and being told of the Twenty Negro Law, Newton Knight, a poor farmer from Jones County serving as a battlefield medic in the Confederate Army, deserts and returns home to his farm and his wife, Serena, after seeing his nephew Daniel get shot and killed. While there, he befriends Rachel, an enslaved woman who has secretly learned to read.
Newton 's disenchantment with the Confederacy grows after finding out that troops were taking crops and livestock for taxes. After helping one family resist such a raid, he is pursued by Confederate agents and bitten by an attack dog. With the help of abolitionist - oriented Aunt Sally and multiple slaves, he escapes to a swamp where some runaway slaves led by Moses Washington tend to his wounds.
After the Siege of Vicksburg, many Confederates abandon their post, and many of them end up at the swamp, where Newton becomes their captain. The ex-Confederates and runaway slaves form a revolt against the Confederacy. They raid Confederate convoys and capture a piece of south - east Mississippi, organizing it as the "Free State of Jones ''. Despite getting little help from the Union, they manage to hold out until the end of the war.
Newton continues to fight racial inequality after the war. He helps free Moses ' son from an "apprenticeship '' to Rachel 's former master. After Moses is lynched while registering freedmen to vote, Newton participates in a march of voters to the polls while everyone sings John Brown 's Body.
Newton and Rachel have a son, Jason. Since they are unable to legally marry, Newton arranges to deed a parcel of land to her. The story is interspersed with the story of Newton 's great - grandson, Davis Knight, who is arrested under Mississippi 's miscegenation laws in 1948. Since he is possibly of one - eighth black descent, under Mississippi law at that time he is considered black, and therefore could not legally marry his long - time sweetheart. He is sentenced to five years in prison, but his conviction is thrown out by the Mississippi Supreme Court in 1949, rather than risk the law being declared unconstitutional.
The film was a passion project for Ross who spent ten years developing it. Ross was initially drawn to make the movie out of a desire to examine the Reconstruction era south, an era that, according to him, is poorly represented in film, with him giving Gone with the Wind and The Birth of a Nation as examples of "the last movies that did it ''. In preparation Ross did a "tremendous amount of research '', studying not only the Civil War but also the historiography of the war, the latter because he wanted "to debunk a lot of the myths '' surrounding the events. Speaking to Slash Film about the research for the film Ross remarked that "I do n't think I did anything but read for a couple of years ''
Ross finished writing the film prior to working on The Hunger Games, although he struggled to find much in way of financing: he felt that working on The Hunger Games would help him, and thusly declined to work on the sequels. Afterwards he still had trouble getting the movie made, which he attributes to the fact that "we 're in a different kind of a popcorn universe now ''.
Matthew McConaughey 's casting was announced in November 2014 with other casting announcements made in early 2015. Angelo Piazza III, Marksville, La. and Jack 's Powder Keg Company participated in the production with their cannon and black powder.
Principal photography began on February 23, and was scheduled to end on May 28. On March 9, Adam Fogelson, Chairman of STX Entertainment announced the start of the production in and around New Orleans, with the release of a first look photo. In May 2015, shooting was scheduled for Clinton, with East Feliciana Parish as a filming set. On May 25, 2015, some filming took place at Chicot State Park around Ville Platte, Louisiana.
The film was pushed back from its original release date of March 11, 2016, to May 13 and finally June 24, 2016. The first trailer was released on January 9, 2016.
Free State of Jones grossed $20.8 million in North America and $4.2 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $25 million, against a production budget of $50 million.
The film was released in the United States and Canada on June 24, 2016, alongside Independence Day: Resurgence and The Shallows and was projected to gross around $10 million in its opening weekend from 2,815 theaters. The film grossed $365,000 from its Thursday previews and $2.7 million on its first day. In its opening weekend the film grossed $7.6 million, finishing 6th at the box office behind Finding Dory ($73 million), Independence Day: Resurgence ($41 million), Central Intelligence ($18.2 million), The Shallows ($16.8 million) and The Conjuring 2 ($7.7 million).
On Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, the film has an approval rating of 46 % based on 181 reviews and an average rating of 5.4 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Free State of Jones has the noblest of intentions, but they are n't enough to make up for its stilted treatment of a fascinating real - life story. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 53 out of 100 based on reviews from 38 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A − '' on an A+ to F scale.
The New York Times selected it as a "critic 's pick '', and reviewer A.O. Scott called it "a neglected and fascinating chapter in American history '' and said it used "the tools of Hollywood spectacle to restore a measure of clarity to our understanding of the war and its aftermath. ''
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chronicle of a decline foretold has china reached the lewis turning point | Lewis turning point - Wikipedia
The Lewis turning point is a situation in economic development where surplus rural labor reaches a financial zero. This typically causes a labor shortage which leads to rising agricultural and unskilled industrial real wages until a labor surplus is reached again. The term is named after economist W. Arthur Lewis. Shortly after the Lewis point, an economy requires balanced growth policies. Piazza argues that a fast - growing economy that reaches the Lewis point can experience financial turmoil and a persistent decrease in growth prospects.
Typically, reaching the Lewis turning point causes an increase in the wage bill and the functional distribution favoring labor. However, in some cases such as in Japan from 1870 to 1920, agricultural labor productivity increased significantly and produced a labor surplus, dampening the rise in real wages.
According to a study by Zhang and Yang, China reached the Lewis point in 2010; cheap labor in the country has rapidly decreased and real agricultural wages have substantially increased. Despite its large population, in the early 2010s China faced labor shortages, and real wages nearly doubled since 2003. Such rapid rise in wages for unskilled work is a key indicator of reaching the Lewis point. However, other journals such as the China Economic Review claim that China has not reached the Lewis point, comparing the effect of the Lewis point in China to the Japanese experience. A 2013 working paper by the International Monetary Fund predicts the Lewis point in China to "emerge between 2020 and 2025. ''
In their book Tshilidzi Marwala and Evan Hurwitz used Arthur Lewis theory to understand the transition of the economy into the fourth industrial revolution where much of the production in the economy is automated by artificially intelligent machines. In this regard, they identified an equilibrium point, i.e. Lewis turning point, where automating human labor does not result in additional economic benefit.
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list of songs in the movie mamma mia | Mamma Mia! The movie Soundtrack - wikipedia
Mamma Mia! The Movie Soundtrack is the soundtrack album for the 2008 jukebox musical film Mamma Mia!, based on the stage musical of the same name. Released on July 8, 2008 by Decca and Polydor Records in the United States and internationally, respectively, it features performances by the film 's cast including Meryl Streep, Amanda Seyfried, Pierce Brosnan, Dominic Cooper, Stellan Skarsgård, Colin Firth, Julie Walters, Christine Baranski, Ashley Lilley, and Rachel McDowall. The recording was produced by Benny Andersson who along with Björn Ulvaeus had produced the original ABBA recordings. Additionally, many of the musicians from the original ABBA recordings participated in making the soundtrack album. In keeping with the setting, the musical arrangements featured the use of traditional Greek instruments, most noticeably the bouzouki. The deluxe edition of the soundtrack album was released on November 25, 2008.
The album was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Compilation Soundtrack Album for Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media.
The Deluxe Edition of the soundtrack features the original soundtrack (with no new songs) and a bonus DVD that features a "Behind the Music '' special that shows some of the recording process for the movie, as well as a music video for "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight) '' featuring Amanda Seyfried. The booklet for the deluxe edition is different from the original, containing all the lyrics, an article written by Musical Director Martin Lowe, taping location info, and additional photos from the movie.
In 2017, a limited run of the soundtrack was released onto vinyl in the US, and was sold exclusively by Barnes & Noble. As part of ' Vinyl Week ', in March 2018, HMV released an exclusive limited edition of the soundtrack on picture discs. With only 1000 produced, 2 vinyls are included which contain high quality images on both sides.
The album peaked at # 1 in the USA on the Billboard 200 albums chart in August 2008. It was certified Platinum by the RIAA on August 18, 2008, and has sold 1,694,000 copies in the United States as of July 2014. Worldwide, the soundtrack has sold over 5 million copies to date, spending a total of 2 weeks at # 1 on the world charts.
