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[ { "answer": "Because the phrase \"in season\" is used by humans to describe the time of year when we most prefer the taste of different fruits.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "26969289", "title": "Annona crassiflora", "section": "Section::::Description.:Fruits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 438, "text": "The fruiting begins in November, maturing between February and April, where living in Minas Gerais, where it is popularly associated with the Lent season. When the fruit is ripe it falls to the ground under the protection of the crown, exuding a strong and distinctive smell. These are the best quality fruits for the consumer, because if harvested directly from the tree, the fruit will not mature, producing an inferior quality flavor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "208092", "title": "Food pyramid (nutrition)", "section": "Section::::USDA food pyramid.:History.:Fruits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 597, "text": "These include apples, oranges, grapes, bananas, etc. Fruits are low in calories and fat and are a source of natural sugars, fiber and vitamins. Processing fruit when canning or making into juices may add sugars and remove nutrients. The fruit food group is sometimes combined with the vegetable food group. Note that a massive number of different plant species produce seed pods which are considered fruits in botany, and there are a number of botanical fruits which are conventionally not considered fruits in cuisine because they lack the characteristic sweet taste, e.g., tomatoes or avocados.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "166017", "title": "Avocado", "section": "Section::::Botany.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 338, "text": "The species is variable because of selection pressure by humans to produce larger, fleshier fruits with a thinner exocarp. The avocado fruit is a climacteric, single-seeded berry, due to the imperceptible endocarp covering the seed, rather than a drupe. The pear-shaped fruit is long, weighs between , and has a large central seed, long.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "948976", "title": "Lithuanian cuisine", "section": "Section::::Fruit.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 747, "text": "Apples, plums, and pears, which grow well in Lithuania, are the most commonly used fruit. Because they cannot tolerate frost, tropical fruit such as citrus, bananas and pineapples must be imported, and hence were used less often in the past; however, these fruits are now becoming more typical and are widely consumed. During the autumn harvest, fruit is often simmered and spiced to create fruit stews (kompots). Gooseberries (\"agrastai\") and currants (\"serbentai\") are widely cultivated; they are sweetened, made into jams and baked goods, and provide a piquant touch to desserts. Small local producers make fine fruit wines from raspberries, and especially blackcurrants; apple icewine is also produced. Apple cheese is very popular in autumn.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "72844", "title": "Atacama Region", "section": "Section::::Economy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 315, "text": "Over recent decades, fresh fruit also emerged as regional export item, when the Copiapó and Huasco valleys joined Chile’s fruit-growing boom. They enjoy a comparative advantage because, thanks to the sunny climate, fruit ripens earlier than in the rest of the country and reaches northern hemisphere markets first.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "361993", "title": "Ripening", "section": "Section::::Ripening agents.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 230, "text": "They allow many fruits to be picked prior to full ripening, which is useful, since ripened fruits do not ship well. For example, bananas are picked when green and artificially ripened after shipment by being gassed with ethylene.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52136", "title": "Citrus", "section": "Section::::Description.:Fruit.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 427, "text": "Citrus fruits are notable for their fragrance, partly due to flavonoids and limonoids (which in turn are terpenes) contained in the rind, and most are juice-laden. The juice contains a high quantity of citric acid giving them their characteristic sharp flavour. The genus is commercially important as many species are cultivated for their fruit, which is eaten fresh, pressed for juice, or preserved in marmalades and pickles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Differentiation is relatively straightforward and can be done by applying a few simple rules. Integration is the tricky thing. One way that computers integrate is by using the [Risch Algorithm](_URL_0_). ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Taylor series is what comes to mind first for integration but no computer will get an irrational number 100% exact. They have something called precision built into them and are only as accurate as their precision allows them to be, after that they round.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "30 years ago, I worked in a medical lab that used an analog (not a digital) computer to perform real-time integration using an op-amp circuit. Analog computers are very uncommon these days, but they work by manipulating electrical signals, so they can be surprisingly effective in dealing with problems concerning continuous values instead of discrete quantities. _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "For certain classes of functions where functions are fully differentiable or derivatibale it's possible to first perform symbolic derivation or integration and then calculate the result. The same way a mathematician would.\n\nIn fact symbolic derivation or integration can be implemented surprisingly easily.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nOne example\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5906119", "title": "Glauber–Sudarshan P representation", "section": "Section::::Examples.:Highly singular example.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 292, "text": "Despite having infinitely many derivatives of delta functions, still obeys the optical equivalence theorem. If the expectation value of the number operator, for example, is taken with respect to the state vector or as a phase space average with respect to , the two expectation values match:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "229939", "title": "Fractional calculus", "section": "Section::::Nature of the fractional derivative.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 465, "text": "The th derivative of a function at a point is a \"local property\" only when is an integer; this is not the case for non-integer power derivatives. In other words, it is not correct to say that the fractional derivative at of a function depends only on values of very near , in the way that integer-power derivatives certainly do. Therefore, it is expected that the theory involves some sort of boundary conditions, involving information on the function further out.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "171882", "title": "Calculus of variations", "section": "Section::::Euler–Lagrange equation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 398, "text": "Finding the extrema of functionals is similar to finding the maxima and minima of functions. The maxima and minima of a function may be located by finding the points where its derivative vanishes (i.e., is equal to zero). The extrema of functionals may be obtained by finding functions where the functional derivative is equal to zero. This leads to solving the associated Euler–Lagrange equation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1070326", "title": "Total derivative", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 620, "text": "In mathematics, the total derivative of a function formula_1 at a point is the best linear approximation near this point of the function with respect to its arguments. Unlike partial derivatives, the total derivative approximates the function with respect to all of its arguments, not just a single one. In many situations, this is the same as considering all partial derivatives simultaneously. The term \"total derivative\" is primarily used when formula_1 is a function of several variables, because when formula_1 is a function of a single variable, the total derivative is the same as the derivative of the function.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7921", "title": "Derivative", "section": "Section::::Rules of computation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 79, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 79, "end_character": 365, "text": "The derivative of a function can, in principle, be computed from the definition by considering the difference quotient, and computing its limit. In practice, once the derivatives of a few simple functions are known, the derivatives of other functions are more easily computed using \"rules\" for obtaining derivatives of more complicated functions from simpler ones.