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Construction is an essential part of our society. It helps create the buildings and infrastructure that we rely on every day. However, have you ever stopped to think about the impact that construction waste has on the environment? The truth is, construction waste has a surprising and significant impact on our planet. In this blog post, we will explore the environmental consequences of construction waste and discuss what can be done to mitigate its effects. What is Construction Waste? Construction waste refers to any material that is generated during construction, renovation, or demolition projects. This can include materials such as concrete, wood, metal, bricks, and more. These materials are often discarded and end up in landfills, contributing to the growing problem of waste disposal. The disposal of construction waste has several negative environmental consequences. One of the most significant impacts is the depletion of natural resources. Construction materials, such as wood and metal, require the extraction of raw materials from the earth. By discarding these materials, we are wasting valuable resources that could be reused or recycled. Another consequence of construction waste is the emission of greenhouse gases. When construction waste decomposes in landfills, it releases methane, a potent greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change. Additionally, the transportation of construction waste to landfills also contributes to carbon emissions. Fortunately, there are several sustainable solutions that can help mitigate the impact of construction waste. One approach is to prioritize waste reduction and prevention. By carefully planning construction projects and minimizing waste generation, we can reduce the amount of waste that ends up in landfills. Another solution is to promote recycling and reuse. Many construction materials, such as concrete and metal, can be recycled and used in future projects. By implementing recycling programs and encouraging the use of recycled materials, we can conserve resources and reduce the need for new materials. Furthermore, adopting sustainable building practices can also help minimize construction waste. Designing buildings with a focus on energy efficiency and using sustainable materials can reduce the environmental impact of construction projects. The Importance of Construction Waste Management Proper construction waste management is crucial for the health of our planet. By implementing sustainable practices and reducing waste generation, we can conserve resources, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and protect the environment for future generations. As individuals, we can also contribute to the solution by being mindful of our own construction waste. Whether it's a small home renovation project or a large-scale construction endeavor, every effort counts. By recycling, reusing, and responsibly disposing of construction waste, we can all make a positive impact on the environment. In conclusion, the impact of construction waste on the environment is significant and often overlooked. By understanding the consequences and implementing sustainable solutions, we can work towards a more environmentally friendly construction industry. Let's strive for a future where construction waste is minimized, resources are conserved, and our planet is protected.

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Phosphorus is one of the main three nutrients plants need to thrive. In the NPK formula, phosphorus sits squarely in the middle as the “P.” Plants simply can’t grow without it- it enables the cell division that helps create new tissue. Not only does phosphorus enable new growth, it also has an important role in how plants move and produce energy. Phosphorus – From the Roots up One of the most overlooked, but also most important nutrients for root growth is phosphorus. Without a strong root system, plants can’t take in nutrients or water. In fact, plants without a developed root system may die, or have stunted growth. From the roots up, phosphorus still helps plants grow. It’s found in nucleic acid, which allows plants to synthesize protein and replicate cells. When cells divide and replicate, new tissues are eventually formed from the addition of new cells. Ultimately, it allows plants to add more tissue where needed, and grow larger. When plants prepare to enter the reproductive phase of their lives, they need sufficient amounts of phosphorus. With enough of this key nutrient, plants struggle to produce buds that eventually turn to flowers, which produce seeds and fruit. Phosphorus deficient plants may not be able to fruit, or will produce very little fruit or seeds. Other Support Phosphorus Provides for Plants What else does this key nutrient do? As it turns out, it provides a number of crucial supports for plants. It plays a role in how parts of the entire plant receive and store energy. More than just energy transport and storage, it’s also important to photosynthesis, which is how plants produce their own energy, or food. From roots to tips, phosphorus provides support for growth, energy, and reproduction. However, there are other ways this element supports the entire plant too. Because it helps plants grow and develop, it naturally increases their resistance to issues like pests and pathogens. Weak plants struggle to grow, let alone fight off diseases. A strong, fully developed plant has a better chance of healing and surviving an infestation. How do Plants Get Phosphorus? Plants growing in soil get phosphorus from their surroundings. However, plants don’t have a very easy time getting it from the soil. Not only that, the form in which they can absorb it depends on whether the soil (or for hydroponics, nutrient solution) is more alkaline or more acidic. Ideally, with a pH range between 6.0 and 7.0, plants can take in the maximum amount of phosphorus. However, it’s available in two main chemical compositions that plants can use. The first is H2PO4-. If the soil or nutrient solution has a lower pH, this is the form available to plants. If the pH is higher, or more alkaline, plants take in the second form, HPO4-2. Naturally, this is a bigger concern for plants growing outdoors, since it’s more difficult to manage soil pH. In a hydroponic system, plants can absorb more of the nutrient, provided the pH level in the nutrient solution is properly managed. Most nutrient solutions have a 30 to 50 ppm concentration of phosphorus, although it can change depending on growth stages and needs of certain plants. Excess and Deficiency Phosphorus deficiencies often show first in the older leaves, although growers may also notice that plants exhibit generally stunted growth. Smaller, or weak roots may also signal a deficiency. Because it’s so important to the reproductive phase for plants, a deficiency also shows in plants’ inability to flower and fruit. Plants may also show reduced flowering and fruiting, or buds when they’re not getting enough phosphorus. However, one of the biggest tell-tale signs of phosphorus deficiency is the purple color on older leaves. Excesses of nutrients can also have negative effects on plants. In this case, the problem is primarily in how plants get other nutrients. A phosphorus excess often means the plant can’t take in enough manganese, zinc, or iron. As a result, plants may show signs of deficiency for these nutrients, rather than other visible signs of an excess.

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“Why was Russia so hard to govern in the 19th Century?” Russia was so hard to govern in the 19th Century due to the political situation, angry people and diverse economy. Firstly, the Tsar/ina was so out of touch with the public by the time it became possible for things to start changing in countries that even though they now had the power to make changes they wouldn’t know what needed changing by this point. This meant the relationship between the people and the Tsar/ina was so strained that it was hard to govern a country that weren’t in touch with their leader. Another leading factor was that the strained relationship and lack of support from their leader meant that the people were angry and so they did not trust their leader nor give them the support they would need to make changes for the benefit of the county. With a lack of communication on both sides and an unhappy country, it would have been very difficult to govern such a hostile environment as no members of public would have followed the laws or asks of their leader. As it was them who started the protest which turned into a revolution and also they were the ones behind the mutiny of the troops. However, the military was having many problems such as the war was going horribly wrong with many casualties, poor commanding from officers and limited military resources and equipment. The peasants were doing the fighting and the dying. So this could be a small contributing factor to the fall of the Romanov's on several different reasons. Firstly the tsar did not help the peasants personally, but instead leave the burden to the prime ministers when they cannot rule like a democracy today. * Lost terriorty in Poland & Western Russia – PG were blamed for losses just like the Tsar was when took charge. * War made finical problems – Inflation still a problem and food shortages were high. * Russia expected these things to be stored out – PG short-lived because they were full of empty promises. Promised land reform to the peasants ( made up a large amount of the population , Bolshevik priority was to keep them on their side) no action was taken * Couldn’t guarantee food supplies as because soviet controlled the railways. * Political reform also promised political reform in an attempt to stop the revolutionaries but no action was taken. In the battle of Tannenburg the loss was very drastic; 30000 men wounded or killed, 95000 captured and 500 guns. This portrays the heavy defeat that Russia and this dropped moral in the army and at home in Russia. This shows the losing of the battle created a growth in opposition against the Tsar due to the public of Russia blaming the Tsar as he commanded the troops to go to war. Peasants felt annoyed and angry and Nicholas. This strengthened the opposition against the Tsar. In my opinion Operation Rolling Thunder (ORT) was a massive failure. As the US did not meet its official aims and objectives of stopping the spread of communism to Vietnam. It caused a lot of inexperienced soldiers to lose their lives. Also having a major effect on America its self as the country battled to juggle money to afford the cost of the war. But one of the hardest battle’s for the US was to keep their own countries support. Having a war caused inflation, government spending rose from 4-30 million, taxation increased, and money became practically worthless and the price of food and fuel quadrupled. This made people angry as they could not afford supplies for themselves and their families, which made them, turn to the Tsar for help but he wasn’t seen to be doing much about the effects of war on the people at home. Furthermore, as well as not being able to The other people were middle class people, who were more educated and wealthier than the worker class, but still minor against the tsar. Nicholas II wasn’t a good ruler: he avoided important decisions, neglected the importance of the policy and suppressed any resistance. He tried to crush any fears of a revolution by entering a war and consequently uniting his country, but his war tactics weren’t glorious. Russia’s people, the ones who accepted the life for many years, started to stir up, for example workers were striking, but their actions were brutally wiped out. As long as the tsar had his army he was unconquerable. People were afraid of the domino theory. They were afraid if South Vietnam fell to communism that the rest of Southeast Asia would follow. With time the American people grew tired of the war. When Charlie was hard to find and there was no end to the war, nobody wanted to be involved anymore. Americans were so tired of the war that the feelings were reflected in the election of Johnson vs Nixon. Professor Pierce HIST 2020-501 “Regulated Influence” Without the free market enterprise the country would fail. You could see civil liberties slip away one by one. The freedoms of each and every person could be at stake. The American way of life could cease to exist. In the late 1800s times were tough, living and working was brutal, due to the conditions and the lack of safety regulations, scarce supplies of food, over population due to the vast amounts of immigrants filled the cities, money was hard to come by, because monopolies were controlling the market place, influencing consumer pricing and purchasing the “haves” could get it, while the “have not’s” had to fight for it (Doc-4). At home, there had been anti-Semitic attitudes where the natives did not want more refugees in their country. The economic conditions during the prewar period made US not to encourage the letting in, of more people as refugees (Abzug 72). As such, there were widespread sentiments that the economy could not accommodate more people. From 1939 to 1941, most attention of the people had turned towards military events of that time. Most Americans were being confronted by what was appearing as the Nazi’s unchallenged conquest of entire

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Use these tried and true active engagement strategies to strengthen motivation, increase achievement and infuse fun into any classroom: 1. Think-Pair-Share: Students partner up and take 1-2 minutes to think silently about an answer to a specific question. At the teacher’s signal, each student faces his/her partner and discuss questions together. At the signal, students share responses discussed. 2. Quick Write: Students use white boards to write a specific response for an allotted amount of time. This can be used to activate prior knowledge, provide reflection or make connections. 3. 5-10 Word Summary: In 10 words or less, students summarize key details of the lesson or specific text. 4. Ticket Out Door: Write down 1 or 2 ideas learned from the lesson on a Post-It and how it will be used in other activities. 5. Partner Teach: Students pick partners; partners take turns teaching each other 2 most important items learned from the lesson. 6. Spectrum: Place a line of masking tape on the floor. Label one end “Strongly Agree” and the other end “Strongly Disagree.” Students line up according to their opinion of the topic. Students could also write their name on a small Post-It and place accordingly on the masking tape strip. 7. Four Corners: The teacher posts questions, photos, etc. in the four corners of the room. The teacher assigns each student to a corner. Once in the assigned corner, students discuss the question or photo in the corner. Students rotate through each of the four corners, repeating the process. 8. Jigsaw: Students read different passages from the same text or selections from several texts. After reading the passage, they take on the role of an “expert” with the passage. The “experts” share the information from their specific reading with a designated group or the entire class. 9. Get One, Give One: Students write their names on the top of a piece of paper and list 3 to 5 ideas about the assigned topic. Each student will draw a line after his/her last idea to separate ideas from other classmates. Discuss responses together. 10. Talking Chips: The teacher will pose a question for the students to discuss. Each student is given a “chip.” Each student takes turns “talking” by placing his/her chip into the center of the table. The first person to talk may only talk at that time and may not speak again until all the group members have placed their “chip” in the middle. Repeat the process with the rest of the group members. 11. Fishbowl: This strategy allows students to engage in a formal discussion and experience roles both as a participant and active listener. Students must also support their opinions and responses using specific evidence from the text. Students will be placed in two circles: 1. Inner circle students will model appropriate discussion techniques. 2. Outer circle students will listen, respond and evaluate. 12. Charades: Students can act out specific vocabulary or characters from read-alouds (i.e. “gnaw” students can pretend to chew). Download our FREE Top 10 Tools for Back to School unit and our Back to School Toolbox: Routines, Procedures, and Transitions for additional active engagement strategies and much more!

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Where in the World am I?-Autumn 1 What's in our wonderful world? Curriculum Overview Key Texts for Autumn 1 Reading for pleasure is so important to us in Year 2. Each half term we focus on key texts that we enjoy as a class. We all learn to read it, create work around it and most importantly enjoy it! Each half term we support our topic with an enrichment activity. This half term we are learning about what is in our world and where our food comes from. We take the children to a local farm in Linby so show them where our local fruit and vegetables comes from. They learn about the journey of food from farm to fork.

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Colloids are mixtures of two or more substances where one substance is dispersed within another. The dispersed substance is referred to as the “dispersed phase”. The medium in which it is dispersed is known as the “dispersion medium”. [1 – 4] A colloidal solution typically consists of particles ranging in size from 1 nanometer to 1 micrometer. These particles can be solid, liquid, or gas. Unlike true solutions where solute particles are dissolved at a molecular level, colloidal particles remain suspended in the dispersion medium without settling down due to gravity, thus forming a heterogeneous mixture. Properties and Applications The properties of colloids differ from those observed in true solutions or suspensions. For instance, they often display unique optical effects, such as the Tyndall effect, when light passes through them. This phenomenon occurs because the dispersed particles scatter light rays and make them visible. Colloids find numerous applications across various industries. They are utilized in areas such as food science (e.g., emulsions), pharmaceuticals (e.g., drug delivery systems), cosmetics (e.g., creams), and even environmental engineering (e.g., wastewater treatment). [1,6] Colloids are a type of mixture, with one substance dispersed as particles in another substance. These mixtures can be classified based on the particle size and the nature of the dispersed phase. The different categories of colloids include emulsions, foams, aerosols, sols, and gels. [1,2,6] Emulsions are colloidal systems where liquid droplets are dispersed in another immiscible liquid. Foams consist of gas bubbles dispersed in a liquid or solid medium. They can be formed by mechanical agitation or trapping gas during formation. Aerosols refer to colloidal systems where solid or liquid particles are suspended in a gas medium. Sols are colloidal systems where solid particles are dispersed in a liquid medium. Due to Brownian motion, sols have smaller particle sizes that do not settle over time. Gels consist of a continuous solid network throughout a liquid medium. The gel network traps the liquid within its structure, giving it a semi-solid consistency. The table below lists a few examples of colloids. [1,3,6] |Gas Dispersion Phase |Liquid Dispersion Phase |Solid Dispersion Phase |Liquid aerosol (e.g., mist, fog, and cloud) |Solid aerosol (e.g., smoke and dust storms) |Foam (e.g., soap suds, shaving cream, and whipped cream) |Emulsion (e.g., mayonnaise, milk, and oil on water) |Sol (e.g., pigmented ink, sediment, and paint) |Solid foam (e.g., lava, pumice, and Styrofoam) |Gel (e.g., jelly, gelatin, and agar) |Solid sol (e.g., cranberry glass and ruby glass) Colloids are created through various techniques, two prominent ones being the condensation method and the dispersion method. [2,6] The condensation method initiates particle growth from smaller entities. In this method, molecules or ions in a solution gather and agglomerate, forming larger particles. For instance, the precipitation of silver chloride in a silver nitrate and sodium chloride solution exemplifies the condensation technique. The ions collide, creating tiny solid particles that settle, leaving a dispersed colloid in the solution. Similarly, in aerosols, condensation occurs when vapor condenses into small droplets, suspending in the air as mist or fog. The dispersion method fragments larger particles into smaller ones. It resembles sculpting, where larger chunks are chiseled into intricate shapes. This approach involves breaking down bulkier substances into colloidal particles. An example of the dispersion method is the creation of colloids by mechanical means, like milling or grinding. Breaking down a solid into fine particles and dispersing them in a liquid medium exemplifies this method. Another way to form colloids is by electrical means, like the dispersal of droplets in an emulsion by applying an electric field.

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Sustainability can be defined through the 3 pillars approach: People & Society All 3 must be considered for sustainability to be achieved. Sustainability has been broadly applied to characterise improvements in areas like: - Natural resource overexploitation - Energy use and Pollution - Consumption on products - The direction of investments - Our lifestyles - Consumer purchasing behaviours - Technological developments - Business/institutional changes The definition of sustainable development is: Meeting the needs of the present without compromising hr ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Being able to meet our needs today while ensuring that what we leave behind for future generations is sustainable, for people and the planet. Each business should have sustainable development goals and they could include: - No poverty - Zero hunger - Good health and wellbeing - Quality education - Gender equality - Clean water and sanitation - Affordable and clean energy - Decent and economic growth - Industry, innovation, and infrastructure - Reduced inequalities - Sustainable cities and communities - Responsible consumption and production - Climate action - Life below water - Life on land - Peace, justice, and strong institutions. - Partnerships for the goals We have many global risks, and they include infectious diseases, climate action failure, weapons of mass destruction, biodiversity loss, natural resource crises, war, human environmental damage and livelihood crisis. Key mega trends relate to a wider variety of large scale environmental, social and economic changes, varying across the globe. Trends such as climate change, population change, terrorism, big data, immigration etc. Al affect all of society, however, some trends are directly related to the status of the economic development such as big data and cybersecurity. - Increasing prosperity - Increase impact and risk from climate and biodiversity crisis. Currently the global human population is growing at 113% per year, which results in an average population increase of 80 million per year. Globalisation has resulted in the growth of middle classes, resulting in improved quality of life, a lot The global middle classes are estimated to grown from 2 billion to 4.5 billion by 2030. With an estimated population of more than 8 billion by 2030, we will need 50% more energy, 40% more water and 34% more food. Many of the resources we use are non-renewable or finite e.g., fossil fuels. Research suggests that reserves of oil; and gas will have diminished by 2042. One solution to scarcity is the recycling and recovery of materials. Electrical and electronic items contain a variety of metals which are valuable and finite including tin, copper and rare earth elements. The number of electrical items globally is expanding rapidly due to economic growth plus many of them from computers to refrigerators. Global warming and the climate crisis Climate change is a complex science and causes much confusion. The greenhouse effect – is the heating of the surface of the earth due to the presence of an atmosphere containing greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, water vapour, methane, nitrous oxide, and radiation. Human activity is exacerbating the effect, causing global warning by increasing the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Global warming – is the process by which the average surface temperature of the earth increases. This is caused by an increase in th4 amount of greenhouses gases in our atmosphere. Climate change – is a change in the long-term distribution and severity of weather pattens caused by changes in global temperature lot of the worlds waste is subject to export to locations where these controls are not in place and recycling processes cause contamination of soil and water with heavy metals. What is biodiversity? Biodiversity refers to the variety of life. Biological diversity means of variability among living organisms for more sources, including interalia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and ecological complexes of which they are a part. This includes diversity within species between species and of the ecosystems. Are three principal types of biodiversity, all of which are vital for human and the natural environment. What is an ecosystem? The interactions between plants, animals and the environment in which they co-exist and fundamental to human existence. The balance of species in an ecosystem depends on the natural features of the environment’s such as the nutrient status, climatic conditions, water, and light, as well as the relationship with other organism including predators and agents of disease. Types of pollution There are so many types of pollution that can affect us and our businesses, I have listed a few here. I will cover this topic in more detail in a future blog. - Air pollution - water pollution - noise pollution - odour pollution - chemical pollution Controls on pollution - Management and technical controls ISO 14001 is one of the environmental management systems that is available for measuring and improving your environmental performance.

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Dragons are among the most popular mythological creatures in the world, most especially in Chinese culture. Although the origins of the dragons is unclear, stories of huge flying serpents were described as early as the time of the ancient Greeks and Sumerians. This went on for centuries and across different cultures with each culture developing its own description of the mythical creature and creating its own tales and legends. The Asian dragon, specifically the Chinese dragon, has a long serpentine body, deer-like antlers, the head of a camel, and claws of an eagle. ‘The Gods of the dragon’ Compared to other ancient cultures, dragons were the most revered in Chinese culture. Until today, they are seen as very powerful creatures, even being associated with life-giving water and the Emperor of China. As dragons are considered a symbol of imperial power throughout Chinese history, people who offer admiration to their emperors believed that they came from a dragon. This belief stems from the legend of a tribal leader named, Yandi, who was born from his mother’s telepathic connection with a mighty dragon, leading to the start of Chinese civilization. Even the ancient Chinese referred to themselves as “the gods of the dragon” since the Chinese dragon represents evolution from the ancestors and qi energy. Dragons have long been embedded in Chinese culture. It can be dated back to the discovery of a dragon statue from the fifth millennium BC from the Yangshao culture in Henan, as well as jade badges of rank in coiled form from the Hongshan culture circa 4700–2900 BC. Excavating dragon bones and more Surprisingly, the ancient Chinese have referred to unearthed dinosaur bones as dragon bones and even documented them as such. The modern Chinese term for dinosaur is written as 恐龍; 恐龙; kǒnglóng (‘terror dragon’), and villagers in central China have long unearthed fossilized “dragon bones” for use in traditional medicine, a practice that continues today. Throughout folklore and Chinese mythology, dragons have taken on a significant role. Some believe they originated from the snake or the Goddess Nüwa who has a human torso and snake tail. Through these tales, they are depicted as having an unlimited range of supernatural power — from possessing the ability to disguise themselves as tiny silkworms to powerful deities of the sea and sky. As they have been strongly associated with water and weather for centuries, ancient Chinese people believed that dragons were the rulers of moving bodies of water, such as oceans, rivers, waterfalls and lakes. This encouraged them to make offerings to the mythological beings in times of drought as it was believed to bring rain. The dragon has always been a significant symbol in the Chinese culture, continuing to influence generations to come — from the dragon symbol being proudly worn on the robes of emperors to being depicted in precious materials like gold jewelry and jade figurines. Dragons have also been used as a mascot in festive celebrations and dance performances within the Chinese culture. What’s more, they have also been featured in numerous literature and various art forms.

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On September 19, Arctic sea ice reached its 2010 minimum, at 4.60 million square kilometers (1.78 million square miles). The National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) reported that 2010 Arctic sea ice extent was the third-lowest on the satellite record. (The record low, set in 2007, was 4.13 million square kilometers, or 1.59 million square miles.) The 2010 minimum was part of a larger pattern of overall Arctic sea ice decline dating back to at least the early 1970s. The top image, made from sea ice observations collected by the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer (AMSR-E) Instrument on NASA’s Aqua satellite, shows sea ice extent on September 19, 2010. Ice-covered areas range in color from white (highest concentration) to light blue (lowest concentration). Ocean water is dark blue, and landmasses are dark gray. The yellow outline is the median minimum sea ice extent for 1979–2000; that is, areas that were at least 15 percent ice-covered in at least half the years between 1979 and 2000. Compared to the long-term average, sea ice concentration north of Alaska and eastern Siberia was especially low in 2010. Arctic sea ice behavior was unusual in 2010 in that the sea ice appeared to reach its minimum extent on September 10 and began growing again. Acquired by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Terra satellite, the middle and bottom images capture some of that ice growth, occurring in the East Siberian Sea. The middle image is from September 12, and the bottom image is from September 14. New, thin ice appears in the bottom image as rippled sheets, barely lighter than the underlying ocean water. This is probably nilas—thin sheets of ice with an oily or greasy appearance. (See the Earth Observatory Sea Ice feature article to learn more about different types of sea ice.) After a few days of growth, sea ice declined again until September 19. According to NSIDC scientist Walt Meier, the renewed melting late in the season suggested that sea ice cover was thin and loosely packed. Those conditions make sea ice susceptible not only to melting, but also to disintegration by wind. In early September, NSIDC described large areas of rotten ice in an advanced state of disintegration. The minimum sea ice extent in 2010 fits into a long-term pattern of decline, especially in multi-year ice, which persists through the summer melt season and into another winter. Multi-year ice may last for several years, eventually growing up to 4 meters (13 feet) thick. First-year ice is thinner, saltier, and more vulnerable to melt. NSIDC stated that the 2010 season showed an increase in second- and third-year ice—which might eventually thicken—but the oldest and thickest ice had mostly disappeared from the Arctic. “A band of thick ice is likely to persist along northern Greenland and northern Canada for some time,” said Ted Scambos, lead scientist at NSIDC. “But in the next 10 to 15 years, there could be substantial open water in the Arctic in the summertime.” NASA Earth Observatory images created by Jesse Allen and Rob Simmon, using AMSR-E sea ice concentration data provided courtesy of the National Snow and Ice Data Center. Caption by Michon Scott. These images show overall Arctic sea ice extent on September 19, 2010 (the date of the 2010 minimum), and sea ice growth in mid-September 2010. On September 12, 2009, sea ice reached its annual minimum extent, covering 5.10 million square kilometers (2.97 million square miles) of the Arctic Ocean. This image shows the 2009 ice extent compared to the 1979-2000 average.

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Despite the name, a glow-worm isn’t a worm at all – it’s a type of beetle. In June this year, our BioLinks Project Officer, Rachel Davies, accompanied by several volunteers, went on the hunt for these interesting beetles – and they got more than they anticipated… Blog by Rachel Davies, BioLinks Project Officer What is a Glow-worm? The UK’s most commonly encountered glow-worm, Lampyris noctiluca, is a fascinating species of beetle found in the UK. It gets its name from the species’ ability to emit light-green light. This is known as bioluminescence (which is the natural production of light by an organism, created by a chemical reaction), and this species is one of the few organisms which can do this in the UK. Both adult sexes can glow, with females glowing more brightly. Larvae can also glow, though not for as long, and the eggs can emit a faint light as well! Adult males look like typical beetles. They have an elongated body and wings, with the outer pair being hardened into elytra. Adult females look fairly untypical for beetles and are known as being ‘larviform’, closely resembling their larvae. They have no wings and are therefore flightless. They can be distinguished from larvae as they do not have paired spots on their body (Tyler, 2002). Larvae look similar to other types of beetle larvae. They have a segmented body, with paired yellow-brown spots on the outer edge of each body segment. Glow-worm Life Cycle In their larval stage, glow-worms feed on slugs and snails. They can bite their prey, and with each bite, they release a digestive enzyme that is able to dissolve the proteins inside their prey (Tyler, 2002). The result is a gooey mess which the larvae can then consume – think of a sticky soup! It can take up to two years for larvae to reach maturity (Glowworms.org.uk, 2022) at which point, they pupate in burrows before emerging as adults. Unlike the ferocious larvae, the adults do not feed (Tyler,2002). Their purpose is to mate and produce eggs – of which they can lay up to 150 (Tyler, 2002)! Although both males and females possess the ability to glow, it is the adult females that glow the brightest. The light emitted is thought to serve several purposes. In larvae, the light is believed to display unpalatability to nocturnal predators (De Cock & Matthysen, 2003). In adults, this light is used in courtship, with wingless females using it to attract the much more mobile, and winged, adult males. Females will climb up vegetation, such as long grass stems, and begin to glow – often turning their abdomen upwards to maximise the visibility of the light-green light from their abdomens (Tyler, 2002). Females can glow for several hours, but if mated, they will stop glowing and instead use their energy to lay eggs. If they are unmated, they will retreat to ground level and wait for the next evening to try again. Adults can live for approximately 21 days (Glowworms.org.uk, 2022). Finding the First Glow-worm In October 2020, during an afternoon walk at the Knapp and Papermill in Worcestershire, Rachel was busy turning over logs looking for insects when she came across a single glow-worm larva. This delightful discovery was added to Twitter and iRecord, and the Worcestershire Wildlife Trust, who manage the site, were tagged. Upon receiving the record, they commented that it was the first glow-worm record for the site for quite some time! After contacting the ‘UK Glow Worm Survey’ for record details, it appeared that the last record for this site was back in 2007 when a record of 12 adults seen on 15th June was submitted by email. It was interesting to know there was a 13-year gap between sightings, and Rachel wondered if it was due to a very small population, a population decline, or the fact that no one was looking! Setting up the Survey for BioLinks In light of her discovery, Rachel decided to incorporate a glow-worm survey at the Knapp and Papermill into the series of BioLinks Field Recorder Days – a whole event based on finding a single larva; what could possibly go wrong?! On the Field Recorder Day, the team were lucky to have near-perfect weather conditions for finding glow-worms, something that is impossible to predict when planning a calendar of events months in advance. With nine volunteers and Olivia Watts (Biodiversity Content Officer for the Field Studies Council), the team set off full of excitement as the weather seemed too good to be true! The team decided to survey close to where the original larva had been found- this was near a large open meadow, so it provided grassland and a woodland edge to search. As it was getting dark, a couple of hours were spent searching the meadow, which was filled with butterflies, moths and a delightful display of wildflowers. It wasn’t until roughly 10.30pm when the first person said, “I’ve seen a glow-worm!”- at which point the team all hurried over to see for themselves. Rachel recalled “It took longer than I thought to spot the glow – I remember being quite surprised at how small the light emitted was, and I realised that they would actually be quite easy to miss if you were just walking past and not searching!“ Once the team had seen the first female, they knew which habitat to survey, so chose a fixed transect line which took them along the edge of the woodland, and along the edge of the meadow. They walked each transect once, counting all the glowing females. They also quickly checked each female with a torch in an attempt to spot males- which are much harder to see. In total, they found 18 glowing females and spotted 3 males – which also included one mating pair! Overall, the event was a huge success, with many of the volunteers seeing a glow-worm for the first time! Alongside this, the team were able to provide important records for the Worcestershire Wildlife Trust and the Knapp and Papermill. In the UK, the peak season to see adult glow-worms is June and July, however, adults will be active from May up until September time (Tyler, 2002). You can find active larvae between April and October; they have a longer period of activity than the adults. Adult glow-worms can be found in a variety of habitats. Improved grassland tends to yield the best results (Tyler, 2022), however, sightings also come from places such as roadside grass verges. They may also be found along canal towpaths, in churchyards and along disused railway lines (Tyler, 2002), so please do look anywhere local to you. Checking distribution maps on the NBN Gateway before selecting a site to survey may increase the likelihood of you spotting one, however, it is also important to search in new areas as this could uncover a previously unknown population! The fact they glow definitely helps when it comes to searching, however they are pretty particular about when they glow. They favour warm evenings, which need to be relatively still, but a bit of light rain is ok (heavy rain should be avoided). It’s also worth noting that they prefer a night with a crescent moon, and they are less likely to glow under a full moon (Tyler, 2002). Threats to UK Glow-worms UK populations of Lampyris noctiluca have shown that numbers of glowing females found in Southeast England have declined by an average of 3.5% per year (Gardiner and Didham, 2020). There are several theories about what could be causing these declines, although further research is needed to be certain. Reduction and fragmentation of suitable habitats is one of the factors attributed to a decline in glow-worm numbers, although this is an issue faced by much of our wildlife. It particularly impacts those species, like glow-worms, than have a limited ability to disperse. Egg-laying, wingless females lack the ability to fly and repopulate areas, meaning populations can easily become isolated. This puts them at a higher risk of decline due to changes in their environment and a loss of genetic diversity. It has been suggested that declines in glow-worm numbers have arisen in certain areas due to the crash in rabbit numbers in the 1950’s, caused by myxomatosis. This in turn increased the growth of woody scrub on chalk downland sites, which had historically been prime habitat and important sites for glow-worms (Tyler, 2002). With an increased density of scrub, male glow-worms become unable to see the glow emitted by females – ultimately preventing the beetles from reproducing. It is therefore recommended that sites with glow-worm populations need to manage scrub cover to ensure glow-worms have their preferred habitat. Additionally, there is mounting evidence that light pollution from artificial light sources impacts the ability of males to locate and mate with females (Bird & Parker 2014; Elgert, C , 2020 and Van Den Broeck et al, 2021) – not surprising when they rely on bioluminescence signalling to find one another! The UK Glow-worm Survey Records can be submitted to the scheme through iRecord, using the ‘Glow-worms’ species group form. Pictures are encouraged when submitting records, particularly for records of larvae as they can be confused with other invertebrates. Beetles are a diverse invertebrate group, with some very weird but wonderful species. Learn more about them on one of our beetle courses. - Bird, S. and Parker, J. (2014). Low levels of light pollution may block the ability of male glow worms (Lampyris noctiluca L.) to locate females. Journal of Insect Conservation, [online] 18(4), pp.737–743. - De Cock, R. (2003). Glow worm larvae bioluminescence (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) operates as an aposematic signal upon toads (Bufo bufo). Behavioral Ecology, [online] 14(1), pp.103–108. - Elgert, C., Hopkins, J., Kaitala, A. and Candolin, U. (2020). Reproduction under light pollution: maladaptive response to spatial variation in artificial light in a glow worm. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, online. - Gardiner, T. and Didham, R.K. (2020). Glowing, glowing, gone? Monitoring long‐term trends in glow worm numbers in south‐east England. Insect Conservation and Diversity, [online] 13(2), pp.162–174. - Glowworms.org.uk. (2022). UK Glow worm survey home page. [online] Available at: https://www.glowworms.org.uk/. - Tyler, J. (2002). The Glow-worm. Lakeside Press, Sevenoaks. - Van Den Broeck, M., De Cock, R., Van Dongen, S. and Matthysen, E. (2021). Blinded by the Light: Artificial Light Lowers Mate Attraction Success in Female Glow-Worms (Lampyris noctiluca L.). Insects, [online] 12(8), pp.734.

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Embarking on Playful Tech Adventures: The World of Fun Learning Coding In the dynamic realm of children’s education, Fun Learning Coding emerges as a captivating approach to introducing young minds to the exciting world of programming. This unique blend of fun and learning transforms coding into a playful adventure, fostering a love for technology in an enjoyable and interactive manner. Interactive Learning Environment: The Essence of Fun Learning Coding Fun Learning Coding creates an interactive learning environment where children engage with coding in a fun and playful way. Rather than traditional teaching methods, this approach immerses kids in a dynamic setting, encouraging active participation. The interactive environment not only sustains interest but also makes the learning process enjoyable and memorable. Playful Tech Adventures: The Heart of Fun Learning Coding At the core of Fun Learning Coding are the playful tech adventures that captivate young minds. Instead of viewing coding as a daunting task, children embark on coding quests, solving puzzles, and navigating challenges. These playful adventures transform coding into a game, making it a delightful experience that sparks curiosity and creativity. Gamification of Coding Education: Learning through Play Fun Learning Coding incorporates gamification techniques, turning coding education into a playful experience. By introducing game-like elements, such as earning points, completing levels, and unlocking achievements, children are motivated to explore the world of coding with enthusiasm. This gamified approach not only enhances engagement but also instills a sense of accomplishment in young learners. Hands-On Exploration: Learning by Doing in Fun Learning Coding The program emphasizes hands-on exploration, allowing children to learn by doing. Fun Learning Coding includes practical coding exercises and projects where kids can apply their knowledge in a tangible way. This hands-on approach reinforces coding concepts and nurtures problem-solving skills, transforming coding from an abstract concept into a tangible skill. Creativity Unleashed: Fun Learning Coding as a Creative Outlet Fun Learning Coding recognizes that coding is not just about syntax and algorithms; it’s a form of creative expression. Children have the opportunity to unleash their creativity through coding by designing games, creating animations, and crafting interactive stories. This creative aspect adds an extra layer of enjoyment to the coding experience. Collaborative Coding Adventures: Learning Together A distinctive feature of Fun Learning Coding is the promotion of collaborative coding adventures. Children work together on coding projects, sharing ideas and solving problems as a team. This collaborative aspect not only enhances the learning experience but also teaches children valuable teamwork and communication skills. Diverse Learning Paths: Exploring Various Coding Concepts Fun Learning Coding introduces children to a variety of coding concepts and languages. From block-based coding suitable for beginners to more advanced text-based languages, children explore diverse learning paths within the coding realm. This exposure allows them to discover their preferences and interests, fostering versatility in their coding skills. Ready to immerse your child in the world of fun learning coding? Explore the captivating adventures at Fun Learning Coding and watch as your child’s curiosity and creativity come to life through the joy of coding! Conclusion: Nurturing a Love for Technology Fun Learning Coding is not just about teaching coding skills; it’s about nurturing a love for technology in young hearts. By transforming coding into a playful adventure, this approach ensures that children not only grasp coding concepts but also develop a positive attitude towards technology. As coding continues to be a fundamental skill, Fun Learning Coding paves the way for a generation that not only understands technology but also embraces it as a source of creativity, innovation, and endless possibilities.

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What is a cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) protein test? Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear bodily fluid that cushions and protects your brain and spinal cord. A CSF protein test involves taking a fluid sample from your spinal column using a needle. This procedure is known as a lumbar puncture or spinal tap. The CSF protein test determines if there’s too much or too little protein in your CSF. Test results that indicate your protein level is higher or lower than normal can help your doctor diagnose a range of conditions. Another use for a CSF protein test is to check the amount of pressure in your spinal fluid. Your doctor will order a CSF protein test if they suspect you have a central nervous system disease such as multiple sclerosis (MS) or an infectious condition such as meningitis. CSF protein tests are also helpful when looking for signs of injury, bleeding in the spinal fluid, or vasculitis. Vasculitis is another term for inflamed blood vessels. High levels of protein in your CSF can also indicate: - aseptic meningitis - bacterial meningitis - brain abscess - brain tumor - cerebral hemorrhage Acute alcohol use disorder is another possible cause of high protein levels. Low levels of protein in your CSF could mean your body is leaking cerebrospinal fluid. This could be due to a traumatic injury such as head or spine trauma. Your doctor will need to know if you’re taking any blood-thinning medications. These might include heparin, warfarin (Coumadin), or aspirin (Bayer). Give your doctor a complete list of medications you take. Make sure to include both prescription and over-the-counter medicines. Let them know if you have a history of back or spinal problems, or neurological illnesses or conditions. Also tell your doctor if your work is strenuous and involves using your back. You may need to avoid work on the day of your test. Expect to rest for at least an hour after your test is complete. The lumbar puncture for your CSF protein test takes place at a hospital or clinic. You need to change into a hospital gown that opens in the back. This gives the doctor easy access to your spine. To begin, you lie on your side on an exam table or hospital bed, with your back exposed. You might also sit up and bend over a table or a cushion. Your doctor cleans your back with antiseptic and applies a local anesthetic. This numbs the puncture site to minimize pain. It may take a few moments to start working. Then, they insert a hollow needle into your lower spine. They draw a small amount of CSF into the needle. You must hold very still while this is happening. Your doctor removes the needle after collecting enough fluid. They clean and bandage the insertion site. Then they send your CSF sample to a laboratory for analysis. You can expect to rest for an hour or two after the test. Your doctor may suggest you take a mild pain reliever. Lumbar puncture is very common and considered generally safe when done by a trained and experienced doctor. However, there are some medical risks, including: - bleeding into the spine - allergic reaction to anesthetic - damage to the spinal cord, if you move - brain herniation, if a brain mass is present There’s usually some discomfort during the test that may last a little while afterward. Many people have a headache after a lumbar puncture. This should go away within 24 hours. Let your doctor know if it doesn’t. Your test results should be ready in a couple of days. The normal range for a protein level is 15 to 45 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL). Milligrams per deciliter is a measurement that looks at the concentration of something in an amount of fluid. Children have a lower protein level than adults. Different laboratories have different ranges they consider normal, which is due to the different ways each laboratory processes samples. Speak with your doctor to find out what your laboratory’s normal range is. Your doctor will analyze your test results and discuss them with you. If protein levels in your cerebrospinal fluid are higher or lower than normal, your doctor can use these measurements to diagnose a condition or guide additional tests.

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- FamilyPenguins (Spheniscidae) - Weight3,5 – 6 kg The accumulated droppings of penguins and other seabirds is known as guano. The dried bird droppings is vital to the survival of the Humboldt penguin as this is where they burrow their nests. However guano is also used as an organic fertiliser. The harvesting of this phosphate- and nitrateric product destroys nests and makes it increasingly difficult for the Humboldt penguin to find suitable breeding sites. Not all penguin species live in cold regions. The Humboldt penguin is native to the Pacific coasts of Peru and Chile. It is named after the cold, food-rich Humboldt Current in which it forages. The Humboldt has special adaptations to help it keep cool in the warmer climate such as a thinner layer of fat than penguin species living further south. It also has pink patches of bare skin on the face, around the beak, through which it shed excess heat. The Humboldt penguin has small black dots scattered across its white belly. The dot pattern is unique to each individual – just like our fingerprints. Hellabrunn Zoo participates in the European Endangered Species Programmes

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“Men wanted for hazardous journey. Low wages, bitter cold, long hours of complete darkness. Safe return doubtful. Honour and recognition in event of success.” The explorer Ernest Shackleton famously placed an advertisement stating this in a London newspaper as he recruited personnel for his 1914 expedition to the Antarctic. Whether or not this story is true remains to be seen, but he was certainly not short of applicants: he received over 5,000 entries from men (and a few women) who were desperate to join his crew. In the end, he left with just 56 carefully chosen men. 28 would be part of the Weddell Sea party, aboard the doomed Endurance, while the other 28 would be on board the Aurora as part of the Ross Sea party. So who were these intrepid men who joined Shackleton’s Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition? What personnel did Shackleton need? Antarctic crews needed a wide variety of people, with an assortment of different skills, to be present. In such a hostile environment and difficult conditions, it was vital to have people who were calm, level-headed and hardy. As much as exploration, the expedition also wanted to document what was founded in Antarctica. The Endurance carried a photographer and artist, two surgeons, a biologist, geologist and physicist, several carpenters, a dog handler and multiple officers, sailors and navigators. It would have taken weeks to decide which men could go. Choosing the wrong men, as much as choosing the wrong equipment, could put an expedition in serious jeopardy. Not for the fainthearted Embarking on an Antarctic expedition meant knowing you would be leaving behind family, friends and a normal life for potentially years at a time. Even the planned length of time of expeditions was extremely long, let alone taking into account any disruptions such as getting stuck in the ice, getting lost or things going wrong en route. Moreover, the Antarctic was an extremely hostile environment. Not only were there limited food supplies and perishingly cold weather, but it could also be dark (or light) virtually all day depending on the season. Men were required to occupy themselves for weeks or months on end in relatively cramped quarters, with no contact with the outside world and a tiny weight allowance for personal items. Shackleton was an Antarctic veteran by this point: he set off prepared, allowing one of his men to bring a banjo and encouraging others to play cards, make and perform plays and sketches, sing together, write in their journals and read and swap books to help the time pass. It was also vital men got along well with one another: spending years at a time onboard ships meant that difficult personalities were not welcome. The crew of the Endurance The Endurance sank, crushed by the ice of the Weddell Sea, in November 1915. She wouldn’t be seen again for some 107 years, when she was found, beautifully preserved, in the waters of Antarctica by the Endurance22 expedition. Remarkably, all of Endurance‘s original crew survived the treacherous journey to South Georgia following the ship’s sinking. They were not completely unscathed, however: severe cases of frostbite led to gangrene and amputations. Many of the men aboard Shackleton’s Endurance had no previous experience of polar expeditions. Here are 4 of the most notable crewmembers to accompany Shackleton on his Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition. Hurley was the official expedition photographer, and his photographs of the Endurance stuck in the ice have since become iconic. He used the Paget process to take photographs in colour, which was, by contemporary standards, a pioneering technique. As time went on, Hurley became increasingly selective in his subject matter. When Endurance sank and the men abandoned her, Hurley was forced to leave behind 400 of his negatives, returning with just 120 shots of life aboard and around the Endurance. A stowaway who boarded Endurance in Buenos Aires after he didn’t make the cut to join as staff, Blackborow was discovered three days out of port – too late to turn back. Shackleton was reportedly furious at Blackborow, telling him stowaways were the “first to be eaten” on polar expeditions. He ended up as a steward on the ship, under the promise he would volunteer as the first to be eaten if they ran out of food on the expedition. Blackborow developed severe frostbite on the journey to Elephant Island, to the extent that he could no longer stand because of his gangrenous feet. His toes were amputated by the ship’s surgeon, Alexander Macklin, and Blackborow survived, his feet relatively intact when the crew were rescued from South Georgia Island. The Endurance‘s cook, Green was nicknamed ‘Doughballs’ because of his high-pitched voice. Well-liked amongst the crew, he did his best under extremely difficult circumstances to ensure the men were fed and as healthy as possible, cooking for 28 grown men with extremely limited resources. Whilst originally the ship was stocked with plentiful supplies, including biscuits, cured meats and 25 cases of whiskey, these dwindled rapidly as the Endurance sat in the ice. After supplies ran out, the men existed almost solely on a diet of penguin, seal and seaweed. Green was forced to cook on stoves fuelled by blubber rather than conventional fuel. Worsley was the captain of Endurance, although he was, much to Shackleton’s frustration, much better at following orders than giving them. Despite having little experience of Antarctic exploration or sailing, Worsley relished the challenge of Endurance‘s situation, although he underestimated the power of the ice and the fact that once Endurance was stuck, it was only a matter of time before she was crushed. However, Worsley proved to be in his element when it came to open water sailing during the voyage to Elephant Island, and later South Georgia, spending almost 90 hours straight at the tiller without sleep. He also had impressive navigational skills, which were invaluable in hitting both Elephant Island and South Georgia Island. He was one of the three men to cross South Georgia to find the whaling station: reportedly his crew did not recognise him when he returned, freshly shaven and washed, to pick them up.