While the album was originally ineligible for the Official UK Albums Chart, it peaked atop the Official Soundtrack Albums Chart for 15 consecutive weeks and was outselling the top 10 albums in the UK Albums Chart. Following the release of Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again, the album entered the UK chart for the first time, peaking at number 5 on the chart. In New Zealand, the album debuted at number 8 on July 14, 2008, and climbed to number one the following week. In Greece, it peaked at number one on the international chart and number 1 on the main albums chart for many weeks. In Australia, the album reached # 1 in its second week on the ARIA Albums Chart, knocking off the highly successful Coldplay album Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends. In Austria, peaked at No. 1 for 6 weeks and returned to the top 10, at No. 8, 10 years after its release due to the release of the sequel Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again.
"Honey, Honey '' has also charted at # 16 on the Norwegian Singles Chart and # 50 on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart, due to high download sales. Other tracks selling well enough to chart in Australia include "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight) '' (# 70), "Lay All Your Love on Me '' (# 85), "Dancing Queen '' (# 96) and "Mamma Mia '' (# 98).
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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which one is the most common cause of sunburn | Sunburn - wikipedia
Sunburn is a form of radiation burn that affects living tissue, such as skin, that results from an overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, commonly from the sun. Common symptoms in humans and other animals include red or reddish skin that is hot to the touch, pain, general fatigue, and mild dizziness. An excess of UV radiation can be life - threatening in extreme cases. Excessive UV radiation is the leading cause of primarily non-malignant skin tumors.
Sunburn is an inflammatory response in the skin triggered by direct DNA damage by UV radiation. When the skin cells ' DNA is overly damaged by UV radiation, type I cell - death is triggered and the skin is replaced.
Sun protective measures including sunscreen and sun protective clothing is widely accepted to prevent sunburn and some types of skin cancer. Special populations including children are especially susceptible to sunburn and protective measures should be used.
Typically, there is initial redness (erythema), followed by varying degrees of pain, proportional in severity to both the duration and intensity of exposure.
Other symptoms can include blistering, swelling (edema), pruritus (itching), peeling skin, rash, nausea, fever, chills, and fainting (syncope). Also, a small amount of heat is given off from the burn, caused by the concentration of blood in the healing process, giving a warm feeling to the affected area. Sunburns may be classified as superficial, or partial thickness burns. Blistering is a sign of second degree sunburn.
Minor sunburns typically cause nothing more than slight redness and tenderness to the affected areas. In more serious cases, blistering can occur. Extreme sunburns can be painful to the point of debilitation and may require hospital care.
Sunburn can occur in less than 15 minutes, and in seconds when exposed to non-shielded welding arcs or other sources of intense ultraviolet light. Nevertheless, the inflicted harm is often not immediately obvious.
After the exposure, skin may turn red in as little as 30 minutes but most often takes 2 to 6 hours. Pain is usually most extreme 6 to 48 hours after exposure. The burn continues to develop for 1 to 3 days, occasionally followed by peeling skin in 3 to 8 days. Some peeling and itching may continue for several weeks.
Ultraviolet radiation causes sunburns and increases the risk of three types of skin cancer: melanoma, basal - cell carcinoma and squamous - cell carcinoma. Of greatest concern is that the melanoma risk increases in a dose - dependent manner with the number of a person 's lifetime cumulative episodes of sunburn. It has been estimated that over 1 / 3 of melanomas in the United States and Australia could be prevented with regular sunscreen use.
Sunburn is caused by UV radiation, either from the sun or from artificial sources, such as tanning lamps, welding arcs, or ultraviolet germicidal irradiation. It is a reaction of the body to direct DNA damage from UVB light. This damage is mainly the formation of a thymine dimer. The damage is recognized by the body, which then triggers several defense mechanisms, including DNA repair to revert the damage, apoptosis and peeling to remove irreparably damaged skin cells, and increased melanin production to prevent future damage. Melanin readily absorbs UV wavelength light, acting as a photoprotectant. By preventing UV photons from disrupting chemical bonds, melanin inhibits both the direct alteration of DNA and the generation of free radicals, thus indirect DNA damage.