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7921", "title": "Derivative", "section": "Section::::In higher dimensions.:Total derivative, total differential and Jacobian matrix.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 147, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 147, "end_character": 382, "text": "The total derivative of a function does not give another function in the same way as the one-variable case. This is because the total derivative of a multivariable function has to record much more information than the derivative of a single-variable function. Instead, the total derivative gives a function from the tangent bundle of the source to the tangent bundle of the target.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7921", "title": "Derivative", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 448, "text": "The derivative of a function of a single variable at a chosen input value, when it exists, is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function at that point. The tangent line is the best linear approximation of the function near that input value. For this reason, the derivative is often described as the \"instantaneous rate of change\", the ratio of the instantaneous change in the dependent variable to that of the independent variable.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A very curious bit of Viking morals: it's wrong to steal, but it's right to take by force. One of the Icelandic sagas tells of a Viking raid in the Baltic, where the Viking party manages to steal stuff from a farm under the cover of darkness without the occupants realizing what's going on. Halfway back to the boats, the Vikings feel ashamed and return to murder the men and burn the farm down with the women inside, so that they're not thieves, but raiders. This was not done to hide their act, but to legitimize it. Generally, victims of raids were expected to take revenge by counter-raiding, or be entitled to financial compensation; inability to properly respond to a raid was seen as a loss of honor of the victim, not of the raider.\n\nThis culture of 'might makes right' also included the practice of Holmgang; to settle disputes through single combat. Occasionally, this got so much out of hand that some berserkers just went around Iceland making fights with everyone so they could challenge (or get challenged) into a Holmgang and take the loser's stuff. This possibility for abuse led to complex rules and restrictions, and eventual abolition. Normally disputes were settled peacefully at councils.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Pirate ships would have their own moral code agreed on by the sailors (or enforced by the captain) so it would vary from ship to ship. Some were extremely brutal in their treatment of hostages, some quite gentlemanly.\n\n\nThe pirates themselves have been frequently documented repenting for their sins upon being sentenced to death, so while European pirates could commit some atrocious acts when at sea they very quickly changed their tune about morals when death was a certainty.\n\n\nThere is at least one instance of a privateer captain being stripped of his licence after his crew reported his abuse of them to the British authorities, however I can't for the life of me find the reference in \"The Pirates Pocket Book\". A great little read with some good source material, but poorly organised for finding the quotes you want...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Pirates, surprisingly enough, did have moral codes, but they did not generally deal with treatment of victims. Bartholomew Roberts prohibited gambling and women on board his ship, though his [flag](_URL_0_) specifically indicates the exact opposite of leniency for citizens of Barbadoes and Martinique.\n\nMarcus Rediker (and subsequent scholars of piracy) talks at length in Villains of All Nations and Between the Devil and Deep Blue Sea about the implicit camaraderie between pirates which extended to the sailors of the ships they captured - since most of them had been recruited from merchant vessels themselves. As Wibbles mentions, it varies from vessel to vessel, but in general, pirates were lenient toward merchant vessels (especially if they yielded) and less so toward sailors and marines from royal navies.\n\nPirate captains were fond of decrees, but as far as MORAL ones go, they were few and far between (except in rare cases like Bartholomew Roberts).\n\nEdit: looks like I've been downvoted to zero. Anyone want to enlighten me?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "31674275", "title": "Jacob Stolt-Nielsen", "section": "Section::::Biography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 323, "text": "In 2011, Stolt-Nielsen suggested that captured pirates should be executed and their boats sunk, the historical response to piracy, as an effective solution to the problem of piracy off the Horn of Africa. He was criticised by Norway's Foreign Ministry's state secretary, who said that \"human rights\" apply even to pirates.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "220802", "title": "Cutting off the nose to spite the face", "section": "Section::::Origins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 640, "text": "One example of these cases is that of Saint Ebba (sometimes called Æbbe the Younger), the Mother Superior of the monastery of Coldingham Priory. In AD 867, Viking pirates from Zealand and Uppsala landed in Scotland. When news of the raid reached Saint Ebba, she gathered her nuns together and urged them to disfigure themselves, so that they might be unappealing to the Vikings. In this way, they hoped to protect their chastity. She demonstrated this by cutting off her nose and upper lip, and the nuns proceeded to do the same. The Viking raiders were so disgusted that they burned the entire building to the ground with the nuns inside.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "817963", "title": "Didrik Pining", "section": "Section::::Later references.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 802, "text": "Olaus Magnus wrote in 1555 that Pining and Pothorst, due to their piracy, had \"by the Nordic kings been excluded from all human contact and declared outlaws, as a result of their extremely violent robberies and numerous cruel acts against all sailors that they could catch, whether close or distant.\" They then took refuge at a cliff called Hvidserken, which apparently was located between Iceland and Greenland. Magnus added that in \"1494\", the pirates created a giant compass out of a considerable circular space at the top of the cliff, with rings and lines formed of lead, to make it easier for them to know in which direction they could seek a great plunder. Modern historians have suggested that they may in fact have set up some mark at the coast of Greenland to reclaim it for the Danish king.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7893528", "title": "Baltic Slavic piracy", "section": "Section::::Denmark and Mecklenburg.:Piracy outlawed.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 986, "text": "By 1395 piracy was officially outlawed as an attempt to create peace in the Baltic once more, which ended up being more of a form of “paper peace”. Piracy had proved to be so profitable that pirates continued their activity, using the island of Gotland as headquarters and Duke Eric of Mecklenburg as the pirate chief. From there the pirates preyed on Russia and Livonia while continuing to raid the Hansa, then pressed on to assault the Grand Master of Prussia in 1398. The Grand Master did not stand for this, equipping a large fleet and sailing to Gotland, where castles were burned and the pirates soon evacuated. King Albert of Sweden ceded Gotland to the Order as a pledge (similar to a fiefdom), with the understanding that they would eliminate the pirating Victual Brothers from this strategic island base in the Baltic Sea. An invasion force under Grand Master Konrad von Jungingen conquered the island in 1398 and drove the Victual Brothers out of Gotland and the Baltic Sea.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49079088", "title": "Maritime history of the Channel Islands", "section": "Section::::Timeline.:Early Middle Ages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 240, "text": "Piracy/raiding especially by Vikings took place throughout this era. The Viking leader Rollo besieging Paris in 911 resulting in 933 with the islands, formerly under the control the Duchy of Brittany being annexed by the Duchy of Normandy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50715", "title": "Piracy", "section": "Section::::1990s–2010s.