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Self-harming behavior is sometimes referred to “self-mutilation” or “self-injury”. People who engage in self-harming behavior purposely hurt themselves to varying degrees depending on how serious the self-harming has become. Self-harming behavior takes many forms. Self-harming usually begins in adolescence or the early 20s. In the majority of cases, the act of self-harm is not for the purpose of suicide although the risk of suicide in people who self-harm is higher than it is in the general public. Forms of Self-Harm Self-harming behavior includes a wide range of activities (some of which are not considered by many people to be self-harm and are marginally acceptable in society). Examples include but are not limited to: - Superficial or deep skin cutting is the most common self-harming behavior - Burning, stabbing - Hitting, head-banging, biting, eye poking - Scratching, hair pulling - Interfering with wound healing - Embedding objects - Excessive tattooing, piercing or cosmetic surgery - “Decorative” skin scarring - Amputation of body parts including (but not limited to) castration and eye removal Why do people self-harm? Self-harming behavior is very complex and involves a number of components that vary from person to person. In general, self-harming appears to be a coping mechanism. Self-harmers know that what they are doing is not acceptable and they are very good at hiding the behavior and wounds. Most self-harmers do not wish attention. But for some, such as those with mental retardation, self-harm is used an attention-seeking or manipulative behavior. All of the following components which underlie self-harming do not necessary apply to every self-harmer: - Finding relief from intense emotions like anxiety, depression, overwhelm, self-hatred, low self-esteem and perfectionism. - Counteracting a lack of feelings as the physical and emotional pain a person feels from self-harm is the only time some people feel anything at all. - Disassociating or depersonalizing from reality. - Responding to the compulsion to self-harm when the behavior has become a psychological addiction. Addiction can develop in chronic self-harmers. - Seeking pleasure if the act makes the person feel good. Self-harming behavior is also associated with a number of clinical conditions and abnormal environments. Though not as common, it is sometimes found in people who do not have any other clinical condition and appear to have normal, successful lives. Some conditions and environments that are associated with self-harming are: - Anxiety disorders & phobias - Bipolar disorder - Borderline personality disorder - Conduct disorders - Eating disorders such as Binge Eating Disorder or Bulimia - Incarceration (especially prevalent) - Mental retardation - Past or current physical, sexual and emotional abuse - Post traumatic stress disorder - Psychosis (acute or chronic) - Substance abuse, especially that involving sedatives or alcohol - War, poverty, unemployment, bereavement Treatment and Prognosis for Self-Harming There are treatments for self-harming behavior. Not all people who engage in self-harm require all of the treatments available. Each self-harmer needs specialized attention that targets the specific components of the self-harmer’s disorder. Available treatments for self-harming behavior include: - Engaging in biofeedback training - Incorporating a Self-Injurious Behavior Inhibiting System (SIBIS) - Learning avoidance and distraction techniques - Living in a long-term psychiatric hospital - Removing self-harming objects from environment - Removal of the person from an abusive or trauma-inducing environment - Substituting safer methods of self-harm such as rubber-band snapping on the wrist - Taking medication for schizophrenia when the condition is present - Taking mood stabilizing, depression and/or anxiety medications - Undergoing Cognitive and/or Dialectical Behavioral Therapy Treatment for self-harming behavior is a long-term process. Success has been found in self-harmers who desire to end the self-harming, are highly motivated and are persistent with the necessary treatments.

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Modal verbs: snow leopard We are learning how to write sentences that include modal verbs to show degrees of possibility. Context: snow leopard Snow leopards are built for the cold. Their thick fur helps them survive as they wander thousands of kilometres across the high mountain ranges of South and Central Asia in search of food and a partner. These majestic cats are sometimes called ‘the ghosts of the mountains’ because they are rarely seen, spending most of their lives in complete solitude. In this fascinating clip, high up in the Himalayan mountain range an ageing male is searching for a mate. With so few snow leopards living in this vast and harsh environment, he must signal his presence to others by scent marking. How do you think he will leave his smell on the rugged landscape? Watch the clip to find out. Can you make a list of words/phrases that accurately describe the Himalayan mountain wilderness featured in the clip? e.g. vast, rugged, remote, icy wilderness

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From Middle English rethorik, rhetoric, from Old French rhetorique, from Latin rhētorica, from Ancient Greek ῥητορική or rhētorikḗ, ellipsis of ῥητορικὴ τέχνη or rhētorik tékhnē, from ῥητορικός or rhētorikós (concerning public speech), from ῥήτωρ or rhḗtōr (public speaker). rhetoric (countable and uncountable, plural rhetorics) - The art of using language, especially public speaking, as a means to persuade. - I will be learning a lot about rhetoric in my public speaking class. - Meaningless language with an exaggerated style intended to impress. - I was not convinced by the rhetoric of any of the politicians. rhetoric (not comparable) - Synonym of rhetorical; part of or similar to rhetoric. The adjective form is usually pronounced with the emphasis on the second syllable, while the noun form has the emphasis on the first syllable. New World Encyclopedia writers and editors copied and adjusted this Wiktionary entry in accordance with NWE standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit for this article is due to both New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions at Wiktionary is accessible to researchers here:

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The Chumash people are a Native American tribal group who inhabited the Californian coasts in the south and central part of the country. Their name stands for seashell people or bead makers, probably because they inhabited the coast of Saint Barbara and mostly indulged in manufacturing and trading of beads alongside other occupations. Originating as a group of hunter gatherers, they have come a long way and made a mark for themselves in different fields. The main language traditionally spoken by these people were Chumash or Chumashan. This was indeed a complex dialect having a host of long words. At present the modern generation mostly converse in English, though the elders have made an attempt to keep the ancient language alive. Archaeological evidences reveal the existence of the Chumash tribes to be 11,000 years ago. Certain researches have also opined that the Polynesians might have been exposed to the Chumash people from AD 400 to AD 800, approximately 1000 years ago prior to Christopher Columbus’ visit to America. However, most experts who extensively researched with the Chumash have rejected this claim. They were leading a secluded life for a long time and only came in contact with the western world not before 1542 as two vessels steered by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo reached the Mexican coast. Cabrillo died in the expedition but his diary containing a list of the population for the Chumash villages was preserved by his men. With the advent of the Spanish missionaries, who intended to convert the Native Americans to Christians, the Chumash people moved out of their villages and settled in the missionaries. Some of the missions set up were San Buenaventura, La Purisima, and San Luis Obispo, with most of the Chumash Indians joining one mission of the other. Their numbers were said to have declined rapidly because of the diseases transmitted to them by the European settlers. Moreover, the advent of the Spanish people also had an adverse impact on the population. The Chumash reservation had been established in 1901 encompassing about 127 acres. Presently there are about 5000 members of this tribe, majority of them residing in the Channel Island National Park’s five islands. Their common foods comprised of vegetables, nuts, berries, bulbs, roots, mushrooms and different kinds of greens gathered by them, alongside meats of games they hunted like elk, rabbit, quail, fowl Their main weapons comprised of bows and arrows, apart from harpoons, fishing hooks They traditionally dwelt in dome-shaped wooden homes mostly made of grass which had a diameter of about 7 to 10 feet. Some of them were, however, big enough with a diameter of fifty feet sufficient to accommodate many members especially if it was an extended family. They even built sweathouses which were mostly used by the menfolk for purifying themselves before going out on a hunting spree. However, at present, they do not live in such establishments anymore, dwelling in modern houses. They were mostly scantily dressed especially the menfolk whose outfits comprised of aprons made from the fibers of bark or grass. The women mostly wore skirts to the length of their knees made from deerskins or grass. In winter both the sexes dressed in furred robes and leggings made from the hides of elks, deer, rabbits, wild cat, squirrel, and black bear. Their headdresses resembled a crown comprising of fur, and the center of it was adorned with feathered plumes. The female folk donned basket hats, while the men were without it. The Chumash people used wood, shells, bones Both the males and females were interested in painting their body and face particularly on special occasions and festivals. The black and white color was made of charcoal and chalk deposits respectively applied by forming horizontal lines. One of their main modes of communications was a canoe, traditionally called Basketry was one of the prominent crafts of the Chumash and the collection of such unique artworks has been kept in the Smithsonian Institution and Musée de l’Homme in Washington DC and Paris respectively. They even had a knack for rock paintings and the testimony of their work is observed in the present times also in the Chumash Painted Cave State Historic Park. In fact, an oak tree located in California which is some hundreds of years old is said to have a carving of a creature with six legs wearing a crown and a headdress, with sources mentioning it to date back to the time of the Chumash people. They traded with shell beads found along the coast of the places they dwelt, using it as a part of their currency for purchasing things of daily use. Some of the common objects they traded included baskets, acorn, knives, hides They were a religious and god fearing tribe, believing in supernatural beings which according to them could be influenced by humans. These people believed that the entire universe comprised of three divisions, namely the world of the sky, the world of people and the lower world filled with devilish creatures. They even believed that the animal kingdom The winter solstice was the most vital time of the year for them as they had a belief that the sun might not return after the period came to an end. Hence, to influence the sun to come back they would do a lot of things like holding prayers as well as dancing that would go on for many days. They even put poles and sun sticks on the ground for the purpose of observing the sun. The caves were their most sought after shelter for celebrating religious ceremonies and they often decorated it with several colors like orange, yellow and red for the occasion. Of the three classes, the upper strata comprised of astrologers, priests, nobles and shaman, the middle class had a host of workers who were skilled and healthy, while the lower class possessed sick people and those lacking sufficient skills. When a boy was about the age of eight he was given a decoction prepared from the sacred datura flower to help him be enlightened spiritually in order to transition into a man. Girls were also subjected to a lot of limitations, one of them being restrictions imposed upon the intake of grease and fat. Apart from the tribal chief as well as his assistants, Chumash men followed monogamy, with men having the right to select their wives from his village or those nearby. The wedding ceremony was celebrated with a lot of pomp post which the bride would come to, live with the groom’s family. On getting labor contractions, a woman would construct a pit at the place where she got the pain the first time. She would then lie down and singlehandedly go through labor and delivery. The holy man or Shaman was the only man to be present who would name the baby after consulting the stars and other heavenly bodies. As far as the rules of death were concerned, these people showed immense respect upon the deceased. The mourners sat by the body throughout the night, smoked tobacco sang and cried, and then carried the dead to the cemetery, with the body being buried in a face-down posture. A pole was at times placed on top of the grave with objects close to the deceased hung. In case he had an important position in the society, the pole dedicated to him was also painted. They also followed the custom of burning the possession of the dead man, which is maintained even in the present times. The harvest of acorn in autumn and the winter solstice were two of the major festivals celebrated by the Chumash. Other annual festivals include the blackbird dance, the dolphin dance, the bear dance There are a lot of limitations of this tribe and efforts are being made to keep their culture alive but in vain. In fact, the federal government has recognized only those dwelling on the reservations and grants aid to only them. However, the reservation is small enough permitting just 50 to 100 people to live there. The Santa Ynez Band of the Santa Ynez Reservation is recognized federally while the other Chumash Indians have been enrolled under the Tejon Indian Tribe of California. The new generation is also making a lot of effort to preserve the cultural sites of the tribe. The Chumash Indian Museum has been dedicated to the preservation of their culture, though parts of it were damaged by a fire in 2018 and revival efforts are being made. Some of the people belonging to this tribe who have made a mark for themselves are Lorna Dee Cervantes (poet), Wilting Flower, John Olguin (former director) and Mary Joachina Yee (popular linguist). Prior to the Spanish influence, the children were taught by their elders and learned through the process of observation and experience. When the missionaries came into being the children of the Native American people The Suquamish are a Native American tribe that dwell on the Port Madison Indian Reservation, along the Kitsap Peninsula in the Puget Sound r The Nisqually, living on a reservation in Nisqually River valley in western Washington State, is a Native American tribe that speaks the Lus A Native Indian tribe in Connecticut, the Schaghticoke consists of the descendants of the Mahican, Potatuck (or Pootatuck), Weantinock, Tunx

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The challenges facing young people today are unprecedented. From lost educational opportunities due to the pandemic-induced lockdowns to the looming climate crisis, dangerous virtual spaces, and concerns over food and energy security triggered by geopolitical conflicts—the hurdles they face are numerous, complex, and interconnected. However, young people worldwide are rising to these challenges, coalescing around issues, and creating innovative solutions that consider diverse cultures, geographies, and development statuses. The Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4 on Quality Education, recognises the pivotal role that education plays in achieving comprehensive development in the longer horizon. It aims to ‘ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all’, especially for the youth to thrive in the modern world. Table 1: SDG 4 Scores (2023) Source: Sustainable Development Report 2023, SDSN Reimagining tech in education |SDG 4 Scores (out of 100) |Eastern Europe and Central Asia |East and South Asia |Latin America and the Caribbean |Middle East and North Africa |Small Island Developing States Note: The 2023 SDG 4 scores are based on the following indicators: 1. Participation rate in pre-primary organised learning (% of children aged 4 to 6) 2. Net primary enrollment rate (%) 3. Lower secondary completion rate (%) 4. Literacy rate (% of the population aged 15 to 24) 5. Tertiary educational attainment (% of the population aged 25 to 34) 6. PISA score (worst 0-600 best) 7. Variation in science performance explained by socio-economic status (%) 8. Underachievers in science (% of 15-year-olds) The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted education systems globally, leading to lost school years and increasing educational inequality. It has exacerbated the divide between the Global North and South. As restrictions became widespread, schools had to close, impacting the achievement of SDG 4 targets. However, certain countries could reopen schools earlier due to better health infrastructure and advanced educational facilities. For instance , children in advanced economies lost an average of 15 school days in 2020. In contrast, the number increased to an average of 45 days for emerging-market economies and a staggering 72 days for children in the poorest nations. Bridging these disparities in educational losses between developed and developing countries has become crucial in the post-pandemic recovery processes, as it determines the long-term macroeconomic structure of the global economies, with youth capital playing a pivotal role. Technology is a powerful tool for improving human capital building and addressing structural issues in education needed for achieving equitable quality education. It has the potential to democratise knowledge access, making education more accessible and inclusive, particularly in resource-constrained countries. The growing use of educational technology (ed-tech) platforms has played a critical role in helping young people to complete their studies during the pandemic through remote learning, interactive material, and individualised learning experiences. Thanks to open educational resources (OERs), online courses, and digital libraries, learners can access educational materials at their own pace and convenience—which was extremely helpful during the pandemic. Nevertheless, technology alone is insufficient . The human element is crucial in delivering localised and contextualised education. While ed-tech platforms provide access to educational content, they should be complemented with effective pedagogical strategies and teacher support. Blended learning (combining online and in-person instructions) can accelerate learning and increase accessibility, particularly in developing countries where infrastructure limitations may persist. also plays a vital role in fostering collaboration, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills. Thus, education systems can foster a sense of community and promote social cohesion by creating opportunities for young people to work together, share knowledge, and learn from one another. Moreover, policy-making in education reform must be guided by feminist principles of inclusivity, considering dimensions such as global citizenship, finance, and the environment. Financial literacy and entrepreneurship education can equip them with the skills to navigate the complex economic landscape and pursue innovative solutions to social and environmental challenges. Education systems can create a deeper awareness of sustainability, environmental stewardship, and cultural diversity by including indigenous perspectives, traditional ecological knowledge, and cultural heritage in the curriculum. However, traditional cultures often resist modern educational techniques and should be progressively transformed to embrace more innovative approaches. This necessitates interacting with communities, respecting their beliefs, and co-creating educational programmes that bridge the gap between traditional knowledge and modern abilities. Balancing cultural preservation with the learning of contemporary skills is critical for equipping young people to flourish in a fast-changing society. Need for a comprehensive education reforms must be comprehensive to address young people's challenges, covering early childhood to higher education and lifelong learning. Early childhood education sets the foundation for future learning and development. Governments should invest in quality early childhood programmes prioritising play-based learning, cognitive development, and social-emotional skills. Primary and secondary education should cultivate critical thinking, creativity, problem-solving, and digital literacy. Assessments should go beyond rote memorisation and standardised testing, encompassing real-world applications and project-based learning. Strategies for educating different age groups must be tailored accordingly, with younger children requiring more playful elements in their education. Furthermore, education systems should be assessed based on the skills possessed by young people. International assessments like the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) provide valuable insights into students' proficiency in critical subjects. Policymakers can target resources and support to enhance learning outcomes by identifying areas where interventions are needed. is another critical area for education reform. Traditional certificates of education, including degrees and diplomas, often fail to accurately reflect young people's skills. As industries and job markets evolve, there is a growing demand for a more holistic approach to credentialing. Competency-based assessments, digital badges, and micro-credentials can provide a more nuanced and granular representation of young people's skills and achievements. This shift towards competency-based education and alternative credentials can bridge the gap between formal education and the skills required by employers. In conclusion, comprehensive education reforms are necessary to empower youth to overcome these challenges and seize opportunities to advance the SDG 4 targets. Investments in education and skills development, leveraging technology, fostering inclusive and equitable learning environments, and embracing diverse cultural perspectives are crucial to enhancing human capital formation. By equipping young people with the knowledge, skills, and values they need, societies can ensure their full participation and success in the 21st-century economy and society. Soumya Bhowmick is Associate Fellow with the Centre for New Economic Diplomacy at the Observer Research Foundation. Anagh Chattopadhyay is pursuing M.Stat, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata. The views expressed above belong to the author(s). ORF research and analyses now available on Telegram! Click here to access our curated content — blogs, longforms and interviews.

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Elementary STEM Units include cross-curricular activities and experiments that teach concepts in math, science, technology, and language arts. In today’s classroom, flexibility is key, and these STEM Units were created to be easily set up and adaptable. Kites in Air is a two-week Elementary STEM Unit for Grades 3-5 in which students work in teams of two to four to find out about kites, to participate in kite-based activities, and to learn research skills. Students will also stencil and create kite designs and make a kite. Each unit comes with a unit guide, teacher notes, scope and sequence, teacher’s guide, student pages, assessments, and all the materials needed for a class of 24 students. See the Kites in Air Contents resource for part numbers and quantities of included items.

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The tube-nosed seabirds, as this group is sometimes called, spend much of their life on the high seas out of sight of land, gleaning food from the water's surface. For most, the nesting season is the only time of the year that they touch land. They are drably colored—usually gray, black, or brown, with white—and range in size from small to very large. External nostrils on the upper mandible endow these birds with an unusually well developed sense of smell and contain a gland used for excreting salt. The order has four families worldwide, of which three are represented in Washington: The smallest of the seabirds, the storm-petrels are usually predominantly dark brown or black, with white or light markings. Several species are mostly gray, including one species in the north Pacific. Many are migratory, and all are nocturnal at the nesting colonies. They fly very close to the water, and much of their feeding is done in flight. Incubation time and the time from hatching to fledging are highly variable because bad weather may prevent the adults from returning to the nest for several days. Eggs can hatch even if incubation is interrupted for up to 25 days, and young can survive extended periods of time between feedings, up to three weeks, by going into torpor, a sort of mini-hibernation to save energy. The ability of the egg to survive with suspended incubation and for the chick to become torpid are important for survival, since the adults spend a lot of time away from the nest looking for food that can be hard to find. The first state record occurred on a pelagic trip off Westport on 24 June 2006. |Federal Endangered Species List |Audubon/American Bird Conservancy Watch List |State Endangered Species List |Audubon Washington Vulnerable Birds List

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William Shakespeare, one of the major literary figures throughout history, has masterfully used various literary devices in his plays. The Tempest, one of his most renowned works, is no exception. In this play, Shakespeare employs alliteration to emphasize certain words and phrases, creating a rhythmic and memorable effect for the readers. Alliteration, defined by the dictionary as the repetition of initial consonant sounds in neighboring words, is a powerful tool in literature. It not only adds musicality to the text but also helps convey meaning and create a specific tone or mood. Shakespeare’s use of alliteration in The Tempest is a prime example of his mastery of this rhetorical device. In The Tempest, Shakespeare weaves alliteration throughout the entire play. From the first pages of the script, the readers are greeted with lines like “Hold thee a-hold!” spoken by the protagonist, Prospero. These alliterative phrases serve as a form of foreshadowing, hinting at the conflicts and dramatic elements that will unfold within the story. One notable example of alliteration in The Tempest is the character of Caliban, the antagonist of the play. Caliban’s dialogue is often filled with alliterative phrases and imagery that help convey his wild and primitive nature. For instance, Caliban describes himself as “a devil, a born devil,” using alliteration to reinforce his self-perception as a wicked being. Shakespeare’s use of alliteration goes beyond mere repetition of sounds; it serves as a vehicle for creating meaning within the text. Through alliteration, Shakespeare is able to highlight key moments, underline important themes, and bring certain characters to life. The use of this literary device adds depth and richness to The Tempest, making it an even more captivating and thought-provoking piece of literature. The conflict between Prospero and Antonio is a classic tale of sibling rivalry and betrayal. Prospero’s desire for revenge is fueled by the wrongs that Antonio has done to him, and this conflict underlies much of the action in the play. Similarly, the conflict between Prospero and the shipwrecked group arises from Prospero’s desire to regain his position and power. The clash between these two groups of characters adds another layer of tension and drama to the story. The conflict between Prospero and Antonio reaches its climax in Act V, where Prospero confronts his brother and forgives him, ultimately choosing to let go of his desire for revenge. This resolution of the conflict leads to a sense of closure and redemption for the characters, as well as a message about the transformative power of forgiveness. Literary Devices in The Tempest In William Shakespeare’s play, The Tempest, various literary devices are used to enhance the overall tone, mood, and meaning of the text. From alliteration to foreshadowing, these devices contribute to the dramatic and poetic elements of the play. Alliteration is a literary device frequently employed by Shakespeare in The Tempest. Through the repetition of consonant sounds, such as “fathom” and “full fathom five” or “wrong” and “wicked witch,” the use of alliteration creates a musical effect and adds emphasis to certain words or phrases. In The Tempest, Prospero is the main antagonist of the play. He holds a powerful and vengeful role, using his magic and manipulation to control the other characters and drive the conflict forward. The central conflict in The Tempest revolves around Prospero’s desire for revenge against his brother, Antonio, who wronged him years before the events of the play. This conflict drives the plot and shapes the actions of the characters. Imagery is a major element in The Tempest, with vivid and descriptive language used to evoke the reader’s senses. From the tempest itself to the enchanting beauty of the island, Shakespeare’s imagery brings the setting to life and enhances the reader’s understanding of the story. Personification is another literary device used in The Tempest, where inanimate objects or abstract concepts are given human qualities. For example, Ariel, Prospero’s spirit servant, is given human-like characteristics, including the ability to think, feel, and obey. Shakespeare employs rhetorical parallelism in many of his plays, including The Tempest. This technique involves the repetition of similar grammatical structures to create a sense of balance and rhythm. It adds depth and complexity to the dialogue, creating a unique and memorable reading experience. Understatement is a rhetorical device utilized by Shakespeare in The Tempest to downplay the significance of certain events or actions. For example, when Ariel declares “All hail, great master! Grave sir, hail!” upon Prospero’s arrival, it is an understatement to show Ariel’s reverence and devotion to his master. Allusions, Imagery, The Tempest Literary Elements, The Tempest Analysis One of the major literary elements in The Tempest is allusion, which is the reference to another work of literature or historical event. Shakespeare alludes to several stories, including the biblical story of Adam and Eve, to highlight and foreshadow the themes and conflicts of the play. For example, when Prospero says, “This island’s mine, by Sycorax my mother” (Act I, Scene II), he is alluding to the character of Caliban’s mother and establishing a parallel between Caliban’s relationship with Prospero and Eve’s relationship with Adam, suggesting a similar downfall. In addition to allusions, imagery is another powerful literary device used in The Tempest. Imagery refers to the use of vivid and descriptive language to create mental pictures for the reader. Shakespeare’s use of imagery helps to accentuate the meaning and emotions of the play. For instance, in Act I, Scene II, Prospero describes the storm as “a tempest that [he] canst not fathom” and “a tempest, like [his] heart” (Act I, Scene II). Through this imagery, Shakespeare conveys the chaotic and tumultuous nature of the storm, paralleling it to Prospero’s own internal conflict. Another important literary element in The Tempest is foreshadowing, which is the use of hints or clues to suggest future events. By incorporating foreshadowing, Shakespeare creates anticipation and suspense for the audience. One example of foreshadowing in the play is when Ariel says to the character of Ferdinand, “Look thou be true; do not give dalliance/ Too much the rein” (Act III, Scene I). This foreshadows Ferdinand’s eventual betrayal and abandonment of Prospero when he becomes infatuated with Miranda, highlighting the conflict between love and loyalty. In terms of rhetorical devices, Shakespeare employs parallelism to emphasize certain points and create a rhythmic effect. Parallelism is the repetition of similar grammatical structures within a sentence or passage. For instance, when Prospero says, “Now I want/ Spirits to enforce, art to enchant” (Act I, Scene II), he uses parallelism to highlight the two major tools he will employ throughout the play to achieve his objectives. This device not only adds emphasis, but also helps to create a sense of unity within the text. The analysis of The Tempest’s literary elements provides a deeper understanding of Shakespeare’s play and its underlying meaning. By examining allusions, imagery, foreshadowing, and rhetorical devices, readers can uncover the layers of complexity within the text and appreciate the skillful craftsmanship of one of Shakespeare’s most memorable works. Analysis Pages: Exploring Literary Elements in The Tempest The protagonist of the play, Prospero, holds a major role in the events that unfold. As the narrator, he guides the audience through the story, providing insight into the meaning of the events. The conflict between Prospero and the antagonist, Caliban, adds a dramatic element to the plot. Their clash serves as the climax of the play, where tensions reach their peak. The use of paradox and contradiction can be found throughout the text. Prospero’s power over the island is a paradox itself, as he is both its ruler and prisoner. The tone and mood of The Tempest fluctuate between light-hearted and somber, reflecting the characters’ emotions and the overall atmosphere of the play. Parallelism is also used to emphasize certain ideas and create patterns within the text. Shakespeare’s intricate use of alliteration and personification adds to the imagery in the play, bringing the scenes to life. Through the use of foreshadowing, subtle hints are dropped early on that give the audience a sense of what is to come. The play also incorporates rhetorical devices to enhance its impact. Understatement, for example, is used to downplay certain situations and create a sense of irony. Dramatic devices, such as soliloquies and asides, allow characters to express their thoughts and feelings directly to the audience, providing insight into their motivations. Finally, the analysis pages explore the use of allusions in The Tempest. References to Madrid and Jorge de Montemayor’s novel, Diana, shed light on the cultural and historical context of the play. The use of the Spanish term “diccionario” further adds depth to the language used in the play. Overall, the analysis pages delve into the various elements at play in The Tempest, providing a deeper understanding of Shakespeare’s masterful use of literary devices, conflicts, and the meaning behind the text. What is the major conflict in The Tempest? The major conflict in The Tempest is between Prospero, the rightful Duke of Milan, and his brother Antonio, who usurped his position and banished him to a deserted island. How does Shakespeare use parallelism in The Tempest? Shakespeare uses parallelism in The Tempest to highlight similarities and contrasts between characters and situations. For example, the characters of Miranda and Ferdinand are both young and naïve, and their love story parallels the love story of Prospero and his wife. What is the climax of The Tempest? The climax of The Tempest occurs when Prospero confronts his enemies, including Antonio and Alonso, and reveals his true identity as the rightful Duke of Milan. This confrontation leads to the resolution of the play’s main conflicts. How does Shakespeare use personification in The Tempest? Shakespeare uses personification in The Tempest to give human characteristics to non-human or abstract things. For example, he personifies the storm as a living being that wreaks havoc on the ship and its passengers. What is the tone and mood of The Tempest? The tone of The Tempest is primarily magical and fantastical, as the play deals with themes of sorcery and supernatural. The mood of the play can vary from lighthearted and comedic to dark and mysterious, depending on the scene. What is the major conflict in The Tempest? The major conflict in The Tempest centers around Prospero seeking revenge on his brother Antonio and those who wronged him. He uses his magic and manipulates the events on the island to bring his enemies to justice. How does Shakespeare use alliteration in The Tempest? Shakespeare uses alliteration in The Tempest to create rhythm, emphasize certain words or phrases, and enhance the musical quality of the language. For example, in Prospero’s famous speech, “Ye elves of hills, brooks, standing lakes and groves,” the repeated “e” sounds create a flowing and enchanting effect.

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The ACT and SAT use exponents and roots on the tests to assess your ability to manipulate expressions. Most students think, “No problem! That’s why I have a fancy schmancy calculator!” but the test makers often use your calculator against you. The questions they serve up will likely involve variables so that your calculator is rendered helpless and any time you spend reaching for it results in precious, wasted seconds. So it is imperative that you know your formulas for exponents and roots and be comfortable using them. One fairly common question type involves fractional exponents, which are root questions in disguise: To help you remember this formula, think of the fractional exponent as a pesky weed that must be removed from the garden. It takes power to pull the greens growing above ground, and the root of the weed is below ground. If you think of the ground as the fraction bar, you will always remember that the power is above and the root is below: If faced with a fractional exponent and you forget what the numerator and denominator mean, remember the weed: Note, however, that if a variable with a fractional exponent is raised to another power, you may not have to convert the expression into root form. The exponents are multiplied, and often simplified into a single whole number exponent: If you need more tips and tricks, be sure to check out our ACT courses! Photo: “Calculator Closeup,” courtesy of Kurt Nordstrom

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Understanding and Supporting Students with Dysgraphia: Classroom Strategies Dysgraphia, a neurodevelopmental disorder affecting writing abilities, poses unique challenges for students in the classroom. From difficulties with letter formation to struggles in organizing thoughts on paper, students with dysgraphia require targeted support to enhance their writing development. In this article, we’ll explore the challenges faced by students with dysgraphia and provide educators with practical strategies, assistive technologies, and accommodations to foster a supportive learning environment. Challenges Faced by Students with Dysgraphia Fine Motor Skills Students with dysgraphia often experience challenges in fine motor skills, impacting their ability to grasp writing tools and form letters. Organizing thoughts on paper and maintaining proper spacing between words can be challenging for students with dysgraphia. Difficulty distinguishing between similar-looking letters, leading to reversals and inconsistencies in writing. Copy and Dictation Tasks Struggles during tasks involving copying from the board or dictation, with a notable discrepancy between comprehension and written expression. Classroom Strategies to Support Students with Dysgraphia Tactile Learning: Incorporate tactile elements into writing activities, such as using textured surfaces or sand trays for letter formation. Visual Aids: Utilize visual aids like charts or diagrams to reinforce writing concepts. Introduction of Technology: Introduce keyboarding skills early on as an alternative to traditional handwriting, providing a more accessible means of expression. Typing Games: Engage students in typing games to make learning keyboarding skills both educational and enjoyable. Structured Writing Outlines Graphic Organizers: Implement graphic organizers to help students structure their thoughts before translating them into written form. Sentence Frames: Provide sentence frames or starter prompts to assist students in initiating their writing. Speech-to-Text Software: Offer access to speech-to-text software to allow students to express their thoughts verbally, reducing the cognitive load associated with writing. Word Processors with Predictive Text: Use word processors that provide predictive text suggestions to support spelling and word choice. Specialized Teaching Methods Orton-Gillingham Approach: Implement the Orton-Gillingham approach, a structured, multisensory teaching method designed for students with dyslexia and dysgraphia. Sequential Instruction: Break down writing tasks into smaller, sequential steps to make the process more manageable. Small Group Instruction: Provide small group instruction to address individual needs more effectively. One-on-One Support: Offer one-on-one support or tutoring for students with dysgraphia to focus on their specific challenges. Time Management and Extended Time Clear Time Expectations: Clearly communicate time expectations for writing tasks, allowing students to manage their time more effectively. Extended Time: Consider providing extended time for writing assignments and assessments to alleviate time pressure. Consistent Routines: Establish consistent routines to provide predictability and reduce anxiety associated with writing tasks. Seating Arrangements: Consider seating arrangements that minimize distractions and provide a supportive environment for writing. Understanding and supporting students with dysgraphia in the classroom involves a combination of targeted strategies, assistive technologies, and accommodations. By embracing a multisensory and individualized approach, educators can create an inclusive learning environment that empowers students with dysgraphia to succeed in written expression. The implementation of these practical strategies not only supports their current academic journey but also lays the foundation for building essential writing skills that extend into future educational and professional endeavors. Understanding Anxiety: Frequently Asked QuestionsWhat is Anxiety? At its core, anxiety is the body's response to stress—a survival mechanism that alerts us to potential danger. It triggers the "fight or flight" response, releasing hormones like adrenaline to prepare... Explore the facets of depression, from key characteristics to types and contributing factors. Uncover the brain’s role with Quantitative Electroencephalography (qEEG), providing insights into unique neurological signatures associated with depressive disorders. Learn when to seek professional help and discover ways to support individuals facing depression. Explore the essentials of anxiety, from key characteristics to various disorders and insights into the brain using qEEG. Learn to distinguish normal worry from anxiety, support others effectively, and recognize when professional help is necessary. Uncover the complexities of anxiety for a path towards mental well-being.

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Artificial voice, often referred to as synthetic speech, represents a significant advancement in the field of artificial intelligence (AI) and natural language processing. It allows computers and machines to generate human-like spoken language by converting text into audible speech. This technology has far-reaching implications, from accessibility and entertainment to automation and human-computer interaction. In this 1000-word exploration, we will delve into the significance of artificial voice, the technology behind it, its diverse applications, and the profound impact it has on our daily lives. The Significance of Artificial Voice Artificial voice is of paramount significance in contemporary technology and communication for various compelling reasons: - Accessibility: It ensures that digital content is accessible to individuals with visual impairments or reading difficulties, making written information available through spoken words and thereby promoting inclusivity. - Automation: Artificial voice is a key component of automation and virtual assistants, enabling machines to communicate and perform tasks more effectively through natural language processing and generation. - Entertainment: The entertainment industry heavily relies on artificial voice for a range of applications, including voice acting in video games, dubbing in movies and animations, and narration in audiobooks and podcasts. - Productivity: It enhances productivity by allowing hands-free operation of devices, facilitating tasks such as setting reminders, conducting online searches, and reading aloud documents. Learn more about the link: text to sound The Technology Behind Artificial Voice Artificial voice technology is a sophisticated blend of various techniques and components: - Text Analysis: It all begins with the analysis of written text, breaking it down into individual words, sentences, and paragraphs. The technology also identifies punctuation and context. - Natural Language Processing (NLP): NLP is crucial for understanding and interpreting written language. It enables the system to comprehend the meaning of words, context, idiomatic expressions, and user intent. - Speech Synthesis: The core of artificial voice technology is speech synthesis. It generates audio waveforms corresponding to the input text, creating a lifelike spoken rendition. This can be done through concatenative synthesis, which combines pre-recorded segments of speech, or parametric synthesis, where the system generates speech from scratch based on linguistic parameters. - Voice Customization: Many artificial voice systems offer customization options, allowing users to select from a range of voices, accents, genders, and speaking styles, enhancing the user experience. Applications of Artificial Voice Artificial voice has a wide range of applications across various industries and domains. Here are some key areas where it plays a vital role: - Accessibility: Artificial voice is pivotal in accessibility tools like screen readers, making digital content accessible to individuals with visual impairments. - Virtual Assistants: Virtual assistants, such as Siri, Google Assistant, and Alexa, use artificial voice to interact with users, deliver information, and perform tasks based on voice commands. - Language Learning: Language learning apps and platforms integrate artificial voice to assist users in improving pronunciation and language comprehension. It provides authentic spoken examples for learners to emulate. - Entertainment and Media: Artificial voice is used in the entertainment industry for voice acting in video games, dubbing in movies, and enhancing the auditory experience in audiobooks and podcasts. - Customer Service: Automated phone systems, chatbots, and virtual customer service representatives utilize artificial voice to interact with customers, providing assistance and facilitating communication. The Transformative Impact of Artificial Voice The widespread adoption of artificial voice technology has had a profound impact on various aspects of our lives: - Accessibility and Inclusion: Artificial voice empowers individuals with visual impairments by offering them equal access to digital content and services, fostering inclusivity and bridging information gaps. - Enhanced Automation: Automation and virtual assistants have become more effective and user-friendly, offering a more natural and intuitive interaction with technology. - Entertainment Evolution: The entertainment industry has been transformed by artificial voice, offering enhanced voice acting and narration in video games, movies, and audiobooks, enriching the auditory experience for consumers. - Efficient Communication: Artificial voice in customer service has improved the efficiency of communication. It provides quicker and more accurate responses to customer inquiries. - Productivity and Accessibility: Hands-free operation of devices, facilitated by artificial voice, has increased productivity and accessibility for users across various industries. Challenges and Future Directions While artificial voice technology has made significant progress, challenges remain. Achieving perfect naturalness and emotional expressiveness in synthetic speech is an ongoing endeavor. Researchers continue to work on overcoming the “uncanny valley” effect, where synthetic speech sounds almost human but not quite. In the future, we can expect continued advancements in artificial voice technology. Machine learning, deep learning, and neural networks will play a pivotal role in further improving the quality and expressiveness of artificial voices. The technology is likely to become more adaptable, capable of understanding context, and even more personalized to individual users. Artificial voice technology has evolved to become a powerful tool with a wide range of applications. Its transformative impact on accessibility, productivity, communication, and entertainment is undeniable. As artificial voice technology continues to evolve, it promises to bridge the gap between written text and spoken language, enriching the lives of individuals and expanding the possibilities of human-computer interaction. Whether for accessibility, productivity, or entertainment, artificial voice has become an integral part of our digital world, bringing artificial speech to life.

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Try Sentence Unscramble with a sample word list! Note: Although this activity is designed for the grade levels above, it can also be used as a remediation or enrichment activity at any grade level with an appropriate word list. - Foundational Skills - Sentence Structure: Syntax It has a subject and a verb, and it conveys a statement, question, command or exclamation. There are only so many different ways to construct a grammatically correct sentence. Students benefit from playing with and creating sentences, including manipulating the word within the sentence to see how their order changes the meaning of the sentence. The ability to recognize sentence structure or syntax will help students become stronger writers. When? Students can begin to unscramble sentences as soon as they have the ability to read them. When students unscramble sentences, they become cognizant of the fact that words have an order in a sentence and without that order, the sentence does not make sense. For example, write the words of a simple sentence on index cards and ask them to arrange the words in order so that the words make a complete thought. Once students understand that words need to be in a particular order to make sense, teachers can deepen the level of instruction to meet the needs of the students. For students who need additional practice with hearing grammatically correct simple sentences, use Sentence Unscramble as a small group lesson. Students drag and drop words into a box in the same order they hear it read in the sentence. When they are finished and submit their sentence, words that have been arranged correctly turn green. If students make an error, they are given another chance to rearrange the words to form a complete sentence. To provide extra support, students can hear the sentence read aloud multiple times, and roll over a word to hear it in isolation. It is also perfect for small group instruction and independent practice. It is especially helpful as additional support for English Language Learners whose native languages have different syntax rules than English. Sentence Unscramble is available as an online activity or printable worksheet.

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by S.A. Holthe When the British gave a charter to the Hudson's Bay Co. in 1670, they granted to that company all the land whose waters drained into Hudson's Bay. These waters included the Saskatchewan River system, which reaches back for its origin to the Rocky Mountains. This entire area was called Rupert's Land and became the fur-trading area of the Hudson's Bay Company. Shaded Area: Rupert's Land, 1670 The Hudson's Bay Co. performed whatever government functions that were attended to, especially so after the two companies -- North West and Hudson's Bay -- merged in 1821. These functions included the administration of justice and the protection of employees from attack by Indians. There were efforts also to resist the encroachment by American traders and whiskey merchants. The company ceased its role when the charter ended in 1870. In 1763, at the conclusion of the French and Indian War, by the Treaty of Paris, France ceded to Britain all claim to the mainland of Canada. Little was known about the vast western area and not all of it had even been explored. When the Hudson's Bay Company surrendered to the British Crown its charter and claim to Rupert's Land in 1870 the Crown, in turn, transferred both Rupert's Land and the Northwest Territories beyond it to the Dominion of Canada. A form of Territorial Government was set up which laid the foundation for both provincial and local government. The Manitoba Act of 1870 set up a mini-Manitoba and also created a Northwest Territories, which encompassed all of Western Canada, except the colony of B.C. The Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba served also for the Northwest Territories and was assisted by a nominated council. This, of course, was colonial government, actually Crown Colony, not local self-government. The Northwest Territories Act of 1885 provided for a Lieutenant Governor and appointed council of five for the territories. However, whenever any area composing 1,000 square miles could claim an electorate of 1,000 persons, then an electoral district could be set up and a member elected to the council. (This did not include Indians, since they did not receive the right to vote federally, mitil March 31, 1961, and provincially, until April 12, 1965.) The Elk Point area was not to benefit from those regulations since there were too few trappers and traders to merit representation. The capital city for the Northwest Territories until 1883 was Battleford, but it was moved to Regina in that year. In 1882, the council divided the southern portion of the Northwest Territories into four political districts--Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Athabasca and Alberta. The district of Alberta was named to honor Queen Victoria's daughter, Princess Louise Caroline Alberta. The spot on the map that was to become the location of Elk Point can safely be presumed to have originally been in the District of Saskatchewan, since our location is at 110 degrees 54' West longitude and the western boundary of the District of Saskatchewan was about 111 degrees 30'W. Because it was the ultimate destiny of this area to become part of the province of Alberta, I will deal with our history as though we were part of the earlier district of Alberta. This perspective conforms to information received from the office of the chief Electoral Officer. The list of names of the Federal Members of Parliament who have represented this area was compiled by that office and must be correct. By 1883 population in the district of Alberta entitled the area to one council member, by 1885 there were four members, and by 1891 there were nine Alberta members in what was called, after 1888, the Northwest Territories Legislative Assembly. The voting population of this potential constituency, composed of the rare trapper or trader, was insufficient to warrant election of a member. In 1888 the structure of the Northwest Territories Council was changed and it was then known as the Northwest Territories Legislative Assembly. From that body the Lieutenant Governor selected, starting in 1897, four men to form an Advisory Council, which, in effect, was a Cabinet. This was an important step toward attainment of fully responsible government. However, in 1886 the former territories area was given a federal representative, and so fur traders of the area were represented by W.D. Davis, a Conservative, from 1887 to 1891, and again from 1891 to 1896. He was followed by Frank Oliver, Independent Liberal, from 1896 to 1900; and from 1900 to 1904 by Frank Oliver, Liberal. The area became part of the Federal Electoral District of Calgary in 1903 and was represented after 1904 by Maitland S. McCarthy, Conservative. Following the granting of provincial status to Alberta in 1905, the federal electoral boundaries were amended in 1906 and the area became part of Victoria Electoral District. From 1908 to 1917 the M.P. was William Henry White, Liberal. Redistribution took place again in 1914; at that time the area became part of the Electoral District of Battle River. The constituency elected William John Blair, a Unionist, in 1917, but switched to Henry E. Spencer, Progressive in 1921. We have been in the Athabasca constituency continuously since 1924 and have been represented in the Federal House of Commons by the following: Charles William Cross, Liberal, 1925-26; Donald Ferdinand Kellner, U.F.A. 1926-30; John Francis Buckley, Liberal, 1930-35; Percy John Rowe, Social Credit, 1935-40; Joseph Miliville Dechene, Liberal, 1940-45-49-53-57-58; Jack Bigg, Progressive Conservative, 1958-62-63-65-68; Dr. Paul Yewchuk, Progressive Conservative, 1968-1972-1974 to the present, January, 1977.

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1977 The G.A.T.E. Case In 1969, the Social Credit government of British Columbia consolidated the province’s weak anti-discrimination laws into a single Human Rights Act and created a Human Rights Commission to administer it. However, critics argued that the commission was underfunded and did nothing to promote human rights in the province (few employers, for example, were even aware of its existence). A British Columbia Federation of Labour report went so far as to suggest that the passage of the act was no more than an election tactic and that the government had little or no interest in promoting human rights. The BC Civil Liberties Association believed that the legislation would do “little to foster or safeguard basic civil rights of British Columbia … The bill is hardly more than a consolidation and updating of existing fair employment and accommodation statutes, and appears weak even within this narrow scope.” [Clément 2014] The New Democratic Party government passed a much more expansive Human Rights Code in 1973 and established a separate Human Rights Branch to process complaints. The government also revitalized the Human Rights Commission and gave it the mandate of promoting and educating the public about human rights. The new code differed from other human rights laws in Canada because it banned all forms of discrimination unless the accused could demonstrate “reasonable cause.” The other laws prohibited discrimination on the basis of certain grounds, such as race. The code would open the door to precedents in areas such as sexual harassment, pregnancy, and sexual orientation. The code and the new branch constituted a dramatic improvement for human rights in British Columbia. In 1975, the branch received seven hundred complaints, operated with a staff of seventeen, and for the first time had lay people from various professions sitting on the Human Rights Commission. Its first official report noted that some of the “decisions rendered in 1975 have dealt with the refusal by a beer parlour to serve members of the counter culture, the refusal by a hotel to provide a Native Indian woman with a room, the refusal by a newspaper to provide advertising space to a homosexual group, and discrimination against a woman in a mining camp over adequate accommodation.” [Clément 2014] Offices were opened in Terrace, Kamloops, Prince George, Vancouver, Victoria, and Nelson. Within a few years, the government could boast a highly active human rights program. In 1978, the Human Rights Branch dealt with 704 complaints and closed 379 cases in areas such as employment discrimination, services, and tenancy. The GATE case (GATE v. Vancouver Sun) was one of the most controversial decisions handed down by a BC board of inquiry (appointed under the Human Rights Code. Formed in Vancouver during the early 1970s, GATE (Gay Alliance Toward Equality) was one of the earliest gay rights groups in the country. Although it was small, with perhaps only seven dedicated members at any given time, it had its own publication, Gay Tide. According to Tom Warner, in Never Going Back, “GATE became one of Canada’s leading gay rights groups, staking out a position that influenced the movement nationally, which included abolition of the age of consent laws, self-determination for Quebec, choice on abortion, opposition to the Vietnam war and rejection of gay liaison with the police. It used pickets and other public actions and published a newspaper, Gay Tide, from 1973 to 1976, to get out its message. During the 1972 provincial election in British Columbia, Vancouver GATE sent a questionnaire to all candidates on changes to a range of provincial legislation. Some support for amending the Human Rights Act was expressed by New Democratic Party candidates, but the right wing Social Credit party, then in power, was blatantly homophobic. One of that party’s candidates, in response to a question at an all candidates meeting, stated crudely, ‘One day society will castrate the whole works of you [gays] to keep you from reproducing your own kind.’ Following the surprise election of the NDP, a more effective Human Rights Act was introduced, in which GATE lobbied vigorously for the inclusion of sexual orientation, without success. The labour minister stated omitting that term would avoid giving homosexuality ‘legal sanction.’ Instead, he argued that the reasonable cause provision, a unique feature of the act, would ensure that ‘gays ought not to be discriminated against in any way.’ Under that provision, discrimination against any person or class of persons without reasonable cause would be prohibited. GATE took up the challenge by filing a human rights complaint in the fall of 1974, citing the reasonable cause provision after the Vancouver Sun refused a classified advertisement promoting GATE’s newspaper, Gay Tide. The Sun claimed the ad was unacceptable because it might offend some of their readers.” The ad that GATE had submitted to the Vancouver Sun, and which the Sun had refused to print on the grounds that readers would be offended, read as follows: “Subscription to Gay Tide, gay lib paper. $1.00 for 6 issues. 2146 Yew St., Vancouver.” GATE appealed to the BC Human Rights Branch, which set up a board of inquiry that sided with GATE. The board concluded that the Sun had violated section 3(1) of the Human Rights Code, which reads, “3(1) No person shall (a) deny to any person or class of persons any accommodation, service, or facility customarily available to the public; or (b) discriminate against any person or class of persons with respect to any accommodation, service, or facility customarily available to the public unless reasonable cause exists for such denial or discrimination.” The Sun quickly challenged the ruling in the BC Supreme Court. The presiding judge concluded that the issue of reasonable cause was a question of fact for the Human Rights Commission and could not be interfered with by a court. The BC Court of Appeal did not agree. In a two-to-one decision, Justices Branca and Robertson focused on the issue of reasonable cause in overturning the Supreme Court decision. They reasserted the court’s power to review any decision imposed by a board of inquiry and chastised the board for substituting a subjective analysis of the editor’s motives for a finding of fact. According to the justices, rather than examining the possible bias of the editor, the inquiry should have concentrated on the potential effect that a gay advertisement would have had on the paper’s reputation. Branca went so far as to justify discrimination against homosexuals as a pervasive bias in the community and therefore a legitimate consideration for the Sun in determining its policies. As he put it, “Many people in our society may well entertain a bias or some predisposition against homosexuals or homosexuality on moral and/or religious grounds. It cannot therefore be justly said that a bias so held has no reasonable foundation … If one bases a bias against homosexuals because they are persons who engage in unnatural sexual activity which may make them guilty of a serious crime in certain circumstances and because they are forbidden entry into Canada as undesirables, can one say that such a bias, if it is arrived at for those reasons, is unreasonable? I would not think so” (GATE v. Vancouver Sun, 77 D.L.R. 487). The decision was designed to limit the scope of the code to matters defined within the parameters of the legislation and to warn future boards of inquiry against adding new grounds for discrimination. Justice Seaton dissented from the decision because he felt that the code required evidence from the accused to justify differential treatment of homosexuals. The GATE case was eventually heard by a full panel of the Supreme Court of Canada. It was the first gay rights case to reach that court. In a six-to-three decision, the majority of justices supported the Vancouver Sun, basing their decision largely on the freedom of the press provisions in the Canadian Bill of Rights, although there was some debate over the validity of the “reasonable cause” limit in the Human Rights Code Speaking for the majority, Justice Ronald Martland concluded that newspapers had a right to express whatever opinions they saw fit and that this right extended to refusing to publish an advertisement. Undeterred, GATE continued to pressure the Sun until the paper finally relented and published its ad in 1980. Clément, Dominique. Equality Deferred: Sex Discrimination and British Columbia’s Human Rights State, 1953-1984 Vancouver: UBC Press and the Osgoode Society for Canadian Legal History, 2014. Smith, Miriam. Lesbian and Gay Rights in Canada: Social Movements and Equality-Seeking, 1971-1995. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999. Warner, Tom. Never Going Back: A History of Queer Activism in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002.