Sunburn causes an inflammation process, including production of prostanoids and bradykinin. These chemical compounds increase sensitivity to heat by reducing the threshold of heat receptor (TRPV1) activation from 109 ° F (43 ° C) to 85 ° F (29 ° C). The pain may be caused by overproduction of a protein called CXCL5, which activates nerve fibres.
Skin type determines the ease of sunburn. In general, people with lighter skin tone and limited capacity to develop a tan after UV radiation exposure have a greater risk of sunburn. The Fitzpatrick 's Skin phototypes classification describes the normal variations of skin responses to UV radiation. Persons with type I skin have the greatest capacity to sunburn and type VI have the least capacity to burn. However, all skin types can develop sunburn.
Fitzpatrick 's skin phototypes:
Age also affects how skin reacts to sun. Children younger than six and adults older than sixty are more sensitive to sunlight.
There are certain genetic conditions, for example xeroderma pigmentosum, that increase a person 's susceptibility to sunburn and subsequent skin cancers. These conditions involve defects in DNA repair mechanisms which in turn decreases the ability to repair DNA that has been damaged by UV radiation.
The risk of a sunburn can be increased by pharmaceutical products that sensitize users to UV radiation. Certain antibiotics, oral contraceptives, and tranquillizers have this effect.
The UV Index indicates the risk of getting a sunburn at a given time and location. Contributing factors include:
Because of variations in the intensity of UV radiation passing through the atmosphere, the risk of sunburn increases with proximity to the tropic latitudes, located between 23.5 ° north and south latitude. All else being equal (e.g., cloud cover, ozone layer, terrain, etc.), over the course of a full year, each location within the tropic or polar regions receives approximately the same amount of UV radiation. In the temperate zones between 23.5 ° and 66.5 °, UV radiation varies substantially by latitude and season. The higher the latitude, the lower the intensity of the UV rays. Intensity in the northern hemisphere is greatest during the months of May, June and July -- and in the southern hemisphere, November, December and January. On a minute - by - minute basis, the amount of UV radiation is dependent on the angle of the sun. This is easily determined by the height ratio of any object to the size of its shadow. The greatest risk is at solar noon, when shadows are at their minimum and the sun 's radiation passes most directly through the atmosphere. Regardless of one 's latitude (assuming no other variables), equal shadow lengths mean equal amounts of UV radiation.
The skin and eyes are most sensitive to damage by UV at 265 -- 275 nm wavelength, which is in the lower UVC band that is almost never encountered except from artificial sources like welding arcs. Most sunburn is caused by longer wavelengths, simply because those are more prevalent in sunlight at ground level.
In recent decades, the incidence and severity of sunburn has increased worldwide, partly because of chemical damage to the atmosphere 's ozone layer. Between the 1970s and the 2000s, average stratospheric ozone decreased by approximately 4 %, contributing an approximate 4 % increase to the average UV intensity at the earth 's surface. Ozone depletion and the seasonal "ozone hole '' have led to much larger changes in some locations, especially in the southern hemisphere.
Suntans, which naturally develop in some individuals as a protective mechanism against the sun, are viewed by most in the Western world as desirable. This has led to an overall increase in exposure to UV radiation from both the natural sun and tanning lamps. Suntans can provide a modest sun protection factor (SPF) of 3, meaning that tanned skin would tolerate up to three times the UV exposure as pale skin.
Sunburns associated with indoor tanning can be severe.
The World Health Organization, American Academy of Dermatology, and the skin cancer foundation recommend avoiding artificial UV sources such as tanning beds, and do not recommend suntans as a form of sun protection.
The differential diagnosis of sunburn includes other skin pathology induced by UV radiation including photoallergic reactions, phototoxic reactions to topical or systemic medications, and other dermatologic disorders that are aggravated by exposure to sunlight. Considerations for diagnosis include duration and intensity of UV exposure, use of topical or systemic medications, history of dermatologic disease, and nutritional status.