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 159, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 159, "end_character": 293, "text": "Modern pirates also use a great deal of technology. It has been reported that crimes of piracy have involved the use of mobile phones, satellite phones, GPS, machetes, AK74 rifles, Sonar systems, modern speedboats, shotguns, pistols, mounted machine guns, and even RPGs and grenade launchers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34239084", "title": "Piracy in the Atlantic World", "section": "Section::::Background.:Pirates, buccaneers, and privateers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 540, "text": "The pirates of the early eighteenth century, however, were men who acted on their own apart from official political sanction. Pirates were very specific, unauthorized entities who worked outside the more socially accepted scenarios and did not discriminate when conducting their raids. The act of piracy was \"massively\" criminal. Laws against piracy were often very strict, with charges and punishments escalating in attempts to curb piratical actions. But many braved the consequences of being caught if it meant a life lived more freely.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It could actually! When water is boiled on a stovetop, the impurities (metal ions) that generally settle at the bottom (fall out of colloid/solution) get pushed up with the bubbles of water vapor that form at the bottom of the kettle. \n\nThat causes a remixing of the impurities and is what gives water a taste. \n\nMicrowaves on the other hand don't heat the water by causing convection as they heat all of the water evenly so convection is minimal. That means the impurities tend to stay out of solution at the bottom of the container and don't affect the taste of the water, which gives it that bland taste.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "953864", "title": "Kettle", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 353, "text": "A kettle, sometimes called a tea kettle or teakettle, is a type of pot, specialized for boiling water, with a lid, spout, and handle, or a small kitchen appliance of similar shape that functions in a self-contained manner. Kettles can be heated either by placing on a stove, or by their own internal electric heating element in the appliance versions. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52636", "title": "Boiling", "section": "Section::::Uses.:In cooking.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 203, "text": "\"Boiling\" is the method of cooking food in boiling water or other water-based liquids such as stock or milk. Simmering is gentle boiling, while in poaching the cooking liquid moves but scarcely bubbles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18400194", "title": "Tea in the United Kingdom", "section": "Section::::History.:Seventeenth century: a medicinal and luxury import.:Sale of tea begins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 380, "text": "The directions for the tea are: a quart of spring water just boiled, to which put a spoonful of tea, and sweeten to the palate with candy sugar. As soon as the tea and sugar are in, the steam must be kept in as much as may be, and let it lie half or quarter of an hour in the heat of the fire but not boil. The little cups must be held over the steam before the liquid be put in.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33306", "title": "Water", "section": "Section::::Effects on human civilization.:Human uses.:Food processing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 116, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 116, "end_character": 382, "text": "Boiling, steaming, and simmering are popular cooking methods that often require immersing food in water or its gaseous state, steam. Water is also used for dishwashing. Water also plays many critical roles within the field of food science. It is important for a food scientist to understand the roles that water plays within food processing to ensure the success of their products.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25140179", "title": "Doodh pati chai", "section": "Section::::Preparation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 475, "text": "One preparation method is to add water to a pot and leaving it to a boil. Once the water comes to a boil, tea is added to it. The mixture is then left to brew. Full cream milk is then added to the mixture and it is then stewed on low heat. Sugar is often added as per one's taste. After mixing thoroughly on low heat, a tea strainer is used before serving the chai. It is usually poured into cups but some prefer to drink it the old fashioned way, from the edge of a saucer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17962294", "title": "Sabbath food preparation", "section": "Section::::Hot beverages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 959, "text": "Using a Kos sheini is acceptable because when the liquid is poured (Erui kos sheini) some of the heat is transferred into the atmosphere, and therefore the liquid loses some heat. Most people hold that this will not cause enough heat to be emitted and therefore the tea leaves will still be cooked. To lower the temperature of the water further people rule that a klei shlishi must be used. Once again in the pouring process (erui klei sheini) more heat is emitted and therefore some people hold that the tea will not be cooked and it is therefore permissible to make tea with this water. However, many other authorities hold that tea leaves fall under the category of items which cook easily (kalei habishul), even in the diminished heat of a kos shelishi. Consequently, those who are most scrupulous in their observance will prepare a concentrated tea extract before the Sabbath; as a liquid, water from a kos sheini can be added to the extract to heat it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "881331", "title": "Maghrebi mint tea", "section": "Section::::Preparation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 386, "text": "The basic ingredients of the tea are green tea, fresh mint leaves, sugar, and boiling water. The proportions of the ingredients and the brewing time can vary widely. Boiling water is used in the Maghreb, rather than the cooler water that is used in East Asia to avoid bitterness. The leaves are left in the pot while the tea is consumed, changing the flavor from one glass to the next.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because hard set, black and white arguments are easier. They're not more right. They're just easier. It's hard to paint someone as an inhuman monster when you're forced to admit they may be right on some points...or that the issue at hand may be more gray than a lot of folks would like you to know. Also, it's easier to vilify the other party in an argument/debate when you paint them as an extreme antithesis of your viewpoint.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because going to the extreme makes people make a choice.\n\nEither you are FOR the horrifying thing they are talking about, or are against it.....\n\nIt makes people choose. Discussing things like reasonable adults doesn't make people angry and excited about an issue.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5471132", "title": "Beginning of pregnancy controversy", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 440, "text": "Controversy over the beginning of pregnancy occurs in different contexts, particularly as it is discussed within the abortion debate in the United States. Because an abortion is defined as ending an established pregnancy, rather than as destroying a fertilized egg, depending on when pregnancy is considered to begin, some methods of birth control as well as some methods of infertility treatment might be classified as causing abortions. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15613566", "title": "Abortion and Christianity", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 946, "text": "Christianity and abortion has a long and complex history, and there are a variety of positions taken by contemporary Christian denominations on the topic. There is no explicit prohibition of abortion in either the Old Testament or New Testament books of the Christian Bible. While some writers say that early Christians held different beliefs at different times about abortion, others say that, in spite of the silence of the New Testament on the issue, they condemned abortion at any point of pregnancy as a grave sin, a condemnation that they maintained even when some of them did not qualify as homicide the elimination of a fetus not yet \"formed\" and animated by a human soul. Some authors, such as ethicist Benjamin Wiker, have contrasted the prohibition of abortion in later Christian societies with the availability of abortion that was present in earlier Roman society, arguing that this reflects a wider condemnation of pagan practices.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3295060", "title": "Christian ethics", "section": "Section::::Areas of applied Christian ethics.:Abortion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 698, "text": "Christian views on abortion has a complex history as there is no explicit prohibition of abortion in either the Old Testament or New Testament books of the Christian Bible. While some writers say that early Christians held different beliefs at different times about abortion, others say that, in spite of the silence of the New Testament on the issue, they condemned abortion at any point of pregnancy as a grave sin, a condemnation that they maintained even when some of them did not qualify as homicide the elimination of a fetus not yet \"formed\" and animated by a human soul. The Didache, a Christian writing usually dated to sometime in the mid to late 1st century, prohibits abortion in Ch 2.