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Achievements of Greek Culture Engaging History Power Points Mr. Harms has designed a number of Power Point and Keynote presentations with key Social Studies Concepts and Critical Thinking Questions to help students understand history. Designed by a teacher for teachers, this PowerPoint focuses on "Achievements in Greek Culture". These history presentations are designed to give students an overview of how Alexanders Empire developed and eventually broke apart. Students will be shown maps, animations and descriptions of some of the great philosophers, art, architecture and literature in these Power Points. The presentation is totally customizable, allowing you to add your own pictures, graphics and animations to take what we've done even farther. It comes with presentation notes to help you discuss the subject and engage them in the presentation. At less than $5.00, it will save you time and lay the foundation for presentations that help students understand and remember. Topics include: Culture, Golden Age, Delian League, Pericles, Athens, Parthenon, Athena, Lyric Poetry, Homer, Tragedy, Comedy, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Herotodus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Sophists, Protagoras, Socrates, Plato, The Republic, Aristotle. Included in The Presentation Package: 1. Keynote Presentation 2. Power Point Presentation 3. Text edit file outline of the presentation and presenter's notes. The package is a digital download (Zip File) of these three items. Ancient World History Presentations We have a number of Power Points related to Ancient World History. These units are proven to engage students in a way that text books and documentaries can’t. Hundreds of teachers are using these lesson plans to bring history to life for students. It’s a unit you’ll use year after year. McDougal Littel's World History: Patterns of Interaction Unit 2 New Directions In Government & Society Module 5 Classical Greece 1570 BC-200 BC Lesson 4 "Achievements of Greek Culture" These materials were prepared by Harms LLC and have neither been developed, reviewed, nor endorsed by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company, publisher of the original WORLD HISTORY: Patterns of Interaction work on which this material is based.

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The Amish community in the United States is one of the most intensely private and distinct religious groups. It’s known for its simple lifestyle, plain dress, and Christian pacifism—as well as a tendency to shun many modern conveniences. They see this as preserving family life and face-to-face conversations and ensuring everyone is self-sufficient enough to live without relying on technology or the outside world whenever possible. The Amish people are descended from a breakaway group of Anabaptists in Europe that Jakob Amman founded in the 17th century. His name is the source of the word “Amish,” which describes a religious group that rejects modern technology and adheres strictly to Christian teachings. You might wonder when did the Amish come to America. In this article, we’ll take a brief look at the history of the Amish and how their culture has survived for centuries—and is still thriving today. Amish roots can be traced back to the Protestant Reformation in seventeenth-century Europe. The Anabaptists (rebaptizers) were so named because they believed it was wrong to baptize infants; only adults should make such an important decision about their spiritual lives. The Anabaptist demand for a voluntary church independent of government oversight enraged religious leaders and city officials and resulted in severe persecution. The Amish’s religious ancestors were part of the Anabaptist movement from 1525 until 1693, when the Amish, led by Jakob Ammann, split from other Anabaptists in Switzerland and the Alsatian region of modern-day France. He and his followers wanted to return to the original teachings of their faith and become more isolated from society. The Amish were a part of a broader migration from the Palatinate and nearby regions that began in the early 18th century and settled mainly in Pennsylvania, which was at the time seen favourably due to the lack of religious persecution and reasonable property offers. About 500 Amish arrived in North America between 1717 and 1750, settling initially in Berks County, Pennsylvania. However, they eventually relocated due to disputes over property ownership and fears for their safety during the French and Indian War. Lancaster County became home to many people over time. About 1,500 more people arrived in the middle of the nineteenth century and primarily settled in Ohio, Illinois, Iowa, and southern Ontario. Most of these late arrivals did not join the Old Order Amish but rather other, more progressive communities. The Ordnung is the set of rules by which Amish adhere to govern their daily lives. These rules vary slightly from community to community and even from district to district within a community. The norms of one society may differ significantly from those of another. All baptized members decide upon the rules that govern the congregation before Communion, which occurs twice a year. The Amish do not engage in evangelism—they welcome visitors, but few outsiders are willing to make the necessary adjustments required by communal living. Communities often grow at a rate of 100 per cent every 20 years; they follow biblical precepts which hold that families should be large and fruitful. The Amish community permits marriage only within its faith, and each family has an average of seven children. Their population is overgrowing. Their defection rate varies by settlement—in most cases, it’s less than 20 percent. This means that, on average, six out of every seven offspring will continue the Amish faith. The Amish have succeeded in the contemporary world through means other than simple reproduction: they have adopted a policy of resistance and compromise. They’ve built up social barriers to keep outsiders out to prevent assimilation. Symbols of identity are outward manifestations of underlying principles. Cultural markers such as the use of horses and buggies, lanterns, a distinctive language and dress style, and a general rejection of technology help set the Amish apart from the present world. The Amish, however, have taken steps to resist modernity’s encroachment into their communities. Dialect use and intermarriage help keep dialects alive; rejection of mass media preserves the group’s specific language; banning formal schooling limits exposure to worldly influences on children’s minds, and reduced social engagement with outsiders keeps them from being corrupted by the non-Amish culture. The Amish are wary of exposing their children to influences from outside the community, so they often send them to private religious schools. Ethnic schools tend not to expose students to potentially harmful concepts such as sex, drugs, or alcohol. The cultural ties that bind the Amish from birth to death help bolster their identity and keep them separate from modern society. Currently, the Amish can be found in 32 US states, the Canadian provinces of Manitoba, New Brunswick, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, and the South American countries of Argentina and Bolivia. The Amish population in North America is estimated to be 373,620. This is an increase of about 12,150 from 2021. The largest group of the population—approximately 62%—lives in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Indiana and will likely continue growing there as well. The Amish move to new areas for a variety of reasons, including the desire for: - Employment outside the farm in specialist jobs, - Rural remoteness, which supports their traditional, family-centred way of life, - reasonably priced fertile farmland, - favourable social and physical settings for their way of life, - proximity to family or other Amish church groups, and - a method for resolving church or leadership conflicts. The Amish are a tightly-knit community with strong ties to their church, which is vital in maintaining their traditional way of life. The Amish believe God has chosen them for a particular purpose and has been set apart from the rest of society. They do not consider themselves separatists since they interact with non-Amish people daily. However, they maintain some distance from mainstream culture because they want to preserve their unique way of life. To this day, visitors to the area of Pennsylvania where the first Amish settled can see signage for Amish-owned businesses and tourist attractions wherever they walk. The Amish are gaining a name for themselves not only by opening their doors to tourists but also by creating cutting-edge pieces of furniture and starting successful businesses. The Amish community is expanding its horizons, and so are its ideas.

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New research sheds light on how a breakdown in the brain’s vascular system predates the accumulation of toxic plaques and tangles in the brain that bring about Alzheimer’s disease. Nearly 50 percent of all dementias, including Alzheimer’s, begins with the breakdown of the smallest blood vessels in the brain and their protective “gatekeeper cells,” according to the study, published in Nature Medicine. That catastrophe causes a communications failure called small vessel disease. Many people with that disease also have white matter disease, the wearing away of fatty myelin that allows neurons to transfer messages within the brain network. In an animal model, researchers found that brain deterioration associated with dementia may start as early 40 in humans. For more than 25 years, scientists have known that white matter disease impedes a person’s ability to learn or remember new things, slows thinking and causes people to fall more often due to balance issues. They identified a link between crippled small blood vessels in the brain and white matter disease but didn’t know what started that process until now. The study explains that pericytes, gatekeeper cells that surround the brain’s smallest blood vessels, play a critical role in white matter health and disease via fibrinogen, a protein that circulates in blood. Fibrinogen develops blood clots so wounds can heal. When gatekeeper cells are compromised, an unhealthy amount of fibrinogen slinks into the brain and causes white matter and brain structures, including axons (nerve fibers) and oligodendrocytes (cells that produces myelin), to die. In a mouse model, the researchers used an enzyme known to reduce fibrinogen in blood and the brain. White matter volume in the mice returned to 90 percent of their normal state, and white matter connections were back to 80 percent productivity, the study found. Reprinted from materials provided by USC.

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Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau are considered two of the most influential and inspiring transcendentalist writers of their time. Ralph Waldo Emerson, who was a lecturer, essayist, and poet, was born on May 25, 1803, and is generally considered the father of American transcendentalism, a philosophy that rejects the idea that knowledge can be fully derived from experience and observation; rather, truth resides in the spiritual world. Henry David Thoreau is his student, who was also a great essayist and critics.Both men extensively studied and embraced nature, and both men encouraged and practiced individualism and nonconformity.In Ralph Waldo Emersons essay Self Reliance and Henry David Thoreaus essay Resistance to Civil Government (Civil Disobedience), both transcendentalist thinkers speak about being individual and what reforms and changes need to be made in society. Ralph Waldo Emerson and his disciple, Henry David Thoreau, who were individualists, attacked the dominant religious, political, and cultural values of American society in order to make people aware that they are more important than everything, including government and society. According to Emerson, society is a barrier against the individuality of its members; and he continued:Society is a joint-stock company, in which the members agree, for the better securing of his bread to each shareholder, to surrender the liberty and culture of the eater. The virtue in most request is conformity.The solution, for Emerson, is self-reliance, meaning that man is only responsible for his own life and he shouldnt be too enveloped in society, which is one of the main principles of Transcendentalism. The other principle is individualism, which was expressed in Thoreaus Civil Disobedience:I think that we should be men first, and subjects afterward. It is not desirable to cultivate a respect for the law, so much as for the right. The only obligation which I have a right to assume is to do at any time what I think right.And in Self Reliance by Emerson: To believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is true for all men, — that is genius. Thoreau was Emersons student, he stayed with him for a while and was affected by his ideas, especially concerning with individual and society. Emersons idea that in society the heart and power of man is drawn out and ignored, which makes people afraid of expressing their own ideas as well as being afraid of truth, led Thoreau to think that:Everyone has an obligation to himself and himself, alone. Too many people in society conform to what the government says is right and moral, when the true meaning of right or moral comes from what each individual holds to be what is right. To become a true individual is to make every decision based upon your own personal belief of its morality, no matter what society says, and to act upon your belief accordingly. The common idea in Emersons Self reliance and Thoreaus Civil Disobedience is the fact that in order to be an individual one must be a non-conformist: Whoso would be a man must be a nonconformist. says Emerson and adds:He who would gather immortal palms must not be hindered by the name of goodness, but must explore if it be goodness. Nothing is at last sacred but the integrity of your own mind. Absolve you to yourself, and you shall have the suffrage of the world.Emersons insistence on being an individual and finding the truth within yourself is astonishing. He says: ”Do not go where the path may lead, go instead where there is no path and leave a trail.”Thoreau followed the same way, as well; but he chose the government as a target and pointed it as a hinder on the way of being a man, as it makes people machines which are programmed to serve for the government: The mass of men serve the state thus, not as men mainly, but as machines, with their bodies. Thoreau tended to attack the government as an entity that promoted conformity and that people used to alleviate their own moral obligations. Emerson tended to promote individualism in thought and action, and promote the idea that individualism allowed one to survive in a changing society.Although Emerson and Thoreau were appreciated by many people -especially the transcendentalists such as Walt Whitman, Emily Dickinson, Edwin Arlington Robinson, Wallace Stevens, Hart Crane, and Robert Frost, and famous political leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King,Jr-, there were several criticisms on their doctrine of individualism and non-conformity. It is very surprising to find a passage which claims that Emerson and Thoreau were not individualists on the internet site of individualists:On the surface, Emerson and Thoreau appear to have been model individualists. But underneath the surface, the their philosophy was rooted in anti-individualist religious doctrines. Also the statement goes on:It is ironic that, in encouraging individuals to break away from social norms, Emerson and Thoreau also urged individuals to mindlessly obey the will of a supposed God. If Emerson had made the relationship between conformity and nonconformity in his philosophy explicit, he might have said, “Whoso would be a nonconformist must first conform to God.Another criticism is from Michelle Aaron, who believes that the problem with Thoreaus theories is his arrogance in ascertaining that if everyone were to become a “true” individual, then they would have a common ground, and succumb to his way of thinking. She adds:I believe that, in reality, the more individualistic we become, the farther apart our views become. People need some sort of common ground to compromise on, that’s true, but society, and conforming to that society somewhat, helps us find that common ground.It is not surprising for Emerson and Thoreau to get criticisms as their individualism was uncommon even in their own time. However, they gave intellectual definition to a diffuse cultural tendency in need of a spokesman. Nineteenth-century Americans earned the world’s respect with their business talent and inventiveness, but from the start world opinion berated them for their individualistic attitudes. What Emerson said to the world, in effect, was that individualism was the virtue that made Americans’ achievement possible.It is easy to see that a greater self-reliance – a new respect for the divinity in man – must work a revolution in all the offices and relations of men; in their religion; in their education; in their pursuits; their modes of living; their association; in their property; in their speculative views.Here he implies how much greater Americans’ achievements would be if they were to enshrine their individualism instead of minimizing it. Emerson thought that all great works were products of individualism and self reliance, claiming that:In every work of genius we recognize our own rejected thoughts: they come back to us with a certain alienated majesty. Great works of art have no more affecting lesson for us than this. They teach us to abide by our spontaneous impression with good-humored inflexibility then most when the whole cry of voices is on the other side. Else, to-morrow a stranger will say with masterly good sense precisely what we have thought and felt all the time, and we shall be forced to take with shame our own opinion from another.In a similar way, Thoreaus main theme theme in his well-known essay, Resistance to Civil Government was the necessity of keeping our own ideas and conscience against the unjust authority:If the injustice is part of the necessary friction of the machine of government, let it go, let it go: perchance it will wear smooth–certainly the machine will wear out. If the injustice has a spring, or a pulley, or a rope, or a crank, exclusively for itself, then perhaps you may consider whether the remedy will not be worse than the evil; but if it is of such a nature that it requires you to be the agent of injustice to another, then I say, break the law. Let your life be a counter-friction to stop the machine. What I have to do is to see, at any rate, that I do not lend myself to the wrong, which I condemn.The factor, which led Thoreau to be in favour of non-conformity, is Emerson, of course. He considered individuality as doing whatever he wanted and ignoring what the people think, which we can find in his words: What I must do is all that concerns me, not what the people think. He explains his words and tries to justify himself by adding that:This rule, equally arduous in actual and in intellectual life, may serve for the whole distinction between greatness and meanness. It is the harder because you will always find those who think they know what is your duty better than you know it. It is easy in the world to live after the world’s opinion; it is easy in solitude to live after our own; but the great man is he who in the midst of the crowd keeps with perfect sweetness the independence of solitude.According to Thoreau and Emerson, individuals are responsible for themselves and should not ask for protection from the state. In his Self Reliance, Emerson advised men to trust themselves and accept the society of their contemporaries, the connection of events that God found for them.Trust thyself: every heart vibrates to that iron string. Accept the place the divine providence has found for you, the society of your contemporaries, the connection of events. Great men have always done so, and confided themselves childlike to the genius of their age, betraying their perception that the absolutely trustworthy was seated at their heart, working through their hands, predominating in all their being.He regarded the reliance on Property, including the reliance on governments which protect it, as the want of self-reliance, and thought that men have looked away from themselves and at things so long, that they have come to esteem the religious, learned, and civil institutions as guards of property, and they deprecate assaults on these, because they feel them to be assaults on property. He claimed:It is only as a man puts off all foreign support, and stands alone, that I see him to be strong and to prevail.In the same way, Thoreau expressed in his famous essay Resistance to Civil Government that when he conversed with the freest of his neighbors, he perceived that, whatever they might say about the magnitude and seriousness of the question, and their regard for the public tranquility, the long and the short of the matter was, that they could not spare the protection of the existing government, and they dreaded the consequences to their property and families of disobedience to it. He said that:For my own part, I should not like to think that I ever rely on the protection of the State. And added that: You must live within yourself, and depend upon yourself always tucked up and ready for a start, and not have many affairs, in order to avoid of the reliance on the protection of the State, which indicates the necessity of living simply.Emerson and Thoreau defined how an individual must be, which can be summed up as trusting your own ideas, finding the truth within yourself as Emerson says: Nothing can bring you peace but yourself and not to let society suppress your individuality. Furthermore, individuals are responsible for themselves and should not ask for protection from the state. The man of principle cannot be constrained into any wrongdoing and will not compromise his freedom and integrity. According to these American writers, the cause of peace is not for the cowardly preservation of the safety of the luxurious and the timid. Sanderson Beck states in his essay on Emersons Transcendentalism that:Peace must be maintained by true heroes who are willing to stake their lives for their principle and who go beyond the traditional hero in that they will not threaten another man’s life-”men who have, by their intellectual insight or else by their moral elevation, attained such a perception of their own intrinsic worth that they do not think property or their own body a sufficient good to be saved by such dereliction of principle as treating a man like a sheep.

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Here at the University of Sheffield, we are interested in how technology can help children and young people manage their ADHD properly so that they can go on to lead successful lives. In order to do this, Miss Lauren Powell and Dr Jack Parker (School of Health and Related Research, University of Sheffield) held a workshop at Ryegate Children’s Centre that involved children with ADHD and their parents using Lego to share their experiences of ADHD and how they think technology could help them manage their ADHD. One child made a Lego model of a guard dog. They wanted to feel safe and liked boundaries (there was a structure either side of the dog) in their life: Another child made a model that represented something that doesn’t physically exist, whereby each brick represented a different set of instructions. They found that when they are given more than one instruction at a time at school, they struggle to keep up with the class and to learn. This is a common struggle in children and young people with ADHD. Another child described how anxiety provoking it is when the teacher gets frustrated with him at school. He said the red brick was used to represent the teacher’s anger and the person’s hand is raised to represent his anxiety. It was great to hear that all six children that attended and their parents enjoyed the workshop. One person stated that they had learned about ADHD and now realise that the common myth of “ADHD is just naughty children” is hugely inaccurate. Written by Miss Lauren Powell & Dr Jack Parker

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The worm farm in Gorton Preschool has always drawn the interest of many children. Every day children eagerly seek to feed the worms our food scraps, and then observe the worms as they gently hold these tiny creatures. We have been engaging in discussions around the importance of worms in keeping our gardens and mother earth healthy, as the worms eat through food scraps and break food and garden scraps into compost. Children’s questions such as “What do worms like to eat?” and “Do worms have a face/head/eyes?” have led us to download some information and images. The children also refer to the posters above the worm farm to discuss specific foods that worms love versus foods they don’t like so much – such as milk, chilli and onions. We created a space with a more visible worm habitat – where the children can observe through glass the changes in the soil and the food scraps as the worms digest these. We will add to the resources in this space in response to how this learning/interest evolves. We have encouraged the children to express some of their developing understanding of worms through various modes, such as when drawing, where they have drawn entire worm families, or at the dough table where they have rolled out the tiniest of little worms. Our aim when engaging in these experiences with children is to not only to foster their sense of respect for these little creatures, but to also to help them to regularly reflect on how the simple practice of placing food scraps in the worm farm rather than in the bin helps enrich the soil/garden/mother earth and reduces landfill. There are many areas in which we can continue to improve in regards to environmental sustainability, and this is one small way. This week the children were provided with an ‘ice painting’ experience to explore colour. The educators set up the experience as a part of our colour project. The children learned about secondary colours, and helped to create these colours by mixing together the primary colours. The children showed great enthusiasm in this activity, and they were fascinated to see the changing colours of the ice blocks after putting different colours on them. This experience allowed children to develop their learning dispositions and sensory skills, and they were learning basic scientific concepts about primary and secondary colours. Our educators and our onsite occupational therapist use a variety of fun ways to help enhance the children’s physical development in Johnson House preschool. This week the children practiced their throwing and catching skills using ‘scoop bats’ and balls. Throwing and catching requires upper body strength, hand-eye coordination, motor planning, and body and spatial awareness. Opportunities to master both throwing and catching skills are important as they are a necessary components of many games and activities played by children in their early years. The children enjoyed working together to further their skills and they showed persistence and co-operation whilst engaging in this experience. This week, the young toddlers in Murray House infants’ room have been observed exploring ball play, throwing and trying to catch the balls, kicking, and rolling them on the floor, as well exploring variety of ways to move the balls around the space. There are a variety of gross motor skills that they have been practicing through engagement in ball play, including balancing, overarm throwing, using a whole palm grasp, as well as squatting down and jumping, just to name a few. Loose parts, such as a medium size PVC pipe, was added into the sand pit to complement this interest. The children were soon observed using the pipe to enrich their play, for example, taking turns to put the smaller balls through the pipe, exploring cause and effect, as well negotiating the positioning of the pipe to alter the speed in which the ball come out the other end! This week, we are saying goodbye to our beautiful Jerle. Jerle is one of the casual educators who has been working across The Infants’ Home. She started her professional journey as a student doing her work placement in Murray House about two years ago. She has built strong connections with children in the toddlers’ room during her time with us, and is always greeted with excitement – “Jerle’s here!”, whenever she arrives for her shift. We wish Jerle the best of luck in her next adventure, working with children in the Aboriginal community in Katherine, Northern Territory. Learning to care for our environment is practiced every day at Rigby House. Our young children are getting very good at sorting rubbish and telling us where it goes, giving left over water to the plants and turning off the taps. This Sunday 3 March is Clean up Australia Day and Friday, 1 March is Clean up Schools day, which includes early learning centres. These special events empower communities to clean up, fix up and conserve our environment. So, this week, Rigby House children and educators have been taking a closer look at our outdoor environment, and we have noticed that there are items there which belong in the bin. How did they get there? The children were puzzled by this question, but we worked out that people may drop rubbish on the ground outside of our centre, instead of putting it in the bin, and that the wind then blows it into our yard and around Rigby House, as well as the roads and our homes. We are learning that when we no longer need an item, we have to think about what we do with it, rather than simply throwing it on the ground. The children have been collecting paper and leaves from our outdoor areas, sorting them with their educators and putting them into the correct bin. We have admired how much nicer our environment looks when we care for it! We’re learning that caring for where we live and spend our time requires constant care and attention and that we are all responsible for looking after it. Family Day Care Exploring mathematics in the early years Sydney Wide Family Day Care educator Edurne has been helping children in her service to explore basic mathematical concepts through a variety of different hands on approaches. The children have been learning how to count by tens and ones and then adding these together. This was woven through the program where they marked the numbers 10 – 100 in sequential order on a number line, used counters as another approach of discovery and constructed a jumping game along the number line. Giving children concrete experiences with a variety of materials with which to explore mathematical concepts allows them to understand that number has meaning.

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The Common Core State Standards, or CCSS, represent a potential reboot for standards-based reform—an opportunity to address some of the design flaws that have diminished the policy’s effectiveness in the past. This new set of standards can replace the various state benchmarks for learning that have dominated K-12 education policy in the United States for at least two decades. These new content standards, which clearly detail the knowledge and skills that all students should possess in mathematics and English language arts, or ELA, are intended to be supported with aligned assessments that reinforce the content messages of the standards and provide evidence of student mastery. When tied with consequential accountability, the CCSS and assessments can lead to improved instruction and, subsequently, improved student learning. This theory of change is intuitively appealing, and there is evidence of success at achieving intended effects on teachers’ instruction and student performance, including both test scores and longer-range outcomes. The CCSS were created in response to the shortcomings of No Child Left Behind-era standards and assessments. Among those failings were the poor quality of content standards and assessments and the variability in content expectations and proficiency targets across states, as well as concerns related to the economic competitiveness of the nation’s future workforce. The CCSS in mathematics and ELA were developed in 2009 by governors and chief state school officers in association with educators and researchers. The standards that they drafted were rapidly adopted in 45 states and the District of Columbia. In addition, two state consortia—the Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium, or SBAC, and the Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers, or PARCC—were created to develop new assessments aligned to the new standards. In general, there is a good deal of enthusiasm for both the CCSS and the assessments forthcoming from the two consortia. Both major teachers’ unions, the National Education Association and the American Federation of Teachers, have endorsed the standards, and polls suggest that teachers are generally optimistic about the potential effects of the standards. Researchers have released a number of studies that have indicated that the standards are of higher quality than most of the state standards they replaced, more coherent from grade to grade than prior standards, and capture essential mathematics and ELA content. While the PARCC and SBAC tests have not yet been released, both consortia are planning several developments, discussed throughout this report, that would represent improvements over prior state achievement tests. Despite the keenness for the CCSS and forthcoming tests, there are a number of likely challenges to the new standards and assessment systems. The purpose of this report is to outline some of these key challenges and offer suggestions for state and federal policymakers to mitigate them. The assessment challenges addressed in this paper pertain to the following seven areas: - Higher proficiency levels. Proficiency level cutoffs on the new assessments will be more challenging than those under the No Child Left Behind Act, or NCLB. These higher proficiency cuts will result in more students failing than under prior assessments. - Technology upgrades. The new assessments emerging from both consortia will require a significant investment in new computer technology. This will prove costly, especially in an era of ever-tightening district budgets. - Computer scoring. New constructed-response items and performance tasks will require either human or computer scoring. Computer scoring will require technological advancement, and there are legitimate questions as to whether computer scoring will be able to assess the full quality of student responses to more ambitious tasks. - Content coverage. New assessments will need do a better job sampling from the full domain of the standards—in other words, cover the full range of standards content, rather than predictably focusing on certain objectives and ignoring others. While the consortia have stated plans to solve this problem, it will be a tall order given the poor quality of prior tests. - Time investments. The new assessments may require somewhat more time to take than prior state tests. While the time increase is relatively marginal, when combined with the general growth of assessment time, this may lead to concern regarding overtesting. - Validating uses for expanded evaluation. Owing to the NCLB waivers, results from the new assessments are to be used for an increasingly wide array of purposes, including evaluating educators. These new uses will require new validity and reliability evidence. - Rollout coherence. The new accountability systems developed through the waivers are also being implemented at the same time as the new assessments, and technical issues with the timing of the new assessments may complicate their rollout. If the standards and assessments are to produce desired improvements in student outcomes, it is essential that policymakers and the developers of the CCSS assessments attend to the above seven challenges. To that end, this report offers several recommendations for assessment and accountability systems in the CCSS era. These recommendations include: - Test developers in the consortia must put assessment quality and alignment issues front and center. This means ensuring the tests capture the full domain of the standards, maintain the cognitive demand level of the standards content, and include a wide variety of high-quality items. - State and district policymakers promoting new uses for assessment data must provide reliability and validity evidence that supports their intended uses to ensure that appropriate decisions are made based on assessment data. - To head off concerns about likely decreasing proficiency rates, actors at multiple levels—including state and district policymakers, researchers, educators, and test developers—must be proactive in explaining the new proficiency standards and why they matter. - The federal government, states, and districts must create and implement more thoughtful teacher- and school-accountability systems that minimize the pervasive negative incentives seen under NCLB. - The federal government must encourage assessment quality in several areas, including giving the consortia the freedom to measure proficiency outside of grade level and refining the peer-review guidance used to evaluate assessments. In short, the proposed recommendations include both political and technical activities on the part of test developers, state and district policymakers and leaders, federal policymakers, and CCSS assessment consortia members. If met, these recommendations can help quell many of the concerns about the CCSS, new assessments, and school- and teacher-accountability systems. Morgan S. Polikoff is an assistant professor of education at the University of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education. This article first appeared on the website of Center for American Progress. Click here to go to the original.

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W-sitting is a term used to describe when a child sits on their bottom with their knees bent towards each other and feet pointed outwards, away from the hips, forming a “W.” Sitting in this position for a prolonged period of time can cause development problems such as: increased risk of hip dislocation, weakened core muscles, increased muscle tightness in the hips/legs, and can even lead to "pigeon-toed" walking. Why is my child W-sitting? Weak core/trunk muscles Excessive hip flexibility aka joint hypermobility Bone alignment/formation during pregnancy Low muscle tone It's the easiest way to sit! Kids love it because it requires the least amount of physical work. Now, some research actually suggests that “W-sitting” is not detrimental simply because children will eventually “grow out of it.” Which is true, to an extent. When a child sits in the W position for a short amount of time, long-term detrimental effects are unlikely. However, sitting in this position, even for a short time each time, creates a habit of W-sitting that increases the above risks over time. When a child W-sits, their base of support is very wide, making it difficult to transition in and out of positions that are important for their gross motor development - crawling, kneeling, and standing. On the bright side, there are many alternative positions that are comfortable and developmentally appropriate! Here are a few to get started with: Cross-legged position aka “Criss-cross-applesauce” - This is the opposite of W-sitting. It promotes proper alignment & motor development by externally rotating the hips & knees. Side sitting aka “Z-sit” - Uses different stabilization tactics that incorporate weight-bearing through the upper body to help the transition in and out of sitting. (Pro-tip: alternate sides so that the child can develop trunk control, strength, and balance reactions on both sides.) Long sitting aka “L-sit” - Great challenge for postural trunk muscles and encourages increased trunk rotation for reaching side to side. Also, this is great for hamstring flexibility! Switching up their playing positions helps children figure out how to use their own muscles and helps them be the strongest kids they can be. Regardless of “growing out of it one day,” it’s so important to teach your kids positions that will strengthen and promote smooth development while still having fun! Campbell, S, Palisano, R, Orlin, M. Musculoskeletal Development And Adaptation. Physical Therapy for Children. 4th ed. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Saunders; 2012:186. Leblebici, G., Akalan, E., Apti, A., Kuchimov, S., Kurt, A., Onerge, K., Temelli, Y. and Miller, F., 2019. Increased femoral anteversion-related biomechanical abnormalities: lower extremity function, falling frequencies, and fatigue. Gait & Posture, 70, pp.336-340.

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Solving one of the longest cases of mistaken identity, University of Alberta PhD candidate Greg Funston recently described a new genus and species of toothless dinosaur from Alberta. Long thought to be a more common ornithomimid, Apatoraptor pennatus instead turned out to be a member of the notoriously enigmatic caenagnathid family. “This is my first time naming a new dinosaur,” says Funston of the prestigious honour. “It’s really exciting on a personal level, but what I am most excited about is what it means for this field of paleontology. In future studies, it will help us to better understand these dinosaurs. It’s a really important specimen.” The mostly complete skeleton was found in 1993, but because it was believed to be a more common ornithomimid, it sat on a shelf at the Royal Tyrrell Museum for 15 years before it was finally prepared for the museum’s 25th anniversary. The mistaken identity laid the foundation for its name, meaning “deceptive thief.” The Apatoraptor pennatus fossil is the first articulated caenagnathid skeleton from anywhere in the world—meaning the bones are still in the same position as when the animal died—and is by far the most complete caenagnathid skeleton from Alberta. The discovery helps fill in some of the missing puzzle pieces on this elusive group of animals. “Because it is a relatively complete skeleton, it helps resolve the relationships of caenagnathids, which have always been problematic,” notes Funston. “Most caenagnathids are represented by isolated material or single bones, which means that we can’t tell if they came from the same animal. Apatoraptor gives us a better idea of what these animals looked like, which tells us if the features we’ve been using to separate species are significant or not.” Feathers used for sexual display With such a beautifully preserved fossil, the scientists were able to use CT scanning technology to fully examine the bones. They were surprised to find pits on an arm bone corresponding with feather scars. “These feather scars suggest that Apatoraptor had a wing of feathers on its arms, although it couldn’t have used these wings to fly,” says Funston. Instead, he explains, the wings were likely used for sexual display to attract mates. “Oviraptorosaurs, the bigger group to which Apatoraptor and other caenagnathids belong, were probably some of the flashiest dinosaurs. We know of three separate ways—head crests, tail feathers and now arm feathers—that they would display to their mates.” Funston worked on the findings with his supervisor, world-renowned paleontologist Philip Currie, professor at the University of Alberta and Canada Research Chair in Dinosaur Paleobiology. He worked with his fellow grad student, paleoartist Sydney Mohr, on the life reconstruction. Mohr used modern birds as inspiration for the colouring. “A new caenagnathid (Dinosauria: Oviraptorosauria) from the Horseshoe Canyon Formation of Alberta, Canada, and a reevaluation of the relationships of Caenagnathidae” appears in the April 14 edition of the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.

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en

When you started learning English, the phrases “What’s your name?” and “My name is…” were probably among the first things you learned. Here are 25 more English expressions using the word “name”! Your full name is your complete name. It might include a first name, middle name, and last name. Your last name can also be called your surname or family name. Depending on your culture, it may include several names and not be just one word. When a woman gets married, she sometimes changes her name. Her name before marriage is called her maiden name, and her name after marriage is called her married name. Some women choose to keep both family names and hyphenate their last name. If you were named in honor of somebody, then we say that you were named after that person. For example, if my name is Rose and my great-grandmother’s name was Rose, then I was named after my great-grandmother. Objects can also be named after people – a city can be named after a famous historical person, for example. If people often call you by a different name than your official name, the different name is called a nickname. Sometimes a nickname is just a shortened or altered version of your official name, and sometimes it is completely different: - Becky is a common nickname for Rebecca - Rich is a common nickname for Richard - A nickname can refer to an aspect of someone’s appearance, personality, etc. – a left-handed person being known by friends as “Lefty,” for example. These very informal nicknames should usually only be used among friends. Sometimes people are known by a pseudonym – a name that is different from their legal name (official name). There are many reasons to use a pseudonym, sometimes because the person’s real name is difficult to pronounce, or because they would prefer to keep some privacy about their personal information. - For writers who use a professional name, it is called their pen name. - For actors, entertainers, performers, and musicians, it is called their stage name. - For all other professions, a person’s pseudonym can be called their professional name. The word alias also describes an alternative name – but this word is usually used when criminals assume a false name in order to deceive people. Finally, in situations where it is necessary to keep the name of someone or something secret, a code name is used. For example, in the James Bond series of movies, his code name is his agent number: 007. Code names can also be used for places or particular projects. More English Expressions with “Name” - “I didn’t catch your name.” = I didn’t hear/understand your name; could you please tell me again? - “I’m terrible with names.” = I have difficulty remembering people’s names. - “Does the name __________ mean anything to you?” = Do you recognize the name _________? - “Yes, that name rings a bell” / “No, it doesn’t ring a bell” = I recognize the name; I know it from somewhere / No, it doesn’t sound familiar “Name” meaning reputation We also have some expressions in which the word “name” refers to your reputation – the general opinion that other people have of you. If a person or company is trying to protect their good name, it means they are trying to preserve their good reputation. To give someone/something a bad name means to cause people to lose respect for that person/thing. If you make a name for yourself, it means you become well-known for your work or activity. A household name is a person or company that is very well-known by a lot of people. Someone who is a big name is one of the leaders or famous people in their field. To drag someone’s name through the mud means to say bad things about them so that other people will have a bad opinion of them. Idiomatic Expressions with “Name” To call someone names means to call someone by a rude or offensive name to insult the person (like kids calling an overweight child “Fatty”). If you are suspected of or accused of a crime, but you prove yourself innocent, you clear your name. Someone who drops names likes to mention the names of famous people who they are somehow connected with – in order to make themselves appear important. Saying something has your name on it means it is something you like/enjoy very much and you must get it. For example, if there is one piece of pizza remaining and you tell your husband, who loves pizza, “that last piece of pizza has your name on it.” If someone doesn’t want to name names, it means they don’t want to reveal the names of people who are involved in something bad or illegal. For example, “I don’t want to name names, but a few of my former coworkers used to steal from the company.” The expression you name it means “anything you want or can imagine.” For example, “The bakery sells bread, muffins, cakes, cupcakes, crackers, cookies – you name it.” Image source: Yoninah

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en

"Bullying" refers to verbal, physical, or mental acts committed by a student to harass, intimidate, or cause harm to another student. Bullying in schools can severely impact students' mental health, well-being, and overall safety. Students, including those with disabilities, face it on school grounds. They might also suffer bullying on school bus rides, at school-sponsored activities, and online. Bullying may include verbal threats and physical assault. It can consist of intimidation or other inappropriate behavior. This can include harassment, disorderly conduct, and acts that disturb the peace. Bullying on school campuses is a growing concern. Parents, school districts, and students should be aware of the severe violations and violence that may occur as a result of bullying. This section discusses the issue of bullying, disciplinary actions, and student protection. Anti-Bullying State Laws In each U.S. state, specific laws govern student behavior, student conduct, and student discipline in the school setting. Several states have passed laws to address intimidation, harassment, and bullying in schools. These anti-bullying laws are meant to promote school safety. They also help improve truancy rates and reduce school violence, among other things. The law requires schools to create specific policies for prevention, training, and enforcement. Students who violate anti-bullying provisions face in-school suspension, out-of-school suspension, and expulsion. Schools and districts may face hefty monetary fines arising from civil liability claims. The goal is to have a positive school climate where students can learn without fear. Examples of specific behavior that constitutes bullying include: - Wearing gang paraphernalia and other clothing meant to intimidate or exclude another - Spreading rumors or misinformation - Posting harmful or explicit pictures, messages, or information using social media or electronic communication, also known as cyberbullying - Taunting or making sexual slurs about a person's gender orientation or sexual status - Name-calling, joking, or making offensive remarks - Physical acts of bullying, such as punching, slapping, or tripping School administrators or their designees have the authority to enforce disciplinary action. They may do this on school property. This ensures students abide by laws during school days during the school year. They must ensure all students are treated fairly. This includes students receiving special education services. Board policy and local laws often require school staff to report any observed bullying behavior to school officials. These laws also mandate professional development for school personnel. This training ensures employees understand and handle bullying effectively. These policies aim to keep the school safe for all students, from kindergarten through high school. Regardless of grade level, all students in the school community deserve to feel safe at school. Federal Anti-Bullying Laws Federal laws do not specifically address bullying per se. However, a school or district can be charged with violating certain federal laws. Schools may violate the First Amendment, Title IV, Title IX, and other laws. Some parents might sue the school or district. State laws also govern school districts. States have also passed their own state laws against bullying. The Supreme Court has also made decisions on this subject. For example, the Supreme Court has held that parents can sue the school in certain situations. In the case of Davis v. Monroe County Board of Education parents sued the school for failing to take action on a sexual harassment claim after they learned about it. There is no federal anti-bullying law, but bullying can overlap with discriminatory harassment. The U.S. Department of Education is committed to safe schools and student learning environments. They enforce civil rights laws under the Office of Civil Rights. These laws prohibit bullying based on race, color, or national origin. They also prevent discrimination based on sex, disability, and sexual orientation. This happens when a student is part of a protected class of people. When bullying happens, schools are legally obligated to address the issue. Students with disabilities have increased protection from the federal government. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 protect these students. Under these laws, students can have an Individualized Education Program (IEP). These plans are implemented to ensure that these students receive appropriate educational services. Disciplinary Measures and Interventions When it comes to penalties for bullying, schools have various options. The school board may use disciplinary actions like detention, suspension, or expulsion. School officials can involve a law enforcement agency if the bullying involves a misdemeanor or other criminal acts. These acts include physical harm, causing bodily injury, or use of force. Law enforcement officers should be called if this occurs. Schools may also focus on behavioral interventions. For example, an intervention plan might be created. This plan can include alternative education strategies and counseling. It may also have a referral to mental health services. These methods help address and correct the student's behavior over a period of time. If students bully others, they might be suspended or even kicked out of their school or district. They could also have to pay money in fines or end up in jail, depending on what they did. If a school district does not do enough to stop or punish bullying, it could also owe a substantial amount in fines. Recognizing Signs of Bullying in Your Child Detecting bullying in your child can be challenging, but there are some key signs to watch out for. A significant shift in their behavior might show they are dealing with bullying. Here are some common signs to look out for: - Frequent absences: They might start by missing school more often. Their school attendance may be decreasing. A sudden, unexplained increase in absence can indicate that your child is trying to avoid a bully. - Disruptive behavior: They might exhibit disruptive behavior at home. This is a potential response to the stress and anxiety caused by bullying. - Missing school functions: A student experiencing bullying may withdraw from school functions. This can include extracurricular activities and school-sponsored activities. Parents should also find out whether their child might be bullying other children. Finding out if your child is a bully requires close observation of them. Watch for signs of aggression, lack of empathy, and a consistent pattern of getting in trouble at school or with peers. These can be indicators of bullying behavior. Bullying can sometimes be linked to controlled substances. This is because students who bully may use these substances to exert power and control over their peers. Similarly, persistent bullying can impact a bully's enrollment. This can lead to frequent withdrawal and absences. Pursuant to the United States Code (U.S.C.), public schools are required to ensure a safe environment. They should all be free from bullying and hazing. If a school employee is aware of bullying, they must report it. This will lead to appropriate school discipline. As parents, you must talk with your children regularly. Remind them that safe schools are their right. It is okay to speak up if something is wrong. Ensuring Safety Beyond School Grounds Bullying can extend beyond the physical boundaries of a school building. It can occur during extracurricular activities, en route to or from school, or online. School-related safety extends to these areas. School officials can take disciplinary action. Moreover, states are also developing laws to address cyberbullying. The safety of students is a shared responsibility of school personnel, students, and parents. Keeping the school environment safe for each individual student is important. Bullying can infringe on the civil rights of individuals. It disrupts the learning environment and adversely affects the school climate. As such, it is an issue that requires continuous attention. It requires comprehensive policies in the code of student conduct and stringent laws for prevention and intervention. Legal Assistance and Due Process Parents may want to seek legal help if the bullying is severe. It is important to note that, by law, students are entitled to due process rights. That means students have a right to be informed of the charges against them and to be heard on these charges. Usually, this must be in the form of written notice. They have a right to tell their side of the story before severe disciplinary action is taken. A lawyer can provide valuable assistance in these cases. They can help the student and the student's parents understand the complexities of state and federal laws. They can help you understand district policies from the state board. Talk to an education lawyer today. You Don’t Have To Solve This on Your Own – Get a Lawyer’s Help Meeting with a lawyer can help you understand your options and how to best protect your rights. Visit our attorney directory to find a lawyer near you who can help. Contact a qualified education attorney to help you navigate education rights and laws.