The most effective way to prevent sunburn is to reduce the amount of UV radiation reaching the skin. The World Health Organization, American Academy of Dermatology, and Skin Cancer Foundation recommend the following measures to prevent excessive UV exposure and skin cancer:
The strength of sunlight is published in many locations as a UV Index. Sunlight is generally strongest when the sun is close to the highest point in the sky. Due to time zones and daylight saving time, this is not necessarily at 12 noon, but often one to two hours later. Seeking shade including using umbrellas and canopies can reduce the amount of UV exposure, but does not block all UV rays. The WHO recommends following the shadow rule: "Watch your shadow -- Short shadow, seek shade! ''
Commercial preparations are available that block UV light, known as sunscreens or sunblocks. They have a sun protection factor (SPF) rating, based on the sunblock 's ability to suppress sunburn: The higher the SPF rating, the lower the amount of direct DNA damage. The stated protection factors are correct only if 2 mg of sunscreen is applied per square cm of exposed skin. This translates into about 28 mL (1 oz) to cover the whole body of an adult male, which is much more than many people use in practice. Sunscreens function as chemicals such as oxybenzone and dioxybenzone that absorb UV radiation (chemical sunscreens) or opaque materials such as zinc oxide or titanium oxide to physically block UV radiation (physical sunscreens). Chemical and mineral sunscreens vary in the wavelengths of UV radiation blocked. Broad - spectrum sunscreens contain filters that protect against UVA radiation as well as UVB. Although UVA radiation does not primarily cause sunburn, it does contribute to skin aging and an increased risk of skin cancer.
Sunscreen is effective and thus recommended for preventing melanoma and squamous cell carcinoma. There is little evidence that it is effective in preventing basal cell carcinoma. Typical use of sunscreen does not usually result in vitamin D deficiency, but extensive usage may.
Research has shown that the best sunscreen protection is achieved by application 15 to 30 minutes before exposure, followed by one reapplication 15 to 30 minutes after exposure begins. Further reapplication is necessary only after activities such as swimming, sweating, and rubbing. This varies based on the indications and protection shown on the label -- from as little as 80 minutes in water to a few hours, depending on the product selected. The American Academy of Dermatology recommends the following criteria in selecting a sunscreen:
The eyes are also sensitive to sun exposure at about the same UV wavelengths as skin; snow blindness is essentially sunburn of the cornea. Wrap - around sunglasses or the use by spectacle - wearers of glasses that block UV light reduce the harmful radiation. UV light has been implicated in the development of age - related macular degeneration, pterygium and cataract. Concentrated clusters of melanin, commonly known as freckles, are often found within the iris.
Dietary factors influence susceptibility to sunburn, recovery from sunburn, and risk of secondary complications from sunburn. Several dietary antioxidants, including essential vitamins, have been shown to have some effectiveness for protecting against sunburn and skin damage associated with ultraviolet radiation, in both human and animal studies. Supplementation with Vitamin C and Vitamin E was shown in one study to reduce the amount of sunburn after a controlled amount of UV exposure. A review of scientific literature through 2007 found that beta carotene (Vitamin A) supplementation had a protective effect against sunburn, but that the effects were only evident in the long - term, with studies of supplementation for periods less than 10 weeks in duration failing to show any effects. There is also evidence that common foods may have some protective ability against sunburn if taken for a period before the exposure.
Babies and children are particularly susceptible to UV damage which increases their risk of both melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancers later in life. Children should not sunburn at any age and protective measures can ensure their future risk of skin cancer is reduced.
The WHO recommends that artificial UV exposure including tanning beds should be avoided as no safe dose has been established. When one is exposed to any artificial source of occupational UV, special protective clothing (for example, welding helmets / shields) should be worn. Such sources can produce UVC, an extremely carcinogenic wavelength of UV which ordinarily is not present in normal sunlight, having been filtered out by the atmosphere.
The primary measure is avoiding further exposure to the sun. The best treatment for most sunburns is time. Most sunburns heal completely within a few weeks.