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6586071", "title": "Culture of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "section": "Section::::Cultural restrictions and taboos.:Abortion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 95, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 95, "end_character": 1161, "text": "In today's society, abortion has become a common practice, defended by deceptive arguments. Latter-day prophets have denounced abortion, referring to the Lord's declaration, \"Thou shalt not ... kill, nor do anything like unto it\" (Doctrine & Covenants Section 59, Verse 6). Their counsel on the matter is clear: Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints must not submit to, perform, encourage, pay for, or arrange for an abortion. Church members who encourage an abortion in any way may be subject to Church discipline ... Church leaders have said that some exceptional circumstances may justify an abortion, such as when pregnancy is the result of incest or rape, when the life or health of the mother is judged by competent medical authority to be in serious jeopardy, or when the fetus is known by competent medical authority to have severe defects that will not allow the baby to survive beyond birth. But even these circumstances do not automatically justify an abortion. Those who face such circumstances should consider abortion only after consulting with their local Church leaders and receiving a confirmation through earnest prayer.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24313182", "title": "History of Christian thought on abortion", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 965, "text": "Contemporary Christian denominations have nuanced positions, thoughts and teachings about abortion, especially in extenuating circumstances. The Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodoxy, and most evangelical Protestants oppose deliberate abortion as immoral, while allowing what is sometimes called indirect abortion, namely, an action that does not seek the death of the fetus as an end or a means but that is followed by the death as a side effect. Some mainline Protestant denominations such as the Methodist Church, United Church of Christ, and the Evangelical Lutheran Church of America, among others, are more permissive of abortion. More generally, some Christian denominations can be considered pro-life while others may be considered pro-choice. Additionally, there are sizable minorities in all denominations that disagree with their denomination's stance on abortion, an example of which is the group Catholics for a Free Choice.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15613566", "title": "Abortion and Christianity", "section": "Section::::Protestant denominations.:Fundamentalist and evangelical movements.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 838, "text": "Despite their general opposition to abortion, fundamentalist churches that include the conservative evangelical, Non-denominational, Southern Baptist and Pentecostal movements, do not have a consensus doctrine regarding abortion. While these movements hold in common that abortion (when there is no threat to the life of the mother) is a form of infanticide, there is no consensus as to whether exceptions should be allowed when the mother's life is in mortal danger, or when the pregnancy resulted from rape or incest. Some argue that the lives of both the mother and fetus should be given equal consideration, in effect condemning all abortion including those performed to save the life of the mother. Others argue for exceptions which favor the life of the mother, perhaps including pregnancies resulting from cases of rape or incest.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15613566", "title": "Abortion and Christianity", "section": "Section::::History.:Early Christian thought on abortion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 96, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 96, "end_character": 1030, "text": "Scholars generally agree that abortion was performed in the classical world, but there is disagreement about the frequency with which abortion was performed and which cultures influenced early Christian thought on abortion. Some writers point to the Hippocratic Oath (which specifically prohibits abortion) as evidence that condemnation of abortion was not a novelty introduced by the early Christians. Some writers state that there is evidence that some early Christians believed, as the Greeks did, in delayed ensoulment, or that a fetus does not have a soul until quickening, and therefore early abortion was not murder; Luker says there was disagreement on whether early abortion was wrong. Other writers say that early Christians considered abortion a sin even before ensoulment. According to some, the magnitude of the sin was, for the early Christians, on a level with general sexual immorality or other lapses; according to others, they saw it as \"an evil no less severe and social than oppression of the poor and needy\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Back then the regulation on corruption and advertising were much looser. Big tobacco companies would pay their own doctors to conducts their own studies and publish false claims. Any studies that exposed the risks of smoking were silenced with money or buried under the flood of false reports.\n\nEdit: Also when cigarettes first came out no one was really sure what the consequences were. It took some time for the correlation between smoking and disease to be noticed, and more time for studies to be done. \n\nIt is very much comparable to what Vaping is now, people claim its better than smoking and “healthy” but no one really knows the consequences yet as it is too soon to determine.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Most knew that cigarettes weren't healthy. Inhaling any kind of smoke is dangerous. The tobacco companies bribed many doctors to say that cigarettes were healthy, or that they recommend a certain brand. The tobacco companies would use their wealth to try to bury real research into the negative health effects of smoking. It took a while, but eventually when tens of thousands of smokers started dying when they were just in their 50's, did everyone start to realize just how unhealthy smoking is, despite the propaganda of the tobacco industry.\n\nThe same thing happened with leaded gasoline, and now it's happening with climate change. Oil companies have been funding phony/misleading studies to try to disprove human caused climate change. In many regions, they've been breaking heat records every year. Yet very little is being done to lower green house gas emissions thanks to lobbying efforts by big oil companies, just like how tobacco companies bribed doctors.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Doctors have been aware of the importance of evidence-based medicine for a long time. The problem is that when the lung cancer epidemic became apparent in the 1940s/50s, a lot of doctors either weren't aware of the connection between tobacco and cancer, or they smoked themselves (as a lot of people did) and had their own biases towards the risks.\n\nThis wasn't helped by the fact that tobacco was a huge industry and that medicine, like all sciences, is kept alive by funding. A lot of scientists were sponsored by tobacco companies with the essential goal of disproving anything that claimed that tobacco smoking caused cancer.\n\nAs usual it is the relationship between what scientists consider true based on evidence, and what society considers true based on perceptions and anecdotes.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If we go back further in time than the answers you've read so far, there was a time smoke was considered [a remedy](_URL_0_) to several ailments.\n\nSo before the days of \"big tobacco\" and corporations selling packaged cigarettes, there is no doubt in my mind doctors at the time believed smoke introduction to the body to be harmless to us.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There was one campaign urging people to reach for a cigarette instead of a cookie or candy. Healthy weight loss by smoking instead of mindless eating and growing fat.\n\nIt was mostly tobacco companies paying doctors,though.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "21797606", "title": "History of smoking", "section": "Section::::Social stigma.:Scientific rationalization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 374, "text": "A true breakthrough came in 1948, when the British epidemiologist Richard Doll published the first major studies that demonstrated that smoking could cause serious health damage. While some physicians in the United States once pitched cigarettes as health-improving products, some commentators now argue that it is unethical for physicians, as role models, to smoke at all.