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The Twelve Labors of Hercules, or Herakles, occupy a special place in the pantheon of Greek mythology, and in the worldview of the ancient Greeks. Touching on the themes of madness, murder, and atonement, the Twelve Labors of Hercules exemplify a great many of the ancient beliefs of the Greeks about human nature, and even explain how the constellations and the Milky Way itself were formed. Many areas in Greece, especially on the Peloponnesian Peninsula, are mentioned as part of the Labors he performed, and many of them today are recognized for the part they played in Greek mythology. The mythological figure’s “Labors” are a series of feats carried out as penance for crimes he committed yet was not fully responsible for like so many other figures from Greek mythology, such as Oedipus, he was a tragic individual, fated to carry out his crimes by powers that controlled his life. Herakles, whose name was later Romanized as Hercules, was the greatest of all Greek heroes. He undertook his feats at the service of King Eurystheus, who was continually portrayed as being a comic figure who was cowed by the great man’s strength and derring-do. The Twelve Labors were later connected by a continuous narrative, in the form of one epic poem, which has tragically since been now lost, written by Peisander, dating back to about 600 BC. Hera, the wife of the Greek god Zeus, had tried to kill Hercules ever since he was born because she was angry that her husband had fathered him with the lovely Alcmene. After being tricked into suckling the infant, she was fixated on getting revenge for the indignity. She sent two snakes into his crib, but he dispatched them immediately with the strength that he had received from Hera through her milk. She later induced a madness in Hercules that made him unknowingly kill his wife, Megara, and their sons. Our hero, filled with shame and racked with guilt, went to Pythia, the Oracle of Delphi to atone. He prayed to the god Apollo for guidance, and was told to go to Tiryns to serve the king of Mycenae, Eurystheus, for ten years as atonement for his crimes. He was then tasked with performing a series of astoundingly difficult feats, called Labors, which took place all over ancient Greece. If he succeeded, he would not only atone for his crimes but be rewarded with immortality as well. Hercules actually despaired at the words of the Oracle, loath to serve a man whom he knew to be far inferior to himself yet fearing to oppose his father, Zeus. Eventually, he placed himself at King Eurystheus’ disposal. Eurystheus originally ordered Hercules to perform ten labors. He duly accomplished these tasks, but Eurystheus refused to recognize two of them: the slaying of the Lernaean Hydra, since Heracles’ nephew and charioteer Iolaus had helped him, and the cleansing of the Augean stables because Heracles had accepted payment for the labor. The king set two more tasks (fetching the Golden Apples of Hesperides and capturing the dog Cerberus), which Heracles also performed, bringing the total number of tasks to twelve. Of the Twelve Labors of Hercules, the first six were located in the Peloponnesian Peninsula. Six others took the hero farther afield, to places that were all previously strongholds of Hera or the ‘Goddess,’ and were believed to be entrances to the Netherworld. In each case, the pattern was the same: Hercules was sent to kill or subdue, or to fetch back for King Eurystheus a magical animal or plant. In the completion of his monumental tasks, Hercules was sometimes accompanied by a male companion (an eromenos), or Iolaus, his nephew. A traditional order of the Twelve Labors of Hercules found in the “Bibliotheca,” by Pseudo-Apollodorus is: - Slaying the Nemean lion. - Slaying the nine-headed Lernaean Hydra. - Capturing the Ceryneian Hind. - Capturing the Erymanthian Boar. - Cleaning the Augean stables in a single day. - Slaying the Stymphalian birds. - Capturing the Cretan Bull. - Stealing the Mares of Diomedes. - Obtaining the girdle of Hippolyta, queen of the Amazons. - Obtaining the cattle of the three-bodied giant Geryon. - Stealing three of the golden apples of the Hesperides. - Capturing and bringing back Cerberus, the dog belonging to Hades. Hercules wandered until he came to the town of Cleonae. There, he met a boy who said that if he slew the Nemean lion and returned alive within thirty days, the town would sacrifice a lion to Zeus. However, if Hercules did not return within thirty days, or if he died, the boy would sacrifice himself to Zeus. Another version of the story says that he met Molorchos, a shepherd who had lost his son to the lion, saying that if he came back within thirty days, a ram would be sacrificed to Zeus. If he did not return within thirty days, it would be sacrificed to the dead Heracles as an offering of mourning. When he found and shot the lion, firing at it with his bow, he discovered the fur’s protective property as the arrow bounced harmlessly off the creature’s thigh. After some time, Hercules made the lion return to his cave. In those close quarters, Heracles was able to stun the beast with his club and, using his immense strength, strangle it to death. During the fight the lion bit off one of his fingers. Others say that he shot arrows at it, eventually shooting it in the unarmored mouth. After slaying the lion, our hero tried to skin it with a knife from his belt, but failed. He then tried sharpening the knife with a stone — and even tried with the stone itself. Finally, the goddess Athena, noticing the hero’s plight, told Heracles to use one of the lion’s own claws to skin the pelt. When he returned on the 30th day carrying the carcass of the lion on his shoulders, King Eurystheus was amazed and terrified. Afraid of the man’s incredible powers, Eurystheus forbade him ever again to enter the city; from then on he was to display the fruits of his labors outside the city gates. Eurystheus would not even announce Hercules’ tasks personally, opting to go through a herald. The king was so afraid of he hero’s incredible power that he even had a large bronze jar made for himself in which to hide from Hercules if the need arose. Eurystheus then warned Hercules that his assigned tasks would become increasingly difficult. Hercules’ second labor was to slay the Lernaean Hydra, which Hera had specifically raised in order to slay him. Upon reaching the swamp near Lake Lerna, where the Hydra dwelt, Hercules used a cloth to cover his mouth and nose to protect himself from the poisonous fumes. He fired flaming arrows into the Hydra’s lair, the spring of Amymone, which was in a deep cave that it only emerged from to terrorize nearby villages. He then confronted the Hydra, wielding either a harvesting sickle, a sword or his famed club. But of course, upon cutting off each of its heads he found that two grew back — an expression of the hopelessness of such a struggle for any but our hero. Additionally, one of the Hydra’s heads, the middle one, was immortal. The details of the struggle are laid out in the Bibliotheca: realizing that he could not defeat the Hydra in this way, Hercules called on his nephew Iolaus for help. His nephew then came upon the idea (possibly inspired by Athena) of using a firebrand to scorch the neck stumps after each decapitation. Hercules cut off each head and Iolaus then cauterized the open stumps. Seeing that Hercules was winning the struggle, Hera sent a giant crab to distract him but of course crushed it under his foot. He cut off the Hydra’s one immortal head with a golden sword which had been given to him by Athena. Hercules placed it under a great rock on the sacred way between Lerna and Elaius, and dipped his arrows in the Hydra’s poisonous blood, thereby completing his second task. Hera, upset that Hercules had slain the beast that she had raised to kill him, placed it in the dark blue vault of the sky as the constellation Hydra. She then turned the crab into the constellation Cancer. Later, Hercules used an arrow dipped in the Hydra’s poisonous blood to kill the centaur Nessus, and Nessus’ tainted blood was applied to the tunic of Nessus by which the centaur had his posthumous revenge on Hercules. Both the geographer Strabo and the Greek writer Pausanias stated that the stench of the river Anigrus in Elis, making all the fish of the river inedible, was reputed to be due to the Hydra’s venom, which had been washed from the arrows Hercules used on the centaur. Eurystheus and Hera were greatly angered that Hercules had survived both the Nemean Lion and the Lernaean Hydra. For the third labor, they found a task which they thought would spell doom for the hero. Since it was clear that Hercules could overcome even the most fearsome opponents by his great strength, Eurystheus ordered him to capture the Ceryneian Hind, which was so fast that it could outrun an arrow. One day, Hercules awoke from sleeping and spotted the hind by a glint of sunlight on its antlers. Hercules then chased the animal on foot through Greece, Thrace, Istria, and the land of the Hyperboreans for one entire year. In some versions of the story, he captured the hind while it slept; in other versions, Artemis told him to leave the hind and tell Eurystheus all that had happened, and his third labor would be considered to be completed. Yet another version states that Heracles brought down the Hind with an arrow between its forelegs. King Eurystheus had given Hercules this task hoping to incite Artemis’ anger at Heracles for his desecration of her sacred animal. As he was returning with the hind, Hercules encountered Artemis and her brother Apollo. He begged the goddess for forgiveness, explaining that he had to catch it as part of his penance, but he promised to return it. Artemis forgave him, foiling Eurystheus’ plan. Upon bringing the hind to Eurystheus, Hercules was told that it was to become part of the King’s menagerie. Hercules knew that he had to return the hind as he had promised, so he agreed to hand it over as long as Eurystheus himself came out and took it from him. The King then appeared, but the moment that Hercules let the hind go, it sprinted back to its mistress; Hercules left, commenting that Eurystheus had not been quick enough. By some accounts, the fourth labor was to bring the fearsome Erymanthian Boar back to Eurystheus alive. On the way to Mount Erymanthos where the boar lived, Hercules visited Pholus (“the caveman”), a kind and hospitable centaur and old friend. Hercules ate with Pholus in his cavern and asked for wine. Pholus had only one jar of wine, a gift from Dionysus to all the centaurs on Mount Erymanthos. Hercules convinced him to open it, and the scent attracted the other centaurs. They did not understand that wine needs to be tempered with water, so they became drunk and attacked Hercules. He shot at them with his poisonous arrows, killing many, and the centaurs retreated all the way to Chiron’s cave. Pholus was curious why the arrows caused so much death. He picked one up but dropped it, and the arrow stabbed his hoof, poisoning him. One version states that a stray arrow hit Chiron as well. He was immortal, but he still felt the pain. Chiron’s pain was so great that he volunteered to give up his immortality and take the place of Prometheus, who had been chained to the top of a mountain to have his liver eaten daily by an eagle. Prometheus’ torturer, the eagle, continued its tormenting of Chiron, so Hercules shot it dead with an arrow. The tale is believed to be meant to show Hercules as being the recipient of Chiron’s surrendered immortality. However, this tale contradicts the fact that Chiron later taught Achilles. The tale of the centaurs sometimes appears in other parts of the twelve labors, as does the freeing of Prometheus. Hercules had visited Chiron to gain advice on how to catch the boar, and Chiron had told him to drive it into thick snow, which sets this labor in mid-winter. Hercules indeed caught the boar, bound it, and carried it back to King Eurystheus, who was so frightened of it that he ducked down in his custom-made storage pithos, begging Hercules to get rid of the fearsome beast. The fifth labor was to clean the stables of King Augeas. This assignment was intended to be both humiliating and impossible, since these divine livestock were immortal, and produced prodigious quantities of manure. The Augean stables had not been cleaned in over thirty years, and over a thousand cattle lived there. However, Hercules succeeded by rerouting the rivers Alpheus and Peneus to wash out the filth. Before starting on the gargantuan task, Hercules had asked Augeas for one-tenth of the cattle if he finished the task in one day, and Augeas agreed; however, Augeas refused to honor the agreement on the grounds that Heracles had been ordered to carry out the task by Eurystheus anyway. Hercules claimed his reward in court, and was supported by Augeas’ son Phyleus. Augeas banished them both before the court had ruled. Heracles returned, slew Augeas, and gave his kingdom to Phyleus. The success of this labor was ultimately discounted as the rushing waters had done the work of cleaning the stables, and because Heracles was paid for completing the task; King Eurystheus therefore determined that Hercules still had seven labors to perform. The sixth labor was to defeat the Stymphalian birds, who were known to eat men, having beaks made of bronze and sharp metallic feathers which they could launch at their victims. The avians were sacred to Ares, the Greek god of war. In addition, their droppings were highly toxic. They had migrated to Lake Stymphalia in Arcadia, where they bred quickly and took over the countryside, destroying local crops, fruit trees, and even townspeople. Hercules could not go too far into the swamp where they dwelt because it would not support his weight. Athena, taking pity on Hercules, gave him a rattle which Hephaestus had made especially for the occasion. Heracles shook the rattle and frightened the birds into the air. Hercules s then shot many of them with his arrows. The rest flew far away, never to return. The Argonauts would later encounter these creatures in their own exploits. The seventh labor was to capture the Cretan Bull, the father of the Minotaur. Hercules sailed to the island of Crete, where King Minos gave him permission to take the bull away, and even offered him assistance. The bull had been wreaking havoc on Crete by uprooting crops and leveling orchard walls. Hercules snuck up behind the powerful animal and then used his hands to throttle it (stopping before it was killed), and then shipping it back to Tiryns. King Eurystheus, who hid again in his pithos at the sight of the creature, wanted to sacrifice the bull to Hera, who hated Hercules. She refused the sacrifice because it reflected glory on Hercules. The bull was then released and wandered into Marathon, becoming known as the Marathonian Bull. Theseus would later sacrifice the bull to Athena and/or Apollo. As the eighth of his Twelve Labors, also categorized as the second of the Non-Peloponneisan labors, Hercules was sent by King Eurystheus to steal the Mares from Diomedes. The mares’ madness was attributed to their unnatural diet which consisted of the flesh of unsuspecting guests or strangers to the island. Some versions of the myth say that the mares also expelled fire when they breathed. The Mares, which were the terror of Thrace, were kept tethered by iron chains to a bronze manger in the now vanished city of Tirida. They were named Podargos (The Swift), Lampon (The Shining), Xanthos (The Yellow), and Deinos (or Deinus, The Terrible). In one version of this feat, Herakles brought a number of volunteers to help him capture the giant horses. After overpowering Diomedes’ men, he broke the chains that tethered the horses and drove the mares down to sea. Unaware that they were man-eating and uncontrollable, Heracles left them in the charge of his favored companion, Abderus, while he left to fight Diomedes. Upon his return, Heracles found that the boy had been eaten. As revenge, Heracles fed Diomedes to his own horses and then founded Abdera next to the boy’s tomb. In another version, Heracles, who was visiting the island, stayed awake so that he didn’t have his throat cut by Diomedes in the night and cut the chains binding the horses once everyone was asleep. Having scared the horses onto the high ground of a knoll, Heracles quickly dug a trench through the peninsula, filling it with water and thus flooding the low-lying plain. When Diomedes and his men turned to flee, Heracles killed them with an axe and fed Diomedes’ body to the horses to calm them. In yet another version, Heracles first captured Diomedes and fed him to the mares before releasing them. Only after realizing that their King was dead did his men, the Bistonians, attack Heracles. Upon seeing the mares charging at them, led in a chariot by Abderus, the Bistonians turned and fled. All the versions of this disturbing story relate how eating human flesh makes the horses calmer, giving Heracles the opportunity to bind their mouths shut, and easily take them back to King Eurystheus, who dedicated the horses to Hera. In some versions, they were allowed to roam freely around Argos, having become tamed, but in others, Eurystheus ordered the horses taken to Olympus to be sacrificed to Zeus. He refused them, however, and sent wolves, lions, and bears to kill them. After this feat was accomplished by our hero, King Eurystheus sent Heracles to bring back Hippolyta’s Girdle. King Eurystheus’ daughter Admete desired the Belt of Hippolyta, queen of the Amazons, which had been a gift from her father Ares. To please his daughter, Eurystheus ordered Heracles to retrieve the belt as his ninth great labor. Taking a band of friends with him, Heracles set sail, stopping at the island of Paros, which was inhabited by the sons of Minos. Herakles took two of Minos’ grandsons, Alcaeus and Sthenelus, continuing on their voyage and landing at the court of Lycus, whom Heracles defended in a battle against King Mygdon of Bebryces. After killing King Mygdon, Heracles gave much of the land to his friend Lycus. Lycus called the land Heraclea. The crew then set off for Themiscyra, where Hippolyta lived. All would have gone well for Heracles had it not been for Hera. Hippolyta, impressed with Heracles and his exploits, agreed to give him the belt and would have done so had Hera not disguised herself and walked among the Amazons, sowing seeds of distrust. She claimed the strangers were plotting to carry off the queen of the Amazons. Alarmed, the women set off on horseback to confront Heracles. When Heracles saw them, he thought Hippolyta had been plotting such treachery all along and had never meant to hand over the belt, so he killed her, took the belt and returned to Eurystheus. The tenth labor was to obtain the Cattle of the three-bodied giant Geryon. In the fullest account in the Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus, Heracles had to go to the island of Erytheia in the far west (sometimes identified with the Hesperides, or with the island which forms the city of Cádiz, Spain) to obtain the cattle. On the way there, he crossed the Libyan desert and became so frustrated at the heat that he shot an arrow at the Sun. The sun-god Helios “in admiration of his courage” gave Heracles the golden cup Helios used to sail across the sea from west to east each night. Heracles delivered the cup to Erytheia. Heracles portrayed riding in this cup was a favorite motif on Ancient Greek black-figure pottery. Such a magical conveyance, of course, undercuts any literal geographic location for Erytheia, the “red island” of the sunset. When Heracles landed at Erytheia, he was confronted by the two-headed dog Orthrus. With one blow from his olive-wood club, Heracles killed the beast. Eurytion the herdsman came to assist Orthrus, but Heracles dealt with him the same way. On hearing the commotion, Geryon sprang into action, carrying three shields and three spears, and wearing three helmets. He attacked Heracles at the River Anthemus, but was slain by one of Heracles’ poisoned arrows. Heracles shot so forcefully that the arrow pierced Geryon’s forehead, “and Geryon bent his neck over to one side, like a poppy that spoils its delicate shapes, shedding its petals all at once” . Heracles then had to herd the cattle back to Eurystheus. In Roman versions of the narrative, Heracles drove the cattle over the Aventine Hill on the future site of Rome. The giant Cacus, who lived there, stole some of the cattle as Heracles slept, making the cattle walk backwards so that they left no trail, a repetition of the trick of the young Hermes. According to some versions, Heracles drove his remaining cattle past the cave, where Cacus had hidden the stolen animals, and they began calling out to each other. In other versions, Cacus’ sister Caca told Heracles where he was. Heracles then killed Cacus, and set up an altar on the spot, later the site of Rome’s Forum Boarium (the cattle market). To annoy Heracles, Hera sent a gadfly to bite the cattle, irritate them, and scatter them. Within a year, Heracles retrieved them. Hera then sent a flood which raised the level of a river so much that Heracles could not cross with the cattle. He piled stones into the river to make the water shallower. When he finally reached the court of Eurystheus, the cattle were sacrificed to Hera. After Heracles completed the first ten labors, Eurystheus gave him two more, after claiming that slaying the Hydra and cleaning the Augean Stables did not count. The first additional labor was to steal three of the golden apples from the garden of the Hesperides. Hercules had to first catch the Old Man of the Sea, the shapeshifting sea god, in order to learn where the Garden of the Hesperides was located. In some variations of the tale, Hercules, either at the start or at the end of this task, meets Antaeus, who was invincible as long as he touched his mother, Gaia, the Earth. Heracles then killed Antaeus by holding him aloft and crushing him in a bear hug. Herodotus claims that Hercules stopped in Egypt, where King Busiris decided to make him the yearly sacrifice, but Heracles burst out of his chains. Hercules finally made his way to the garden of the Hesperides, where he encountered Atlas holding up the heavens on his shoulders. Hercules persuaded Atlas to get the three golden apples for him by offering to hold up the heavens in his place for a little while. Atlas could get the apples because, in this version, he was the father or otherwise related to the Hesperides. This would have made the labor – like the Hydra and the Augean stables – void because Heracles had received help. When Atlas returned, he decided that he did not want to take the heavens back, and instead offered to deliver the apples himself, but Hercules tricked him by agreeing to remain in place of Atlas on the condition that Atlas relieve him temporarily while Heracles adjusted his cloak. Atlas agreed, but Hercules reneged and walked away with the apples. According to an alternative version, Hercules slew Ladon, the dragon who guarded the apples instead. King Eurystheus was again furious that Heracles had accomplished something that he had thought could not possibly be done. The twelfth and final labor was the capture of Cerberus, the three-headed, dragon-tailed dog that was the guardian of the gates of the Underworld. To prepare for his descent into the Underworld, Heracles went to Eleusis (or Athens) to be initiated in the Eleusinian Mysteries. He then entered the Underworld with the gods Hermes and Athena as his guides. While in the Underworld, Hercules met Theseus and Pirithous. The two companions had been imprisoned by Hades for attempting to kidnap Persephone. One tradition tells of snakes coiling around their legs, then turning into stone; another that Hades feigned hospitality and prepared a feast, inviting them to sit. They unknowingly sat in chairs of forgetfulness and were permanently ensnared. When Heracles had pulled Theseus first from his chair, some of his thigh stuck to it (this explains the supposedly lean thighs of Athenians), but the Earth shook at the attempt to liberate Pirithous, whose desire to have the goddess for himself was so insulting that he was doomed to stay behind. Hercules found Hades and asked permission to bring Cerberus to the surface, which Hades agreed to if Hercules could subdue the beast without using weapons. Heracles overpowered Cerberus with his bare hands and slung the beast over his back. He carried Cerberus out of the Underworld through a cavern entrance in the Peloponnese and brought it to King Eurystheus, who again fled into his pithos in fear. Eurystheus begged Hercules to return Cerberus to the Underworld, offering in return to release him from any further labor when Cerberus disappeared back to his master. After completing the Twelve Labors, one tradition says Hercules joined Jason and the Argonauts in their quest for the Golden Fleece. However, Herodotus, who lived c. 400 BC, disputed this and denied Hercules ever sailed with the Argonauts. A separate tradition, the Argonautica, relates Hercules accompanying the Argonauts, but he did not travel with them as far as Colchis. According to Euripides’ play “Herakles,” it is at this point after his labors are completed and he is returning home to meet his wife and family that he is driven mad and kills them, after which he is exiled from Thebes and leaves for Athens. He also successfully fought the river god Achelous for the hand of Deianeira, according to some legends. As he was taking her home, a Centaur called Nessus attempted to violate her, and Heracles shot him with one of his poisoned arrows. As the Centaur lay dying, he told Deianeira to preserve the blood from his wound, and if Heracles wore a garment rubbed with it he would love only her forever. Several years later, however, Heracles fell in love with Iole, the daughter of Eurytus, who was the king of Oechalia. Deianeira then sent Hercules a garment smeared with the blood of the centaur. A grim plot twist occurred at that point, however, as the blood acted as a powerful poison, and the great Heracles died. His body was then placed on a pyre on Mount Oeta (Modern Greek Oíti), and his mortal remains were consumed; however, true to his mythological powers, his divine part ascended to heaven, becoming a god. After arriving there he was reconciled to Hera and then married Hebe

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Science has found new evidence of the causes of fainting MICHEL MARTIN, HOST: And now an update on the science of swooning. NPR's Jon Hamilton reports on evidence that fainting can be caused by a newly discovered pathway between the heart and the brain. JON HAMILTON, BYLINE: About 40% of people pass out at some point in their lives. Vineet Augustine of the University of California, San Diego, says often there's no medical reason. VINEET AUGUSTINE: A lot of people faint at the sight of blood, or, like, when you're exposed to a very intense emotional stimulus, you would faint. HAMILTON: Doctors call this sort of fainting vasovagal syncope. It occurs when there's a sudden drop in heart rate and blood pressure. That reduces circulation to the brain, which shuts down the circuits that keep us conscious. Augustine says research dating back to the 19th century links this type of fainting to the vagus nerve, which connects the brain to internal organs including the heart, lung and gut. AUGUSTINE: But what was not clear was which part of the vagus nerve. The vagus nerve is big. It's a major highway between the body and the brain. HAMILTON: Scientists once thought the vagus nerve was merely a way for the brain to control internal organs, but studies show it's a two-way street. The gut, for example, can also affect the brain. Augustine's team figured that might be true of the heart as well. AUGUSTINE: What we were trying to argue - well, the heart also sends signals back to the brain, which can influence its function and behavior. HAMILTON: The team used genetic tools to study the vagus nerve in mice, and they found a group of nerve cells that connect the heart's ventricles, which pump blood, with a small region of the brainstem, which regulates breathing and heart rate. To see whether this pathway could cause fainting, they used a pulse of laser light to stimulate those nerve cells in mice. AUGUSTINE: When the pulse hits them, the heart rate immediately dips. They wobble around a little bit, and then around seven seconds, they fall over. HAMILTON: And like people who faint, their pupils dilate; their eyes roll back; their breathing slows, and their blood pressure plummets. The finding, which appears in the journal Nature, seems to confirm that fainting can be triggered by this pathway between the heart and brain. Dr. Rob Wilson, a neurologist at the Cleveland Clinic, says the study also provides a clearer picture of how the brain and body usually work together to keep us from passing out. ROB WILSON: There's this whole orchestra that responds to how the blood's flowing to the body. It tells the heart how to speed up, how much to pump, how much to move as a response. HAMILTON: Wilson says scientists are just beginning to understand how that works. For example, it's only been a few years since a team explained the reflex that keeps blood pressure constant whether we're sitting or standing. That research helped win a Nobel Prize in 2021. Wilson says the discovery of a fainting reflex could eventually help patients with disorders that affect blood flow to the brain. WILSON: This is probably a new door to go through for treatments and understanding. HAMILTON: Wilson says autonomic disorders, which affect the brain's regulation of internal organs, didn't used to get much attention. WILSON: Then COVID occurred, and a lot of the long COVID patients have autonomic dysfunction - dizziness, fainting - and it's a big deal. HAMILTON: Suddenly, there are a lot more people passing out, apparently because COVID affects some of the signals that pass through the vagus nerve. Wilson says he has limited options for patients who faint frequently for no obvious reason. WILSON: Sometimes people just need to avoid triggers, and sometimes people might need an actual medication to sort of prevent this from happening at times. HAMILTON: But those medications may simply raise a person's blood pressure. The new study could help find a treatment that addresses the underlying problem. Jon Hamilton, NPR News. (SOUNDBITE OF MUSIC) Transcript provided by NPR, Copyright NPR. NPR transcripts are created on a rush deadline by an NPR contractor. This text may not be in its final form and may be updated or revised in the future. Accuracy and availability may vary. The authoritative record of NPR’s programming is the audio record.

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With a new planetwide analysis of vertebrate life, an international team has used 21st century science to update an iconic 1876 map of Earth’s zoological regions. By incorporating data on 21,037 species of mammals, birds and amphibians, Jean-Philippe Lessard, now at McGill University in Montreal, and his colleagues have revised a zoological map created by Alfred Russel Wallace, an oft-overlooked cofounder of the theory of evolution. Wallace’s map divided Earth’s landmasses into six major regions, each with its own distinctive blend of vertebrates. Over the years scientists have redistricted Wallace’s wildlife precincts several times, mostly to fit the growing trove of information on what species live where. Lessard and his colleagues, however, use not just species distributions but family tree relationships. Incorporating degrees of kinship revives the evolutionary spirit of Wallace’s original map, Lessard and colleagues say online December 20 in Science. The notion of regional mixes of animals intrigued 19th century thinkers as they struggled toward a theory of evolution by natural selection. Naturalists noted that similar habitats in far-flung places looked as if they could nourish the same fauna, but often didn’t. A modern reader of Wallace’s and Darwin’s notes and letters on biogeography might say that the signature of evolutionary history lay right in front of them: Regional mixes reflect where animal lineages originated and how shifting continents and emerging barriers or bridges guided the descendants’ spread. One of the most bizarre of these regional breaks occurs to the southeast of the Oriental suite of species in India, Indochina and the islands that trail off toward Australia. When Wallace visited Bali in 1856, he puzzled over how the neighboring island of Lombok has similar soil and climate but noticeably different creatures. Yet Lombok lies within sight of Bali. Lombok marks the border where Australian zoology begins, Wallace eventually concluded. When he published his map of animal regions, he drew a boundary, now known as Wallace’s line, that separates Bali and Lombok and then wiggles northward through the Malay archipelago. To reevaluate Wallace’s boundaries, Lessard and his colleagues used computers to divide the planet’s land into squares on a grid and compared how many species from the three vertebrate groups each square shared with other squares. Using massive family trees developed at the University of Copenhagen and other places, the researchers gave more weight to differences between squares if their species were only distantly related. Analyzing just birds, researchers placed a new boundary largely along Wallace’s famous line. Adding mammals and amphibians, however, shifted the line. The biggest change from older maps, Lessard says, stretches the old Palearctic realm of northern Eurasia into the Western Hemisphere. The new evolutionary approach also highlights just how unusual Australian animals are, Lessard says. People think of kangaroos and other Australian mammals as odd, but it was the amphibians that launched the realm’s distinctness scores to extremes. The new map is “really the closest we’ve got to mapping life on Earth while considering the way it evolved,” says Şerban Procheş of the University of KwaZulu-Natal’s Westville campus in South Africa. He and a colleague published their own version of zoological regions in March. Their map didn’t adjust for species relatedness, but Procheş muses that it may be easier for people to grasp because it offers examples of characteristic species. These, of course, are animal species. Plants tend to be better than animals at dispersing across oceans, according to genetic analyses, says James Richardson of the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. “For this reason floristic divisions may not be as clear as zoogeographic ones,” he says.

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FLICKR, HARVEY BARRISON The long haul Frigatebirds spend weeks or even months at a time cruising above open ocean, spearing fish from the surface. Their voyages take them far from any place to rest, and the birds can’t swim, which has made their feats of endurance a biological puzzle. Ornithologist Henri Weimerskirch of the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) and colleagues fixed GPS trackers, accelerometers, and heart rate monitors to frigatebirds to track their travels and energy expenditure. In a study published this summer (July 1) in Science, the researchers reported that the birds spent about as little energy soaring hundreds of miles every day as they would sitting at rest. Their trick is to ride thermal currents upward for thousands of feet and then glide down while the enormous birds prowl for prey, the authors found. An instinctive... The birds displayed another feat of aerial acumen: flying into the center of cumulus clouds where turbulent currents push them as high as 2.5 miles. “It’s the only bird that is known to intentionally enter into a cloud,” Weimerskirch told NPR’s All Things Considered, adding: “there is no other bird flying so high relative to the sea surface.” FLICKR, RAZVAN ORENDOVICI The other Stone Age Humans began using tools to solve problems thousands of years ago, but our primate relatives are not too far behind. Capuchin monkeys are known to deploy rocks and sticks for various purposes, but according to a recent geological find, they’ve been using rocks as hammers for at least 700 years. “This is the first time that non-Great Ape tool use has been documented in the archaeological record,” Robert Shumaker, an evolutionary biologist not associated with the study, told The Christian Science Monitor. Researchers at a national park in Brazil excavated below groves of cashew trees and discovered stone tools buried in the ground that resembled those used by modern monkeys. Brazilian bearded capuchins (Sapajus libidinosus) that live in this area have a hammer-and-anvil technique for smashing open the thick, toxic shell of a cashew nut, setting the nut on a flat stone and swinging at it with a smaller one, the researchers noted in their paper, published this summer (July 11) in Current Biology (see video, below). The tools become stained with dark resin from the nuts, a telltale sign for archaeologists. Capuchins developed tool use independently from their ape and chimpanzee cousins, so their case might expand our understanding of how primates discover and spread tool use, the authors write. PUBLICDOMAINPICTURES, KEN KISTLER Azteca ants (Azteca sericeasur) live on coffee plantations in the south of Mexico, where they’re at the center of a complex ecological web. Kate Mathis of the University of Arizona and colleagues have been untangling this web for the last six years, starting with an investigation into the phorid flies (Pseudacteon) that parasitize these ants. The team discovered that the flies locate ants by eavesdropping on their communication system, following the scent of an alarm pheromone and then laying eggs inside the ants. But phorid flies are not the only ones trying to find the ants. During experiments in which Mathis released alarm pheromones to document the behavior of the flies, tiny beetles (Myrmedonota xipe) kept crowding in on the experiment and causing a nuisance, the scientists found. Upon closer investigation, the team realized that the beetles prey upon the parasitized and debilitated ants. In a container full of both healthy and parasitized ants, the researchers watched the beetles go straight for the weaker targets, following the alarm pheromone. “When the beetles tried to attack healthy ants, they were swiftly rebuffed. But when they attacked parasitized ants, the ant essentially stood still as the beetle ate it alive,” Mathias wrote at The Conversation. The team’s results were published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B last month (August 10). Bats navigate the nighttime landscape with the help of echolocation, letting off chirps and listening when sound waves bounce off obstacles. But when it comes to finding the nectar-rich flowers that some bats feed on, they don’t just follow the noise, they follow their nose, too, researchers from the University of Ulm, Germany, reported in Royal Society Open Science last month (August 10). Bats can detect a nearby flower with echolocation, but following the scent of a flower can allow them to find food that is much farther away. The researchers presented lesser long-nosed bats (Leptonycteris yerbabuenae) with a choice between an artificial flower that they could both smell and echolocate, or one that they could either only smell or only echolocate. The bats usually chose the combined stimuli, indicating they incorporate both smell and echolocation when they’re searching for a meal. “Some bat-pollinated plant species evolved structures reflecting conspicuous echoes that attract bats to the food source,” the authors wrote in their paper, noting that the findings could help explain why bat-pollinated plants also frequently produce strong scents. Interestingly, when the bats had a choice between an isolated auditory cue (a flower-shaped object) and an olfactory cue (a puff of flower scent), the animals showed no preference for one or the other, possibly meaning bats rely on their noses just as much as their large ears, the researchers wrote. FLICKR, SYLKE ROHRLACH Pipe down up there! Cargo ships are known to affect marine life in a number of ways. Researchers at Syracuse University in New York and their colleagues recently added to the list, reporting evidence that underwater noise pollution from ships disturbs the feeding habits of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae). The team’s findings were published in Biology Letters last month (August 9). Whales are sensitive listeners, using sound to communicate and to monitor their environment, so they’re vulnerable to disruptive, foreign noises, the researchers noted. As Hans Thewissen of Northeast Ohio Medical University put it: “If you sit at a black-tie dinner, and someone blows a tuba in your ear, you might get up and leave. Same with the whales,” he told the Associated Press (AP). The researchers attached microphones and satellite trackers to whales and recorded the animals’ behaviors as ships passed by overhead. They found the animals dived more slowly in the presence of ships—reducing the amount of time they could spend hunting near the bottom—and performed fewer side rolls—a maneuver they use to catch fish. It’s too soon to tell if these behavioral shifts could affect population survival. “They’ve been having to put up with this for decades probably,” study coauthor David Wiley of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration told the AP. “It’s another warning that we do need to be very concerned about noise in the oceans because we don’t know the impacts.”

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Carbonated water for steam and power Delft geophysicists are participating in the international Succeed study into the effects of CO2 storage in geothermal geysers. How does the gas affect the subsurface? In the Netherlands you can pump hot water out of the ground, but in Iceland, Turkey and New Zealand there is steam everywhere,” says Dr Karl-Heinz Wolf. “Geysers erupt continuously, fed by an almost endless supply of geothermal energy and by water that flows down through large fault zones.” This releases so much steam that connected generators produce as much electricity as a large coal-fired power station. A geothermal well seems like an eternal source of green electricity. But it often doesn’t last that long. Steam pressure can drop over time (at least 40 bar of working pressure is required to power a turbine) because the water supply decreases, or because passages become blocked due to an earthquake. And nor is geothermal steam climate neutral. Along with water and steam, greenhouse gases such as CO₂ and CH₄ (methane) are released from the ground. Depending on the composition of the ground, carbon emissions can be close to half of that produced by a gas-fired power station. How great would it be if you could capture the CO₂ and inject it back into the ground with the cold water so that it also stimulates production? The Succeed research project (Synergetic Utilisation of CO₂ Storage Captured with gEothermal Energy Deployment) is attempting to do precisely that. One cubic metre of water in the subsurface can contain about 10% CO₂ by volume, Wolf estimates. This carbonated water is injected under high pressure and dissolves in water at a depth of a few kilometres, at fluid pressures above 100 bar. According to the researchers, carbon dioxide gas in the return flow can have a dual effect. Under the influence of the acidic spring water, mineralogical changes take place in porous rock underground. For example, the micropores in limestone can become worm-like pores, which increases their permeability. During the ascent the carbon dioxide dissolved in hot water will create additional expansion – and a greater steam pressure. To test these expectations, researchers want to be able to follow the CO₂ water mix in the subsurface. This requires field measurements and geo-physical laboratory research. The Applied Geophysics and Petrophysics research group (CEG) is to participate in field experiments in Turkey as a research partner, producing images of the subsurface and providing lab support. Delft researchers are working alongside the company Seismic Mechatronics to take and interpret seismic measurements. An environmentally friendly electric vibration source, developed by Dr. Guy Drijkoningen (CEG), transmits signals through the subsurface, while a network of fibre-optic cables in the well and at the surface registers the return signals from the subsurface. In four years’ time, we should be able to understand the effect of injecting CO₂ into the geothermal source.

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Convert Decimal to Fraction Decimals and fractions both are ways of showing parts of a whole. To convert a decimal to a fraction, follow these steps: Write the digits in the decimal as the numerator. Write as many zeroes after 1 in the denominator, as there were decimal places (digits to the right of the decimal point) in the decimal number. Reduce the fraction to its lowest form.

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The vast wetlands of central tropical Africa hide one of the world’s most enigmatic and awe-inspiring avian wonders – the shoebill stork. Known for its striking appearance, mysterious behavior, and status as a living relic of prehistoric times, the shoebill stork is a fascinating and elusive creature. In this comprehensive exploration, we will delve into the world of the shoebill, uncovering its unique characteristics, habitat, behavior, conservation status, and the efforts being made to protect this magnificent bird. I. The Enigmatic Shoebill Stork 1. Appearance and Characteristics The shoebill stork (Balaeniceps rex) is unmistakable, thanks to its massive shoe-shaped bill. Standing at around 4.5 to 5.5 feet (1.37 to 1.67 meters) tall, it boasts a wingspan of approximately 7 to 8 feet (2.12 to 2.44 meters). These striking dimensions, coupled with its predominantly gray plumage and piercing yellow eyes, make the shoebill a sight to behold. 2. Habitat and Range Shoebills are native to the extensive wetlands and papyrus swamps of central tropical Africa. Countries like Sudan, South Sudan, Uganda, Congo, Rwanda, and Zambia are among the places where these magnificent birds can be found. These habitats provide an abundant source of food, primarily fish. II. The Mystical Behavior of the Shoebill Stork 1. Feeding Habits The shoebill is a highly skilled predator, and its primary diet consists of fish. Its impressive bill is a formidable weapon, allowing it to patiently stand motionless for hours before striking with incredible speed and precision. The stork’s exceptional patience, keen eyesight, and the ability to hold its head perfectly still make it a fearsome hunter. 2. Solitary Nature Shoebills are typically solitary birds. They are rarely seen in pairs, except during the breeding season when they come together to raise their young. Their solitary nature and secretive behavior contribute to their enigmatic reputation. III. A Living Dinosaur: Evolutionary Significance The shoebill stork is often dubbed a “living dinosaur” due to its prehistoric appearance and distinct lineage. It belongs to a bird family known as the Balaenicipitidae, which has no close relatives in the avian world. These birds have evolved very slowly, and their primitive characteristics offer a glimpse into the distant past of avian evolution. IV. Conservation Status and Threats 1. Vulnerable Status* Despite their fascinating characteristics and evolutionary significance, shoebill storks are classified as “Vulnerable” on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species. Their population is decreasing, mainly due to habitat loss and degradation. 2. Habitat Destruction* Wetland destruction and conversion for agricultural purposes, human settlements, and infrastructure development are among the most significant threats to shoebill habitats. These critical wetlands are increasingly disappearing, leading to a decline in suitable feeding and nesting grounds for the storks. V. Conservation Efforts and Initiatives 1. Protected Areas* Efforts are being made to conserve shoebill populations through the creation and management of protected areas and national parks. These initiatives aim to safeguard their habitats and ensure they remain accessible for future generations. 2. Research and Monitoring* Scientific research and monitoring projects are vital for understanding shoebill behavior, population dynamics, and habitat requirements. Organizations and researchers are working to gather essential data for more effective conservation strategies. 3. Public Awareness and Ecotourism* Raising public awareness about the shoebill and its conservation needs is crucial. Ecotourism initiatives, including guided birdwatching tours and educational programs, generate both funding and appreciation for these magnificent birds. The shoebill stork, with its prehistoric appearance, solitary nature, and significant role in avian evolution, is a true African enigma. However, the ongoing destruction of its wetland habitats threatens its survival. Conservation efforts, research, and public awareness are essential in ensuring the continued existence of this magnificent bird. The shoebill stork serves as a living testament to the rich biodiversity of Africa and the importance of preserving its unique and awe-inspiring species.

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Decoding Cryptoprogram: Unveiling the Secrets of Modern Encryption In a world that is increasingly interconnected, the need for secure communication has become paramount. Governments, corporations, and individuals alike rely on encryption to protect their data from prying eyes. But how does encryption work, and what are the secrets behind modern cryptosystems? Encryption, at its core, is the process of converting plain text into a format that is unintelligible to unauthorized entities. Over the centuries, different methods have been used to achieve this. From Caesar ciphers in ancient Rome to the Enigma machine of World War II, encryption has evolved alongside advancements in technology. However, modern encryption relies on mathematical algorithms and computational complexity to ensure its security. Two key components underpin modern encryption: asymmetric encryption and symmetric encryption. Asymmetric encryption, also known as public-key encryption, utilizes a pair of keys — a public key and a private key. The public key is openly shared, allowing anyone to encrypt a message, while the private key is kept secret, allowing only the intended recipient to decrypt the message. This encryption method is based on the difficulty of certain mathematical computations, such as factoring large numbers. For example, the widely used RSA algorithm relies on the assumption that it is computationally infeasible to factorize a large number into its prime factors. By exploiting this mathematical property, secure communication can be achieved. On the other hand, symmetric encryption employs a single key to both encrypt and decrypt the data. This shared key must be kept secret between the sender and the recipient. The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is a widely adopted symmetric encryption algorithm, known for its efficiency and security. While the fundamentals of encryption are crucial for secure communication, cryptanalysis focuses on breaking the encryption. Cryptanalysts employ various techniques, including code-breaking, brute-force attacks, and side-channel attacks to try and uncover the plaintext from the encrypted message. Code-breaking involves analyzing the structure of the encryption algorithm itself and finding vulnerabilitie s that could be exploited. This technique requires a deep understanding of the mathematical foundations of encryption and often involves complex mathematical computations. Brute-force attacks, as the name suggests, involve systematically trying every possible key until the correct one is found. With the increasing power of computers, brute-forcing encryption keys has become more feasible, but it is still highly resource-intensive and time-consuming. Side-channel attacks target the implementation of the encryption algorithm, rather than the algorithm itself. By analyzing unintended information leaks, such as power consumption or electromagnetic emissions, attackers can gain insights into the encryption key. The cat-and-mouse game between cryptographers and cryptanalysts has led to a constant evolution of encryption algorithms. As vulnerabilities are discovered, new encryption methods, protocols, and standards are developed to ensure continued security. The concept of “quantum-resistant cryptography” has gained attention in recent years. Quantum computers, unlike classical computers, are capable of performing certain mathematical computations much faster. If built at a sufficient scale, quantum computers could potentially break many of the existing encryption algorithms. To counter this, researchers are actively working on developing encryption methods that are resistant to quantum attacks. While encryption provides a critical layer of security, it is not foolproof. Encryption systems rely on the integrity of the keys and the implementation of the algorithms. Weak keys, poorly implemented protocols, or flawed implementations can all compromise the security of the encrypted data. Moreover, encryption is often accompanied by additional security measures, such as authentication and digital signatures, to ensure the integrity and authenticity of the data. Encryption is just one piece of the puzzle in a holistic approach to securing communication and information. In conclusion, encryption plays a vital role in safeguarding our information in an increasingly digital world. The secrets behind modern encryption lie in complex mathematical algorithms and the continuous efforts of researchers to ensure its security. Understanding the fundamentals of encryption and its vulnerabilities empowers us to protect our data and communicate securely. As technology advances, encryption will continue to evolve, and staying one step ahead of potential adversaries will be crucial in ensuring the confidentiality and integrity of our digital lives.

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Application Of Geology In Civil Engineering – Geology is the study of the earth, the materials it is made of, the structure of those materials and the effect of natural forces that work on them and is important in civil engineering because all the work that engineers do includes land and land. his plan. A basic understanding of geology is very important and is a requirement in civil engineering programs at the university level. For a civil engineering project to be successful, engineers must understand the land upon which the project is based. Geologists study the soil to determine if it is stable enough to support the required activity. They also study water patterns to determine if a site is prone to flooding. Some civil engineers use geologists to analyze rocks for precious metals, oil, gas and groundwater. The study of the quality and characteristics of the site is an important factor for any engineering project as they affect the design and construction of civil engineering projects and the protection of neighboring buildings. A professional engineer should have some basic concepts related to geology and site investigation. The main purpose of the site survey is to determine exactly as possible the nature and structure of the strata; Ground water conditions at the site; Physical characteristics of the soil and rock underlying the site; The mechanical properties, such as strength and compressibility of different soils or rock strata, and Application Of Geology In Civil Engineering The process of researching and evaluating a new site involves a five-step process. These methods are: preliminary analysis using published information and other available data; a comprehensive geological survey of the site, possibly with a photogeology study; geophysical surveys were applied to provide information on the topography of the land; Drilling, boring and drilling to provide confirmation of previous results, with quantitative details, and important points on the site; and test the soil and rocks to determine their suitability, especially their construction materials (earthworks and stone machinery), either in situ or by inspection. Solved Ioo 100 100* Be 150 St Civil Engineering Is A In a major engineering project, each of these steps can be performed and explained by a consultant specializing in geology, geophysics or engineering (with sufficient knowledge of soil mechanics or rock). However, even where the work of a professional engineer is carried out, the engineer has full control and responsibility for the work. Therefore, the engineer must have a sufficient understanding of geology to know how and when to use the skills of those who supervise the work, and to be able to read their reports carefully, to decide their confidence, and understand how the situations described may affect the work. Most civil engineering projects involve some digging and rock, or involve moving the earth by building on it. In some cases, the quarried rock is used as a construction material, and in others, the rock can form a large part of the finished product, such as a road cut or a water feature. water. Feasibility, planning and design, construction and cost, and safety of the work can depend on the terrain where the work will be done. 7 Science of geology The word geology comes from the Greek words “GEO” = Earth and “LOGOS” = Study or word. So Geology is the branch of science that deals with the study of Earth’s surface. Geology is traditionally divided into two broad categories – physical and historical. Physical geology deals with the composition of the earth and the many processes at work below and above the earth. Historical geology deals with the origin of the Earth and its development over time. PETROLOGY – The study of rocks (igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary petrology) and how they form in their environment. MINERALOGY – The study of minerals, their crystals and their chemistry, and their properties CRYSTALLOGRAPHY – The study of the structure and placement of atoms in solid crystals and the geometric structure of crystals HYDROGEOLOGY – The field of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of land. water in the ground and rocks of the united world. LITHOLOGY – The study of the structure of rocks based on their physical and chemical properties. Principles Of Engineering Geology And Geotechnics. Geology, Soil, And Rock Mechanics, And Other Earth Sciences Used In Civil Engineering. Dimitri P. Krynine And William R. Judd. Mcgraw Hill, New York, 1957. Xiii + GEOPHYSICS – The branch of geology that uses physics to study the structure, climate and oceans of the Earth. BEDROCK GEOLOGY – How intact, hard rock beneath surf sediments formed including age (stratigraphic order), morphology and rock properties (folding, faulting, fractures). TRATIGRAPHY – How rock layers and strata are analyzed to measure geologic time. Soil Science – How soil interacts as a natural resource including its composition, physical, chemical and biological properties. Heavier elements like iron move toward the center of the earth while lighter elements rise to the surface. 13 Structure of the Earth The age of the Earth is about 4.6 billion years. The division of matter that began early in the history of the world led to the establishment of three levels of chemical composition they described – fiber, mantle and core. The world can be divided into different levels based on physical characteristics. The physical properties used to describe such areas include whether the layer is solid or liquid and how weak or hard it is. Recognizing both types of structures is important to our understanding of geological processes, such as volcanoes, earthquakes and mountain buildings. The mantle, the Earth’s thin outer shell, has two distinct types – continental crust and oceanic crust. Both share the word “shell,” but the similarities end there. The sea shell is about seven kilometers wide and is made of dark basalt rock. In contrast, the continental crust is about 35 km thick but can exceed 70 km in some mountainous areas such as the Rockies and the Himalayas. Unlike oceanic crust, which has a similar chemical composition, continental crust contains many types of rocks. Continental rocks have an average density of about 2.7 g/cm3, and some have been found to be 4 billion years old. Oceanic rocks are younger (about 180 million years or less) and denser (about 3.0 g/cm3) than continental rocks.* Solution: Geology For Civil Engineers Syllabus And Discussions Compressed 1 More than 82 percent of the Earth’s volume is in the mantle, a thick, rocky belt that extends to a depth of nearly 2,900 kilometers. The boundary between the crust and the mantle represents the change in more in chemical composition. The most common type of rock in the upper mantle is peridotite, which is richer in magnesium and iron than minerals found in continents or oceans. The upper mantle extends from the boundary of the mantle to a depth of about 660 km. The upper mantle can be divided into two distinct layers. The upper part of the upper mantle is part of the solid lithosphere, and below it is the weak asthenosphere. The lithosphere (Spere of rock) consists of the entire crust and upper mantle that forms a relatively cool and rigid upper shell of the Earth. About 100 kilometers long, the lithosphere lies more than 250 kilometers beneath the oldest parts of the continent. Beneath this solid layer to a depth of about 350 kilometers is a thin, weak layer known as the asthenosphere. From a depth of 660 kilometers to the top, at a depth of 2900 kilometers, there is a mantle. Due to the increase in pressure (due to the weight of the rock on the surface) the mantle gradually strengthens with depth. However, despite their strength, the rocks in the lower mantle are very hot and can flow very slowly. It is believed that the main composition is an iron-nickel alloy. At the extreme pressure found in the core, this iron-containing material has an average density of almost 11 g/cm3 and reaches 14 times the density of water in the center of the earth. Its main part is divided into two areas that reflect different work strengths. The outer core is the 2270 km deep water layer. It is the movement of metal in this region that causes the Earth’s magnetic field. The inner core is a solid hole with a radius of 1216 kilometers. Despite its high temperature, the iron in the interior is solid due to the high pressure at the center of the Earth. Careers In Gis With Great Job Outlooks To the curious traveler, the variety seems almost endless. When a rock is examined closely, we find that it contains crystals or small grains called minerals. Minerals are chemical compounds (or sometimes single elements), each of which has its own composition and physical properties. Grains or crystals may be small or easily visible to the naked eye. The shape and form of the stone is greatly influenced by the minerals that make it up. In addition, the nature of the rock – the size, shape, and / or composition of the minerals that make it up – also has a great impact on its appearance. The composition and mineral content of the rock, in turn, is a reflection of the geological system that created it 20 Rocks Geologists divide rocks into three main types: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic based on how they formed. The rock cycle is a basic concept in geology that describes the changes in geological time between three main rock types: sedimentary, Gis application in civil engineering, geology in civil engineering, civil engineering and geology, importance of geology in civil engineering, application of remote sensing in civil engineering, engineering geology for civil engineers, application of autocad in civil engineering, application of computer in civil engineering, application of civil engineering, scope of geology in civil engineering, relevance of geology in civil engineering, application of differential equation in civil engineering

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In this article, we will explore the impacts of climate change on renewable energy deployment in developing nations, highlighting the challenges they face and potential strategies to mitigate the negative effects. Increased Vulnerability and Uncertainty Climate change exacerbates the vulnerability of developing nations by intensifying extreme weather events such as hurricanes, droughts, and heatwaves. These events not only endanger communities but also disrupt the functioning of existing energy infrastructure, leading to power outages and prolonged energy insecurity. As a result, the deployment of renewable energy sources becomes even more crucial. Key Takeaway: Developing nations face increased vulnerability and uncertainty in energy supply due to climate change impacts. Utilizing renewable energy can provide more reliable and resilient power alternatives. Shifting Renewable Energy Potential Climate change alters the geographically determined potential for renewable energy generation. While some areas may experience increased wind speeds or solar radiation, others may face reduced availability of natural resources, such as water for hydropower. Understanding these shifts is essential for effective planning and adaptation in the renewable energy sector. Key Takeaway: Developing nations must assess the changing potential of renewable energy resources to identify areas suitable for deployment and develop appropriate technologies accordingly. Financial and Technological Challenges One of the major obstacles faced by developing nations in deploying renewable energy is the lack of financial resources and access to innovative technologies. Limited funds, high upfront costs, and inadequate infrastructure hinder the adoption and integration of renewable solutions into existing energy grids. Key Takeaway: Economic and technological support from international organizations, governments, and private investors is crucial for developing nations to overcome financial and technical barriers and accelerate the deployment of renewable energy systems. Health and Environmental Benefits Climate change not only affects the energy sector but also impacts public health and ecosystems. Fossil fuel-based power generation contributes to air pollution, leading to respiratory diseases and premature deaths. Embracing renewable energy sources, on the other hand, reduces harmful emissions, improves air quality, and promotes a healthier living environment. - Renewable energy deployment in developing nations can significantly reduce air pollution levels and improve public health. - Renewable energy projects have a lower environmental footprint compared to conventional energy sources, preserving ecosystems and biodiversity. Policy and Regulatory Framework Establishing supportive policy frameworks and regulations is essential to promote renewable energy deployment in developing nations. Governments need to create incentives, subsidies, and investment-friendly environments that encourage the adoption of renewable energy technologies. International collaborations and knowledge sharing can also play a pivotal role in developing effective policies. Key Takeaway: Policy frameworks tailored to the specific needs of developing nations can accelerate the deployment of renewable energy and foster sustainable development. As the impacts of climate change continue to intensify, developing nations must prioritize renewable energy deployment to ensure energy security, mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, and foster sustainable economic growth. Despite the challenges they face, these countries have the opportunity to leapfrog to clean energy technologies, contributing to global efforts to combat climate change. For more information about renewable energy in developing nations, please visit World Bank – Climate Change.