The American Academy of Dermatology recommends the following for treatment of sunburn:
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (such as ibuprofen or naproxen), and aspirin may decrease redness and pain. Local anesthetics such as benzocaine, however, are contraindicated. Schwellnus et al. states that topical steroids (such as hydrocortisone cream) do not help with sunburns, although the American Academy of Dermatology says they can be used on especially sore areas. While lidocaine cream is often used as a sunburn treatment, there is little evidence for the effectiveness of such use.
Home treatments that may help the discomfort include using cool and wet cloths on the sunburned areas. Applying soothing lotions that contain aloe vera to the sunburn areas was supported by one review. Others have found aloe vera to have no effect. Aloe vera has no ability to protect people from sunburns. Another treatment includes using a moisturizer that contains soy.
A sunburn draws fluid to the skin 's surface and away from the rest of the body. Drinking extra water when you are sunburned helps prevent dehydration.
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muscle soreness that appears one or two days after the injury | Delayed onset muscle soreness - wikipedia
Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) is the pain and stiffness felt in muscles several hours to days after unaccustomed or strenuous exercise.
The soreness is felt most strongly 24 to 72 hours after the exercise. It is thought to be caused by eccentric (lengthening) exercise, which causes small - scale damage (microtrauma) to the muscle fibers. After such exercise, the muscle adapts rapidly to prevent muscle damage, and thereby soreness, if the exercise is repeated.
Delayed onset muscle soreness is one symptom of exercise - induced muscle damage. The other is acute muscle soreness, which appears during and immediately after exercise.
The soreness is perceived as a dull, aching pain in the affected muscle, often combined with tenderness and stiffness. The pain is typically felt only when the muscle is stretched, contracted or put under pressure, not when it is at rest. This tenderness, a characteristic symptom of DOMS, is also referred to as "muscular mechanical hyperalgesia ''.
Although there is variance among exercises and individuals, the soreness usually increases in intensity in the first 24 hours after exercise. It peaks from 24 to 72 hours, then subsides and disappears up to seven days after exercise.
The soreness is caused by eccentric exercise, that is, exercise consisting of eccentric (lengthening) contractions of the muscle. Isometric (static) exercise causes much less soreness, and concentric (shortening) exercise causes none.
The mechanism of delayed onset muscle soreness is not completely understood, but the pain is ultimately thought to be a result of microtrauma -- mechanical damage at a very small scale -- to the muscles being exercised.
DOMS was first described in 1902 by Theodore Hough, who concluded that this kind of soreness is "fundamentally the result of ruptures within the muscle ''. According to this "muscle damage '' theory of DOMS, these ruptures are microscopic lesions at the Z - line of the muscle sarcomere. The soreness has been attributed to the increased tension force and muscle lengthening from eccentric exercise. This may cause the actin and myosin cross-bridges to separate prior to relaxation, ultimately causing greater tension on the remaining active motor units. This increases the risk of broadening, smearing, and damage to the sarcomere. When microtrauma occurs to these structures, nociceptors (pain receptors) within muscle connective tissues are stimulated and cause the sensation of pain.
Another explanation for the pain associated with DOMS is the "enzyme efflux '' theory. Following microtrauma, calcium that is normally stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum accumulates in the damaged muscles. Cellular respiration is inhibited and ATP needed to actively transport calcium back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum is also slowed. This accumulation of calcium may activate proteases and phospholipases which in turn break down and degenerate muscle protein. This causes inflammation, and in turn pain due to the accumulation of histamines, prostaglandins, and potassium.
An earlier theory posited that DOMS is connected to the build - up of lactic acid in the blood, which was thought to continue being produced following exercise. This build - up of lactic acid was thought to be a toxic metabolic waste product that caused the perception of pain at a delayed stage. This theory has been largely rejected, as concentric contractions which also produce lactic acid have been unable to cause DOMS. Additionally, lactic acid is known from multiple studies to return to normal levels within one hour of exercise, and therefore can not cause the pain that occurs much later.
Although delayed onset muscle soreness is a symptom associated with muscle damage, its magnitude does not necessarily reflect the magnitude of muscle damage.
Soreness is one of the temporary changes caused in muscles by unaccustomed eccentric exercise. Other such changes include decreased muscle strength, reduced range of motion, and muscle swelling. It has been shown, however, that these changes develop independently in time from one another and that the soreness is therefore not the cause of the reduction in muscle function.