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53918629", "title": "Evolutionary models of human drug use", "section": "Section::::Neurotoxin regulation hypothesis.:Neurotoxin regulation hypothesis versus hijiack hypothesis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 642, "text": "Alternative mechanisms explain continued tobacco use: The majority of first time users of cigarettes report adverse reactions, including nausea, dizziness, sickness, and headache. A study by DiFranza et al. (2004) found that 69% of subjects rated inhaling their first cigarette as bad, and nearly three-quarters (72%) reported that their first cigarette made them not want to smoke again. Given the above, opponents of the reward model of drug use suggest it is likely that a mechanism other than a false perception of an increased fitness benefit via hijacking of the brain's mesolimbic dopamine system, is leading to continued tobacco use.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20753905", "title": "Cipollone v. Liggett Group, Inc.", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 625, "text": "The popularity of tobacco was soon replaced with skepticism and many wanting to know the health risks of smoking. Research and analysis followed in order to understand these risks, with shocking conclusions and connections to diseases( coronary disease, coronary heart disease, peripheral arterial occlusive disease, cerebrovascular disease, lung cancer, cancer of the larynx, oral cancer, cancer of the esophagus, cancer of the bladder, cancer of the pancreas) that left many in shock. Public Health advocates urged for the banning of cigarette sales and the overall production of cigarettes in order to protect the public.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25553127", "title": "Smoking in China", "section": "Section::::Chinese physicians and smoking.:Arguments in favor of physicians' choice to smoke.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 481, "text": "Furthermore, smoking can be considered a personal matter that should not be relevant to the workplace. Some have suggested that so long as a cigarette does not interfere with a physician's ability to diagnose and treat patients, smoking should be permitted among health care practitioners. In fact, Chinese physicians who smoke may be able to form closer relationships with patients because of tobacco's role in the local culture as a commodity that promotes unity and friendship.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58395791", "title": "History of nicotine marketing", "section": "Section::::1914–1950.:Medical concerns.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 454, "text": "The medical community was criticized for its slow response to these findings. One 1932 paper attributed the slow response to smoking being common among doctors, as well as the general population. Some temperance activists had continued to attack tobacco as expensive, addictive, and leading to petty theft. In the thirties, they also began to publicize the medical findings. There was popular awareness these dangers of smoking (see accompanying quote).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36261620", "title": "Smoking in Costa Rica", "section": "Section::::Physicians and Smoking.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 644, "text": "Another factor that contributed to smoking in this country was the lack of physicians as positive role models. During the early 1990’s, almost one fifth of physicians were current smokers and about 40% were former smokers. These numbers account for over half of physicians in all of Costa Rica who smoked cigarettes at some point in their life. Additionally, two thirds of physicians who did smoke did it at the workplace, which set a poor example for the patients. This being said, many people saw their doctors using tobacco products and in turn, made it seem more acceptable to use these products since medical professionals were doing so. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21798746", "title": "Alan Landers", "section": "Section::::Biography.:Anti-smoking advocacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 446, "text": "When asked how he could have ignored the health risks of smoking, particularly after the addition of the Surgeon General's official 1964 report linking cancer to smoking, he insisted in a 2000 interview with Jane Brody of \"The New York Times\" that \"at no time was I ever told that cigarettes could be dangerous to my health\". His attorney noted that whatever Landers knew about the risks of smoking, \"He knew a lot less than R. J. Reynolds did.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Composed? No. The space of time limited [continuous signals](_URL_2_) is of course uncountably infinite. \n\nDifferentiated? Yes. To explain this, we have to make two assumptions, \n\n * each song can be reproduced with some maximum amount of power, \n * there will be noise added to the signal (which we will assume is [Gaussian](_URL_4_))\n * that all sounds outside our hearing range are immaterial to use and can not be used to differentiate songs.\n\nWe will say this maximum amount of signal power to noise power is S, while the range of human hearing (about 20 to 20 KHz) is W. With these definitions, there are at most \n\n2^(TW log[1 + S])\n\nT-second songs that can be reliably differentiated between.\n\n\nThis observation is in essence, the [Shannon-Hartley theorem](_URL_1_). In more detail, any bandlimited^([1]) (occupying finite frequency range) signal can be reproduced using a version of the signal sampled in time at frequency of 2W. [See here for a graphical representation of this, the middle on the right being the time sampled version of the top left.](_URL_3_). This is, in essence, the [Nyquist Shannon Sampling theorem](_URL_0_). Hence allowing us to replace this continuous signal, with a vector of length\n\n samples = seconds (samples/second) = T (2W)\n\n\nAt this point we have a vector of length 2TW. For every possible song that could be differentiated, we can associate a binary sequence of length *c*. If this sequence was length 3, then 2^3 = 8 songs could be reliably distinguished. Now note that \n\n log(number of songs)/vector length = bits/symbol.\n\nThe maximum number of bits/symbol is a well studied metric, called [the channels capacity](_URL_7_). For the case of Gaussian noise, *c* = 2^(-1) log(1 + S), where S at the outset. \n\nThus the capacity defines the maximum number of differentiable signals subject to the noise, and the sampling theorem the maximum number of discrete points needed to represent the continuous bandlimited function. Multiplying the two quantities gives a maximum number of \n\n2^(TW log[1+S] )\n\nT-second songs. You can also approach this problem from a [rate distortion](_URL_5_) perspective (ie every song within a certain distortion is equally likely, so I just need to pick the minimum number of songs to represent them all), and end up with the same result.\n\n[1]- All bandlimited signals are infinite in time. To account for this nuance you should technically use [prolate spheroidal functions](_URL_6_). The result is unchanged, you need a vector of 2TW for representation.\n\nedit- As /u/DevestatingAttack pointed out, screwed up my units originally. Had bits of song instead of songs. Changed from TW log[1+S] - > 2^(TW log[1+S]).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "16493", "title": "Just intonation", "section": "Section::::Western composers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 381, "text": "Composers often impose a limit on how complex the ratios may become. For example, a composer who chooses to write in 7-limit just intonation will not employ ratios that use powers of prime numbers larger than 7. Under this scheme, ratios like 11:7 and 13:6 would not be permitted, because 11 and 13 cannot be expressed as powers of those prime numbers ≤ 7 (\"i.e.\" 2, 3, 5, and 7).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30100639", "title": "List of classical music sub-titles, nicknames and non-numeric titles", "section": "Section::::Background.:Other named works excluded.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 305, "text": "There are vast numbers of other named compositions that do not qualify for this list. Symphonic poems, concert overtures, suites, variations, operas, ballets, most vocal and choral music, and miscellaneous other works are normally given titles that exclude numbers. Examples of such works would include: \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3267635", "title": "Music Genome Project", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 365, "text": "Given the vector of one or more songs, a list of other similar songs is constructed using what the company calls its \"matching algorithm\". Each song is analyzed by a musician in a process that takes 20 to 30 minutes per song. Ten percent of songs are analyzed by more than one musician to ensure conformity with the in-house standards and statistical reliability. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7009361", "title": "Ages Ago", "section": "Section::::Musical numbers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 310, "text": "The numbering of the songs follows that of the vocal score. The printed libretto does not include the songs through number 4, and numbers the song labelled as song 5 below as song 1. Thus, to determine the number given to a song in the printed libretto, subtract 4 from the number assigned to that song below.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12699793", "title": "Vox Novus", "section": "Section::::Performance Programs.:Fifteen-Minutes-of-Fame.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 345, "text": "The presentation of fifteen works in a short time allows works of many composers who would not normally be included in a chamber concert to be played. \"The brief time limit is also a catalyst for experimentation: when the pressure is off to develop or sustain a composition the pressure is on to make what little time you have very interesting\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10912741", "title": "Historical editions (music)", "section": "Section::::Finding pieces within historical edition sets.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 574, "text": "Finding a particular piece of music within one of these multi-volume sets can often be difficult, as many of the series do not have general indices. For pieces within a composer's complete works set, researchers often consult the \"New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians\" (Second Edition, 2001), either online or in its printed version. Articles on composers will list the title and publisher of any complete works sets that exist, and within the list of compositions by that composer, will include volume numbers of the complete works set in which each piece is found.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36192050", "title": "Music written in all major and/or minor keys", "section": "Section::::Sets that cover all 24 keys.:Composers who wrote multiple sets.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 299, "text": "A number of composers have not been content with just one set of works covering all the keys of the scale. For instance, Niels Viggo Bentzon wrote no fewer than 14 complete sets of 24 Preludes and Fugues, a total of 336 pieces in this genre alone. Others who have written more than one set include:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I can't answer that question, but it's a difficult one to answer in the first place because \"mental illness\" is not a quantized or definite term. Mental health is a spectrum and what some people might call mentally ill other people call relatively healthy. Saying that somebody is definitely mentally ill or not can be tricky sometimes, and this will keep the percentage from being entirely accurate. Not to mention the potentially huge number of undiagnosed people in the world. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "About 80% are free from mental illness each year, so says SAMHSA [[ABC article](_URL_0_), [bunch of raw data](_URL_1_)].\n\nBrought to you by the good doctors that invent disorders for drugs rather than the other way around (think prescribing amphetamines to pre-pubescent kids) and have a long history of expanding their diagnoses for profit and power (read some historical/semantic analysis such as Foucault's *History of Madness*).\n\nTheir job is literally to define abnormality from an interview. Talk too much? ADHD. Talk too little? Anxiety and reclusion. Talk to yourself? Bipolar or schizophrenia. Care too much? Obsessive-compulsive. Care too little? Self-destructive behavior. It goes on and on.\n\nOn top of that they have no physiological links to their craft. Blood/fluid tests, gene tests, protein assays? No such thing to a psychiatrist. It is 100% qualitative. Every single other branch of medicine is quantitative -- sure with a physician's experience and discretion -- but at least decisions are grounded in data!\n\nI'm not saying psychiatric disorders don't exist, but certainly over-diagnosed with some disorders invented entirely. So take their data with a grain of salt.\n\n/rant", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3323405", "title": "National Comorbidity Survey", "section": "Section::::Notable findings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 223, "text": "BULLET::::- Comorbidity: Of the people who had experienced a mental illness in their lifetime (48% of the population), 27% had experienced more than one. The resulting average is 2.1 mental disorders per disordered person.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4998418", "title": "Psychiatric epidemiology", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 454, "text": "As an example, in an attempt to measure the prevalence of mental illness in the United States, Lee Robins and Darrel A. Regier conducted a study called the Epidemiological Catchment Area Project which surveyed samples of the general population at five sites across America. In the study, it was found that about a third of all Americans suffer from mental illness at some point in their lives. This statistic is often referred to as lifetime prevalence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27553159", "title": "Health care in the United States", "section": "Section::::System efficiency and equity.:Equity.:Mental health.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 141, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 141, "end_character": 787, "text": "Mental illness affects one out of six adults in the United States. That is about 44.7 million people, as of 2016. In 2006, mental disorders were ranked one of the top five most costly medical conditions, which expenditures of $57.5 billion. A lack of mental health coverage for Americans bears significant ramifications to the U.S. economy and social system. A report by the U.S. Surgeon General found that mental illnesses are the second leading cause of disability in the nation and affect 20% of all Americans. It is estimated that less than half of all people with mental illnesses receive treatment (or specifically, an ongoing, much needed, and managed care; where medication alone, cannot easily remove mental conditions) due to factors such as stigma and lack of access to care.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13312969", "title": "Global mental health", "section": "Section::::Treatment gap.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 547, "text": "It is estimated that one in four people in the world will be affected by mental or neurological disorders at some point in their lives. Although many effective interventions for the treatment of mental disorders are known, and awareness of the need for treatment of people with mental disorders has risen, the proportion of those who need mental health care but who do not receive it remains very high. This so-called \"treatment gap\" is estimated to reach between 76–85% for low- and middle-income countries, and 35–50% for high-income countries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "990505", "title": "Mental health", "section": "Section::::Significance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 376, "text": "Mental illnesses are more common than cancer, diabetes or heart disease. Over 26 percent of all Americans over the age of 18 meet the criteria for having a mental illness. A World Health Organization (WHO) report estimates the global cost of mental illness at nearly $2.5 trillion (two-thirds in indirect costs) in 2010, with a projected increase to over $6 trillion by 2030.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18645518", "title": "Second Chance Act (2007)", "section": "Section::::Substance abuse/mental health treatment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 352, "text": "In a study of more than 20,000 adults entering five local jails, researchers documented serious mental illness in 14.5 percent of the men and 31 percent of the women, which taken together, comprises 16.9 percent of those studied. The incidence of serious mental illness is two to four times higher among prisoners that it is in the general population.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7478205", "title": "Healthcare in Pakistan", "section": "Section::::Mental Health.:Disease Burden of Mental Health.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 512, "text": "Burden of mental disorders  in terms of Disability-adjusted life years (per 100,000 population) is 2,430. Common mental health problems have been identified in both the rural and urban population which seems to have a positive association with socioeconomic adversities, relationship problems and lack of social support. Depressive and anxiety disorders appear to be highest, followed by bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, psychosomatic disorders, obsessive compulsive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Short answer: no.