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Jul 12, 2023 Crop Monitoring and Water and Nitrogen Management for Irrigated Chile Production Crops need to be monitored during all stages of growth to best manage water and nutrient inputs. Taking crop condition into account and adjusting nutrient and water management accordingly is critical in achieving the optimum management of a crop and the best use of an irrigation system and fertilization program. This is often referred to as a “feedback” system of crop management (Silvertooth, 2001). This concept and approach to crop management can perhaps be most useful with an irrigated crop production system. Irrigated chile (Capsicum annuum L.) production in the desert Southwest is a good example and it demonstrates the benefits in crop management when coupled with a fundamental understanding of crop phenology (growth and development). Increased efficiency is an important objective for developing sustainable chile crop production systems. Efficiency can be defined in economic (return on the investment), agronomic (crop system response), or environmental (impact on environmental quality) terms. Each of these concepts of efficiency can be successfully addressed simultaneously, which requires good management and attention to the changes that take place over the growth cycle of a crop. When monitoring any crop in a production system there are several factors that are very important to consider including: 1) stage of growth, 2) crop vigor, and 3) yield potential. A feedback system of management can be useful in adjusting critical crop inputs such as water and fertilizer inputs (particularly N) in response to actual crop conditions. For example, in the case of irrigated chile, if the crop is experiencing poor vigor and symptoms of stress, it would be very important to identify the source of the stress and make an effort to address or correct it. This could relate to several issues such as pest infestations (insects, weeds, or diseases), water stress, salinity stress, nutrient deficiency, etc. If for example a crop is experiencing poor vigor due to water stress, the application of additional N will not be effectively utilized by the crop until the water stress situation is adequately addressed. Alternatively, if a chile crop is experiencing very high vigor and excessive vegetative growth (often accompanied by a poor fruit load), a more conservative approach with N inputs would be warranted and at the same time it would be important not to impose a water stress per se. Thus, monitoring a chile crop production system and having a gauge on basic factors such as stage of growth and the plant relationships to water and nutrient requirements are essential in realizing optimum efficiency regarding irrigation and fertilization inputs. Flexibility in management is required to better respond to the crop and production conditions that can change quite rapidly during a production season and will vary from season to season. Accordingly, managers need to be flexible in managing the system in response to the appropriate queues to realize the full potential from a crop production system. This type of agronomic system efficiency is important for both short- and long-term sustainability. To optimize N management for a chile crop it is important to make fertilizer N applications in the “Nitrogen Application Window” (NAW) described in Figure 1 which provides a baseline for chile growth and development as a function of heat units accumulated after planting (HUAP, 86/55 F thresholds; Brown, 1989; Baskerville and Emin, 1969). Chile crop phenology as a function of HUAP is described in Extension Bulletin AZ1529 (Silvertooth et al., 2010). The NAW is positioned just prior to the period peak N demand by the chile crop during the phase of growth when N demand is rapidly increasing after the crowning stage of development. Nitrogen applications made in this manner in advance of the N demand period increases the probability of fertilizer N uptake and recovery by the plant. Thus, the NAW extends from the crowning stage to just past peak bloom (~1200 – 2300 HUAP). Chile crop water demand also increases quite rapidly during this same period of growth with maximum chile crop water demand occurring from early bloom until the completion of development of the primary pod set (~1600 – 2500 HUAP). For green chile this peak water demand will extend up to the time of crop harvest. For red chile, peak water demand declines as the crop transitions from ~ 50% green and 50% red chile on the plants, or the stage that is commonly referred to as the maximum “chocolate chile” stage. For both water and N management it is important to monitor crop growth and development as well crop condition including vigor, fruit load, etc. Water stress should be avoided during these stages of growth and N management needs to be flexible in response to changes in crop condition during these peak periods of demand. Crop monitoring and flexibility are key elements to management for optimum crop production efficiency. Nitrogen application rates will vary depending on other factors such as residual soil N levels, N concentrations in the irrigation water, previous N fertilizer applications, cropping history for the field and residual crop residues, as well as the current condition of the crop or field in question. Nutrient uptake studies have shown that approximately 180 lbs. N/acre is the maximum amount of total N required by green and red chile crops for optimum yields. Actual total fertilizer N amounts needed by an irrigated chile crop usually equate to a total of 100 – 150 lbs. N/acre for the entire season. However, as previously stated, this rate can vary tremendously depending on actual crop and soil conditions. Nitrogen management for irrigated chile should be directed to provide the total fertilizer N for a crop within the NAW with split applications toward a maximum target of approximately 100 – 150 lbs. N/acre. Late season N fertilizer applications can delay crop maturity and harvest. Crop and soil monitoring in-season is critical to allow appropriate adjustments in N fertilizer applications to best match in-season conditions in the field optimize this important facet of chile crop management. Figure 1. Nitrogen (N) application window and maximum water demand period for New Mexico type chiles in the desert Southwest of the U.S. Baskerville, G.L. and P. Emin. 1969. Rapid estimation of heat accumulation from maximum and minimum temperatures. Ecology 50:514-517. Brown, P. W. 1989. Heat units. Bull. 8915, Univ. of Arizona Cooperative Extension, College of Ag., Tucson, AZ. Silvertooth, J.C. 2001. Feedback requirements for nitrogen in irrigated cotton. AZ1201, University of Arizona Cooperative Extension Bulletin. Silvertooth, J.C., P.W. Brown, and S. Walker. 2010. Crop Growth and Development for Irrigated Chile (Capsicum annuum). AZ 1529, University of Arizona Cooperative Extension, College of Agriculture and Life Science, Tucson, AZ. To contact Jeff Silvertooth go to: email@example.com

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Net Yield – Definition, Overview & FAQ What is a net yield? Definition: Net yield is a key financial metric in property investment, representing the actual return on investment after accounting for all operational costs. It offers a more realistic picture of an investment’s profitability compared to gross yield, which only considers rental income. Net yield calculation - Determine the Annual Net Income: This is the total income generated by the investment over a year, after deducting all associated operational expenses. These expenses can include maintenance costs, management fees, taxes, and any other costs directly related to the investment. - Divide the Annual Net Income by the Total Investment Cost: The total investment cost includes the initial amount invested plus any additional costs incurred for the investment. - Multiply by 100 to Convert to a Percentage: This step gives you the net yield as a percentage, providing a clear indicator of the investment’s performance. The formula can be represented as: Net Yield (%) = ( Annual Net Income / Total Investment Cost ) × 100 This calculation gives you the net yield, which reflects the actual return on the investment after considering all operational costs, offering a more accurate picture of its profitability. Net yield vs. gross yield Net yield and gross yield are two important metrics used in assessing the profitability of an investment, particularly in real estate. Gross yield is the basic measure of investment return. It is calculated before taking into account any expenses related to the investment. To determine gross yield, divide the annual rental income (or total income generated from the investment) by the purchase price (or current market value) of the investment, and then multiply by 100 to get a percentage. Gross yield provides a quick, initial overview of the investment’s performance. It’s useful for comparing different investment opportunities at a glance. Since it doesn’t consider any expenses, the gross yield can sometimes give an overly optimistic view of the investment’s profitability. Net yield offers a more realistic picture of an investment’s profitability by accounting for operational expenses. To calculate net yield, subtract all annual operational costs from the annual income generated by the investment. Then divide this net income by the purchase price (or current market value) of the investment and multiply by 100 to get a percentage. Net yield is a more accurate measure of an investment’s performance as it reflects the actual return after considering the costs associated with maintaining and managing the investment. It requires a thorough understanding of all the expenses involved in the investment to be accurately calculated. In summary, while gross yield is useful for quick comparisons and initial assessments, net yield is crucial for understanding the real profitability of an investment, making it a more reliable metric for long-term financial planning and decision-making in investments. What should be included in net yield? When calculating net yield, it’s important to include all relevant expenses that are directly associated with the investment: - Operational Costs: This includes regular expenses necessary for the upkeep and management of the investment. In the context of property, it would cover maintenance and repairs, property management fees (if you’re using a property management company), and service charges for things like communal area upkeep in apartment buildings. - Insurance Costs: Any insurance premiums related to the investment should be included. For property, this would be landlord insurance, which may cover building, contents, liability, and loss of rent. - Property Taxes: Include any relevant property taxes or council taxes that are the responsibility of the owner, especially in periods when the property is vacant. - Mortgage Interest Payments: If the property is purchased with a mortgage, include the interest portion of the mortgage payments. Note that after recent tax changes in some regions (like the UK), the way mortgage interest is treated for tax purposes has changed. - Void Periods: Account for periods when the property may be vacant and not generating rental income, as this affects the annual income used in the net yield calculation. - Legal and Professional Fees: Include any legal or professional fees incurred, such as solicitor fees, accounting fees, or costs associated with property purchase and rental. - Renovation and Improvement Costs: If you have made significant improvements or renovations to increase the property’s value or rentability, these costs should be considered, particularly if they are substantial and impact your overall return on investment. - Utility Costs: If any utility costs (like water, gas, electricity) are not covered by the tenant and fall under the owner’s responsibility, these should be included. - Marketing and Advertising Costs: The costs associated with finding tenants, such as advertising or real estate agent fees, should also be factored in. What is considered a good net yield? The definition of a “good” net yield can vary depending on the investment type, location, and market conditions. In the context of real estate, the benchmark for what is considered good can differ based on regional norms, the property market, and individual investment goals. - Real Estate Investment: In general, for buy-to-let properties, a net yield of around 4% to 6% is often considered solid in many property markets. However, this can vary significantly: – High-Cost Areas: In high-cost areas, especially major cities like London, a lower net yield (around 3% to 4%) might still be considered good due to the higher potential for capital growth. – Lower-Cost Areas: In areas where property prices are lower, investors might seek higher net yields (6% or above) to make the investment worthwhile. - Market Conditions: The state of the property market can influence what constitutes a good net yield. In a high-demand market with rising property values, a slightly lower net yield might be acceptable due to the potential for capital appreciation. - Investment Strategy: Individual investment strategies also play a role. Investors focused on income might seek higher net yields, while those focused on long-term capital growth might be satisfied with lower net yields. - Risk Tolerance: Higher net yields are often associated with higher risk (such as less desirable locations or properties requiring more maintenance), so investors need to balance the potential return against their risk tolerance. - Comparative Analysis: It’s also important to compare net yields with alternative investments. For instance, if net yields in real estate are significantly higher than yields from bonds or savings accounts, real estate might be considered a good investment even at lower yield percentages. What is net yield in real estate investing? Net yield is a measure of the profitability of a real estate investment, calculated by subtracting all operational expenses from the annual rental income, dividing this figure by the property’s purchase price or current market value, and then multiplying by 100 to get a percentage. What is considered a good net yield? A good net yield varies depending on the market and location, but typically, a net yield of 4% to 6% is considered solid in many real estate markets. Can net yield vary over time? Yes, net yield can fluctuate based on changes in rental income, property values, and operational expenses. How can investors improve the net yield of a property? Improving property efficiency, reducing operational costs, and potentially increasing rent can improve net yield. Is a higher net yield always better? While a higher net yield indicates higher profitability, it should be balanced with other factors such as property location, potential for capital growth, and risk associated with the investment. Does net yield include financing costs? Yes, if the property is financed through a mortgage, the interest component of the mortgage payments should be included in the operational costs when calculating net yield. Should investors rely solely on net yield for investment decisions? While net yield is an important metric, it should not be the sole factor in investment decisions. Investors should also consider factors like property location, market trends, potential for capital appreciation, and their overall investment strategy.

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The Sun is the closest star to the earth, and one of the largest space entities that we can see with the naked eye. A source of abundant energy, the Sun is the reason for life on our planet and a source of abundant energy. Interesting, isn’t it? There is so much more about the sun that we cannot cover in this one paragraph. So keep reading this MomJunction article for the most interesting Sun facts for kids such as its temperature, distance from the Earth, its many layers and more. Fun Sun Facts for Kids - Without the energy of the Sun, there would be no life on Earth. So Sun is our life-giver. - The Sun sits at the center of our Solar System. - The Sun sums up to 99.86% mass of the entire Solar System. - The Sun is 74% hydrogen and 24% helium. Other elements in the Sun are carbon, oxygen, neon, and iron. - The Sun is one of the million stars in the Galaxy. - The Sun appears to us as a huge round ball that is deep orange, because the Earth is closest to the Sun than it is to the other stars in the galaxy. - There are other stars in the galaxy that are bigger and brighter than the Sun, or smaller than the Sun. Since they are too far from us, these stars appear as dots of light in the night sky. - Seven planets, other than the Earth, and five dwarf planets orbit the Sun. This system is called the Solar System, which is believed to have formed around 4.6 billion years ago. - Sun originates from the old English word Sunne or the Proto-Germanic Sunnon. In Latin, it is referred to as “Sol,” from which the word solar is derived. - The diameter of the sun is 1.391016 million km. - The distance between the Sun and the Earth is around 150 million km. - The Sun’s diameter is about 109 times more than the Earth’s diameter. It weighs over 333,000 times more than our planet. - Over 1,300,000 planets the size of earth can fit inside the Sun. Layers of the Sun The Sun has multiple layers through which it generates and passes on energy and light. - The center of the Sun is called the ‘Core,’ that generates the energy of the Sun. - The ‘Radiative Zone’ surrounds the core and transports the energy generated by the core. - It takes around 170,000 years to transmit the energy of the Sun from its core- to the second layer, the Radiative Zone, then to the third layer which is the ‘Convective Zone.’ - Big bubbles of energy move into the Photosphere (or the surface of the Sun) via the Convective layer. - The Earth receives the sunlight when the radiation of the Sun escapes from the Photosphere. - There two layers outside the Photosphere are the Chromosphere and the Corona. - The Corona can be seen on a dull day with overcast sky or during eclipses. - It takes 8 minutes and 20 seconds for the Sun’s ray to reach the Earth. - The surface temperature of the Sun is approximately 5,500 degrees Celsius. - The core temperature of the Sun is about 15 million degrees Celsius. - The Sun produces energy by a process called nuclear fusion in which the hydrogen nuclei combines into helium. - Scientists believe that the Sun’s core will run out of its energy in about 5 billion years. - Many cultures have worshiped the Sun as God. The Egyptians called the Sun God Ra. - The Sun is middle-aged when compared to billions of stars in the galaxy. - The Sun’s strong gravity holds all planets in their places. - There are some regions in the Sun where the temperature is not that strong; those spots are called ‘sun spots’. Sunspots are magnetic regions and look like dark spots on the Sun. - Staring at the Sun directly without wearing protective glasses on a bright sunny day can damage the eye. - During a full solar eclipse, the chromosphere can sometimes be seen as a thin, fine red line, and the corona encircling it. - Many believe that the world-famous monument, the Stonehenge was used to worship the Sun God. Theories of the Solar System - Previously, it was believed that the Sun rotates around the Earth. - Ancient Greek astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first to say that the planets revolved around the Sun. (c.310-c.230 BC) - 300 years later, another astronomer Ptolemy presented his ‘Ptolemaic system’ claiming the Earth is the center of the Universe. His theory remained for the next 1400 years. - Nicholas Copernicus, the famous Polish scientist, published his work called ’De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium’. He worked to establish that the planets revolved around the Sun. - People who believed Copernicus were imprisoned and some were even executed. - The works of famous astronomers and scientists such as Galileo and Johann Kepler reinforced the theory of Copernicus. - Until Sir Isaac Newton published his theory of gravity, the concept of the Solar system was also not accepted entirely. - The Sun has a specific sound. Watch this video by NASA to know how it sounds. Although the Sun is the most apparent star in the sky and huge as it is, its significance goes beyond merely being a star. It is the sole reason why life is possible on planet Earth. Surely, these fantastic facts about Sun for kids are mind-blowing and can intrigue your children to know more about the Solar System, the stars and the galaxy. Do you know more fun facts about the Sun? Tell us about them in the comment box below.

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Crows are Capable of Conscious Thought, Scientists Demonstrate for the First Time New research into the minds of crows has revealed a jaw-dropping finding: the canny corvids aren’t just clever – they also possess a form of consciousness, able to be consciously aware of the world around them in the present. In other words, they have subjective experiences. This is called primary, or sensory, consciousness, and it had only previously been demonstrated in primates – which means we now may have to rethink our understanding of how consciousness arises, in addition to reconsidering the avian brain. “The results of our study opens up a new way of looking at the evolution of awareness and its neurobiological constraints,” said animal physiologist Andreas Nieder of the University of Tübingen. Consciousness is difficult to pin down in animals that don’t speak. It’s the ability to be aware of oneself and the world around you, to know what you know, and to think about that knowledge. It enhances problem-solving and decision-making – at both of which crows excel. Primary consciousness is the most basic form of consciousness as we categorise it – awareness of perceiving the world in the present (and the immediate past and future). Primarily, it’s been associated with the primate cerebral cortex, a complex layered region of the mammalian brain. But bird brains are structured quite differently from primate brains, and are smooth where mammalian brains are layered. So even though corvids – the bird family that includes crows and ravens – are incredibly smart, with cognitive abilities found in primates, questions remained over whether they could cross the line into conscious thought. To find out, Nieder and his colleagues designed an experiment to test whether birds could have subjective experiences, and tested it on two carrion crows (Corvus corone). First, the birds were trained to respond to visual stimuli. They were shown screens on which lights were displayed; if the crow saw the lights, they were to move their heads to show that yes, they had seen something. Most of the lights were clear and unambiguous, easy to see, and the crows reliably reported that they had seen them. But some of the lights were a lot harder to spot – brief and faint. For these, the two crows sometimes reported seeing the signals, and sometimes did not. This is where the subjective sensory experience enters the picture. For the experiment, each of the crows was shown roughly 20,000 signals, spread out across dozens of sessions. Meanwhile, electrodes implanted in their brains recorded their neuronal activity. When the crows recorded a ‘yes’ response to seeing the visual stimuli, neuronal activity was recorded in the interval between seeing the light and delivering the answer. When the answer was ‘no’, that elevated neuronal activity was not seen. This connection was so reliable that it was possible to predict the crow’s response based on the brain activity. “Nerve cells that represent visual input without subjective components are expected to respond in the same way to a visual stimulus of constant intensity,” Nieder said. “Our results, however, conclusively show that nerve cells at higher processing levels of the crow’s brain are influenced by subjective experience, or more precisely produce subjective experiences.” The results confirm that subjective experiences are not exclusive to the primate brain – and that the complex layering of the mammalian brain is not a requirement for consciousness. In fact, a second new study finds that the smoothness of bird brains is not indicative at all of a lack of complexity. Using 3D polarised light imaging and neural circuit tracing techniques, biopsychologist Martin Stacho of Ruhr-University Bochum in Germany and colleagues characterised the anatomy of pigeon and owl brains. They found that the cerebral architecture in both birds is strikingly similar to the cerebral architecture of mammals. It’s possible that similar cognitive abilities evolved independently in both birds and mammals, a phenomenon known as convergent evolution. But it’s also possible that our brains are more closely related than their differences can suggest. “Our findings suggest that it is likely that an ancient microcircuit that already existed in the last common stem amniote might have been evolutionarily conserved and partly modified in birds and mammals,” Stacho and his team write. Nieder agrees with this possibility. “The last common ancestors of humans and crows lived 320 million years ago,” he said. “It is possible that the consciousness of perception arose back then and has been passed down ever since. In any case, the capability of conscious experience can be realised in differently structured brains and independently of the cerebral cortex.” This means primary consciousness could be far more common across birds and mammals than we’ve realised. If this proves true, the next and possibly even more fascinating question is: do these animals also possess secondary consciousness? Are they aware that they are aware?

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Human Action is a monumental work by Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises, first published in 1949. The book presents Mises’ systematic exposition of economics, grounded in the praxeological method, which analyzes human action as purposive behavior. Mises argues that economic theory must be rooted in this method, which allows us to derive the basic principles of economics from the fact of human action. He then proceeds to expound on a variety of topics, including the theory of prices, money, banking, business cycles, and interventionism. Throughout the book, Mises emphasizes the importance of the market economy and individual freedom and warns against the dangers of government intervention and socialism. Human Action is widely regarded as one of the most influential works in the history of economics and a cornerstone of the Austrian School of Economics.

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What is Anisakiasis? Anisakiasis is a disease caused by the nematodes that attach themselves to the walls of the intestine, stomach, or esophagus. This parasite gets into the human stomach from the fish or squid that is consumed raw or undercooked. Marine mammals like whales and sea lions defecate and release the eggs of these parasites into the sea. These are ingested by the fish or squid and get into the human body when they eat it raw or undercooked. Inside the body, they invade the GI tract and cause trouble. Sushi has become a popular food and with that, there are dangers of parasitic infections. One of the common infections is anisakiasis which is a parasite that is found in sushi and other seafood. The anisakiasis incubation period is for a few hours and the symptoms of this disease start after a few hours. It includes: - Pain in the stomach - Vomiting, and nausea - Fever which lasts for up to a week - Bloody stools - Blood in the mucus - Allergic reactions like rash and itching on the belly or other areas of the body As the parasite gets attached to the walls of the intestine it becomes swollen and inflamed. In rare cases, anaphylaxis can also occur. There have been cases where deaths have happened due to this condition in Japan where eating raw fish is common. Who is at Risk? The risk factors of Anisakiasis are high in: - People who eat raw fish - People who consume undercooked fish and other seafood like squid are more at risk. - People living in Japan, Scandinavian countries of Europe, and South America are likely to develop this parasitic infection due to their eating habits. - People who are previously exposed to this condition are likely to develop it again. - People who live in a warm climate are at risk - Children under the age of 10 who play in the dirt - People who follow poor sanitization where feces is mixed with soil. Anisakiasis, also called herring worm disease, is caused by worms or nematodes that attach themselves to the walls of the stomach, esophagus, or intestine. - This parasite enters the human body when consuming raw or undercooked fish or squid. - The worms get into the seafood from an infected mammal when it defecates into the seawater. The eggs of the parasite are released and these mature into larvae that are ingested by the crustaceans. - The fish or squid then eat these crustaceans and remain in them. - When people consume these raw or undercooked larvae enter the GI tract and form a mass in the stomach, intestine, or esophagus. How is Anisakiasis Diagnosed? The anisakiasis diagnosis is done by checking the symptoms are ordering tests. Some of the tests include: - Stool tests are done because it begins to lay eggs in the intestine which can travel through the digestive system and can be found in stools. - Blood tests are done to check the presence of eosinophils - X-rays can provide images of the presence of worms in the abdomen - CT scans or MRIs can help get detailed images of the GI tract - An endoscopy to know the presence of worms in the various parts. In case the person is heavily infested then the worms can come out while coughing or through vomit. If that happens the doctor can identify it and start an anisakiasis cure immediately. How is Anisakiasis Treated? Typically, the doctor does anisakiasis treatment only if a person has symptoms as the other cases can resolve themselves. Some of the treatment options are: - Medications that are ant-parasitic in nature are prescribed so that it kills the adult worms and their eggs. This treatment will have side effects like diarrhea and abdominal pain. - Endoscopic removal of the worms is done by inserting a camera that shows where the larvae are present. - In case the person is heavily infested and has caused a blockage in the bile duct or the intestine surgery may be done to remove it. Anisakiasis can cause severe discomfort and in some cases severe complications hence it needs to be treated properly. Moreover, the symptoms are similar to other infections and hence careful diagnosis is essential. Contact our experts at cult.fit to get the best care for this parasitic infection. How can Anisakiasis be Prevented? The best anisakiasis prevention technique is to avoid undercooked or raw fish or squid. As per FDA recommendations, the following should be followed while cooking seafood. - Cook seafood with a temperature of at least 145 degrees F - Freeze food at -4 degrees F or less for a total time of 7 days - Follow proper cleaning of the seafood to remove all the contaminants. - Wear protective gear while cleaning seafood as worms can enter the open cuts on the skin. 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Project: 5th grade." How can we make a better planet?" Our students and I have made a brainstorming of ideas, to see what they all knew about climate change. We first introduced some climate vocabulary, in order to start getting familiar to it. Using jamboard we started adding notes, and from all the children's notes we were able to make a definition for what was climate change. On the other hand, we also watched a video about what climate change was all about. You can see the video we have previously been watching. We have concluded all together walking around our school there are many issues causing climate change: People go by car instead of walking to school or by bike. There is a lot of CO2 from the nearby factories. We have seen deforestation in our forests. Many buildings built every year. All together we have written on the jamboard the real solutions we could really carry out: 1- Clean the park near our school 2-Go by foot or bike to school instead of using the car 5-Don't use plastic or aluminium paper for our breakfast: use a lunchbox instead. 6-Make posters about climate change and hang them all over our school We are taking action. Soon we will plant a big tree in our school and perhaps some flowers too! We will also clean the park and send a message to all our families by doing posters where it says how you can make a better planet!

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WEB DuBois the Fight for Equality William Edward Burkhardt abbreviated as “W. E. B.” Du Bois was a History Professor at Atlanta University and the founder of NAACP in 1909 which is an activist foundation that aimed at advocating for equal rights to people of color and especially the blacks (Lewis, 256). NAACP marked the crucial steps employed by DuBois to fight for the rights of the marginalized minority. He was the first Afro American to attain a doctorate and this placed him in a better position of advocacy. As a prolific author, W.E.B rose to national politics because of his constant critics on the ongoing racial discrimination in the United States. DuBois major work comprised of The Souls of Black Folk, Black Reconstruction in America and many other pieces published by the NAACP journal called The Crisis (Lewis 191). He argued that the significant problem facing the nations in 20th century was the color line issue which according to him was as a result of the capitalist economy. This essay will explore how he advocated for equality and the steps he took in ensuring Blacks, whites, Indians or whichever color is viewed and treated as equal American citizens. Ways in Which W.E.B Promoted Equality Firstly, he was the man behind the Pan African Conference in 1921 whose primary aim was to ask the United States and other European countries to appreciate and respect the rights of people from Africa. He drafted a letter titled Address to the Nations of the World which was adopted at the end of the conference by all the delegates. The letter was appealing to European countries to grant their African colonies the right to self-rule. The meeting was successful in demanding for the rights of Afro American (Lewis 415) Secondly, he organized the Niagara Conference which was a union of most prominent African-Americans. The conference was the beginning of activism movements as it acted as the prerequisite of NAACP. At the end of the meeting, a declaration was issued that Afro Americans deserved equal rights and treatment just like any other citizen of the American society. A movement was formed to spearhead the activism of these rights (Lewis 215). The first responsibility of the said group was to lead in the rebellion against Booker Washington`s philosophy which was advocating for the presence of second-class citizenship which in this case referred to the blacks. The theory was meant to disseminate economic development for these class of citizens Thirdly, as the chief editor of The Crisis, a publication under the NAACP whose main aim was to set out the dangers that racial prejudice could have to any society (Lewis 252). The idea of the magazine was to lay on the table facts and arguments that could stir up the feeling of unity and love among the various races occupying the United States then. Du Bois employed the use of sarcasm in his editorial column especially to the dishonest parochial black churches which just did nothing about the ongoing discrimination. He was responsible for making the magazine an essential reference of investigating the reports of crimes that were conducted against the blacks (Lingeman, 19). The publication was also a vital element of advocating for the economic and sociological empowerment of the people of color as well as pointing out at areas where federal governments needed to indulge and restore justice. One of the most outstanding cries that this magazine presented was the desire to have blacks registered in the labor unions and thus empower them through collective bargaining (Lewis 285). In the year 1919, he announced the creation of The True Brownies, which was the first magazine written for the sole readership of the African-American teenagers and youngsters. Such a significant milestone in the realization of self-identity of the blacks’ kids was facilitated by the editorial column of The Crisis. Other achievements of the magazine included the increased readership to about 100 000 in 1920 (Lewis, 270) thereby creating awareness to most Americans on the presence of this evil called racial discrimination. Another quest for equality by W.E.D was in the era of Harlem Renaissance which was reflected as a revival of African-American art in the mid-1920s`. Although a great supporter of African-American creativity his passion for the Harlem Renaissance diminished especially after realizing that most whites came to Harlem for prurience and not for honest gratefulness of black art (Lewis, 471). He, therefore, insisted that the black artists should first recognize that there are blacks and use their creativity to promote their cause. His concerns were that these artists were not using their art to advocate their justice. He even disregarded any wok that did not have activism or the desire for the Afro Americans to be liberated. In 1926, he stopped using his editorial column in support of arts. Another significant contribution of Du Bois was in activism for equal rights, peace, and empowerment of all the races. In 1949, Du Bois had a chance to address a World Peace Conference that was held in the New York City. During this conference, his activism prawns were seen when he told everyone that the blacks deserve their freedom and sooner or later they will have it whether by force or by peace (Lingeman 22). Du Bois went ahead to criticize the authority of the then regime in advancing their political goals while the people of color continue asking for equal treatment. He was calling for action. Stirring up the emotions of the people to stand up and defend themselves something that is common for most activists.Based on the Du Bois contribution in racial equality it is hard to argue and talk about racial equality in the United States and fail to mention Du Bois. His contribution to the achievement of equal rights for all the American Citizens cannot be underestimated. He is the one man who was ready to renounce his American citizenship if that meant freedom for the African colonies under the European Nations. He faced a lot of opposition in his actions of advocating for human rights to the extent of The U.S revoking his passport (Lewis 471). Despite all these, he was able to maneuver and make several trips to Africa, Asia and Japan all in trying to empower the people of color. This is a man who left a legacy such that even after his death in 1963 while in Ghana, one year after The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was adopted in the United States which was one of the many reforms he had advocated for during his lifetime. Du Bois persistence in the fight for the racial equality teaches the society it should always stand for justice, fairness and trust despite of the criticisms and obstacles.

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- Icebergs are large masses of ice that break off from glaciers and float in the ocean. - The Titanic tragedy in 1912 highlighted the dangers of icebergs to ships, leading to the formation of the International Ice Patrol to monitor and warn ships of iceberg risks. - Icebergs are classified based on size and shape, with tabular and non-tabular varieties. - Modern technology, such as GPS and satellite data, is used to track icebergs and prevent potential collisions with ships. - The “Iceberg Phenomenon” is a metaphorical concept used to describe the progression of disease in a population, with visible cases representing only a fraction of the total impact. Icebergs, the magnificent frozen giants of the sea, have captivated human imagination for centuries. These colossal masses of ice, formed through the calving of glaciers, silently drift across the ocean, holding secrets that go beyond their majestic appearance. Just like the enigmatic Cat’s Eye Nebula in the night sky, icebergs possess a hidden story that scientists continue to unravel. First discovered by the esteemed astronomer William Herschel in 1786, the Cat’s Eye Nebula stands out with its intricate structure comprising multiple expanding spheres of gas. Herschel’s initial belief that these planetary nebulae signaled the birth of planetary systems was later debunked, as they marked the end of a star’s life. Similarly, icebergs, with their striking shapes and sizes, hold not just beauty but also peril, as they pose significant threats to maritime navigation. Icebergs come in various forms, classified based on their dimensions and shapes. The immense size of some icebergs, such as the one that tragically collided with the Titanic in 1912, showcases the risks they pose to ships in certain regions, including the notorious Iceberg Alley in the North Atlantic. To combat these dangers, the International Ice Patrol was formed to track icebergs and provide warnings, utilizing advanced technologies like GPS and satellite data. Beyond their physical presence, icebergs have inspired various analogies, including the “Iceberg Phenomenon,” a concept employed to describe disease progression in populations. Similar to how most of an iceberg lies hidden beneath the water’s surface, much of the impact of a disease remains unseen, influencing the design of disease control programs. Even in literature, the Iceberg Principle, popularized by Ernest Hemingway, emphasizes the power of indirect storytelling, with deeper meanings subtly shining through the surface narrative. As the scientific and literary worlds continue their exploration of the Cat’s Eye Nebula and icebergs, we remain captivated by the mysteries they hold, each revealing a unique facet of the grand tapestry of the universe. Read full article on Vedantu An iceberg near the village Innarsuit, on the northwestern Greenlandic coast, July 12, 2018.Magnus Kristensen/Ritzau Scanpix via AP An iceberg floats near the Innaarsuit settlement, Greenland, July 12, 2018. Lucia Ali Nielsen via Reuters An iceberg near the village Innarsuit, on the northwestern Greenlandic coast, July 12, 2018. Magnus Kristensen/Ritzau Scanpix via AP A tour boat cruises pass an iceberg off the coast of Bonavista, N.L. Photos of spectacular icebergs on social media are drawing visitors from all over the world to Newfoundland and Labrador.Bob Currie / THE CANADIAN PRESS

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- White holes are hypothetical cosmic entities, theorized as the opposite of black holes. - Unlike black holes, white holes supposedly expel matter and energy, emitting intense radiation. - The formation and existence of white holes pose significant theoretical challenges for astrophysicists. - Gamma-ray bursts and even the Big Bang have been considered as potential white hole candidates. - If observed, white holes could revolutionize our understanding of the universe. Black holes, the enigmatic remnants of collapsed stars, have long captivated the imagination of scientists and the public alike. These cosmic entities are known for their voracious appetite, swallowing everything that ventures too close, even light itself. Yet, lurking in the shadow of these celestial devourers lies an equally mind-boggling concept: white holes. The notion of a white hole arises from a curious thought experiment. Imagine subtracting the collapsed core of a star, the very essence of its mass, from the equations describing a black hole. What remains is a massless singularity, aptly termed a white hole. Unlike their dark counterparts, which imprison all that approaches their event horizon, white holes forbid entry. Picture a cosmic ‘rewind’ button. A white hole, theoretically, ejects matter and energy into space at an astonishing rate, painting the cosmos with brilliance. According to Erik Curiel, the laws of spacetime and gravity that permit black holes also allow for the existence of white holes. Despite the tantalizing prospect, no confirmed observations of white holes have been made. Theorists grapple with a fundamental question: how could white holes form? Unlike black holes, which trace their origins to plausible models, the genesis of white holes eludes us. The challenge intensifies when considering the singularity – a point of infinite density – that purportedly precedes a white hole. Astrophysicists like Karen Masters highlight the implausibility of a pre-existing singularity in the early universe. Even if a white hole were to spontaneously manifest, the mathematics dictates a strict exclusion of any matter within the region housing a black hole. The introduction of even the tiniest particle would nullify the presence of a white hole. Hence, if white holes ever existed, their lifespan would likely be exceedingly brief, potentially extinguishing eons before life emerged on Earth. While currently residing firmly in the realm of theory, it’s worth noting that the once theoretical black holes now constitute established astrophysical realities. One contender for a white hole candidate is the gamma-ray burst, a cataclysmic event radiating energy on a scale dwarfing our Sun’s entire output over eons. The 2017 detection of a gamma-ray burst generated by a neutron star collision, GW170817, sparked speculation that it might be a white hole. However, the consensus leans towards it being a nascent black hole. The Big Bang itself has not escaped the realm of white hole conjecture. The proposal suggests that this cosmic genesis event might be a colossal white hole, challenging the traditional narrative of a singular point of origin. Furthermore, there’s a hypothesis proposing that black holes metamorphose into white holes in the twilight of their existence. However, the timeline might surpass the age of the current universe, leaving us with an unseen cosmic transformation. These theoretical musings are fascinating, yet the lack of empirical evidence leaves white holes firmly ensconced in the realm of hypothesis. If ever confirmed, they promise to revolutionize our comprehension of the universe, offering a glimpse into the deepest mysteries of spacetime. Such a revelation would undoubtedly be a watershed moment in the annals of astrophysics, redefining our cosmic narrative.

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Refer back to Assignment 1, and build on whatever doctrine you wrote about then. Say, for example, you selected the Truman Doctrine. Therefore, this is the only thing you will write about in Assignment 2 step 1. Step 2: Select one country you wrote about in Assignment 1 and describe the Cold War relationship that existed between it and the U.S. Before the presidential doctrine was announced. In the case of Truman, you would pick either the Soviet Union, Greece, or Iran, since all three were affected by his doctrine. If you are writing about the Eisenhower Doctrine, you would choose Lebanon or Egypt; if you wrote about the Kennedy Doctrine, you would have write about Cuba or Vietnam; if your wrote about the Nixon Doctrine, you would choose either Vietnam, Saudi Arabia or Iran; if you chose Carter, you would select either Iran or Afghanistan; and if you wrote about the Reagan Doctrine, you would select Nicaragua, Angola, Russia or Afghanistan (although there were several others). Step 3: Describe what effect the presidential doctrine you chose has had on regional or global affairs since it was announced during the Cold War. That is, how did the doctrine change the status quo regionally or globally after it was announced by the U.S.? What happened in Western Europe after the Truman Doctrine was announced? What happened in the Middle East after the Eisenhower Doctrine was announced? What happened with Cuba or Vietnam after Kennedy offered up his doctrine of flexible response? What happened in Southeast Asia or the Persian Gulf after the Nixon Doctrine went in effect? What happened in the Middle East after the Carter Doctrine was announced? What happened in Central America or Africa or the Middle East after Reagan announced his doctrine? Step 4: Refer back to the country you selected in step two and describe the relationship that currently exists between the U.S. and that country. How has the relationship changed between the U.S. and that country since the doctrine was announced? Step 5: Evaluate whether or not the presidential doctrine had had the intended effect of altering the behavior of the one country you selected in section (2) above since the doctrine was first announced. Your assignment must: The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:

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Each year, we celebrate National Food Safety Month in September to reflect on how food safety impacts our everyday lives and discover best practices for preventing food poisoning. Without cleanliness, food safety is impossible to maintain in our homes and commercial facilities like restaurants, schools, hospitals and offices with corporate cafeterias. Read on to learn about the burden of foodborne illness and strategies for limiting their occurrence. Taking a Bite Out of Foodborne Illness The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that 1 in 6 Americans fall ill, 128,000 are hospitalized, and 3,000 die annually because of contaminated food. There are numerous ways that food can be tainted. For instance, some of the ingredients may be past their expiration date or the food may not have been stored at the proper temperature. Additionally, soiled surfaces, like counters and cutting boards, can cross-contaminate food products. Even after food is prepared or cooked, it can be contaminated by dirty hands. Cleanliness and hygiene play a critical role in curbing the incidence of foodborne illness. Facility managers and their teams are instrumental in keeping facilities clean and encouraging proper behaviors among building occupants and visitors. Four Tips for Food Safety Avoid food safety fails by following these cleanliness best practices: Strategically place hand hygiene solutions. Dirty hands spread germs, so giving people the chance to keep their hands clean is critical. Have hand soap dispensers stocked and easily accessible in food preparation areas like kitchens. Ensure soap and hand sanitizer are available in restrooms, as people often use them before or during dining. In areas where food is consumed, like cafeterias, break rooms and meeting rooms, place hand sanitizer dispensers where people will notice and use them. Whether you opt for wall-mounted or floor stand dispensers, consider automated versions to limit contact and the spread of germs. Address high-touch surfaces. In areas where many people gather to eat together, such as dining halls and cafeterias, there’s an increased risk that germs will build up over time. This is accelerated when people do not have clean hands and come in contact with shared objects. High-touch items in these environments can include napkin and condiment dispensers, food trays, counters, tables, chairs, and benches. Cleaning professionals should first clean surfaces and then disinfect them to address remaining pathogens. Be sure that your disinfectant has been proven effective against pathogens like E. coli, Salmonella and Norovirus so you can be confident that it addresses foodborne illness culprits. Meanwhile, cleaning top to bottom is an essential method for keeping recently addressed surfaces clean. Too often, pathogens from restrooms or kitchens make their way to other areas of a building simply through the process of cleaning. How does this happen? Using the same equipment, like mops and microfiber cloths, to address both spaces can quickly transfer germs. Cleaning professionals should have duplicates of their tools to avoid this cross-contamination. A color-coded system makes it easy to designate one set for restrooms, one for food preparation areas and another for dining areas. Folding and replenishing microfiber cloths once they’ve trapped dirt, dust, and moisture keeps soils from spreading onto other surfaces. Keep floors clean. Floors are typically exposed to higher levels of dirt since they are heavily trafficked. Commercial floor care equipment like scrubbers and sweepers helps maintain the appearance of floors by removing soils and debris and rinsing them with chemicals. Not only do clean floors support food safety by elevating overall cleanliness, they also send the right message to visitors. Dirty floors can signal a lack of attention to health and safety. Meanwhile, clean floors demonstrate that a facility cares about its guests and that this level of care extends to its food safety promise. The Benefits of Clean Eating A commitment to cleanliness in your facility keeps pathogens from spreading onto high-touch surfaces like desks and tables; door handles and elevator buttons, vending machines and more. Fewer germs leave fewer opportunities for foodborne illnesses to occur. In office settings, reducing food poisoning absences helps maintain productivity and morale, while in schools, it ensures that teachers and students are always ready for their lessons. Prioritizing cleanliness from the start can also help facilities avoid costly cleanings that typically take place after a widespread foodborne illness outbreak. Overall, a focus on food safety benefits everyone, from facility managers to building occupants to visitors. Cleanliness and food safety are a perfect pairing. Our use of safe, sustainable cleaning and disinfecting solutions is ideal for every facility. Contact GSF USA to learn more, and follow us on LinkedIn and Facebook for more best practices.