Soreness might conceivably serve as a warning to reduce muscle activity so as to prevent further injury. However, further activity temporarily alleviates the soreness, even though it causes more pain initially. Continued use of the sore muscle also has no adverse effect on recovery from soreness and does not exacerbate muscle damage. It is therefore unlikely that soreness is in fact a warning sign not to use the affected muscle.
After performing an unaccustomed eccentric exercise and exhibiting severe soreness, the muscle rapidly adapts to reduce further damage from the same exercise. This is called the "repeated - bout effect ''.
As a result of this effect, not only is the soreness reduced, but other indicators of muscle damage, such as swelling, reduced strength and reduced range of motion, are also more quickly recovered from. The effect is mostly, but not wholly, specific to the exercised muscle: experiments have shown that some of the protective effect is also conferred on other muscles.
The magnitude of the effect is subject to many variations, depending for instance on the time between bouts, the number and length of eccentric contractions and the exercise mode. It also varies between people and between indicators of muscle damage. Generally, though, the protective effect lasts for at least several weeks. It seems to gradually decrease as time between bouts increases, and is undetectable after about one year.
The first bout does not need to be as intense as the subsequent bouts in order to confer at least some protection against soreness. For instance, eccentric exercise performed at 40 % of maximal strength has been shown to confer a protection of 20 to 60 % from muscle damage incurred by a 100 % strength exercise two to three weeks later. Also, the repeated - bout effect appears even after a relatively small number of contractions, possibly as few as two. In one study, a first bout of 10, 20 or 50 contractions provided equal protection for a second bout of 50 contractions three weeks later.
The reason for the protective effect is not yet understood. A number of possible mechanisms, which may complement one another, have been proposed. These include neural adaptations (improved use and control of the muscle by the nervous system), mechanical adaptations (increased muscle stiffness or muscle support tissue), and cellular adaptations (adaptation to inflammatory response and increased protein synthesis, among others).
Delayed onset muscle soreness can be reduced or prevented by gradually increasing the intensity of a new exercise program, thereby taking advantage of the repeated - bout effect.
Soreness can theoretically be avoided by limiting exercise to concentric and isometric contractions. But eccentric contractions in some muscles are normally unavoidable during exercise, especially when muscles are fatigued. Limiting the length of eccentric muscle extensions during exercise may afford some protection against soreness, but this may also not be practical depending on the mode of exercise. A study comparing arm muscle training at different starting lengths found that training at the short length reduced muscle damage indicators by about 50 % compared to the long length, but this effect was not found in leg muscles.
Static stretching or warming up the muscles before or after exercise does not prevent soreness. Overstretching can by itself cause soreness.
The use of correctly fitted, medical - grade, graduated compression garments such as socks and calf sleeves during the workout can reduce muscle oscillation and thus some of the micro-tears that contribute to DOMS. Proper nutrition to manage electrolytes and glycogen before and after exertion has also been proposed as a way to ease soreness. Consuming more vitamin C may not prevent soreness, but oral curcumin (2.5 gram, twice daily) likely reduces it.
The soreness usually disappears within about 72 hours after appearing. If treatment is desired, any measure that increases blood flow to the muscle, such as low - intensity activity, massage, nerve mobilization, hot baths, or a sauna visit may help somewhat.
Immersion in cool or icy water, an occasionally recommended remedy, was found to be ineffective in alleviating DOMS in one 2011 study, but effective in another. There is also insufficient evidence to determine whether whole - body cryotherapy -- compared with passive rest or no whole - body cryotherapy -- reduces DOMS, or improves subjective recovery, after exercise.
Counterintuitively, continued exercise may temporarily suppress the soreness. Exercise increases pain thresholds and pain tolerance. This effect, called exercise - induced analgesia, is known to occur in endurance training (running, cycling, swimming), but little is known about whether it also occurs in resistance training. There are claims in the literature that exercising sore muscles appears to be the best way to reduce or eliminate the soreness, but this has not yet been systematically investigated.
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