\n\nLong answer: Yes, empty space inside of us is expanding. However, its expanding so slowly that all the forces that normally keep us together are able to counteract that expansion, meaning everything stays together at the same distance", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Nope.\n\n*Space* is expanding, but the atoms themselves are not. Think of it like this: if the space between an atom's nucleus and its electrons gets bigger, the electrons just move closer.\n\nOn the small scale, things like gravity keep us held together even as space expands around us. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Yes, but at the scale of the subatomic, this expansion is miniscule and more than overcome by the subatomic forces. You can think of the expansion of space as cumulative. It is practically non existent over atomic scales, but increases at an ever-increasing rate as distance increases. It basically doubles as distance doubles so think of it like counting by 2's. 2,4,8,16,32..... At first the numbers are increasing slowly but after awhile start making huge leaps. Likewise, when looking at distant galaxies, there's been a lot of doubling of distance, so to speak, between us and them, and therefore the expansion of space becomes much more noticeable.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5985207", "title": "Expansion of the universe", "section": "Section::::Understanding the expansion of the universe.:Topology of expanding space.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 257, "text": "Even if the overall spatial extent is infinite and thus the universe cannot get any \"larger\", we still say that space is expanding because, locally, the characteristic distance between objects is increasing. As an infinite space grows, it remains infinite.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5382", "title": "Inflation (cosmology)", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 631, "text": "Based on a huge amount of experimental observation and theoretical work, it is now believed that the reason for the observation is that \"space itself is expanding\", and that it expanded very rapidly within the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang. This kind of expansion is known as a \"\"metric\"\" expansion. In the terminology of mathematics and physics, a \"metric\" is a measure of distance that satisfies a specific list of properties, and the term implies that \"the sense of distance within the universe is itself changing\", although at this time it is far too small an effect to see on less than an intergalactic scale.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5985207", "title": "Expansion of the universe", "section": "Section::::Cosmic inflation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 443, "text": "Based on large quantities of experimental observation and theoretical work, the scientific consensus is that \"space itself is expanding\", and that it expanded very rapidly within the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang. This kind of expansion is known as \"metric expansion\". In mathematics and physics, a \"metric\" means a measure of distance, and the term implies that \"the sense of distance within the universe is itself changing\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5985207", "title": "Expansion of the universe", "section": "Section::::Understanding the expansion of the universe.:Effects of expansion on small scales.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 559, "text": "The expansion of space is sometimes described as a force which acts to push objects apart. Though this is an accurate description of the effect of the cosmological constant, it is not an accurate picture of the phenomenon of expansion in general. For much of the universe's history the expansion has been due mainly to inertia. The matter in the very early universe was flying apart for unknown reasons (most likely as a result of cosmic inflation) and has simply continued to do so, though at an ever-decreasing rate due to the attractive effect of gravity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4116", "title": "Big Bang", "section": "Section::::Features of the model.:Expansion of space.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 563, "text": "The Big Bang is not an explosion of matter moving outward to fill an empty universe. Instead, space itself expands with time everywhere and increases the physical distance between two comoving points. In other words, the Big Bang is not an explosion \"in space\", but rather an expansion \"of space\". Because the FLRW metric assumes a uniform distribution of mass and energy, it applies to our universe only on large scales—local concentrations of matter such as our galaxy are gravitationally bound and as such do not experience the large-scale expansion of space.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5382", "title": "Inflation (cosmology)", "section": "Section::::Motivations.:Flatness problem.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 691, "text": "Therefore, regardless of the shape of the universe the contribution of spatial curvature to the expansion of the Universe could not be much greater than the contribution of matter. But as the Universe expands, the curvature redshifts away more slowly than matter and radiation. Extrapolated into the past, this presents a fine-tuning problem because the contribution of curvature to the Universe must be exponentially small (sixteen orders of magnitude less than the density of radiation at Big Bang nucleosynthesis, for example). This problem is exacerbated by recent observations of the cosmic microwave background that have demonstrated that the Universe is flat to within a few percent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5382", "title": "Inflation (cosmology)", "section": "Section::::Theory.:Few inhomogeneities remain.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 938, "text": "Because the accelerating expansion of space stretches out any initial variations in density or temperature to very large length scales, an essential feature of inflation is that it smooths out inhomogeneities, anisotropies and reduces the curvature of space. This pushes the Universe into a very simple state in which it is completely dominated by the inflaton field and the only significant inhomogeneities are tiny quantum fluctuations. Inflation also dilutes exotic heavy particles, such as the magnetic monopoles predicted by many extensions to the Standard Model of particle physics. If the Universe was only hot enough to form such particles \"before\" a period of inflation, they would not be observed in nature, as they would be so rare that it is quite likely that there are none in the observable universe. Together, these effects are called the inflationary \"no-hair theorem\" by analogy with the no hair theorem for black holes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It mostly arises from the Kepler mission, which was specifically designed to systematically find exoplanets. Before, it was basically astronomers booking time on a telescope and hoping for the best.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You have to remember the first exoplanets were only discovered less than twenty years ago. As soon as we knew they were there people started designing instruments to find them. The sudden surge in exoplanets is from these all these instruments coming online. Kepler is the most notable, but there's also SuperWasp, Harps, Corot etc. \n In fact we're really only beginning to find planets. Upcoming projects like Plato, NGTS, Tess, Cheops, Gaia and others should find thousands more! Exciting times. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because we didn't have the instruments to do this, until the Kepler space telescope, and because it is a very, very tough job, requiring dedicated instruments such as Kepler.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nKepler was specifically designed for this job. By most metrics, this project is a great success.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As others have mentioned, Kepler has helped with the recent surge of discoveries. But it all started with new imaging techniques and technology. One of the advances that most helped with the search for exoplanets from Earth is Adaptive Optics. Adaptive Optics use cameras and lasers to detect distortions and turbulence in the atmosphere. This information controls a secondary mirror in the telescope which has the ability to deform in order to correct for atmospheric turbulence. When looking at a star before adaptive optics, the telescope would see great differences in the brightness of a star. With adaptive optics, a telescope will have a much reliable view of the star's brightness. One of the ways we look for exoplanets is to measure the brightness of a star over time. When an exoplanet passes in front of the star, we see a characteristic dimming. This dimming could have been an effect of atmospheric turbulence, but with adaptive optics, we can filter out or adjust for that \"noise\" and have the ability to see the dimming that is an exoplanet transiting it's star.