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CC-MAIN-2024-10

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What is scarlet fever? Scarlet fever, also known as scarlatina, is a contagious infection caused by the same bacteria that causes strep throat. In some cases, if your child has strep throat, she may also develop scarlet fever. In addition to your child not feeling well, scarlet fever also results in a fine, "sandpaper-like" rash that consists of small, red bumps. - commonly occurs between the ages of 2 and 10 - spread from direct contact with a child who is infected - rash shows up one to two days after infection - antibiotics can treat the infection - children with scarlet fever should stay home for 24 hours after starting antibiotics Is scarlet fever common? Scarlet fever most commonly occurs between the ages of 2 and 10. Scarlet Fever | Symptoms & Causes What are the symptoms of scarlet fever? Before the rash develops, scarlet fever can cause a variety of symptoms in your child including: The rash begins about one to two days after the initial infection. The red, fine, "sandpaper-like" rash is usually found on the neck, forehead, cheeks, and chest, and then may spread to the arms and back. The rash usually begins to fade after three to four days. What causes scarlet fever? Scarlet fever is caused by toxins that are produced by bacteria. It's usually associated with a strep infection (like strep throat). It may also be associated with wounds or burns that become infected. It is spread from direct contact with a child who is infected, usually through coughs, sneezes, or sharing food or drink. Scarlet Fever | Diagnosis & Treatments How is scarlet fever diagnosed? The rash of scarlet fever is unique and may be recognized by your child's doctor. In addition, your child's doctor may order a throat swab to confirm the diagnosis of strep throat as the source of the scarlet fever. How is scarlet fever treated? Treatment for scarlet fever is the same as for strep throat. It's important not to send your child back to school or daycare until she has been on antibiotics for at least 24 hours. Also, be sure to notify others who may have been exposed. Your child's doctor will prescribe an antibiotic to treat the infection. Other treatment options may include: - warm saline mouth gargles (to relieve the sore throat) - increased fluid intake - acetaminophen for fever (do not give aspirin)

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CC-MAIN-2024-10

https://healthlibrary.childrenshospital.org/conditions/scarlet-fever

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Although it might sound counter-intuitive, large-scale disturbances such as cyclones can also bring benefits to forests. This was documented by a study co-authored by INFORMA’s researcher Sebastiaan Luyssaert, from the Vrije University of Amsterdam. The study analysed the recovery of forests in East Asia after the passage of tropical cyclones using satellite-based images to measure forests’ leaf area. The data showed that, sixty days after their passage, around 18% of the cyclones caused a decrease in leaf area, 28% brought no change while a surprising 34% led to an increase in leaf area. The latter occurred because, despite leaving behind a storm track, cyclones carried precipitation to forests, which helped them recover from dry spells. The open-access study “Tropical cyclones facilitate recovery of forest leaf area from dry spells in East Asia”, authored by Luyssaert and Yi-Ying Chen, from the Research Center for Environmental Changes in Taipei, Taiwan, can be downloaded here. Photo credit: Geoff Whalan/Flickr

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CC-MAIN-2024-10

https://informa-forests.eu/de/cyclones-can-help-forests-recover-from-dry-spells-study-finds/

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After the Italian war declaration in 1915, fierce fighting unfolded on the south-western front until late autumn. The winter weather was not suitable to major military operations, as it was extremely difficult to fight but even to supply the troops. The calmer period was then replaced by more bloody battles from the spring of 1916. The 5th Isonzo Battle took place first between March 11-16. Later, this battle was evaluated only as a “demonstration activity” by Hungarian authors describing the history of the Great War. Obviously, it’s all just a matter of comparison. There were also operations with more preparation and more military force. There were two major attack targets in this battle, both of which were already on the Italian “boot list” of 1915: San Martino on the Karst Plateau and Tolmein on the upper Isonzo valley. The 17th and 20th Divisions held their positions firmly on the Karst. The posts around Tolmein, mainly on Mrzli Vrh, were successfully defended by the 3rd Mountain Brigade. The immediate aim of the Italian attacks was to eliminate the two Isonzo bridgeheads maintained by the Monarchy. In case of success the maneuver should have been further developed in the areas beneath. After capturing Tolmein and the mountain ridge above it, Italian troops should have continued to attack the area of today’s Slovenia between the ranges of the Julian Alps. This did not happen, as there was a waving trench struggle on the ridge of the mountain range, and after March 1916, the Italians no longer sought to break through here. Rather, their efforts were significant along the lower reaches of the Isonzo. Here they managed to occupy the larger, more dangerous Austrian-Hungarian bridgehead Görz. The mountains above Tolmein were occupied by the 15th Corps during 1915-16, mainly by the 3rd Mountain Brigade. The battlefields inscribed on the brigade’s insignia are all different points of this frontline. The fresh photo attached to the post was taken on the plateau of Mrzli Vrh, with Isonzo at the foot of the mountain. The opening postcard also depicts this front section.

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CC-MAIN-2024-10

https://kappenabzeichen.hu/en/march-1916-the-5th-isonzo-battle/

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Along with airplanes and tanks, submarines were important military innovations of the Great War. Because of their novelty and the high hopes attached to them, they proved to be a popular propaganda topic. U5 also designated a ship class, which included three ship units (U5, U6 and U12). It was a British-designed ship, copies of which were manufactured from British components at the Whitehead company’s factory in Fiume in 1909 and 1910. During the war, the Monarchy preferred to acquire other designs, which is why there were only three ships in this class. All three submarines were successful during the war. They were stationed in Cattaro and together the three of them sunk 22391 BRT of ship space. The largest of these ships was the French armored cruiser Léon Gambetta, which was sunk by U5 on April 27, 1915. U12 severely damaged the French battleship Jean Bart with its torpedoes on December 21, 1914. Later, all three submarines sank. U 12 ran into a mine in front of Venice in August 1915. The U6 got stuck in the nets of the Otranto sea lock in May 1916. U5 ran into an own mine on a practice trip, but this vessel was later recovered and repaired. The successes against the two French warships greatly increased the propaganda value of U-boats. The most successful U5 was depicted on most submarine insignia, as we can see on the now released insignia. This is one of the rarer versions here.

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https://kappenabzeichen.hu/en/u5-and-the-leon-gambetta/

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This lesson plan explores the history of LGBTQ Liberation from 1959 - 1979, and is a companion to the exhibit "Stonewall 50: The Spark That Lit the Flame" from the Center on Colfax's Colorado LGBTQ History Project. It includes primary sources and panels from the exhibit designed to weave together, in cooperative small-group learning, the narrative of Stonewall with the LGBTQ history of Denver. Students will use primary sources not widely available, and will understand the context leading up to Stonewall and the changes which occurred there after. From the Mattachine Society, the Black Cat Tavern and Compton's Cafeteria Riot, to the Denver Gay Revolt, Harvey Milk, as well as a detailed timeline of the riots, and the diverse voices there-in. Your students will be among the first generation of Americans to know and tell these stories. Their words will shape the future and change the world. (Includes: Bibliography, Teacher Resources, Understanding By Design, Colorado Content Standards Aligned, Grades 8-12). During this lesson students will answer a question open to historical debate "Why were the Stonewall riots the moment that sparked the LGBTQ Liberation Movement in American History?" Students will then be given panels from the Stonewall 50 history exhibit talking about the history of Stonewall: the events leading up to Stonewall, the events of the riots themselves, and the events and organizations that developed after the riots, such as the Gay Activist Alliance (GAA) and Gay Liberation Front (GLF), as well as the first Denver LGBTQ pride event, and the National March on Washington for Gay & Lesbian Rights in 1979. Students will be given 15 minutes to read panels from the exhibit underlining the important names, dates and events. Students will then share what they learned. Students will then create their own posters outlining the events of the riots as a formative assessment.

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https://lgbtqhistory.org/lesson-tag/ccss-w-11-12-7-2/

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Simply put, joints are places in the body where two bones meet. Most joints are called synovial joints, meaning the ends of the bones are cushioned by a slippery synovial fluid, which prevents friction between the bones and allows the joint to move smoothly through its range of motion. Much like a squeaky door, our joints don’t function well without synovial fluid. Especially for adults, it’s important to warm up our joints and keep them warm for exercise. Synovial fluid, when cold, is thick and viscous. When it warms up, it begins to flow freely, allowing it to properly cushion and lubricate the joint. Cold, thick, and viscous synovial fluid can lead to improper cushioning and lubrication, and grinding on the two bones. Knees come up a lot in injury because they are very poorly vascularized. In other words, they don’t have great blood flow. With far fewer small blood vessels, they are slower to heal from injuries, and are affected much more by cold. If a joint is cold, the synovial fluid doesn’t warm up. It remains cold and viscous, and cannot properly cushion or lubricate the joint. This sets you up for injury. For knees, “too cold” happens in temperatures as warm as 60°F. It seems warm, but it’s important to keep your knees warm in this temperature. Without proper lubrication, the joint wears down much faster, just from moving around. Cover your knees when the weather drops below 60 degrees. If pants make you too warm during your chosen activity, consider light compression sleeves to go under shorts. Remember – keeping your knees covered may make the difference between a healthy joint in Spring and a chronic problem that will follow you all season.

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https://lifemovesmt.com/cover-your-knees-when-its-under-60-degrees/

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A diesel engine is a type of internal combustion engine that uses diesel fuel to power its operation. Diesel engines were invented by Rudolf Diesel in the late 1800s and are commonly used in heavy-duty vehicles such as trucks, buses, and construction equipment, as well as in boats and generators. Lifetime structural, one year finish warranty MTU Series 4000 is a high-performance diesel engine commonly used in power generation The Deutz TD226B is a diesel engine commonly used in agriculture A diesel engine is a type of internal combustion engine that uses compression ignition to burn fuel. It was invented by German engineer Rudolf Diesel in the late 19th century and is widely used in transportation, industry, and agriculture. In a diesel engine, fuel is injected into the combustion chamber where it mixes with hot, compressed air. The mixture ignites spontaneously due to the high pressure and temperature, causing the piston to move and drive the engine. Diesel engines are known for their high fuel efficiency and longevity, making them popular in commercial vehicles such as trucks, buses, and trains. Diesel engines are also used in stationary applications such as power generators and industrial machinery. However, diesel engines are known for their emissions of particulate matter and nitrogen oxides, which can contribute to air pollution and have negative health effects. In recent years, efforts have been made to improve the emissions performance of diesel engines through the use of cleaner fuels, improved engine designs, and after-treatment technologies.

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https://marcopecas.com.br/product/chevrolet-corvette/

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Introduction of Atomic strcture:- - Atomic structure is a fundamental concept in chemistry that forms the basis for understanding the behavior of matter at the molecular and atomic levels. - Knowledge of atomic structure is crucial for various competitive exams, including chemistry, physics, and engineering. Key Concepts : - An atom is the smallest unit of an element that retains its chemical properties. - Atoms are composed of three subatomic particles: electron, proton, and neutron. - Positively charged subatomic particles found in the nucleus of an atom. - Protons determine the element’s identity and contribute to its atomic mass. - Each element has a unique number of protons, known as the atomic number. - Neutrally charged subatomic particles also located in the nucleus. - The number of neutrons can vary within the same element, leading to isotopes with different atomic masses. - Negatively charged subatomic particles found in electron shells or energy levels surrounding the nucleus. - Electrons are involved in chemical reactions and determine an atom’s chemical behavior. - The distribution of electrons in different energy levels follows specific rules and patterns. Atomic Number (Z): - The number of protons in an atom, which is unique to each element. - Elements are arranged in the periodic table based on their atomic numbers. Mass Number (A): - The sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. - Isotopes of the same element have different mass numbers due to varying numbers of neutrons. Describes the arrangement of electrons in an atom’s energy levels. Follows the Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion principle, and Hund’s rule. The weighted average mass of all naturally occurring isotopes of an element. Expressed in atomic mass units (amu) or unified atomic mass units (u). A simplified atomic model that represents electrons in specific energy levels or orbits around the nucleus. - Useful for understanding atomic emission spectra. Quantum Mechanical Model: A more modern and accurate model that describes electrons as wave-like entities occupying orbitals in three-dimensional space. Explains the probability of finding an electron in a specific region around the nucleus. Organizes elements based on their atomic number and chemical properties. Elements in the same group have similar electron configurations and exhibit similar chemical behavior. Most important SSC atomic structure questions: Understanding atomic structure is crucial for explaining the behavior of matter, chemical reactions, and the properties of elements. Which among the following is present inside the nucleus of an atom? Protons and Neutrons just like helium nuclei Explain- Alpha (α) particles are mainly helium (2He4) nuclei. They are formed by two protons and J J Thomson Explanation: The solution of two or more components is called homogeneous mixture. There are three types of solution, 1- Gaseous solution 2- Liquid solution, 3- The number of protons in a Lithium nucleus is: Lithium (Li) is a s-block element. Its atomic number is 3. It has 3 protons in its nucleus. The mass of an electron is nearly one upon _ times that of a proton. mass of electron = 1/1837 times of proton Cathode rays are a ray of __. Cathode rays are the stream of electrons which move from cathode electrode to anode electrode in the discharging tube, hence cathode rays are the group of highly moving negative particles and these negative particles are electrons. The first electron shell which is the nearest to the nucleus never holds more than ‘n’ electrons, where ‘n’ is equal to: The electrons in the atom revolve in different orbits around the nucleus. Niels Bohr Bury devised some rules to find the number of electrons in different orbits, called as Bohr-Bury Rule. According to the Bury rule, the number of given by electrons in an orbit is the , where n is the number of orbitals, For, n = 1, ⇒ 2 × (1)2 for n=2; 2n2=8 Hence, the number of electron for first shell is 2. The size of the nucleus is approximately—- The size of the nucleus of an atom is 10–15 What is the atomic mass of oxygen (expressed The atomic number of oxygen is 8 having atomic mass of 16 u or amu. What is the atomic number of nitrogen? The atomic number of oxygen is 7 having atomic mass of 14 u or amu. The general electronic configuration ns2 np3 fits which of the following elements? Protium, deuterium and tritium are the naturally occurring isotopes of: Atoms having same atomic number but different mass number are known as isotopes. Isotopes of hydrogen are protium (1H1) ,Deuterium (1H2) and Tritium (1H3) . How many types of isotopes does Scandium Scandium (Sc) is the element of the p-block of the periodic table, its atomic number is 21 and its atomic weight is 44.95u It has 13 isotopes whose atomic weight varies from 40 to 52. The existence of isotopes was first suggested in 1913 by the radiochemist ………? All isotopes of the same element have ——–? Atoms of the same element whose atomic number is similar but mass number is different, is called as isotopes. Atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers, having same mass number is known as ––––. Elements having same mass number but different atomic number are known as isobars. e.g. 19K40 and 20Ca40. Isobars have……… ? Same mass numbers but different atomic Which of the following is an example of pair of (a) Hydrogen and Helium (b) Calcium and Argon (c) Chlorine and Oxygen (d) Oxygen and Carbon Elements which have different atomic number but same mass number are called isobars. Since the mass number of Argon and Calcium are same they are isomeric pairs. Both of these mass number is 40 u. Becquerel is the unit(SI unit) of measurement of Why do atoms make bond? The atom make bonds to reduce potential energy and gain stability. ………..is a polar covalent bond. (a) H-Cl (b) Ne-Ne (c) Cl-Cl (d) Ca-Cl Polar Covalent Bond–When covalent bond is formed between two different atoms, e.g. HF, HCl and the shared pair of electrons between them get displaced more towards higher electronegativity atom. The resultant bond is known polar covalent bond. The shared pair of electron gets displaced move towards chlorine since electronegativity of Cl is greater The manufacturing of iron from iron-ore involves the process of The production of iron from its ore involves the process of reduction. Sulphur and Chlorine have what type of bond? Sulphur and Chlorine has polar covalent bond. Since electronegativity of Cl is greater than S, the shared paired of electrons get displaced, move towards Cl. Which of the following is a property of (a) Forms ionic compounds (b) Has a low melting and boiling point (c) Reacts with water (d) Forms covalent compounds Ans. (d) Among the following forming covalent compounds in an appropriate property of Beryllium. What is the net charge on Calcium fluoride? Calcium fluoride is an inorganic element, its chemical formula is CaF2. Its charge is 0. but individually ca and cl has +2 and -1 charge respectively. What happens in an oxidation reaction? (a) Protons are lost (b) Electrons are lost (c) Neutrons are lost (d) Electrons are gained Oxidation is the process of removal of electron, hydrogen and electro positive element or group and additon of oxygen and electro negative element or Which among the following will be a negative (a) If it has more electrons than protons (b) If it has more electrons than neutrons (c) If it has more protons than electrons (d) If it has more protons than neutrons (a) If it has more electrons than protons What must be the condition for rusting in iron? (a) Absence of O2 (b) Presence of CO2 (c) Absence of H2O (d) Presence of O2 (d) : Corrosion of iron is called rusting. Corrosion occures when metal formed metal oxide. Thus oxygen gas must need for rusting. Corrosion accelerated due to the presence of moisture in atmosphere, Hydrated iron oxide is known as rust. Which among the following is a cation ? (a) Aluminium (b) Iodide (c) Chloride (d) Fluoride Cation:- The ions have positive charge is called as “cation”. Eg- NH4+, Ca++, Al3+, H3O+ Anion:– The ions have negative charge is called as “anions”. Eg- Br–, I–, Cl–, OH–

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CC-MAIN-2024-10

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Digital signature are in many ways analogous to physical signatures. Digital signature provide a way to authenticate documents and other types of data like images, emails or other types of files. When a sender sends data through a document, it becomes important to identify the sender’s authenticity for security and safety reasons. Digital signature are used for this identification. Digital signature allow you to authenticate a document, proving that it hasn’t been altered in transit. It means you know who is the sender and the data you received is exactly what the sender sent. When a message or data is signed with Digital signature, some malicious person can’t clip out a digital signature, modify the original document and attach an old signature to the result(data). He even can’t generate a new signature and claim that the document came from its original sender. Digital signature work on the public key cryptography architecture. As per the asymmetric algorithm an asymmetric key system encrypts using a public key and decrypts with a private key. For Digital signature the reverse is true. If the sender encrypts something with his/her private key, anyone can use my public key to read the message. Sounds like there is no use of this system, but here we are not trying to keep the message secret, we are trying to prove that a specific person(me) could have sent the message. No one has my private key so no one else can send a message that can be decrypted with my public key. Therefore, only the real sender could have sent the message. Digital signature is not any kind of data encryption but it has many more advantages over data encryption. Encryption of a large message or documents with complex algorithms takes a long time, even with fast computers. And some asymmetric algorithms just aren’t suitable for encrypting large amounts of data for other reasons as well. With Digital signature we don’t usually encrypt the entire message. We use a standard algorithm to create a “hash” or “message digest” to produce the signature, then encrypt the message digest(relatively smaller in size) with the private key. The result of the encryption is our Digital signature. The recipient(receiver) can then decrypt the signature with the public key and check whether the resulting message digest matches the message he received. If yes, then the message hasn’t been altered and the sender is who he claims to be. Note : The main thing to note here is that message digest(hash) is a fixed length string of numbers and letters generated from a mathematical algorithm and an arbitrarily sized file such as email, image, documents, etc. This generated string(result) is unique to the file being hashed and is a one-way function. Computed hash can’t be reversed to find other files that may generate the same hash value. This hash value will be very small in terms of size. Some hashing algorithms like SHA-1, SHA-256, MD-5. Another advantage over here is we don’t even have to make sure that the communication by which we received the data is secure or not. We simply check the signature after data arrives, if the signature matches then the data is the actual one which is sent by the author. Let’s see now how we can create and verify Digital signature for specific data in java. Before moving further just take a note that KeyPairGenerator, KeyPair, PrivateKey, PublicKey, Signature class is part of java.security package. So please make sure to import the package to start working on. - Create a KeyPairGenerator object which will generate public and private keys //DSA is algorithm to generate public/private keys, can be used anyone as per choice KeyPairGenerator keyPairGen = KeyPairGenerator.getInstance(“DSA”); - Initialize the KeyPairGenerator object //2048 is int parameter mentioning size of key - Generate the KeyPair object which will give us public and private keys //generateKeyPair method will generate keys KeyPair pair = keyPairGen.generateKeyPair(); - Get public and private keys from the pair object. Public key will be required at the time of verification //Taking the private key from the key pair PrivateKey privKey = pair.getPrivate(); //Taking the public key from the key pair PublicKey pubKey = pair.getPublic(); - For creating signature we have Signature class in java so lets create object of signature class //SHA256withDSA is algorithm to to create signature, can be used other as well as per choice Signature sign = Signature.getInstance(“SHA256withDSA”); - Now initialize signature object which required private key to pass for encryption //Initialize the signature with private key for hash encryption - Our signature object is ready now, as soon as we pass data to it, data will be hash with specific algorithm and encrypt with given private key //bytes will be byte array of our data, it can be document or any other file byte bytes = “42Gears Tech blog”.getBytes(); //Adding data to the signature for which we need Digital signature - At this final step we will generate signature to pass to network with plain data //here signature will return byte array which will be encrypted string with private key. Basically the result will be encrypted hash of our plain data byte signature = sign.sign(); - We have generated signature which we will pass to network from step 8, for information purpose we will do step 6 and 7 again to initialize signature object with public key to verify the signature //Initialize the signature with public key for hash decryption //bytes is byte array of plain text - We have initialize signature with public key in step 9 so we will involve verify method of signature class to verify if signature is matching or not //here we are passing byte array of generated signature which we did in step 8. Verify method will return boolean value true false which will give us result that signature is matching or not If step 10 is returning true then our data that we send is not altered while transmitting and sent from the authorized sender only. As you see while verification of signature we are again passing plain data to the signature object. It means that we are not encrypting any data and verifying data but we are just making sure that the actual message is the correct one and not altered during transmission. This is very beneficial in case of Government sectors, Healthcare, Financial services, crypto currencies, etc.

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CC-MAIN-2024-10

https://techblogs.42gears.com/how-to-authenticate-data-documents-using-digital-signature-in-java/

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Significance of A Good Health World Health Organization explains health, a state of overall physical, mental, and social well-being other than the absence of disease or infirmity. Later on, WHO cleared it and defined health, a resource for everyday life, not the objective to live. It is a positive step underlining social and individual resources with physical abilities. A healthy lifestyle means living a completely purposeful and meaningful life. A resource that promotes personal activities to be performed in a better way. Recently, health workers have defined it as an immune system that can adapt to new disturbances and infirmities. They have explained this idea based on modern science innovation and research towards serious diseases and their treatment. Types of Health Mental and Physical health are two significant categories of health that are discussed everywhere. Spiritual, emotional, and financial well-being are also essential for a fit and fine body. Medical practitioners have related these problems to lower stress standards and enhanced better social and mental health. Persons with financial health think less of money issues and purchase fresh food to live a healthy life. People with good spiritual health may sense calm and composed mental health. - 1. Physical Health A person with excellent physical health may have great body activities and processes working appropriately. It is because of an absence of disease. Daily exercise, a good diet, and sufficient rest contribute to overall good health. People may receive medical treatment to maintain the balance when required. Physical health can be obtained due to a healthy lifestyle declining the risk of disease. To maintain physical fitness, a person must have consistency in normal breathing, muscular strength, body weight, heart activity, and fluctuation. Observing physical fitness involves less injury or health problems like - Minimizing disease in the workplace - Practicing impressive hygiene - Preventing alcohol, tobacco, and illegal drugs - Taking prescribed medicines for the special atmospheric condition while travelling to any nation Great physical health can improve a person’s mental health and overall quality of life. Mental illness like depression may increase the risk of drug use disorder. It can poorly affect physical health. - 2. Mental Health As per other institutions, mental health refers to emotional, social, and psychological health. Mental health is significant, like physical health, as a part of a complete and active lifestyle. It is challenging to define mental health rather than physical health because several psychological treatments work on awareness of their experience. With improvements in testing, doctors can now recognize physical signs of mental disease in CT scans and genetic tests. Good mental health is not differentiated due to the absence of depression, anxiety, or other disorder. It also depends on a person’s capacity to - Love life - Come back after challenging situations and adapt to changes - Stability on various elements of life such as family and finance - Experience safe and secure - Attain your full energy Physical and mental have robust connections. Suppose a chronic disease impacts person’s capacity to finish their routine tasks, which may cause depression and sickness. These feelings can be because of financial issues or mobility problems. A mental illness can cause depression, or anorexia can impact body weight and overall function. It is essential to consider health a complete body activity rather than a network of different factors. All health problems are linked to each other, and people must think about total well-being and body balance. Reasons for Body Fitness Body fitness depends upon a network of health reasons.. - 1. Genetic Reasons A person with a typical type of genes can receive genetic disorders. An unusual genetic pattern or modification can lead to a less-than-premium standard of health. People may acquire genes from their parents, which can increase their risk of certain health conditions. - 2. Environmental Reasons Environmental health plays a significant role in health conditions. Sometimes, the environment is sufficient to affect your health. An environmental change can cause sickness in a human who has an increased genetic threat of a particular disease. Access to healthcare plays a significant role that may have a significant effect on health. - Where a person survive - The condition of the surrounding environment - Their income - Their standard of education - Employment status Suppose you have any health issue, you can get in touch with the health customer support team, and they will recommend you for perfect doctors for appropriate treatment. Some categories of health are given below. - Mayo Clinic Customer Service - Cleveland Clinic Customer Service - The Johns Hopkins Hospital Customer Service - Massachusetts General Hospital Customer Service Frequently Asked Questions The seven dimensions of Wellness are given below. To become healthy must be a part of your overall life. A healthy lifestyle can assist in avoiding chronic and long-term illness. Caring for your health and feeling good is essential for your self-esteem and self-image. Maintaining a healthy lifestyle is perfect for your body. Regular exercise, sufficient sleep, and perfect hygiene are the building blocks of healthy living. It keeps you energetic, fit and removes the disease. It is not just ignoring a disease or illness. Health is significant to remove extreme poverty and promote the growth of well-being. The analysis tells about health improvements growth measured by the value of life-years received 24% of comprehensive income in low and middle-income nations.

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Tiny wobbles in the incredible rings of Saturn have allowed astronomers an indirect look into the gas giant's interior, and it appears that its core differs from expectations. A new study suggests it is larger and "fuzzier" than previously thought. As reported in Nature Astronomy, researchers used data from the Cassini mission – which studied Saturn for 13 years before plummeting to its death – to look at patterns in its rings. Some of them are created by the many moons orbiting the planet (some within the rings themselves), but others are believed to be due to the gravitational effects of the planet’s sloshing interior. Instead of having a hard sphere of rocks and metals, as some theories had suggested, the core appears to be a sloppy mixture of ice, rocks, and metallic fluids. This is usually referred to as a fuzzy, or diffuse core, without clearly defined boundaries. The findings suggest that the core extends to about 60 percent of the planet's radius, much larger than previously thought. This puts it at around 55 times as massive as Earth and containing enough ice and rocks to make 17 Earths. "We used Saturn's rings like a giant seismograph to measure oscillations inside the planet," co-author Assistant Professor Jim Fuller from Caltech said in a statement. "This is the first time we've been able to seismically probe the structure of a gas giant planet, and the results were pretty surprising." "The fuzzy cores are like a sludge," added lead author Dr Christopher Mankovich, also from CalTech. "The hydrogen and helium gas in the planet gradually mix with more and more ice and rock as you move toward the planet's center. It's a bit like parts of Earth's oceans where the saltiness increases as you get to deeper and deeper levels, creating a stable configuration." The rings of Saturn are a collection of fine dust and ice organized into large bands with gaps within them. They are susceptible to many perturbations and the idea that they could be used to probe the interior of the planet has been around for the last three decades. Like earthquakes on our planet, oscillations in Saturn's interior can make the planet jiggle around ever so slightly. Those motions, in turn, cause ripples in Saturn's rings. "Saturn is always quaking, but it's subtle," explained Mankovich. "The planet's surface moves about a meter every one to two hours like a slowly rippling lake. Like a seismograph, the rings pick up the gravity disturbances, and the ring particles start to wiggle around." It was only with the Cassini mission and its detailed observations of the Saturnian system that such an idea could be tested. Mankovich and Fuller's analysis has highlighted multiple spiral patterns within Saturn’s C-ring driven by the planet's gravitational field. They believe that no other influence, such as the gravitational pull of Saturn's moons, is causing these fluctuations. They posit that the gravitational ripples seen show that while Saturn's interior sloshes around, it is still made of stable layers with heavier materials having sunk to the middle and very little mixing with lighter material above. "In order for the planet's gravitational field to be oscillating with these particular frequencies, the interior must be stable, and that's only possible if the fraction of ice and rock gradually increases as you go in toward the planet's center," said Fuller. Jupiter is believed to have a similarly fuzzy core based on recent evidence from NASA’s Juno mission. Cassini was a collaborative mission between NASA, the European Space Agency, and the Italian Space Agency.

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I hope you are well. Sometimes just saying mad, sad, or happy, just doesn't cut it. We're feeling an intense feeling that using those words does not effectively describe what is being experienced. We need to be emotionally literate and aware of these other feeling states so we can either ask for help in managing them as well as understand and even help ourselves. The "Anger Family" has been designed with that in mind by teaching what is called EMOTIONAL LITERACY. -the ability to identify, understand, and mange more complex emotional states. Emotional literacy requires an understanding that many feelings in the same "family" can exist at one time and move very quickly through different levels of intensity as you continue to experience more inputs and emotional triggers. It is, therefore, important, to be able to know how to GRADUALLY work through different feelings to get to a more desired state of being. These feelings can often seem like "being mad" and often share characteristics of it. However, unlike garden variety mad, these states are different, with different levels of power, and require different tools to manage them and ways of understanding how they work. HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE 1. Identify the feeling by observing the triggers of the feeling and its associated physical signs (movement, body language, language, physical behaviors, etc.) and their intensities. 2. Identify the power level of the feeling. 3. Identify which level of coping tools you need to use by comparing the identified feeling and its intensity with the coping tools list. 4. Use the identified tools at each level as you GRADUALLY work your way down to the lowest power level and a calmer emotional/energy state. 5. Process the incident with your child when you are both calm and able to engage each other without ramping back up. Be sure to specifically name the feeling, its power level, and the associated skills you used. Be sure to point out how feelings change and that no feeling stays around forever no matter how intense. By reinforcing the use of the coping tools and validating your child's effort, you reinforce this message as well as helping build confidence in the self-management of new, intense feelings that they become aware of with increased emotional intensity. A couple of notes for parents: Hey Parents! Remember that helpful tools like taking deep breaths and talking through feelings require calm, attention, and organization of thoughts. Your child cannot use these low power tools when they are overwhelmed by the energy of high power feelings. Tools for high and medium power feelings are there simply to reduce the dis-regulating intense energy and help you get to a calmer place. then you can use the tools that teach more awareness and planning for future instances of experiencing any of the feelings on this handout. You may note that there are a number of destructive outlets provided for the high power feelings on this handout. These are designed to provide explosive, intense releases of intense energy and generate fatigue as well as a release valve to get energy out and begin the calming process. If your child can get out the explosive energy without resorting to aggressive behaviors then DEFINITELY use those!!! The destructive suggestions are provided simply to redirect violent and other destructive behavior (ie. property) to a "preferable" outlet as you continue to work towards desired expressions of feelings with your therapist. When looking at the handout, you will notice that we deliberately left the picture boxes empty. Visual cues will be much more relevant and useful if you use your own visuals that trigger reminders regardless of what they are. You will also notice that we deliberately left the triggers and feelings warning signs blank. Again, everyone experiences these feelings differently; triggers and outward and inward expressions of these feelings will be different. Work with your child (when calm) to explore how they know they are having these feelings; combine their observations with yours and write them here.

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The Demodex mite is a type of parasite that lives on humans and can reside in hair follicles and sebaceous glands. These mites are arachnid (eight-legged) and invisible to the naked eye, varying in size from 0.1mm to 0.4 mm long. They typically live on the face and in the hair follicles of the eyebrows, eyelids, roots of the eyelashes, facial hair, and around the ears and are associated with various skin problems of the eyes and face, such as blepharitis and acne rosacea. Demodex can affect humans at any age, but their presence increases in prevalence with increasing age. Immunity compromised patients such as diabetics, patients on long-term corticosteroids or chemotherapy, or patients who have HIV/AIDS also have increased risk and prevalence of Demodex infection. Usually, when the immune system is weakened and the parasitic population has colonized, this disease can badly damage the skin. For transmission of mites from one person to another, direct contact of hair and sebaceous glands on the nose, or dust containing eggs is required. Since the disease processes begin when there is an overpopulation of Demodex, the vast majority of cases of mites go unobserved and don't show any adverse symptoms. However, in certain cases, the mite populations migrate and multiply in the eyelashes. There are two existing types of Demodex mites: the longer kind, Demodex folliculorum, which live in the hair follicles and the short ones, Demodex brevis, which live in the sebaceous (oil) glands in the skin. In the early stages, there are often no noticeable symptoms, but if left untreated Demodex can progress. Symptoms vary among patients and may include dry eye, red eyes, severe itching along the eyelid margin and eyebrow, especially in the morning, eyelid irritation, burning sensation, foreign body sensation that seems to originate beneath the eyelids, heavy lid, and blurry vision. One of the earliest signs of mite infestation is cylindrical dandruff (CD), which is the accumulation of fine, waxy, dry debris that collects at the base of the lash and extends up to 2 mm along the length of the lashes and is most noticeable on the upper lashes. Demodex mites can be diagnosed by a slit-lamp evaluation or by carefully removing and viewing an epilated eyelash under the microscope. Initial treatment involves an in-office lid scrub/débridement which starts with a drop or two of long-lasting anesthetic being instilled. The lashes and eyebrows are then thoroughly débrided. Next, an antibiotic/steroid ointment is applied to help keep the mites from moving and also possibly suffocate them. The steroid also helps in calming down the inflammation secondary to the chemical and mechanical irritation of the in-office treatment, in addition to suppressing any possible inflammatory cascade associated with the decaying mites. The patient should return in 2 weeks and repeat the in-office treatment. The patients diagnosed with Demodex need to know a few simple instructions: Immediately wash bedding and pillowcases in hot water and dry in a heated dryer before beginning treatment, and once a week thereafter. Wash face, nostrils, hair, external ear and neck with a non-soap cleanser twice daily. Scrub the eyelids with a mild (baby) shampoo. Avoid using makeup for at least 1 week and discard all old makeup. Avoid oil-based cleansers, greasy makeup, lotions, and sunscreens which can provide further "food" for the mites. Exfoliate face once or twice a week to remove dead skin cells and trapped sebum. Keep pets away from sleeping surfaces. With the proper medical care, treatment, and hygiene, the Demodex count usually drops to zero in 4-6 weeks without recurrence in the majority of cases. Patients receiving therapy show dramatic improvements in symptoms, eye inflammation, tear film stability and vision.

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Howard Hughes Medical Institute investigator William R. Jacobs and colleagues have produced a genetically altered strain of tuberculosis (TB) that elicits a stronger immune response than the current vaccine, bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG). The new vaccine improves survival of infected animals and may help put scientists on track to replace BCG, which has been used for nearly a century although it is largely ineffective. Despite widespread vaccination programs, the World Health Organization estimates that approximately 2 billion people worldwide are infected with TB, with over 95 percent of infections occurring in developing countries. Most TB is latent, but can become active when the immune system is weak, such as during HIV infection, and more than 1.6 million die each year from this disease. In addition, resistance to current treatments is becoming increasingly common, making an effective vaccine all the more crucial. “We’re very excited because this is the first vaccine strain we’ve ever seen that is significantly better than BCG,” said Jacobs. Jacobs worked in collaboration with Steven Porcelli at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine. The team will publish its findings in the August, 2007, issue of the Journal of Clinical Investigation. The immune system has a very difficult time detecting and combating Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the bacteria responsible for tuberculosis. By creating a strain of TB that behaves differently, Jacobs believes he can build a vaccine that prepares the body to recognize TB when infected. If a cell becomes aware that a pathogen has invaded, it can prevent the infection from spreading to other cells by committing cell suicide – a process known as apoptosis, where the cell shuts down and is shredded into little pieces. Immune system cells further chop up these cellular bits and present them to white blood cells called T lymphocytes. Each T lymphocyte specifically recognizes a different small piece of protein, known as a peptide. Upon encountering their specific peptide, T lymphocytes multiply and mount an attack against the pathogen. After the pathogen has been eliminated, most of the T lymphocytes die, but a small population continues to circulate throughout the body. These cells are known as memory T lymphocytes, and will be poised and ready should the pathogen appear again. The most effective vaccines induce the immune system to produce memory T lymphocytes, which are crucial to establishing life-long immunity. Of course, pathogens have tricks to evade the immune system. M. tuberculosis lives in the lungs, in immune cells called macrophages. A weapon in TB’s arsenal is an enzyme called superoxide dismutase A, or sodA. This enzyme helps TB cover its tracks, so the macrophage doesn’t know it’s infected. Jacobs and his team hypothesized that eliminating this enzyme’s activity would give macrophages the opportunity to trigger apoptosis, thus prompting a more effective immune response. So the researchers deleted the gene responsible for shuttling sodA out of the bacterium, effectively disabling sodA activity. When they compared this mutant strain to normal TB, they saw that it did in fact cause increased apoptosis in macrophages grown in culture. To get a better picture of what was going on, Jacobs and his team used a mouse that had been genetically altered to have all of its T lymphocytes recognize the same peptide. They altered the normal and the apoptosis-inducing strains of TB to produce this peptide. The researchers transferred thousands of immune cells from the genetically-altered mice into normal mice, which they then infected with the two strains of TB. This procedure gives scientists a magnified view of the immune system’s response. Although both strains of TB produce the same amount of peptide, Jacobs expected infection with the apoptosis-inducing strain to elicit a more dramatic immune response. The researchers observed that cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs), which are needed for eliminating a pathogen and establishing a memory response, proliferated much more in the mice that had been infected with the apoptosis-inducing strain. This means that the immune system was able to detect and respond to infection by the mutant strain better than normal TB. From here, Jacobs compared his mutant strain with the current vaccine, BCG, to see if it would be more effective. The scientists injected mice with the mutant TB or BCG and then infected them with an aerosolized form of TB two months later. The results were impressive, said Jacobs. One month after infection, the lungs of mice that had been vaccinated with the mutant strain and then infected with TB looked like they’d never had TB at all. “The pathologist we sent these lung sections to was amazed,” said Jacobs. “He said he’d never seen anything like it.”A year after infection with TB, less than 25 percent of the BCG-vaccinated mice had survived. In contrast, over 75 percent of the mice vaccinated with the mutant strain were still alive. Even beyond the course of the experiment, the mice have continued to thrive. “It’s a year and a half later now, and those mice are still kicking,” Jacobs said proudly. The team had the same successes when they repeated the vaccination experiments in guinea pigs, which are highly susceptible to TB infection, further encouraging the notion that this vaccine may be effective in humans. Jacobs is optimistic about the research, but he knows there is still much that needs to be done. His team is already working to modify the strain to make it less virulent, putting them one step closer to replacing BCG. (Source: Journal of Clinical Investigation : Howard Hughes Medical Institute : October 2007)

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Re:storing the wild Our forests, grasslands, peatlands, freshwater rivers and lakes, coral reefs, mangroves, seagrasses and other natural ecosystems do not merely provide a home for Earth’s plants, animals and fungi, they provide a liveable planet for all life, including each of us. Ecosystems regulate the climate and protect us from zoonotic disease; they generate clean air, fresh water and an abundance of food and medicines. And they do this for free—but only if we give them the chance. As humans continue to ravage our wildlands for agriculture, minerals, oil, timber and urban development, and other forms of short-term gain, we are also destroying our chance to implement the most effective solutions to the global climate and extinction crises. Healthy, intact ecosystems are much better at storing and sequestering carbon—a critical nature-based solution to the climate crisis—than degraded ones. We all need healthy ecosystems to survive. Rewilding for a balanced world We know what, where and how to protect biodiversity; we know how to stabilize our climate, and we are committed to mobilizing the resources and political will to build a balanced world through rewilding. We do all of this hand-in-hand with national, regional, and global partners, Indigenous peoples and local communities. Biodiversity Hotspots are biogeographic regions holding exceptional concentrations of endemic species that are severely threatened. Thirty-six terrestrial hotspots have been recognized, covering 16.7% of Earth’s land surface. What remains of the natural vegetation in these 36 hotspots, however, is down to 2.39% of the world’s land area, an area a little larger than India. Scientists estimate that half of all plant and vertebrate species are found only within the hotspots. High Biodiversity Wilderness Areas (HBWAs) offer a proactive rather than reactive approach to prioritization. HBWAs are greater than 1 million hectares in area, and retain an extraordinary wealth of biodiversity. These areas are at least 70%, and up to 90%, intact. Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) are sites that contribute significantly to the global persistence of biodiversity, delineated at a finer scale than both Biodiversity Hotspots and High Biodiversity Wilderness Areas. As founding partners of the KBA Partnership, we aim to ensure that all 16,000 KBAs, especially the 8,000 within Biodiversity Hotspots and High Biodiversity Wilderness Areas, are effectively safeguarded and restored through collaborations. We also work to restore biodiverse areas that have been degraded, giving nature a chance to heal and do what it does best: store vast amounts of carbon, provide a home for wildlife, and ensure humans can thrive and prosper. We work in more than 80 countries and prioritize the protection of Key Biodiversity Areas within Biodiversity Hotspots and High Biodiversity Wilderness Areas. Protecting what remains of Earth’s wildlands is an essential part of safeguarding all life on Earth both now and for future generations. Banner collage image credits: Liz Brown, New Zealand Department of Conservation, Cristina Mittermeier, Robin Moore, SMART

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Mahasanghika (“Great Congregation”, also given as Mahasamghika) was an early Buddhist school of thought which is thought to have been formed after the Second Buddhist Council of 383 BCE when it separated itself from another school, the Sthaviravada (“Sect of the Elders”, also given as Sthavira nikaya), over differences in monastic practices (known as Vinaya). It is unclear why the Sthaviravada insisted on more rigorous rules of conduct for the monks, but their suggestions were rejected by the majority at the council who then referred to themselves as the “Great Congregation”, the majority view of what constituted Buddhist monastic practices and, by extension, Buddhist teachings. They differed or came to differ significantly from the Sthaviravada in how they understood the nature of the Buddha, and they are the first to attribute divinity to him and represent him in anthropomorphic form in statuary, setting a precedent which has continued to the present day. The famous caves of Ajanta, Ellora, and Karla in India, intricately carved and painted with images of Buddha and his teachings, are associated with the Mahasanghika sect Caitika, and other Mahasanghika sects also contributed significantly to foundational aspects of Buddhism as it came to be recognized. The biography of the Buddha was written by the Lokottarvada sect, and the Kukkutika sect set down an early chronology of the Buddha's life. These three sects broke away from the central Mahasanghika school over disputes in accepting the interpretation of another Buddhist school, the Mahayana, regarding the Buddha's life and teachings. Owing to the earlier dispute with the Sthaviravada, and the later fragmentation into other sects, the Mahasanghika school is cited as the first fragmentation of the original sangha (“community”) of Buddhists as established by the Buddha. The school is thought to have influenced or even become Mahayana Buddhism, but this is disputed as it seems clear Mahayana texts already existed when the Mahasanghika school was a cohesive whole. The two schools most likely influenced each other, but Mahayana (“Great Vehicle”) would outlast the earlier Mahasanghika to become the most popular and widespread form of Buddhism in the world today. Siddhartha Gautama (l. c. 563 - c. 483 BCE) became the Buddha upon attaining complete awareness of the nature of life and how one could best live it. He realized that the one constant in the human experience was suffering. People suffered from want of what they did not have, from fear of losing what they did have, and from loss of what they had loved only to then die and, caught on the wheel of rebirth and death (samsara), were then reincarnated to experience that suffering endlessly. Upon attaining enlightenment, he recognized that people only suffered because they were ignorant of the actual nature of life, that it was always in constant flux, and nothing was permanent. By insisting on permanent states of experience – that what one enjoys at the moment will always last – they condemned themselves to the endless round of samsara. He developed a system through which one could arrive at the same state of harmonious detachment he had attained, the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. The Four Noble Truths simply stated that life was suffering, that suffering was caused by craving (craving for permanence in an impermanent world), that suffering ended with an end to craving, that there was a way to lead one away from the craving-suffering cycle, and that this way was the Eightfold Path: - Right View - Right Intention - Right Speech - Right Action - Right Livelihood - Right Effort - Right Mindfulness - Right Concentration By disciplining one's self through the Eightfold Path, one moved from craving to detachment. Anyone, the Buddha said, could do what he had done and could then go on to live a life free of suffering and, when one died, be liberated from the cycle of samsara into the nothingness of nirvana (a “blowing out” of all attachment) and never have to suffer rebirth and death again. The central focus of Buddha's teachings was on individual responsibility for one's own suffering. It was up to each person to recognize the nature of life and either follow his teachings, the dharma (“cosmic law”) or reject them and continue to suffer. He formed the first Buddhist sangha after delivering his first sermon at the Deer Park in Sarnath and his disciples then followed him as he revealed his vision to others throughout India. First & Second Councils When the Buddha died, he requested that the sangha should elect no leader but that each should perfect himself and teach others, just as he had done. Instead, his disciples organized and institutionalized the sangha in an effort to preserve the Buddha's teachings intact. At first, it seems, the sangha was uniform in belief (though this may not be so) and convened the First Council to establish the true teachings of the Buddha and the tenets of monastic discipline – the Dharma and Vinaya. This event may have occurred three months after the Buddha's death or around 400 BCE or, according to some scholars, never. Early Buddhist dates are difficult to substantiate as historical, even the dates of the Buddha's life, but most scholars agree the council took place c. 400 BCE and the Dharma and Vinaya were agreed upon. The Second Council was called in 383 BCE, possibly to address Vinaya, but the reason is unclear. This meeting resulted in the first schism of the sangha when the Sthaviravada insisted on the observance of ten proscriptions of the Vinaya and the majority present disagreed. The ten proscriptions were against: - Carrying salt in an animal horn - Eating when the shadow of the sundial is two fingerbreadths past noon - After eating, traveling to another village on the same day to eat another meal - Holding several monastic assemblies within the same boundary during the same fortnight - Making a monastic decision with an incomplete assembly and subsequently receiving the approval of absent monks - Citing precedent as a justification to violate monastic procedures - Drinking whey after mealtime - Drinking unfermented wine - Using mats with a fringe - Accepting gold and silver The Sthaviravada seem to have claimed that violating these proscriptions was a serious infraction of monastic law, but the majority claimed such rules could safely be ignored. What happened next is unclear since, according to some sources, the Sthaviravada then split from the sangha while, according to others, it was the Mahasanghika who initiated the schism. Since the name of the Mahasanghika means “Great Congregation” and since all sources agree that the majority present disagreed with the Sthaviravada claim, it makes the most sense that the Sthaviravada left the assembly and formed their own school afterwards. The Sthaviravada & Devadatta Scholars are in agreement that the schism at the Second Council had to do with differences over monastic discipline, but there is no general consensus on the details of the above narrative. The later Theravada and Mahayana schools give differing accounts including one in which the Second Council concludes harmoniously and the schism comes later when a monk, Mahadeva, questions the purity of Sthaviravada arhats (saints) and the majority agrees with him. One very strange aspect of the narrative as given here is the Sthaviravada insistence on the ten proscriptions which seems modeled on an earlier tale of one Devadatta, a close associate (sometimes a cousin, sometimes brother-in-law) of the Buddha who, according to the Vinaya Pitaka (part of the Tripitaka, the Buddhist scriptures), created the first schism in Buddhism by doing the same. According to the story given in the Cullavagga (section VII) of the Vinaya Pitaka, Devadatta was among the Buddha's first disciples and developed psychic powers through meditation in the first year of his discipleship. His power made him think too highly of himself and he sought to unseat the Buddha and take control of the sangha, even enlisting the aid of a local prince he had under his spell to try to kill him, but his attempts all failed. He then tried to divide the sangha by insisting that all of the monks follow five rules: - Forest dwelling only (no living in towns or cities) - Subsistence only on alms food collected by begging (no accepting gifts of food) - Use of rag robes only (no accepting gifts of clothing) - Dwelling at the foot of a tree - Complete vegetarianism The Buddha refused to take any of these rules seriously and so Devadatta then tried to turn the sangha against him by claiming the Buddha did not care for their enlightenment, seduced 500 monks away for a time (they returned when they saw their error), and continued his resentment and jealousy toward the Buddha for the rest of his life. The story concludes with Devadatta, sick and wishing to repent (or trying one last time to kill the Buddha), falling into Hell (Niraya) but, since he had wished to repent (according to that version of the story), he would not remain there but be reincarnated multiple times until he reached nirvana. The story would have been known to the later writers of the account of the Second Council and, possibly, was drawn on to discredit the minority Sthaviravada's insistence on rigid rules just as Devadatta had done. Owing to the nature of Early Buddhist texts, however, this is speculative but there is a remarkable similarity between the two accounts of rules resulting in schism. Mahasanghika Foundation & Beliefs It is unclear how long after the Second Council – or perhaps even before the council - that different views of the Buddha's nature and interpretations of his teachings began to emerge but, at some point, his followers not only initiated many more rules than the Buddha seems to have intended but he came to be regarded by some adherents as supramundane and transcendent. He was no longer simply Siddhartha Gautama who had attained enlightenment on his own, this school of thought claimed, but an immortal being, only one of many buddhas who had existed since the beginning of time, and worthy of worship. This seems to have been the belief of the Mahasanghika school who, while accepting the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, made other assertions regarding the nature of the Buddha which centered on the claim that he had never existed in physical form but had only appeared to do so in order to better teach others the path to salvation. In this view, he had never been conceived through sexual intercourse nor born of a woman, never suffered the asceticism which brought him to enlightenment, never ate, never grew old, and never died because he had never had a physical form to begin with. The individual people saw, heard, and called “the Buddha” was a kind of apparition created and sustained by the love of humanity in an effort to elevate consciousness and lead people from ignorance to enlightenment. According to scholars Robert E. Buswell, Jr. and Donald S. Lopez, Jr.: They also taught that there was a root consciousness (Mulavijnana) that serves as the support for the six sensory consciousnesses, just as the root of a tree is the basis of the leaves; this concept may have been the antecedent of [later Buddhist school's claims regarding a storehouse consciousness]. (597) Their focus was on attaining full awareness and then becoming a Bodhisattva (“essence of enlightenment”) who helped others do the same; as opposed to the Sthaviravada focus on becoming an arhat and perfecting the self. Among their other beliefs were: - Arhats are fallible humans, possessing no supramundane powers, and require salvation just like anyone else. - Bodhisattvas make vows before they are incarnated to be born in troubled locales in order to help the people there overcome their suffering. - The past and future are illusions; only the present exists at all times. - Once one has attained enlightenment, one can communicate without speech. - Enlightened beings and spirits exist everywhere, in all directions, as do transcendent buddhas past and future, because there is no past and future, only the present. Since the Buddha himself never wrote anything down, it is impossible to say definitively whether he ever suggested any concepts like these but, proceeding from his basic vision, he seemed to emphasize simplicity. The more complicated any system becomes, the greater the likelihood that one will become attached to it simply because one needs to pay more attention to it. Even so, the Mahasanghika and the Sthaviravada both went on to develop their own systems, each claiming to have preserved the true teachings of the Buddha. Mahasanghika & Mahayana According to a 6th-century CE text, the Mahasanghika school fragmented c. 283 BCE over whether to accept the interpretation of another school, Mahayana, which also claimed to be following the true Dharma and practicing the proper Vinaya. The Caitika, Lokottarvada, and Kukkutika sects all emerge from the Mahasanghika school after this time and continue on with their own traditions. Mahasanghika seems to have merged with Mahayana, but this claim is challenged, and there is evidence it simply died out when it no longer had the authority to ordain monks. Why it should have lost this authority is unclear, however, unless some other school now had the kind of influence and power to have taken it; that other school could only have been Mahayana. The Sthaviravada school influenced, and may have become, the later Theravada school (though this claim is challenged) and retained the title “Teaching of the Elders” but, owing to its rigid monasticism, a clear demarcation between clergy and laity, and the belief that women were inferior to men and could not attain enlightenment until reincarnated as a male, they did not attract as many adherents as Mahayana. Mahayana emphasized the Buddha nature inherent in everyone – anyone could become enlightened, could become a buddha – and the focus was on attaining the full awareness of the Bodhisattva so that one could help the suffering world. Gods and spirits were recognized, as well as the divine nature of the Buddha, who served the same purpose as these other entities of possibly exerting influence but allowing human beings to work out their salvation on their own. Mahayana texts would eventually incorporate those of the three sects of Mahasanghika and so, even if one accepts the claim that Mahasanghika did not merge and become one with Mahayana, the final result is pretty much the same. In the present day, the three main schools of Buddhism are Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana and, from these, all other Buddhist schools have developed. It could be argued, however, that all of these schools have their roots in Mahasanghika which, if one accepts the account of the early texts, was once the great majority which first established the tenets of Buddhism. How closely their vision actually reflected the Buddha's is unknown, and will never be known, but this no longer matters because that vision established the belief system as it has been understood, more or less, for over 2,000 years.

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Originally, the word “pale”, from the Latin palus, stake, meant just that, a stake to be driven into the ground. It had an especial meaning, also, a stake to be driven into the ground along with others, so as to form a fence. From the latter it came to mean a definite limit or boundary, and this was further extended so as to signify a territory outside the area of, but under the control of a nation. Thus the English pale once denoted an area in France on either side of Calais which, until 1558, was under English jurisdiction. Most notably, however, the English pale was that portion of Ireland, the present counties of Dublin, Kildare, Louth, and Meath, which was under English domination from the twelfth century until the subjugation of the entire island in the reign of Elizabeth. The name pale was not applied to it, however, until the fourteenth century. The adjective “pale,” of whitish appearance, is from Latin pallidus, pallid.

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We talked about how important light is. But depending on your camera, you also have other tools to affect how your pictures will turn out. Let’s talk about exposure. In general and rough terms, think of exposure as the quantity of light in a picture. A very dark picture has low exposure and a bright picture has a high exposure. And notice that when I talk about exposure, I’m talking about your picture not the environment or the scene you are taking the picture of. You can have the same quantity of light in a room and make some adjustments in your camera to change the quantity of light in the picture (again not in the room). This is the exposure. Exposure is about your camera and not about the light found on your surroundings. One of the basics and most important things you need to know when learning photography is the exposure triangle. The combination of three elements produce different effects on the pictures you want to take. Usually you want to compensate one with the other. The elements of the exposure triangle are listed below. Don’t worry if you don’t understand them right now; we will talk about each one of them. - Aperture. The aperture is the size of the opening in the lens when a picture is taken. - Shutter speed. The shutter speed is the time that the shutter lasts open when a picture is taken. - ISO. It is the camera sensor’s sensitivity to light. Let’s us begin with aperture.

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This chapter examines the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP). These two protocols (or networked methods of data transport) are generally referred to together as TCP/IP. You can read this chapter thoroughly to gain an in-depth understanding of how information is routed across the Internet or you can use this chapter as an extended glossary, referring to it only when encountering unfamiliar terms later in this book. The chapter begins with fundamental concepts and closes with a comprehensive look at TCP/IP. The chapter is broken into three parts. The first part answers some basic questions you might have, including The second portion of the chapter addresses how TCP/IP actually works. In that portion, I will focus on the most popular services within the TCP/IP suite. These services (or modes of transport) comprise the greater portion of the Internet as we know it today. The final portion of this chapter explores key TCP/IP utilities with which each user must become familiar. These utilities are of value in maintenance and monitoring of any TCP/IP network. Note that this chapter is not an exhaustive treatment of TCP/IP. It provides only the minimum knowledge needed to continue reading this book. Throughout this chapter, however, I supply links to documents and other resources from which the reader can gain an in-depth knowledge of TCP/IP. This section is a quick overview of TCP/IP. It is designed to prepare you for various terms and concepts that arise within this chapter. It assumes no previous knowledge of IP protocols. TCP/IP refers to two network protocols (or methods of data transport) used on the Internet. They are Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol, respectively. These network protocols belong to a larger collection of protocols, or a protocol suite. These are collectively referred to as the TCP/IP suite. Protocols within the TCP/IP suite work together to provide data transport on the Internet. In other words, these protocols provide nearly all services available to today's Net surfer. Some of those services include There are two classes of protocol within the TCP/IP suite, and I will address both in the following pages. Those two classes are Network-level protocols manage the discrete mechanics of data transfer. These protocols are typically invisible to the user and operate deep beneath the surface of the system. For example, the IP protocol provides packet delivery of the information sent between the user and remote machines. It does this based on a variety of information, most notably the IP address of the two machines. Based on this and other information, IP guarantees that the information will be routed to its intended destination. Throughout this process, IP interacts with other network-level protocols engaged in data transport. Short of using network utilities (perhaps a sniffer or other device that reads IP datagrams), the user will never see IP's work on the system. Conversely, application-level protocols are visible to the user in some measure. For example, File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is visible to the user. The user requests a connection to another machine to transfer a file, the connection is established, and the transfer begins. During the transfer, a portion of the exchange between the user's machine and the remote machine is visible (primarily error messages and status reports on the transfer itself, for example, how many bytes of the file have been transferred at any given moment). For the moment, this explanation will suffice: TCP/IP refers to a collection of protocols that facilitate communication between machines over the Internet (or other networks running TCP/IP). In 1969, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) commissioned development of a network over which its research centers might communicate. Its chief concern was this network's capability to withstand a nuclear attack. In short, if the Soviet Union launched a nuclear attack, it was imperative that the network remain intact to facilitate communication. The design of this network had several other requisites, the most important of which was this: It had to operate independently of any centralized control. Thus, if 1 machine was destroyed (or 10, or 100), the network would remain impervious. The prototype for this system emerged quickly, based in part on research done in 1962 and 1963. That prototype was called ARPANET. ARPANET reportedly worked well, but was subject to periodic system crashes. Furthermore, long-term expansion of that network proved costly. A search was initiated for a more reliable set of protocols; that search ended in the mid-1970s with the development of TCP/IP. TCP/IP had significant advantages over other protocols. For example, TCP/IP was lightweight (it required meager network resources). Moreover, TCP/IP could be implemented at much lower cost than the other choices then available. Based on these amenities, TCP/IP became exceedingly popular. In 1983, TCP/IP was integrated into release 4.2 of Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) UNIX. Its integration into commercial forms of UNIX soon followed, and TCP/IP was established as the Internet standard. It has remained so (as of this writing). As more users flock to the Internet, however, TCP/IP is being reexamined. More users translates to greater network load. To ease that network load and offer greater speeds of data transport, some researchers have suggested implementing TCP/IP via satellite transmission. Unfortunately, such research has thus far produced dismal results. TCP/IP is apparently unsuitable for this implementation. Today, TCP/IP is used for many purposes, not just the Internet. For example, intranets are often built using TCP/IP. In such environments, TCP/IP can offer significant advantages over other networking protocols. One such advantage is that TCP/IP works on a wide variety of hardware and operating systems. Thus, one can quickly and easily create a heterogeneous network using TCP/IP. Such a network might have Macs, IBM compatibles, Sun Sparcstations, MIPS machines, and so on. Each of these can communicate with its peers using a common protocol suite. For this reason, since it was first introduced in the 1970s, TCP/IP has remained extremely popular. In the next section, I will discuss implementation of TCP/IP on various platforms. Most platforms support TCP/IP. However, the quality of that support can vary. Today, most mainstream operating systems have native TCP/IP support (that is, TCP/IP support that is built into the standard operating system distribution). However, older operating systems on some platforms lack such native support. Table 6.1 describes TCP/IP support for various platforms. If a platform has native TCP/IP support, it is labeled as such. If not, the name of a TCP/IP application is provided. |Piper/IP By Ipswitch |TCPMAN by Trumpet Software |MacTCP or OpenTransport (Sys 7.5+) Platforms that do not natively support TCP/IP can still implement it through the use of proprietary or third-party TCP/IP programs. In these instances, third-party products can offer varied functionality. Some offer very good support and others offer marginal support. For example, some third-party products provide the user with only basic TCP/IP. For most users, this is sufficient. (They simply want to connect to the Net, get their mail, and enjoy easy networking.) In contrast, certain third-party TCP/IP implementations are comprehensive. These may allow manipulation of compression, methods of transport, and other features common to the typical UNIX TCP/IP implementation. Widespread third-party support for TCP/IP has been around for only a few years. Several years ago, for example, TCP/IP support for DOS boxes was very slim. TIP: There is actually a wonderful product called Minuet that can be used in conjunction with a packet driver on LANs. Minuet derived its name from the term Minnesota Internet Users Essential Tool. Minuet offers quick and efficient access to the Net through a DOS-based environment. This product is still available free of charge at many locations, including ftp://minuet.micro.umn.edu/pub/minuet/. One interesting point about non-native, third-party TCP/IP implementations is this: Most of them do not provide servers within their distributions. Thus, although a user can connect to remote machines to transfer a file, the user's machine cannot accept such a request. For example, a Windows 3.11 user using TCPMAN cannot--without installing additional software--accept a file-transfer request from a remote machine. Later in this chapter you'll find a list of a few names of such additional software for those who are interested in providing services via TCP/IP. TCP/IP operates through the use of a protocol stack. This stack is the sum total of all protocols necessary to complete a single transfer of data between two machines. (It is also the path that data takes to get out of one machine and into another.) The stack is broken into layers, five of which are of concern here. To grasp this layer concept, examine Figure 6.1. The TCP/IP stack. After data has passed through the process illustrated in Figure 6.1, it travels to its destination on another machine or network. There, the process is executed in reverse (the data first meets the physical layer and subsequently travels its way up the stack). Throughout this process, a complex system of error checking is employed both on the originating and destination machine. Each layer of the stack can send data to and receive data from its adjoining layer. Each layer is also associated with multiple protocols. At each tier of the stack, these protocols are hard at work, providing the user with various services. The next section of this chapter examines these services and the manner in which they are associated with layers in the stack. You will also examine their functions, the services they provide, and their relationship to security. You have examined how data is transmitted via TCP/IP using the protocol stack. Now I want to zoom in to identify the key protocols that operate within that stack. I will begin with network-level protocols. Network protocols are those protocols that engage in (or facilitate) the transport process transparently. These are invisible to the user unless that user employs utilities to monitor system processes. TIP: Sniffers are devices that can monitor such processes. A sniffer is a device--either hardware or software--that can read every packet sent across a network. Sniffers are commonly used to isolate network problems that, while invisible to the user, are degrading network performance. As such, sniffers can read all activity occurring between network-level protocols. Moreover, as you might guess, sniffers can pose a tremendous security threat. You will examine sniffers in Chapter 12, "Sniffers." Important network-level protocols include I will briefly examine each, offering only an overview. Cross Reference: For more comprehensive information about protocols (or the stack in general), I highly recommend Teach Yourself TCP/IP in 14 Days by Timothy Parker, Ph.D (Sams Publishing). The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) serves the critical purpose of mapping Internet addresses into physical addresses. This is vital in routing information across the Internet. Before a message (or other data) is sent, it is packaged into IP packets, or blocks of information suitably formatted for Internet transport. These contain the numeric Internet (IP) address of both the originating and destination machines. Before this package can leave the originating computer, however, the hardware address of the recipient (destination) must be discovered. (Hardware addresses differ from Internet addresses.) This is where ARP makes its debut. An ARP request message is broadcast on the subnet. This request is received by a router that replies with the requested hardware address. This reply is caught by the originating machine and the transfer process can begin. ARP's design includes a cache. To understand the ARP cache concept, consider this: Most modern HTML browsers (such as Netscape Navigator or Microsoft's Internet Explorer) utilize a cache. This cache is a portion of the disk (or memory) in which elements from often-visited Web pages are stored (such as buttons, headers, and common graphics). This is logical because when you return to those pages, these tidbits don't have to be reloaded from the remote machine. They will load much more quickly if they are in your local cache. Similarly, ARP implementations include a cache. In this manner, hardware addresses of remote machines or networks are remembered, and this memory obviates the need to conduct subsequent ARP queries on them. This saves time and network resources. Can you guess what type of security risks might be involved in maintaining such an ARP cache? At this stage, it is not particularly important. However, address caching (not only in ARP but in all instances) does indeed pose a unique security risk. If such address-location entries are stored, it makes it easier for a cracker to forge a connection from a remote machine, claiming to hail from one of the cached addresses. Cross Reference: Readers seeking in-depth information on ARP should see RFC 826 (http://www.freesoft.org/Connected/RFC/826). Cross Reference: Another good reference for information on ARP is Margaret K. Johnson's piece about details of TCP/IP (excerpts from Microsoft LAN Manager TCP/IP Protocol) (http://www.alexia.net.au/~www/yendor/internetinfo/index.html). The Internet Control Message Protocol handles error and control messages that are passed between two (or more) computers or hosts during the transfer process. It allows those hosts to share that information. In this respect, ICMP is critical for diagnosis of network problems. Examples of diagnostic information gathered through ICMP include TIP: Perhaps the most widely known ICMP implementation involves a network utility called ping. Ping is often used to determine whether a remote machine is alive. Ping's method of operation is simple: When the user pings a remote machine, packets are forwarded from the user's machine to the remote host. These packets are then echoed back to the user's machine. If no echoed packets are received at the user's end, the ping program usually generates an error message indicating that the remote host is down. Cross Reference: I urge those readers seeking in-depth information about ICMP to examine RFC 792 (http://sunsite.auc.dk/RFC/rfc/rfc792.html). IP belongs to the network layer. The Internet Protocol provides packet delivery for all protocols within the TCP/IP suite. Thus, IP is the heart of the incredible process by which data traverses the Internet. To explore this process, I have drafted a small model of an IP datagram (see Figure 6.2). The IP datagram. As illustrated, an IP datagram is composed of several parts. The first part, the header, is composed of miscellaneous information, including originating and destination IP address. Together, these elements form a complete header. The remaining portion of a datagram contains whatever data is then being sent. The amazing thing about IP is this: If IP datagrams encounter networks that require smaller packages, the datagrams bust apart to accommodate the recipient network. Thus, these datagrams can fragment during a journey and later be reassembled properly (even if they do not arrive in the same sequence in which they were sent) at their destination. Even further information is contained within an IP datagram. Some of that information may include identification of the protocol being used, a header checksum, and a time-to-live specification. This specification is a numeric value. While the datagram is traveling the void, this numeric value is constantly being decremented. When that value finally reaches a zero state, the datagram dies. Many types of packets have time-to-live limitations. Some network utilities (such as Traceroute) utilize the time-to-live field as a marker in diagnostic routines. In closing, IP's function can be reduced to this: providing packet delivery over the Internet. As you can see, that packet delivery is complex in its implementation. Cross Reference: I refer readers seeking in-depth information on Internet protocol to RFC 760 (http://sunsite.auc.dk/RFC/rfc/rfc760.html). The Transmission Control Protocol is the chief protocol employed on the Internet. It facilitates such mission-critical tasks as file transfers and remote sessions. TCP accomplishes these tasks through a method called reliable data transfer. In this respect, TCP differs from other protocols within the suite. In unreliable delivery, you have no guarantee that the data will arrive in a perfect state. In contrast, TCP provides what is sometimes referred to as reliable stream delivery. This reliable stream delivery ensures that the data arrives in the same sequence and state in which it was sent. The TCP system relies on a virtual circuit that is established between the requesting machine and its target. This circuit is opened via a three-part process, often referred to as the three-part handshake. The process typically follows the pattern illustrated in Figure 6.3. The TCP/IP three-way handshake. After the circuit is open, data can simultaneously travel in both directions. This results in what is sometimes called a full-duplex transmission path. Full-duplex transmission allows data to travel to both machines at the same time. In this way, while a file transfer (or other remote session) is underway, any errors that arise can be forwarded to the requesting machine. TCP also provides extensive error-checking capabilities. For each block of data sent, a numeric value is generated. The two machines identify each transferred block using this numeric value. For each block successfully transferred, the receiving host sends a message to the sender that the transfer was clean. Conversely, if the transfer is unsuccessful, two things may occur: When an error is received, the data is retransmitted unless the error is fatal, in which case the transmission is usually halted. A typical example of a fatal error would be if the connection is dropped. Thus, the transfer is halted for no packets. Similarly, if no confirmation is received within a specified time period, the information is also retransmitted. This process is repeated as many times as necessary to complete the transfer or remote session. You have examined how the data is transported when a connect request is made. It is now time to examine what happens when that request reaches its destination. Each time one machine requests a connection to another, it specifies a particular destination. In the general sense, this destination is expressed as the Internet (IP) address and the hardware address of the target machine. However, even more detailed than this, the requesting machine specifies the application it is trying to reach at the destination. This involves two elements: Before you explore the inetd program, I want to briefly define daemons. This will help you more easily understand the inetd program. Daemons are programs that continuously listen for other processes (in this case, the process listened for is a connection request). Daemons loosely resemble terminate and stay resident (TSR) programs in the Microsoft platform. These programs remain alive at all times, constantly listening for a particular event. When that event finally occurs, the TSR undertakes some action. inetd is a very special daemon. It has been called many things, including the super-server or granddaddy of all processes. This is because inetd is the main daemon running on a UNIX machine. It is also an ingenious tool. Common sense tells you that running a dozen or more daemon processes could eat up machine resources. So rather than do that, why not create one daemon that could listen for all the others? That is what inetd does. It listens for connection requests from the void. When it receives such a request, it evaluates it. This evaluation seeks to determine one thing only: What service does the requesting machine want? For example, does it want FTP? If so, inetd starts the FTP server process. The FTP server can then process the request from the void. At that point, a file transfer can begin. This all happens within the space of a second or so. TIP: inetd isn't just for UNIX anymore. For example, Hummingbird Communications has developed (as part of its Exceed 5 product line) a version of inetd for use on any platform that runs Microsoft Windows or OS/2. There are also non- commercial versions of inetd, written by students and other software enthusiasts. One such distribution is available from TFS software and can be found at http://www.trumpton.demon.co.uk/software/inetd.html. In general, inetd is started at boot time and remains resident (in a listening state) until the machine is turned off or until the root operator expressly terminates that process. The behavior of inetd is generally controlled from a file called inetd.conf, located in the /etc directory on most UNIX platforms. The inetd.conf file is used to specify what services will be called by inetd. Such services might include FTP, Telnet, SMTP, TFTP, Finger, Systat, Netstat, or any other processes that you specify. Many TCP/IP programs can be initiated over the Internet. Most of these are client/server oriented. As each connection request is received, inetd starts a server program, which then communicates with the requesting client machine. To facilitate this process, each application (FTP or Telnet, for example) is assigned a unique address. This address is called a port. The application in question is bound to that particular port and, when any connection request is made to that port, the corresponding application is launched (inetd is the program that launches it). There are thousands of ports on the average Internet server. For purposes of convenience and efficiency, a standard framework has been developed for port assignment. (In other words, although a system administrator can bind services to the ports of his or her choice, services are generally bound to recognized ports. These are commonly referred to as well-known ports.) Please peruse Table 6.2 for some commonly recognized ports and the applications typically bound to them. |Service or Application |File Transfer Protocol (FTP) |Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) |Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) |Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP) I will examine each of the applications described in Table 6.2. All are application-level protocols or services (that is, they are visible to user and the user can interact with them at the console). Cross Reference: For a comprehensive list of all port assignments, visit ftp://ftp.isi.edu/in-notes/iana/assignments/port-numbers. This document is extremely informative and exhaustive in its treatment of commonly assigned port numbers. Telnet is best described in RFC 854, the Telnet protocol specification: Telnet not only allows the user to log in to a remote host, it allows that user to execute commands on that host. Thus, an individual in Los Angeles can Telnet to a machine in New York and begin running programs on the New York machine just as though the user were actually in New York. For those of you who are unfamiliar with Telnet, it operates much like the interface of a bulletin board system (BBS). Telnet is an excellent application for providing a terminal-based front end to databases. For example, better than 80 percent of all university library catalogs can be accessed via Telnet. Figure 6.4 shows an example of a Telnet library catalog screen. A sample Telnet session. Even though GUI applications have taken the world by storm, Telnet--which is essentially a text-based application--is still incredibly popular. There are many reasons for this. First, Telnet allows you to perform a variety of functions (retrieving mail, for example) at a minimal cost in network resources. Second, implementing secure Telnet is a pretty simple task. There are several programs to implement this, the most popular of which is Secure Shell (which I will explore later in this book). To use Telnet, the user issues whatever command necessary to start his or her Telnet client, followed the name (or numeric IP address) of the target host. In UNIX, this is done as follows: This command launches a Telnet session, contacts internic.net, and requests a connection. That connection will either be honored or denied, depending on the configuration at the target host. In UNIX, the Telnet command has long been a native one. That is, Telnet has been included with basic UNIX distributions for well over a decade. However, not all operating systems have a native Telnet client. Table 6.3 shows Telnet clients for various operating systems. |Microsoft Windows 95 |Native (command line), ZOC, NetTerm, Zmud, WinTel32, Yawtelnet |Microsoft Windows NT |Native (command line), CRT, and all listed for 95 |Microsoft Windows 3.x |Trumptel Telnet, Wintel, Ewan |NCSA Telnet, NiftyTelnet, Comet File Transfer Protocol is the standard method of transferring files from one system to another. Its purpose is set forth in RFC 0765 as follows: For over two decades, researchers have investigated a wide variety of file-transfer methods. The development of FTP has undergone many changes in that time. Its first definition occurred in April 1971, and the full specification can be read in RFC 114. Cross Reference: RFC 114 contains the first definition of FTP, but a more practical document might be RFC 959 (http://www.freesoft.org/Connected/RFC/959/index.html). File transfers using FTP can be accomplished using any suitable FTP client. Table 6.4 defines some common clients used, by operating system. |Native, LLNLXDIR2.0, FTPtool |Microsoft Windows 95 |Native, WS_FTP, Netload, Cute-FTP, Leap FTP, SDFTP, FTP Explorer |Microsoft Windows NT |See listings for Windows 95 |Microsoft Windows 3.x |Win_FTP, WS_FTP, CU-FTP, WSArchie |Anarchie, Fetch, Freetp |Gibbon FTP, FTP-IT, Lynn's Workplace FTP FTP file transfers occur in a client/server environment. The requesting machine starts one of the clients named in Table 6.4. This generates a request that is forwarded to the targeted file server (usually a host on another network). Typically, the request is sent by inetd to port 21. For a connection to be established, the targeted file server must be running an FTP server or FTP daemon. FTPD FTPD is the standard FTP server daemon. Its function is simple: to reply to connect requests received by inetd and to satisfy those requests for file transfers. This daemon comes standard on most distributions of UNIX (for other operating systems, see Table 6.5). |Microsoft Windows 95 |WFTPD, Microsoft FrontPage, WAR FTP Daemon, Vermilion |Microsoft Windows NT |Serv-U, OmniFSPD, Microsoft Internet Information Server |Microsoft Windows 3.x |WinQVT, Serv-U, Beames & Whitside BW Connect, WFTPD FTP Server, WinHTTPD FTPD waits for a connection request. When such a request is received, FTPD requests the user login. The user must either provide his or her valid user login and password or may log in anonymously. Once logged in, the user may download files. In certain instances and if security on the server allows, the user may also upload files. The objective of Simple Mail Transfer protocol is stated concisely in RFC 821: SMTP is an extremely lightweight and efficient protocol. The user (utilizing any SMTP- compliant client) sends a request to an SMTP server. A two-way connection is subsequently established. The client forwards a MAIL instruction, indicating that it wants to send mail to a recipient somewhere on the Internet. If the SMTP allows this operation, an affirmative acknowledgment is sent back to the client machine. At that point, the session begins. The client may then forward the recipient's identity, his or her IP address, and the message (in text) to be sent. Despite the simple character of SMTP, mail service has been the source of countless security holes. (This may be due in part to the number of options involved. Misconfiguration is a common reason for holes.) I will discuss these security issues later in this book. SMTP servers are native in UNIX. Most other networked operating systems now have some form of SMTP, so I'll refrain from listing them here. Cross Reference: Further information on this protocol is available in RFC 821 (http://sunsite.auc.dk/RFC/rfc/rfc821.html). The Gopher service is a distributed document-retrieval system. It was originally implemented as the Campus Wide Information System at the University of Minnesota. It is defined in a March 1993 FYI from the University of Minnesota as follows: Cross Reference: The complete documentation on the Gopher protocol can be obtained in RFC 1436 (http://sunsite.auc.dk/RFC/rfc/rfc1436.html). The Gopher service is very powerful. It can serve text documents, sounds, and other media. It also operates largely in text mode and is therefore much faster than HTTP through a browser. Undoubtedly, the most popular Gopher client is for UNIX. (Gopher2_3 is especially popular, followed by Xgopher.) However, many operating systems have Gopher clients. See Table 6.6 for a few. |Microsoft Windows (all) |Mac Turbo Gopher |The AS/400 Gopher Client Typically, the user launches a Gopher client and contacts a given Gopher server. In turn, the Gopher server forwards a menu of choices. These may include search menus, pre-set destinations, or file directories. Figure 6.5 shows a client connection to the University of Illinois. A sample gopher session. Note that the Gopher model is completely client/server based. The user never logs on per se. Rather, the client sends a message to the Gopher server, requesting all documents (or objects) currently available. The Gopher server responds with this information and does nothing else until the user requests an object. Hypertext Transfer Protocol is perhaps the most renowned protocol of all because it is this protocol that allows users to surf the Net. Stated briefly in RFC 1945, HTTP is NOTE: RFC 1945 has been superseded by RFC 2068, which is a more recent specification of HTTP and is available at ftp://ds.internic.net/rfc/rfc2068.txt. HTTP has forever changed the nature of the Internet, primarily by bringing the Internet to the masses. In some ways, its operation is much like Gopher. For example, it too works via a request/response scenario. And this is an important point. Whereas applications such as Telnet require that a user remain logged on (and while they are logged on, they consume system resources), protocols such as Gopher and HTTP eliminate this phenomenon. Thus, the user is pushed back a few paces. The user (client) only consumes system resources for the instant that he or she is either requesting or receiving data. Using a common browser like Netscape Navigator or Microsoft Internet Explorer, you can monitor this process as it occurs. For each data element (text, graphic, sound) on a WWW page, your browser will contact the server one time. Thus, it will first grab text, then a graphic, then a sound file, and so on. In the lower-left corner of your browser's screen is a status bar. Watch it for a few moments when it is loading a page. You will see this request/response activity occur, often at a very high speed. HTTP doesn't particularly care what type of data is requested. Various forms of multimedia can be either embedded within or served remotely via HTML-based WWW pages. In short, HTTP is an extremely lightweight and effective protocol. Clients for this protocol are enumerated in Table 6.7. |Microsoft Windows (all) |Netscape Navigator, WinWeb, Mosaic, Microsoft Internet Explorer, WebSurfer, NetCruiser, AOL, Prodigy |Netscape Navigator, MacMosaic, MacWeb, Samba, Microsoft Internet Explorer |Xmosaic, Netscape Navigator, Grail, Lynx, TkWWW, Arena |Web Explorer, Netscape Navigator Until recently, UNIX alone supported an HTTP server. (The standard was NCSA HTTPD. Apache has now entered the race, giving HTTPD strong competition in the market.) The application is extremely small and compact. Like most of its counterparts, it runs as a daemon. Its typically assigned port is 80. Today, there are HTTP servers for nearly every operating system. Table 6.8 lists those servers. |Microsoft Windows 3.x |Microsoft Windows 95 |OmniHTTPD, Server 7, Nutwebcam, Microsoft Personal Web Server, Fnord, ZB Server, Website, Folkweb |Microsoft Windows NT |HTTPS, Internet Information Server, Alibaba, Espanade, Expresso, Fnord, Folkweb, Netpublisher, Weber, OmniHTTPD, WebQuest, Website, Wildcat |MacHTTP, Webstar, Phantom, Domino, Netpresenz |GoServe, OS2HTTPD, OS2WWW, IBM Internet Connection Server, Bearsoft, Squid & Planetwood The Network News Transfer Protocol is one of the most widely used protocols. It provides modern access to the news service commonly known as USENET news. Its purpose is defined in RFC 977: NNTP shares characteristics with both Simple Mail Transfer Protocol and TCP. Similarities to SMTP consist of NNTP's acceptance of plain-English commands from a prompt. It is similar to TCP in that stream-based transport and delivery is used. NNTP typically runs from Port 119 on any UNIX system. Cross Reference: I refer readers seeking in-depth information on NNTP to RFC 977 (http://andrew2.andrew.cmu.edu/rfc/rfc977.html). You may also wish to obtain RFC 850 for examination of earlier implementations of the standard (http://sunsite.auc.dk/RFC/rfc/rfc850.html). You have examined TCP/IP services and protocols individually, in their static states. You have also examined the application-level protocols. This was necessary to describe each protocol and what they accomplish. Now it is time to examine the larger picture. By now, it should be apparent that TCP/IP basically comprises the Internet itself. It is a complex collection of protocols, many of which remain invisible to the user. On most Internet servers, a minimum of these protocols exist: Now, prepare yourself for a shock. These are only a handful of protocols run on the Internet. There are actually hundreds of them. Better than half of the primary protocols have had one or more security holes. In essence, the point I would like to make is this: The Internet was designed as a system with multiple avenues of communication. Each protocol is one such avenue. As such, there are hundreds of ways to move data across the Net. Until recently, utilizing these protocols called for accessing them one at a time. That is, to arrest a Gopher session and start a Telnet session, the user had to physically terminate the Gopher connection. The HTTP browser changed all that and granted the average user much greater power and functionality. Indeed, FTP, Telnet, NTTP, and HTTP are all available at the click of a button. In this chapter, you learned about TCP/IP. Relevant points about TCP/IP include Now that know the fundamentals of TCP/IP, you can progress to the next chapter. In it, you will explore some of the reasons why the Internet is not secure. As you can probably guess, there will be references to TCP/IP throughout that chapter. © Copyright, Macmillan Computer Publishing. All rights reserved.

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Bronchitis is an inflammation of the lining of your bronchial tubes, which carry air to and from your lungs. When a person has bronchitis, it may be harder for air to pass in and out of the lungs. People who have bronchitis often cough up thickened mucus, which can be discolored. Bronchitis may be either acute or chronic. Often developing from a cold or other respiratory infection, acute bronchitis is very common. Chronic bronchitis, a more serious condition, is a constant irritation or inflammation of the lining of the bronchial tubes. Acute bronchitis may be responsible for the hacking cough and phlegm production that sometime accompany an upper respiratory infection. In most cases, the infection is viral in origin, but sometimes it’s caused by bacteria. What Causes Bronchitis? Acute bronchitis is generally caused by lung infections, 90% of which are viral in origin. Repeated attacks of acute bronchitis, which weaken and irritate bronchial airways over time, can result in chronic bronchitis. - Chronic bronchitis, on the other hand, can be mild to severe and is longer lasting from several months to years. With chronic bronchitis, the bronchial tubes continue to be inflamed (red and swollen), irritated, and produce excessive mucus over time Acute bronchitis is usually caused by viruses, typically the same viruses that cause colds and flu (influenza). Antibiotics don’t kill viruses, so this type of medication isn’t useful in most cases of bronchitis. - Production of mucus (sputum), which can be clear, white, yellowish-gray or green in color rarely, it may be streaked with blood - Shortness of breath - Slight fever and chills - Chest discomfort If you have chronic bronchitis, you’re likely to have periods when your signs and symptoms worsen. At those times, you may have acute bronchitis on top of your chronic bronchitis.

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1.2. The importance of insects We should study insects for many reasons. Their ecologies are incredibly variable. Insects may dominate food chains and food webs in both volume and numbers. Feeding specializations of different insect groups include ingestion of detritus, rotting materials, living and dead wood, and fungus (Chapter 9), aquatic filter feeding and grazing (Chapter 10), herbivory (= phytophagy), including sap feeding (Chapter 11), and predation and parasitism (Chapter 13). Insects may live in water, on land, or in soil, during part or all of their lives. Their lifestyles may be solitary, gregarious, subsocial, or highly social (Chapter 12). They may be conspicuous, mimics of other objects, or concealed (Chapter 14), and may be active by day or by night. Insect life cycles (Chapter 6) allow survival under a wide range of conditions, such as extremes of heat and cold, wet and dry, and unpredictable climates. Insects are essential to the following ecosystem functions: - nutrient recycling, via leaf-litter and wood degradation, dispersal of fungi, disposal of carrion and dung, and soil turnover; - plant propagation, including pollination and seed dispersal; - maintenance of plant community composition and structure, via phytophagy, including seed feeding; - food for insectivorous vertebrates, such as many birds, mammals, reptiles, and fish; - maintenance of animal community structure, through transmission of diseases of large animals, and predation and parasitism of smaller ones. Each insect species is part of a greater assemblage and its loss affects the complexities and abundance of other organisms. Some insects are considered “keystones” because loss of their critical ecological functions could collapse the wider ecosystem. For example, termites convert cellulose in tropical soils (section 9.1), suggesting that they are keystones in tropical soil structuring. In aquatic ecosystems, a comparable service is provided by the guild of mostly larval insects that breaks down and releases the nutrients from wood and leaves derived from the surrounding terrestrial environment. Insects are associated intimately with our survival, in that certain insects damage our health and that of our domestic animals (Chapter 15) and others adversely affect our agriculture and horticulture (Chapter 16). Certain insects greatly benefit human society, either by providing us with food directly or by contributing to our food or materials that we use. For example, honey bees provide us with honey but are also valuable agricultural pollinators worth an estimated several billion US$ annually in the USA. Estimates of the value of non- honey-bee pollination in the USA could be as much as $5–6 billion per year. The total value of pollination services rendered by all insects globally has been estimated to be in excess of $100 billion annually (2003 valuation). Furthermore, valuable services, such as those provided by predatory beetles and bugs or parasitic wasps that control pests, often go unrecognized, especially by city-dwellers. Insects contain a vast array of chemical compounds, some of which can be collected, extracted, or synthesized for our use. Chitin, a component of insect cuticle, and its derivatives act as anticoagulants, enhance wound and burn healing, reduce serum cholesterol, serve as non-allergenic drug carriers, provide strong biodegradable plastics, and enhance removal of pollutants from waste water, to mention just a few developing applications. Silk from the cocoons of silkworm moths, Bombyx mori, and related species has been used for fabric for centuries, and two endemic South African species may be increasing in local value. The red dye cochineal is obtained commercially from scale insects of Dactylopius coccus cultured on Opuntia cacti. Another scale insect, the lac insect Kerria lacca, is a source of a commercial varnish called shellac. Given this range of insect-produced chemicals, and accepting our ignorance of most insects, there is a high likelihood of finding novel chemicals. Insects provide more than economic or environmental benefits; characteristics of certain insects make them useful models for understanding general biological processes. For instance, the short generation time, high fecundity, and ease of laboratory rearing and manipulation of the vinegar fly, Drosophila melanogaster, have made it a model research organism. Studies of D. melanogaster have provided the foundations for our understanding of genetics and cytology, and these flies continue to provide the experimental materials for advances in molecular biology, embryology, and development. Outside the laboratories of geneticists, studies of social insects, notably hymenopterans such as ants and bees, have allowed us to understand the evolution and maintenance of social behaviors such as altruism (section 12.4.1). The field of sociobiology owes its existence to entomologists’ studies of social insects. Several theoretical ideas in ecology have derived from the study of insects. For example, our ability to manipulate the food supply (grains) and number of individuals of flour beetles (Tribolium spp.) in culture, combined with their short life history (compared to mammals, for example), gave insights into mechanisms regulating populations. Some early holistic concepts in ecology, for example ecosystem and niche, came from scientists studying freshwater systems where insects dominate. Alfred Wallace (depicted in the vignette of Chapter 17), the independent and contemporaneous discoverer with Charles Darwin of the theory of evolution by natural selection, based his ideas on observations of tropical insects. Theories concerning the many forms of mimicry and sexual selection have been derived from observations of insect behavior, which continue to be investigated by entomologists. Lastly, the sheer numbers of insects means that their impact upon the environment, and hence our lives, is highly significant. Insects are the major component of macroscopic biodiversity and, for this reason alone, we should try to understand them better.

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A virus that mimics a common cold, could prove fatal. The symptoms of Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection (RSV) can seem like a cold, but in reality could prove to be much worse. According to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), symptoms of RSV infection usually include runny nose, decreased appetite, coughing, sneezing, fever, and/or wheezing. The symptoms usually appear in stages and not all at once. In very young infants with RSV, the only symptoms may be irritability, decreased activity, and breathing difficulties. RSV can also cause more severe infections such as bronchitis, an inflammation of the small airways in the lung, and pneumonia, an infection of the lungs. It is the most common cause of bronchitis and pneumonia in children younger than 1 year of age. Almost all children will have had an RSV infection by their second birthday. People infected with RSV usually show symptoms within 4 to 6 days after getting infected. The CDC says most RSV infections go away on their own in a week or two. You can manage fever and pain with over-the-counter fever reducers and pain relievers, such as acetaminophen or ibuprofen. Talk to your healthcare provider before giving your child nonprescription cold medicines, since some medicines contain ingredients that are not recommended for children. It is important for people with RSV infection to drink enough fluids to prevent dehydration (loss of body fluids). Healthy infants and adults infected with RSV do not usually need to be hospitalized. But some people with RSV infection, especially infants younger than 6 months of age and older adults, may need to be hospitalized if they are having trouble breathing or are dehydrated. In most of these cases, hospitalization only lasts a few days. Visits to a healthcare provider for an RSV infection are very common. During such visits, the healthcare provider will evaluate how severe the person’s RSV infection is to determine if the patient should be hospitalized. In the most severe cases, a person may require additional oxygen or intubation (have a breathing tube inserted through the mouth and down to the airway) with mechanical ventilation (a machine to help a person breathe). There is no specific treatment for RSV infection, though researchers are working to develop vaccines and antivirals (medicines that fight viruses). RSV can spread when an infected person coughs or sneezes. You can get infected if you get droplets from the cough or sneeze in your eyes, nose, or mouth, or if you touch a surface that has the virus on it, like a doorknob, and then touch your face before washing your hands. Additionally, it can spread through direct contact with the virus, like kissing the face of a child with RSV. People infected with RSV are usually contagious for 3 to 8 days. However, some infants, and people with weakened immune systems, can continue to spread the virus even after they stop showing symptoms, for as long as 4 weeks. Children are often exposed to and infected with RSV outside the home, such as in school or child-care centers. They can then transmit the virus to other members of the family. RSV can survive for many hours on hard surfaces such as tables and crib rails. It typically lives on soft surfaces such as tissues and hands for shorter amounts of time. People of any age can get another RSV infection, but infections later in life are generally less severe. People at highest risk for severe disease include - premature infants - young children with congenital (from birth) heart or chronic lung disease - young children with compromised (weakened) immune systems due to a medical condition or medical treatment - adults with compromised immune systems - older adults, especially those with underlying heart or lung disease In the United States and other areas with similar climates, RSV infections generally occur during fall, winter, and spring. The timing and severity of RSV circulation in a given community can vary from year to year. Each year in the United States, RSV leads, on average, to: - 2.1 million outpatient visits among children younger than 5 years old - 57,527 hospitalizations among children younger than 5 years old - 177,000 hospitalizations among adults older than 65 years - 14,000 deaths among adults older than 65 years In the United States and other areas with similar climates, RSV infections occur primarily during fall, winter, and spring.

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Sculpture, a form of art that dates back thousands of years, has undergone a fascinating evolution from classical to contemporary styles. Throughout different eras and cultures, sculptors have shaped and molded various materials to create beautiful three-dimensional artworks that reflect the aesthetics, values, and ideologies of their time. Classical sculpture, which emerged in ancient Greece around the 5th century BCE, set the foundation for Western sculpture for centuries to come. Inspired by the human body, classical sculptures emphasized idealized proportions and realistic anatomical details. Artists like Phidias and Praxiteles created breathtaking marble sculptures of gods, goddesses, and heroes, capturing an idealized beauty that became the pinnacle of artistic achievement. During the Renaissance, the classical influence persisted but underwent a transformative change. Artists such as Michelangelo and Donatello infused their sculptures with a newfound realism and emotional depth. Their iconic works, like Michelangelo’s David and Donatello’s David, demonstrated a mastery of human anatomy and portrayed intense psychological expressions, sparking a renewed interest in portraying the individuality and humanity of their subjects. The Baroque period brought forth a more dramatic and theatrical style of sculpture. Sculptors like Gian Lorenzo Bernini and Peter Paul Rubens used dynamic poses, exaggerated gestures, and intricate details to create powerful and emotionally charged sculptures. The Baroque sculptures were often created to enhance grand architectural projects, depicting religious figures and telling vivid stories with their intricate compositions. As the world transitioned into the neoclassical era, artists sought to revive the aesthetic principles of ancient Greece and Rome. Sculptors such as Antonio Canova and Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux merged classical ideals with a fresh sensibility, focusing on harmonious proportions, graceful movements, and delicate expressions. These neoclassical sculptures reflected the intellectual and political climate of the time, as they often commemorated heroes and exemplified the values of the Enlightenment. With the arrival of the 20th century, sculpture ventured into new territories, embracing modernism and beyond. Artists like Auguste Rodin and Constantin Brâncuși shattered the boundaries of traditional representation, experimenting with abstract forms and fragmented figures. Rodin’s The Kiss and Brâncuși’s Bird in Space challenged the idea of capturing physical likeness and introduced a subjective interpretation of reality, emphasizing emotional and conceptual aspects. Contemporary sculpture continues to push the boundaries of artistic expression. Artists today work with a broad range of materials, from traditional mediums like bronze and stone to unconventional materials like glass, paper, and even found objects. Installation art, a form of sculpture that involves transforming the space itself, has gained prominence. Names like Louise Bourgeois, Antony Gormley, and Jeff Koons have become synonymous with pushing the limits of sculptural innovation. The evolution of sculpture from classical to contemporary is a testament to the ever-changing nature of human creativity. Throughout history, sculptors have continuously challenged themselves to redefine the boundaries of what is possible, constantly pushing the limits of their craft. And as we look to the future, we can expect sculpture to continue to evolve, adapt, and surprise us with new forms of artistic expression that capture the ever-changing spirit of our times.

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IEL101: English Listening and Speaking Elementary listening, separation of linguistic sounds, identification of words and inflection, and reading facial expressions are the fundamentals of spoken language. In this course, students will explore basic social transactions such as greetings, introductions, and asking and answering simple questions. Students will learn to confidently request and provide basic information (address, phone number, personal background, likes and dislikes, etc.), and build skills in conversational English. Students will learn to listen and take notes on instruction, will learn pronunciation of basic vocabulary words, describe people, places and things within the American environment, and understand the basics of verbal conversations. Students will begin to understand stress patterns of words and sentences, and will perfect conversations both in person and over the telephone. IEL102: American Culture and Diversity Attending a post-secondary institution in America is significantly different than studying within the student’s home culture. In this course, students will understand basic cultural norms within American culture, will practice conversation within a variety of social contexts, and will practice conversational English in an immersive context. Students will learn to read a map of the local area, understand the history and social significance of landmarks and destinations within the campus community, practice using the local transit system, discuss driving and other transportation options, and understand a range of resources offered within the city and state in which the campus is located. Additionally, the student will learn basic personal financial literacy, including counting American currency, using a cash machine in English, paying bills and utilities, budgeting for trips and leisure activities, and succeeding as a student in America. The course also addresses cultural diversity and expectations within the city, state, and country, and it teaches English language skills within the context of being a successful American student. IEL103: Grammar and Punctuation Attaining a grasp of written English requires an understanding of basic grammar and punctuation. Within this course, students begin to understand the rules and guidelines of written English, focusing on parts of speech, expression of thoughts and ideas, and punctuation. Students learn to identify nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, and they learn to use and identify tenses, possessives, and other grammatical structures accurately. This knowledge is applied to the construction of grammatically correct sentences. Students learn to use numbers, apostrophes, mathematical characters, and simple scientific notation properly, and they are provided a range of reference guides to support their learning throughout their academic careers. Students also discuss and practice grammar and punctuation within social media, and discuss the different expectations of correctness within formal and informal writing situations. IEL104: Reading and Vocabulary Building an English vocabulary is essential to the educational process, and within a technical program, learning to read for new vocabulary words and concepts is essential. Within this course, students will learn to read magazine articles, websites, technical articles, and newspapers to understand main concepts, read for new vocabulary words, and investigate unknown words within other resources. Students begin with simple texts and discuss with the class the main concepts and ideas, and learn to identify words, phrases, and concepts they do not understand in order to conduct further research. Students build a weekly vocabulary bank of new English words and phrases and apply a growing vocabulary to daily life. Students also study vocabulary of daily life, including road signs, information on posters and billboards, menus, and vocabulary within other social situations.

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Deep learning is a branch of artificial intelligence (AI) that is widely used with great success in various fields. However, it has been challenging to apply it to industrial and safety-critical applications due to the lack of guarantees in deep learning models. By combining physics and deep learning in hybrid machine learning we can overcome this barrier. Using Hamiltonian neural networks (HNNs) we bring together the flexibility of deep learning and the security and guarantees from a physics-based modeling approach. The problem of over-training in deep learning Deep learning is one of the leading methods within AI due to its flexibility and efficient ways for optimization. Deep neural networks have been shown to be general function approximators, meaning that neural networks can in theory learn anything. While this sounds great at the beginning, there are two conditions for this statement: First, you need an infinitely large neural network, and second, infinite amount of data to optimize the network (which might take infinite time) – requirements that are never met in a real application. In the real world, you deal with finite neural networks and finite and noisy data sets, which leads to a problem called over-training. If we use a neural network that is too flexible on a small amount of data, it will learn the specific data set, but not the general structure of the data. This is illustrated in a way simpler setup in figure 1: The observations are drawn from a simple quadratic function and some noise is added to each data point. We used three simple models: a linear model which is too simple, a quadratic model corresponding to the data distribution, and the green model, which is very flexible and is supposed to represent our neural network. While the simple linear model fails to explain the data, the green model does a better job in explaining the data than the quadratic model, due to the noise and finite data points. But the model has a strange behavior between the data points and these oscillations do not represent our desired behaviour, especially if we know that the true model is quadratic. Choosing the right model for a physics problem In the simple example, we could restrict our model to be quadratic, and avoid the problem of over-fitting. The idea behind modelling physical systems with deep learning is the same: Restricting the model to physical behaviour. The classical approach to this is to build a model from first principles of physics and optimize its parameters to observed data. Resulting models have the desired physical behaviour, but they are simplifications of the real-world problem: Anything not included in the physical model cannot be described. Take for example a mechanical problem with friction: Friction can only be modelled approximately because you would need all detail information about the involved surfaces. Therefore, our goal is to combine the flexibility of deep neural networks with the strictness of the laws of physics. This is especially the case for industrial and safety-critical applications where guarantees of the model behaviour are required but combined with the flexibility of neural networks. Hamiltonian neural network So, we want to constrain a neural network to behave according to the laws of physics, but without reducing the flexibility of it. How is that even possible? The idea behind Hamiltonian neural networks (HNNs) is not to restrict the neural network, but to use it as an element in a larger structure. Thus, the structure will then enforce physics in the system. In a HNN, a neural network is used to learn the Hamiltonian function. The dynamics of the system is then given by the equations of motion (see box on Hamiltonian mechanics). By this, it is guaranteed that energy is always preserved, but with the flexibility of a neural network to approximate very complicated Hamiltonian functions. Similarly, you can also use HNNs to preserve other quantities like total momentum of the system. Hamiltonian systems are well studied in physics and mathematics and come with guaranteed behaviour, which makes them highly relevant for industrial and safety-critical applications. Of course, Hamiltonian systems are not restricted to mechanics, although this is typically the textbook example; Hamiltonian neural networks can be used in hydrodynamical, electrical or even quantum systems. Limitations and extensions of Hamiltonian neural networks Despite their general setup, HNNs do have limitations: They are mainly developed to study closed systems. In industrial applications, we are interested in open systems with control, where material and energy are entering and leaving, such as a hydraulic system, a furnace, or an electric power grid. An extension of HNNs are port-Hamiltonian neural networks (PHNNs) , following the port-Hamiltonian framework. PHNNs have the same underlying principle as HNNs, but introduce the concept of ports, which allow for external interactions and control. PHNNs are also easily scalable and allow to introduce partial knowledge about the modelled system, which then reduces data requirements when learning the system from data. The Analytics and AI group at SINTEF is actively researching PHNNs for industrial applications and scalability. S. Greydanus, M. Dzamba, and J. Yosinski, “Hamiltonian Neural Networks,” arXiv:1906.01563 [cs], Sep. 2019, Accessed: May 06, 2021. [Online]. Available: http://arxiv.org/abs/1906.01563 S. A. Desai, M. Mattheakis, D. Sondak, P. Protopapas, and S. J. Roberts, “Port-Hamiltonian neural networks for learning explicit time-dependent dynamical systems,” Phys. Rev. E, vol. 104, no. 3, p. 034312, Sep. 2021, doi: 10.1103/PhysRevE.104.034312.

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Architecture is designed only to suit the criteria of an individual or group. Economic law bans architects from copying their fellow artists in building works for which the demand is nonexistent or simply potential. So the types of architecture depend upon social formations and may be categorised according to the role of the patron in the community. The types that will be described here—domestic, religious, governmental, recreational, welfare and educational, and commercial and industrial—represent the simplest classification; a scientific typology of architecture would require a more extensive investigation. Domestic architecture is constructed for the social unit: the person, family, or clan and its dependents, human and animal. It provides shelter and protection for the essential physical functions of life and at times also for commercial, industrial, or agricultural operations that involve the family unit rather than the community. The essential necessities of residential architecture are simple: a place to sleep, prepare food, eat, and sometimes work; a space that has some light and is shielded from the elements. A single room with robust walls and roof, a door, a window, and a hearth are the requirements; all else can be considered luxury. In most of the world today, even though institutions have been in a continual process of development, dwelling styles of ancient or prehistoric provenance are in use. In the industrialised United States, for instance, barns are being erected according to a design adopted in Europe in the 1st millennium BCE. The forces that promote a dynamic evolution of architectural style in community structures are frequently passive in the home and farm. The lives of average people may be unchanged by the most significant changes in their institutions. The people can be successively enslaved persons, the subjects of a monarchy, and voting citizens without having the means or the inclination to change their customs, practices, or surroundings. Economic pressure is a major factor that forces regular people to limit their demands to a level that is far below what their time’s technology can sustain. Because experimentation and innovation are more expensive than repetition, they frequently build new structures using old procedures. However, in wealthier civilizations, the economy and norms drive architecture to include amenities such as sanitation, lighting, and heating, as well as separate rooms for different functions, which may become considered needs. The same forces tend to replace the home’s conservatism with institutional architecture’s aspirations, emphasising both the expressive and utilitarian functions.

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The story of Greek sailors is one of the oldest Greek narratives. One of the first classics of literature chronicled the travels of one Odysseus. We have the far-flung Classical Greek colonies all across the Mediterranean and the Black Seas, the Triremes of Themistocles, and later the Greek-Fire breathing Dromons of the Byzantines. The Greek sailors who played a pivotal role in the emergence of the Greek merchant fleet in the 1700s and fought hard and successfully for Greece’s freedom drew on a tradition that spread back millennia. It is perhaps ironic that the most important islands in the Greek revolution and the commercial acme that took place in the fifty years prior had little or no maritime history. Hydra and Spetses were largely barren islands off the coast of the eastern Peloponnesus, populated largely by refugees fleeing the constant struggles between Ottoman and Venetian, and the periodic attempts at throwing off the Ottoman yoke. In the case of Hydra, population pressures pushed the islanders to the sea, as it had for Greeks since the dawn of history. I also believe, strongly that the sea represented the opportunity for a freedom and personal agency unavailable on lands under the Ottoman foot. From a crude vessel in 1657, the Hydriots felled their trees and set every cove on the island to work with shipbuilding. As retired Captain Dimitris Tsigkaris told me, “The sea is a university.” Hydriots learned from other Aegean islanders, from the Venetians, and even from captivity. One of Hydra’s premier shipbuilders had been taken by Barbary Pirates and put to work in shipyards in Algiers. Upon his release, he brought his skills home. Interacting with other sailors and captains in ports near and far expanded the Hydriots’ and Spetsiotes’ education. They could draw upon the nautical skills of an archipelago with four thousand years of navigation expertise, as well as the latest naval technology from Spain, Italy, or Britain. Then of course, there is on-the-job training. For the Greek islander, this may have started at the age of seven. An eighteenth-century sailing ship required mental and physical agility and granular knowledge. It was not just the shoals and winds they needed to pilot, but also the dangers of pirates, of negotiating various national authorities, multiple languages, and a keen understanding of financial, and market forces. The great American Philhellene Dr. Samuel Gridley Howe marveled at the shipbuilding skills of the common sailor, who might be called upon to repair his vessel on some foreign beach. It is hardly a wonder that the Hydriots set up their own nautical academy, the world’s oldest, which remains running to the present day. They understood that their fortunes rested on human capital, and they made the necessary investments. By 1820 Hydra, Spetses, and the even more diminutive Psara had built considerable fortunes based on their human capital. The shipping prowess dovetailed with an emerging merchant diaspora and guerilla captains growing in confidence. The ships carried more than just grain and merchandise—they carried messages of the Philike Etairia and plans for revolution. When the time came, these sailors trained their cannon on the Turks, and their older ships were turned into floating bombs as fireships, recalling their Byzantine ancestors’ deadly efficacy with Greek Fire. Far too many met an early grave that Greece might live. Though Hydra, Spetses, and Psara never recovered from the losses of the Revolution, the Greek sailor lived on, manning ships from other islands. Though a portion of Greece was free, many of the same institutional failings of the Ottomans remained (and remain) so the quest for agency at sea remained. On the backs, quite literally, of some of the finest sailors on the planet, the Greek Merchant fleet grew again, incorporating many of the merchant families and succeeding despite the many failings of the Greek state. By 1939, the Greek Merchant Marine was the ninth largest in the world, creating a whole class of wealthy shipowners, and keeping thousands of Greeks, including my father’s family, in middle class circumstances. Like other merchant mariners, the Greeks suffered a death rate in the slaughterhouse of the Atlantic well higher than that suffered by nearly every other branch fighting in the war, and by the end of the war a good seventy percent of tonnage was beneath the waves. A British-American wartime mass production freighter, the Liberty Ship, came to the rescue of Allied fleets decimated by the U-Boat attacks. American industrial might—coupled with increasingly effective anti-submarine warfare, did the job too well and the end of the war found a glut of ships, prudently sold by the US government to Allied nationals. Nobody took more ships than the Greeks, and the “Blessed Liberty Ships” set the stage for the Greek-owned fleet to become the world’s largest. But once again, at the core of this shipping miracle, lay the Greek sailor. His resourcefulness and skill, from deckhand to captain to shipowner, made all this possible. He is a technocrat, with pride in his trade, and respected by Greek society. Shipping provided Greeks with an agency unavailable in Greece—without the pain of expatriation that so many Greeks eventually chose. So much of Greece as we know it today—even the existence of the country—is owed to the Greek sailor. Honor is due.

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Food preservation usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi and other micro-organisms. It also includes processes to inhibit natural aging and discoloration that occur during food preparation. Thus, the principles of various methods for food preservation are as prevention or delay of microbial decomposition and delay of self-decomposition of food. This module was designed and written to help you preserve food by applying principles and skills in food preservation/processing. The module is divided into two lessons, namely: • Lesson 1 – Selecting Food to be Preserved/ Processed • Lesson 2 – Observe Safety Rules in Food Preservation After going through this module, you are expected to: 1. select food to be preserved based on the availability of raw materials, market demands, and trends in the community; and 2. observe safety rules in food preservation/processingHE6_q1_mod11_Principles-and-Skills-in-Food-Preservation

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Indiana was originally part of the Northwest Territory, established under the Ordinance of 1787. In the earliest stage of the Northwest Territory, most of the European Americans in what would become Indiana were the French inhabitants of Vincennes, and they were ruled by a governor, Arthur St. Clair; a secretary; and three judges, all appointed by the president with the consent of the Senate. The governor and judges had the power to pass all necessary laws by adopting laws from the already established states; the governor also had the power to appoint all civil officers at the county level. In 1798 the Northwest Territory entered into its second stage, permitting the establishment of a bicameral General Assembly, which, meeting in joint session, would select a nonvoting delegate to the U.S. Congress. One half of the General Assembly was a House of Representatives, made up of men who were elected for two-year terms by all free men over twenty-one holding fifty or more acres of land. The second half was a Legislative Council, whose membership was selected as follows: The House would draw up a list of ten candidates, from whom the resident would select five. In this second stage, the governor retained the right to select county officials, but the General Assembly defined the powers of these offices. For most of modern Indiana, this second stage of self-government was short-lived; in 1800, the Indiana Territory, which included present-day Indiana, Wisconsin, Illinois, and the western half of Michigan, most of the state was split from the Northwest Territory. Because few European Americans lived in this new territory, it was organized once again without representative government, with William Henry Harrison appointed governor (1800–1813) and governing much as the Northwest Territory had been governed in its first stage. In 1803 the state of Ohio was formed from the Northwest Territory, and a small "gore" east of the Greenville Treaty line was added to Indiana Territory, together with the eastern half of present-day Michigan. The 1800 act establishing Indiana Territory provided for the residents of Indiana to move to the second stage of territorial government without regard to population, if the move was the will of the people. In 1804, in an election in which only 400 hundred votes were cast, Indiana residents signaled their desire to move into the second stage, and in 1805, Governor Harrison set into motion the creation of a General Assembly with seven members in the House of Representatives. In the midst of moving to the second stage, Michigan was established as a separate territory by Congress in 1805. In accommodating the desires of European American residents, Harrison showed greater wisdom than Arthur St. Clair, who had attempted to slow the progression of the Northwest Territory into statehood until two Federalist states could be created. Harrison, though initially appointed by Federalist Adams, won the favor of Jeffersonian Republicans and was reappointed by both Jefferson and Madison. Despite his ability to navigate national politics, Harrison was unable to avoid the distrust of his executive power that lay at the heart of the earlier conflicts with St. Clair; much of this suspicion revolved around the issue of the introduction of slavery into the territory. Even before Harrison's arrival in Indiana, some in the territory had sought to repeal the Ordinance of 1787's ban on slavery in the territory, and Harrison allied himself with the effort to repeal. Congress was deaf to these petitions, but in both the first and the second stage, Harrison and his allies passed laws that introduced African American servitude. As the territory became more settled, a regional split appeared; those living in southeastern and south central Indiana tended to oppose slavery, whereas those living in the Wabash Valley and the Illinois country tended to support slavery. Eventually, the supporters of slavery themselves were split: Illinois country supporters believed that being a separate territory, and ultimately a separate state, would best bring slavery to their communities. Thus Harrison and his Wabash Valley allies were left in a minority in Indiana Territory when Illinois Territory was created in 1809, leaving Indiana with approximately its modern boundaries, plus a segment of the Upper Peninsula of modern Michigan. The easterner-versus-westerner split in Indiana politics would remain evident for some time. Indianans repeatedly petitioned the U.S. Congress for a more democratic territorial government. In 1808 Congress extended the suffrage to those owning town lots and those in the act of purchasing public lands, but the act specifically excluded nonwhites. In 1809 Congress provided for the direct election of the Legislative Council and of the nonvoting delegate to the Congress. In 1811 Congress further extended the suffrage to all white men over twenty-one who had paid a local tax and who had resided in the territory for one year. In 1811 the territorial General Assembly changed the method of voting from viva voce to ballot. About this time, Harrison, who had been accused abusing his power over local officials, acceded to popular will and began holding extralegal elections for sheriff when vacancies occurred, appointing the winners. Harrison resigned in the midst of the War of 1812, and Madison appointed Thomas Posey governor (1813–1816); Virginian Posey reassured Indianans that he opposed slavery. The forces that had opposed slavery in Indiana Territory had already begun to drive toward statehood, coalescing behind congressional delegate (1809–1816) Jonathan Jennings. As early as 1811, Indiana petitioned to become a state, which in the minds of many residents would assure them of their full rights as citizens of a democratic republic. In 1816 Congress authorized Indiana to write a state constitution. Responding to the belief that the territorial governors exercised excessive powers, the framers of this constitution provided for a weak governor, one whose vetoes could be overridden by a simple majority in both houses of the state legislature, which was a General Assembly composed of a Senate, one-third of whose members were elected each year, and a House of Representatives, whose members were elected annually. The governor was also elected for a three-year term, and there was a separate elected office of lieutenant governor. The other executive officers (secretary of state, auditor, and treasurer and the presiding judges of the circuit courts were elected by joint ballot of both houses of the legislature. The governor did appoint, with the consent of the Senate, the three justices on the state supreme court. County officials, including the associate judges for each county, were popularly elected. The suffrage was further extended to all white men over twenty-one who had lived in the state for one year, and all voting was to take place by ballot. (The state constitution gave the 1821 legislature the one-time option of changing the voting to viva voce; that option was not exercised.) Rewarded for his shepherding in Congress of Indiana's democratic desires, Jonathan Jennings was elected the new state's first governor. By his second term, concerns about his improper exercise of executive power began to coalesce. Jennings was closely allied with the State Bank created in 1816, and concerns over its failure in the wake of the Panic of 1819 raised concerns about Jennings as well. He nevertheless was elected to the U.S. Congress in 1822, taking the place of Williams Hendricks, who had resigned the congressional seat to become governor (1822–1825). Jennings was concurrently elected to one of the three new congressional seats established after the 1820 census redistricting. This horse-trading of offices, combined with the bank’s failure and the use of patronage by both Hendricks and Jennings, stirred dissatisfaction among an unorganized cohort of Indiana voters. Such dissatisfaction began to coalesce around the presidential candidacy of Andrew Jackson, and in 1824, the voters in Indiana had their first opportunity to vote for presidential electors (the legislature had picked Indiana's Monroe electors in 1816 and 1824), and Jackson captured 47 percent of the vote. Despite supporting either Clay or Adams, men such as Jennings, Hendricks, and James Noble (U.S. Senator, 1816–1831) retained sufficient popular appeal because of their role in leading Indiana to statehood. - Barnhart, John D. and Dorothy Riker. Indiana to 1816: The Colonial Period. Volume 1 of The History of Indiana.Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1971. - Carmony, Donald F. Indiana, 1816–1850: The Pioneer Era. Volume 2 of The History of Indiana.Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Bureau and Indiana Historical Society, 1998. - Mills, Randy Keith. Jonathan Jennings: Indiana's First Governor.Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 2005. - "Indiana Documents Leading to Statehood." Indiana Historical Bureau. - "Road to Indiana Statehood." The Digital Collections of IUPUI Library. - Nation, Richard F. At Home in the Hoosier Hills: Agriculture, Politics, and Religion in Southern Indiana, 1810–1870.Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005.

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Urban dwellers in low- and middle-income nations are on average better off than those in rural areas – healthier, better educated, better housed, with more livelihood opportunities. This rural-urban distinction has encouraged a focus on rural poverty as the most compelling development concern. But it can be a misleading dichotomy. Not only does it ignore the vital links between rural and urban and the complex continuum that they occupy; it also hides considerable inequalities within these categories. This is especially the case where urban averages are concerned. Cities are home to the wealthiest people and to some of the most excluded and deprived. There can be stark disparities in urban incomes, assets, levels of provision, political influence and social status that often exceed any gap between rural and urban averages. The reassessment of objectives within post-2015 debates is a chance to recognize these disparities and the associated injustices as integral to addressing our commitment to a better world. Urban inequalities are also masked by standards and definitions that fail to take account of urban realities. National poverty lines often disregard the higher cost of living in most cities and what it means to be tied to a cash economy. These inequalities really matter where every basic need has to be paid for or otherwise negotiated.1 Applying global standards for the provision of sanitation and water can also be misleading in densely populated settlements, communicating a level of adequacy that is not warranted.2 Understanding the causes, nature and extent of urban inequalities is critical, not only because it calls attention to severe and increasing deprivation in many urban areas, but also because of the ramifications of these disparities for economic growth, for peace and security, for the health and well being of all citizens, rich and poor, urban and rural. A detailed, comprehensive understanding of urban inequalities is impossible at present because of serious data limitations. Census data, where it exists, is generally published at a high level of aggregation, and in many countries, does not even include informal settlements, whose residents remain unrecognized and uncounted. Other externally supported surveys and assessments (for example DHS, MICS, PRSPs) use representative samples that are too small to allow a detailed look at inequalities within cities; in addition to under-sampling those living in informal settlements, they may also ignore the street homeless. Only large categories can be derived – like urban versus rural – and many equally important inequalities are not captured. To download the full paper, please click here.

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Establishing a system of POW camps was an important part of the Third Reich’s effort to prepare for the impending conflict. Official bodies and institutions responsible for the proper infrastructure, transport, coordination and administrative work were established as early as 1938. Special courses were launched for military officers concerning the management of camps, regulations were prepared to define the tasks, reporting lines and allocate responsibilities. Although the German Reich ratified the Geneva Convention of July 1929 on the treatment of prisoners of war in August 1934, it was assumed in advance that some of its provisions would not be followed. The aim was to acquire labour force consisting in the future POWs, also for the arms industry. A list of possible violations of international law, which in particular prohibited the use of prisoners of war for the production and transport of arms and ammunition of all kinds, was even drawn up, although in great discretion, in order to prevent the enemy from similar practices. In the spring of 1939, all organizational matters related to the functioning of the POW camps were already settled in detail. Only the relevant bodies and persons responsible for mobilisation were aware of them. Most of POW camps in the Reich were supervised by the Office for Prisoners-of-War, which was part of the Wehrmacht’s General Command. The German Reich was divided into Military Districts, each with a position of POW commander assigned to the camps in respective administration. Camp identification numbers were associated with the Military Districts’ marking system: it consisted of a Roman number – specifying the Military District where the camp was located, followed by a capital letter – denominating the order of establishment, and finally the location. POW camps existing outside the Reich were marked with Arabic numbers. Throughout the history of warfare, it has been privates and other low-ranking soldiers that made up the largest proportion of prisoners. For them, the Germans set up the so-called Stalags (Kriegsgefangenen-Mannschaftsstammlager), while officers were kept in Oflags (Offizierslager). Also established were Dulags, i.e. transit camps (Kriegsgefangenen-Durchgangslager), front Stalags located in operational areas beyond the Reich, or camps designed to prepare prisoners for “repatriation” (Kriegsgefanegenen-Heimkehrlager, Heimlag); the last type was to hold soldiers who were either seriously ill, or meant for release due to other reasons, or those subject to exchange. The Luftwaffe resorted to its own system of POW camps, subject to local command units, called the StalagLuft. The German navy on the other hand (Kriegsmarine) kept their own camps (Marlag), yet these were Wehrmacht sub-camps without separate structure. POW camps were mostly organised in garrison locations or in proximity of training grounds, as the presence of the military was considered crucial.

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Our Health Library information does not replace the advice of a doctor. Please be advised that this information is made available to assist our patients to learn more about their health. Our providers may not see and/or treat all topics found herein. Lung Function Tests Lung function tests check to see how well your lungs work. The tests can find lung problems, measure how serious they are, and check to see how well treatment for a lung disease is working. The tests look at: - How much air your lungs can hold. - How quickly you can move air in and out of your lungs. - How well your lungs put oxygen into and remove carbon dioxide from your blood. Types of lung function tests include: - Gas diffusion. - Body plethysmography. - Inhalation challenge test. - Exercise stress test. You may also hear the tests called pulmonary function tests, or PFTs. Lung function results are measured directly in some tests and are calculated in others. No single test can check for all of the lung function values, so more than one type of test may be done. Some tests may be repeated after you inhale medicine that enlarges your airways (bronchodilator). There are several different types of lung function tests. Spirometry is the most common lung function test. It measures how much and how quickly you can move air out of your lungs. You breathe into a mouthpiece attached to a machine called a spirometer. The machine records your results. This test can measure many different things about the way you breathe. These include how much air you can exhale, how much air you can breathe in and out in 1 minute, and the amount of air left in your lungs after a normal exhale. Gas diffusion tests Gas diffusion tests measure the amount of oxygen and other gases that move through the lungs' air sacs (alveoli) per minute. These tests let you know how well gases are being absorbed into your blood from your lungs. Gas diffusion tests include: - Arterial blood gases. This test shows the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in your bloodstream. - Carbon monoxide diffusion capacity (also called DLCO). This test measures how well your lungs transfer a small amount of carbon monoxide (CO) into the blood. Two different methods are used for this test. - Single-breath or breath-holding method: You take a breath of air from a container. The air contains a very small amount of carbon monoxide. Measurements are taken as you breathe in. - Steady-state method: You do the same thing, but measurements are taken as you breathe out. Body plethysmography may be used to measure: - Total lung capacity (TLC). This is the total amount of air your lungs can hold. For this test, you sit inside a small airtight room. You breathe through a mouthpiece while pressure and air flow measurements are collected. - Residual volume (RV). This is the amount of air that remains in your lungs after you exhale as much as you can. For this test, you sit inside the booth and breathe while the pressure of the booth is monitored. You may need to breathe through a mouthpiece while you are in the booth. Inhalation challenge tests Inhalation challenge tests are done to measure how your airways respond to substances that may be causing asthma or wheezing. These tests are also called provocation studies. During the test, you inhale increasing amounts of a substance through a nebulizer. This is a device that uses a face mask or a mouthpiece to deliver the substance in a fine mist (aerosol). Spirometry readings are taken to look at lung function before, during, and after you inhale the substance. Exercise stress tests Exercise stress tests look at how exercise affects your lungs. Spirometry readings are done after exercise and then again at rest. Multiple-breath washout test The multiple-breath washout test is done to check people who have cystic fibrosis. For this test, you breathe through a tube. First you breathe air that contains a tracer gas. Then you breathe regular air while the amount of tracer gas you exhale is monitored. Test results are reported as a lung clearance index (LCI). A high LCI value means that the lungs aren't working well. Why It Is Done Lung function tests are done to: - Find the cause of breathing problems. - Find certain lung diseases, such as asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). - Check a person's lung function before surgery. - Check the lungs of someone who is regularly exposed to chemicals or other things that can damage the lungs. - Check how well treatments for lung diseases are working. How To Prepare - Let your doctor know if you take medicines for a lung problem. You may need to stop some of them before the tests. - Do not eat a heavy meal just before this test. A full stomach may keep your lungs from fully expanding. - Don't smoke or do intense exercise for 6 hours before the test. - For the test, wear loose clothing that doesn't restrict your breathing in any way. - Avoid food or drinks with caffeine. Caffeine can cause your airways to relax and allow more air than usual to pass through. - If you have dentures, wear them during the test. They help you form a tight seal around the mouthpiece of the machine. How It Is Done Lung function tests are usually done in special rooms that have all of the right equipment. For most of the tests, you'll wear a nose clip to keep air from leaking through your nose. Then you'll breathe into a mouthpiece connected to a recording device. The exact steps depend on which test you have. For example, you may be asked to inhale as deeply as you can and then to exhale as fast and as hard as you can. You also may be asked to breathe in and out as deeply and as fast as you can for 15 seconds. Some tests may be repeated after you have inhaled a spray containing medicine that expands the airways in your lungs. You may be asked to breathe a special mixture of gases, such as 100% oxygen, a mixture of helium and air, or a mixture of carbon monoxide and air. Sometimes a sample of blood may be taken from an artery in your wrist to measure blood gases. If you have body plethysmography, you will be asked to sit inside a small enclosure. It's like a phone booth, with windows that allow you to see out. The booth measures small changes in pressure that occur as you breathe. The accuracy of the tests depends on how well you can follow all of the instructions. The therapist may ask you to breathe deeply during some of the tests to get the best results. How long the test takes The testing may take from 5 to 30 minutes, depending on how many tests you have. How It Feels If you have an arterial blood gas test, you may feel some pain from the needle used to collect the blood. The other lung function tests are usually painless. Some of the tests may be tiring for people who have a lung disease. You may cough or feel lightheaded after breathing in or out rapidly, but you will be given a chance to rest between tests. It may not be comfortable to wear the nose clip or to breathe through the mouthpiece. If you have body plethysmography, you may feel uncomfortable in the airtight booth. But the therapist will be nearby to open the door if you feel too uncomfortable. If you are given breathing medicine, it may cause you to shake or may increase your heart rate. If you feel any chest pain or discomfort, tell the therapist right away. For a healthy person, there's little or no risk in taking these tests. If you have a serious heart or lung condition, discuss your risks with your doctor. Results are in the normal range for a person with healthy lungs. The normal range is just a guide. Some test values vary by things like age and height. Your doctor will also look at your results based on your symptoms, health, and other factors. A value that isn't in the normal range may still be normal for you. Test results are outside of the normal range for a person with healthy lungs. This may be a sign of lung disease. Many health conditions can change how well your lungs are working. And exposure to certain things, such as smoke or chemical fumes, can also affect how well your lungs are working. Your doctor will talk with you about any abnormal results that may be related to your symptoms and past health. To learn more about Healthwise, visit Healthwise.org. © 1995-2024 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.

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The brain is a physical structure with a vast network of neurons, which can learn and be trained by forming new connections and circuits. The mind is more volatile with no physical presence and cannot be trained in the same way as the brain. Instead, we can set the mind in a certain mental mode. Depending on the focus, the mind can be in three different modes: Being, Doing and Becoming. Being is the basic mode underlying the two others. Doing is mostly unconscious and automatic, but can also be conscious and will-controlled. Becoming is associated with intentional change, moving from possibility to actuality, from imagination to realization. We can only focus on one mode at the time. When focused on doing, we are also becoming, but with little direction and intensity. When focused on becoming, we are still doing, but with less attention and accuracy. In the being mode, ideally, there is no focus on doing and becoming. Being, doing and becoming are the natural modes of the mind. In the being mode, we heal and recreate, in doing mode we react and adapt, in becoming mode we create and evolve. By deliberately shifting between the modes, we can shape our brains and the world around us and — over time — our lives as we want. In all three modes, we can be either conscious or unconscious. When we are consciously present in one mode, we are unconscious about the two others. Being — heal and recreate Being is effortless; it can be mindless, mindful or ‘mindfree’. Mindless being is when we are asleep, daydreaming or unconscious in other ways. Mindful being is when we are present without participating, commenting or judging. Mindfree being is the enlightened state of pure consciousness, where even the observer position has vanished. Being is the mode of healing and recreation. Here we can experience not only freedom of choice, but also freedom from choice. Physiologically, it is the resting state dominated by the parasympathetic nervous system. In sleep, it is the non-REM phase with slow brain wave patterns. In meditation, it is a thought-free period of stillness and oneness.

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LH, FSH, estradiol and progesterone: these are the names of important hormones that determine the female cycle - and thus also the process that leads to pregnancy. Understanding what these hormones do in every phase of your cycle can help you know when you have the best chances to get pregnant. Every menstrual cycle begins on the first day of menstruation; this is, when you get your period. Here, the abdominal and uterine muscles contract to expel on average from 10 ml to 80 ml of blood; together with endometrial cells and mucus. As a result of the contraction, women often experience cramps. This phase usually lasts from 3 to 7 days. During this phase, progesterone and estrogen levels are low. The second phase, namely the follicular phase, also starts on the first day of menstruation but extends until ovulation. In this phase, the levels of the follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) begin to rise and the ovaries produce follicles with immature eggs. As FSH levels rise, one egg begins to mature until it is ready to go into the fallopian tube. The production of follicles also causes the levels of estrogen to increase and the increased levels of estrogen cause the pituitary gland to continue raising the the levels of FSH and to release the Luteinising Hormone (LH). The release of LH in the female body triggers ovulation. In the third phase, also known as the ovulation phase, the mature egg is released from its follicle into the fallopian tube. Here, the egg starts a journey into the uterus. Once located in the uterus, an egg usually lives for about 24 hours. During this time, the egg awaits for a sperm to to fertilise it. If fertilisation does not occur, the egg will die. In the last phase, the levels of progesterone, together with small amounts of estrogen, rise in order to support the egg in the uterus and pregnancy. If pregnancy occurs, a hormone called human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) is produced. It helps the production of estrogens and progesterone to maintain pregnancy. This hormone reaches its peak about eight to ten weeks after conception. It is the hormone that pregnancy tests detect in the blood or urine. However, if pregnancy does not occur, progesterone levels drop and menstruation starts again. Tracking your hormonal levels can help you know when your best chances to conceive are. Ovulation Predictor Kits (OPKs) that measure these hormones and confirm if ovulation has occured can help you know when your most fertile days are.

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Understanding Farsightedness: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment Farsightedness, scientifically known as hyperopia, is a common refractive error affecting vision. This condition occurs when the eyeball is shorter than normal or when the cornea has insufficient curvature. As a result, light rays focus behind the retina instead of directly on it, leading to blurred vision, especially when viewing nearby objects. Understanding the causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment options for hyperopia is crucial in addressing this vision impairment effectively. I. Introduction to Farsightedness Farsightedness, or hyperopia, is a vision condition affecting individuals worldwide. It’s characterized by difficulty focusing on close objects while maintaining clarity in distant vision. This anomaly in vision occurs due to light rays focusing beyond the retina rather than directly on it, altering the visual perception of nearby objects. II. Causes of Farsightedness The primary causes of hyperopia involve variations in the eye’s anatomy. Factors contributing to this condition include: - Eyeball Length: When the eyeball is shorter than average, light rays converge behind the retina. - Corneal Curvature: Insufficient curvature of the cornea can also lead to hyperopia, causing light to focus beyond the retina. III. Symptoms and Effects Recognizing the signs of farsightedness is crucial for timely intervention. Common symptoms include: - Blurred vision when focusing on nearby objects. - Eyestrain or headaches, especially during tasks requiring close vision. - Difficulty reading or performing tasks that demand close visual attention. Untreated hyperopia can lead to eye strain, which, if chronic, may affect overall eye health and exacerbate vision problems. IV. Diagnosis and Evaluation Eye care professionals use various methods to diagnose hyperopia, including: - Visual Acuity Test: Determines the ability to see clearly at various distances. - Refraction Assessment: Measures the eye’s refractive error to determine the appropriate prescription for corrective lenses. - Pupil Dilation: Allows for a comprehensive examination of the eye’s internal structures. V. Treatment Options Addressing farsightedness involves several treatment modalities: - Prescription Eyeglasses: Corrective lenses, such as glasses or contact lenses, adjust the way light enters the eye to compensate for refractive errors. - Refractive Surgery: Procedures like LASIK or PRK reshape the cornea to improve its focusing ability. - Refractive Lens Exchange: Involves replacing the eye’s natural lens with an artificial one, correcting refractive errors. VI. Prevention and Management While certain aspects of hyperopia are genetic, some preventive measures and management strategies can help mitigate its effects: - Regular Eye Exams: Routine check-ups enable early detection and management of farsightedness. - Proper Eye Care: Practicing good eye hygiene and following eye care recommendations can aid in maintaining overall eye health. - Awareness and Education: Understanding the condition helps individuals recognize symptoms early and seek timely intervention. VII. Optional Reading For a deeper understanding of farsightedness and related topics, consider exploring: - “The Complete Book of Vision: Understanding, Eye Diseases, and Treatments” by M.R. Romano. - “Refractive Surgery: An Interactive Case-Based Approach” by H. Burkhart and R. Lindstrom. Farsightedness, or hyperopia, affects individuals of all ages and can significantly impact daily activities if left unaddressed. Recognizing its causes, symptoms, and available treatment options empowers individuals to manage this condition effectively, ensuring optimal eye health and vision clarity. Optional readings provide further insights for those seeking a comprehensive understanding of hyperopia and related eye conditions.

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Urinary tract infections (UTI) account for the majority of hospital visits globally. Sound knowledge of factors associated with UTIs may allow you timely intervention to easily bring the infections under control. Let’s start with understanding the anatomy of the urinary tract. The urinary tract is composed of the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra. Is divided into the upper and lower urinary tract. The upper urinary tract is comprised of kidneys and ureters. The lower urinary tract is comprised of the bladder and urethra. Urine is produced by the kidneys and through the ureter, is transported and stored in the bladder until one needs to pass urine. Urine is then passed out of the body through the urethra. What is a Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)? It is an infection in any part of the urinary tract. Can be divided into; - Acute simple cystitis: infection of the lower urinary tract i.e in the urethra and bladder. - Complicated UTI or Pyelonephritis: infection in the upper urinary tract i.e. the ureters and kidneys. What causes UTI? The most common cause of UTIs is a bacteria called E.coli. It is a normal bacteria in our intestines but when it gets access to our Urinary tract, an infection arrises. Risk factors for UTI: In women; Women are at a higher risk of contracting UTIs because of the short urethra (measuring 4cm), compared to men who have a longer urethra(15–25cm). Therefore, the bacteria have a short distance to travel from the anus to the urethra. In Men; Men rarely get symptomatic UTIs, because they have long urethras of about 25 cm long. As a result, organisms that cause infection have a longer distance to travel to the urinary tract. When they get a UTI, some of the symptoms may include; pain or burning sensation when passing urine, the need to urinate often, need to urinate suddenly or in a hurry, blood in the urine. UTIs are a common problem among children, with a prevalence of 7%. - Sex: Girls are still at a higher risk compared to boys, because of the short urethra. - Age: UTIs are common in boys less than 1 year, and girls less than 4 years of age. - Uncircumcised boys are at a higher risk of getting UTIs. Symptoms and signs of UTI: - Lower abdominal pain. - The need to urinate often/suddenly. - Burning sensation when passing urine. - Blood in the urine. - Fevers, pain in the flanks, back pain, nausea or vomiting (in case of complicated UTIs) - Children under the age of 2 usually experience fever, have a low appetite and often act fussy. Diagnosis of UTI: - A UTI is a clinical diagnosis in those with the above symptoms. - Urinalysis test in the lab can be used to confirm infection in the urinary tract. - Urine culture and sensitivity for those with recurrent UTIs, or those at risk of multidrug-resistant UTIs. - Pelvic inflammatory disease, vaginitis, urethritis in women. - Urethritis, prostatitis in men. Treatment of UTI: - Our doctor will prescribe antibiotics if you have a positive UTI test. - If the infection is in the bladder, you will take antibiotics for 7 days, if the infection is in the kidneys you will take antibiotics for up to 2 weeks. Prevention of UTI: - Drink plenty of fluids to prevent bladder infections. - Urinate right after sexual intercourse to help flush out germs that could get into the bladder during sex. - Avoiding spermicides (sperm killing creams); these kill the normal vaginal flora bacteria which are normally protected. - Treating the UTI with antibiotics prescribed by the doctor. Are you feeling similar symptoms? Speak to our doctor today for diagnosis and treatment. Call 0800277015 to order a test. Author: Dr Gloria Nakiboneka Lutalo

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Barry Gilmore, Gravity Goldberg, Barry Gilmore, and Gravity Goldberg Tried and true teaching strategies to boost student engagement. Students need to be actively engaged to learn—intellectually curious, physically active, and emotionally involved in collaborative work that builds their capacity for empathy. What can teachers do to instill these elements in the classroom? Active Learning: 40 Teaching Methods To Engage Students In Every Class and Every Subject is the actionable tool every new and veteran teacher needs to construct dynamic learning experiences for students. This hands-on, easy-to-use guide features 40 carefully curated, high-impact teaching strategies that target learning tools, collaboration structures, reading and writing routines, assessment opportunities and more. It includes: Step-by-step teaching strategies that can be mastered quickly and implemented in any order Tools to help teachers identify the most pressing classroom needs and determine which methods to try first Nine instructional structures including essential questions, strategy groups, stations, and simulations Real-world examples, tips, templates, and other supportive resources that offer guidance for each method, identify common challenges, and detail next steps Whether tweaking your existing strategies or finding new moves that will quickly become your own, this is your go-to guide for designing active, engaging learning experiences for students. - Full text View/download PDF

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Reading time : 5 min Let's remember the main objective of cyber security, which could be defined as: protecting the company's business and data. We can say that this objective has no definite end in time, so we must work in an iterative and agile way. Finally, we can also say that today the advantage is with the attackers (opportunity of vulnerabilities, surprise effect, means), which means that we must also be reactive and supervise in real time our security posture. So an essential mantra for someone working in cyber security is: preparedness - agility - resilience. The achievement of our goals cannot be done without methodology, and it is the basics of these methodologies that we will discover in this lesson. Defense in Depth is a concept inherited from the military world (as is often the case in cyber security), which implements different independent and overlapping defense mechanisms to improve the overall level of protection. We can retain the image of a medieval fortress, where the dungeon was itself fortified (armored door, pits, very high walls, very narrow stairs). The keep itself was surrounded by walls, very high, with a covered way and loopholes. These walls were themselves surrounded by very deep moats. Finally, the castle was built in an advantageous place for the defense, for example on top of a hill. Defense in depth consists of some important concepts: "Zero trust" is a cyber security concept that brings together many of the best practices already discussed in this course. This concept aims to correct some of the weaknesses that protection mechanisms have had in the past by placing too much trust in certain elements. 💡 F or example: it was commonly accepted in the past that a workstation connecting to the corporate network was necessarily a legitimate workstation. The "zero trust" concept is based on three main pillars: To go further, please consult the ANSSI document: Scientific and technical advice: the Zero Trust model Overall, it is difficult to have security that relies entirely on obscurity. It is regularly observed that the public release of source code or cryptographic algorithms allows researchers to find vulnerabilities and correct them for the benefit of all. Instead, we need to integrate darkness into our security management without making it an end in itself. As we have just seen, our cyber security approach must be methodical and involves many essential concepts. This is why, in order to make our daily work easier, we can rely on guidelines, which summarize all the best practices and methodologies. There are many reference systems, and most of the time it is several of these reference systems that we will implement to reach our objectives and respect the principle of defense in depth. Depending on the type of activity, here are some of the most recognized cyber security standards: 💡 F or example, we can follow the ISO 27002 standard for our cyber security governance, use the EBIOS RM standard for our risk management, and follow several standards such as the CIS Benchmark for all technical measures to be implemented. For some of the standards we have just discussed, it is possible to be audited so that a third party determines our level of compliance with the standard, and gives us a certificate attesting to it. While certification should not be an end in itself, a certification process can have benefits: In this lesson, we discovered that knowing the essential principles of cyber security, and applying the right methodology to implement an effective continuous security approach is paramount. To help us achieve this goal, we can count on the help of reference systems, which guide us in the adoption of a cyber security posture (governance, prevention). Once we have adopted our posture, we can again rely on the repositories to help us follow good operational practices (risk reduction, monitoring, resilience). Start your cybersecurity training! Theory & Practice Customized by level Start your cybersecurity training Breathe new life into your career with our cybersecurity training courses

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When lasers start getting down to the nanoscale, they run up against the diffraction limit where the size of the laser cannot be smaller than the wavelength of light it emits. But researchers have shown that nanoscale plasmonic lasers can reach an optical mode well below this limit by confining light of very short wavelengths through the use of surface plasmons—oscillations of electrons that occur at the junction of a metal and an insulator. This has revitalized the hope that chips populated with these plasmonic nanolasers could make possible computer processors run by light rather than electrons. Now researchers at Northwestern University have developed a new design for plasmonic nanolasers that are the size of a virus particle and capable of operating at room temperature. They described the discovery in the journal Nano Letters, (“Plasmonic Bowtie Nanolaser Arrays”). "The reason we can fabricate nano-lasers with sizes smaller than that allowed by diffraction is because we made the lasing cavity out of metal nanoparticle dimers -- structures with a 3-D 'bowtie' shape," says Teri Odom, the leader of the research and professor of Chemistry at Northwestern, in a press release. The bowtie geometry allowed the nanoparticles to achieve an antenna effect and suffer only minimal metal “losses”. Typically, plasmon nanolaser cavities have suffered from both metal and radiation losses that required them to be operated at cryogenic temperatures. Odom also explains that the antenna effect allows for lasing to occur from an "electromagnetic hot spot"—a capability not demonstrated previously. "Surprisingly, we also found that when arranged in an array, the 3-D bowtie resonators could emit light at specific angles according to the lattice parameters," Odom adds in the release. Of course, nanolasers that are capable of operating at room temperature are not unique. Researchers at the University of California, San Diego reported earlier this year on a room temperature nanolaser design that requires less power to generate a coherent beam than other designs. The key difference between the two plasmonic nanolasers seems to be the bowtie geometry the Northwestern team developed. At least one of the aims of both lines of research seems to be to integrate these nanolasers with CMOS electronics. Whether they can reach this lofty goal remains to be seen, but these nanolasers are a key step in their realization.

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