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are two techniques that are the most effective at finding exoplanets. One is radial velocity which relies on highly precise spectrometry to detect planets. For a long time that technique did not see much use because it requires a fair amount of observation time, it requires computer processing, and until the mid-90s it didn't have sufficient resolution to detect any planets similar to the ones we knew about (our own solar system). For that reason there weren't any radial velocity planet searches made during the '80s. Even though it would have been possible to detect several planets using those techniques. But back then people thought the prospect was to watch a star for, say, over a decade (Jupiter's orbital period is about 12 years) and then get a tiny signal that probably falls under the noise floor of your instruments (3 m/s). Nobody knew about \"hot Jupiters\" like 51 Pegasi b where the radial velocity signal is actually 56 m/s and the orbital period is 4.2 days. Once folks invented ways to get down to 3 m/s radial velocity (by modeling the point spread function) and computing power became cheap then there started to be planet detection surveys. Interestingly, the first planet detection using those methods, which was 51 Pegasi b, was found by two teams (Mayor & Queloz as well as Marcy & Butler) but the second team used post processing of their data, which they hadn't done yet because they didn't anticipate such easily detectable planets. Since then the radial velocity technique has been used to find many dozens of planets. It's a robust technique but it works best for large, close planets around bright or otherwise nearby stars, and is currently incapable of detecting small, Earth-sized planets.\n\nThe other major technique is transit detection. If you can observe the light intensity from a star with enough precision then you can observe the characteristic change in brightness as a planet passes in front of the star. This technique is capable of finding even Earth-sized planets but it has a few down sides. First, only a tiny fraction of planetary systems will have the fortuitous alignment necessary for a transit to be observable from Earth. Second, it requires near continuous monitoring of a star for a long period of time, lest a potential transit event go unobserved. Third, it requires observing 3 separate transit events (at a minimum of 2x the orbital period of observation time) in order to confirm a detection. It is also biased towards detecting large planets in close orbits, but it has the capability of detecting smaller planets and the main limit for farther planets is just in observation period.\n\nHere's where the Kepler spacecraft comes in. Trying to observe a given star 24/7 for a period of years on Earth is not workable. Even if you have an observatory somewhere where there is never any cloud cover there is still day and night, which will prevent continuous observation. But with a space based telescope it's possible to continuously observe the same patch of sky, and to monitor not just one but perhaps thousands of stars continuously. Which is what Kepler did. Most of the stars Kepler observed didn't reveal any planets, but because of the sheer number of stars Kepler was able to observe (145,000) a huge number of detections were possible. Currently Kepler is responsible for 961 confirmed planetary detections. Remember that Kepler is only capable of detecting a planetary system if the orbital alignment is just right, which is a very unlikely event (around 1%), so the actual number of planets around stars that Kepler observed is likely quite enormous given the total number that actually were observed.\n\nSo overall it's a combination of technology and willingness to build the systems and put in the observation time to get these detections.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9763360", "title": "Cosmic Odyssey (TV series)", "section": "Section::::Episodes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 567, "text": "BULLET::::- \"The Search for New Planets (Alien Planets: Anyone Home?)\" – Is there life among the stars? Are there planets circling other suns? Astronomers are ready to take on the greatest challenge in the search for extraterrestrial life: to discover another Earth, but how? The answer lies in extremely sensitive planet-finders—monster telescopes being designed and built to operate several hundred light years away. In \"The Search for New Planets\", 'planet hunters' discuss the prospects of finding 'extrasolar' signs of life and what such a discovery could mean.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25776254", "title": "American Astronomical Society 215th meeting", "section": "Section::::Planet formation around massive Stars.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 865, "text": "The focus for discovering new exoplanets has been on sun-like stars. The catalog of more than 400 exoplanets has proved that these searches are successful, because exoplanets of various sizes have been discovered. However, other star types are also a likely place to discover new exoplanets. New research, announced at the meeting, confirms that planet formation is a natural by-product of star formation. Planet formation occurs even around stars much more massive than the Sun. However, the life of the stars which the planets orbit are so short that intelligent extraterrestrial life is not very likely. A and B type stars were surveyed for the research which involved NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope, the Two Micron All-Sky Survey, and astronomers from the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA) and the National Optical Astronomy Observatory (NOAO).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14190914", "title": "Infinite Worlds (book)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 737, "text": "The newly discovered planets are boggling astronomers' minds with their bizarre characteristics, including an unimagined diversity of sizes and orbits. In Lynette Cook's illustrations - many newly created for this book - we glimpse the landscapes and atmospheres that might adorn these planets. Ray Villard's text describes the state of astronomy today, imagines where it will take us in the coming years, ponders the chances of success for the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI), and explores the survivability of life in the context of an evolving and accelerating universe. Infinite Worlds is a cosmic adventure that brings the drama of creation and the beauty of the universe to anyone who has wondered at the night sky\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47266911", "title": "HIP 11915 b", "section": "Section::::Significance in astronomy.:Solar System analog?\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 434, "text": "Megan Bedell, from the University of Chicago and lead author of the paper, concludes: “After two decades of hunting for exoplanets, we are finally beginning to see long-period gas giant planets similar to those in our own Solar System thanks to the long-term stability of planet hunting instruments like HARPS. This discovery is, in every respect, an exciting sign that other solar systems may be out there waiting to be discovered.”\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36224143", "title": "Planetary science", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 352, "text": "The Solar System has now been relatively well-studied, and a good overall understanding of the formation and evolution of this planetary system exists. However, there are large numbers of unsolved questions, and the rate of new discoveries is very high, partly due to the large number of interplanetary spacecraft currently exploring the Solar System.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28582968", "title": "Discoveries of exoplanets", "section": "Section::::2009.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 376, "text": "BULLET::::- 30 planets: On October 19, it was announced that 30 new planets were discovered, all were detected by radial velocity method. It is the most planets ever announced in a single day during the exoplanet era. October 2009 now holds the most planets discovered in a month, breaking the record set in June 2002 and August 2009, during which 17 planets were discovered.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38586527", "title": "Kepler-37", "section": "Section::::Planetary system.:Discovery.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 797, "text": "Thomas Barclay, an astrophysicist on the Kepler space telescope team, said the discovery was \"really good news\" in the search for hospitable planets, a prime objective of the project, because it demonstrated the telescope was capable of detecting Earth-sized planets. However, he does not anticipate finding many planets as small as Kepler-37b due to the very small amount of light such planets obscure. According to NASA scientist Jack Lissauer, the discovery of Kepler-37b \"suggests such little planets are common, and more planetary wonders await as we continue to gather and analyze additional data.\" Astronomer John Johnson of Caltech university said the discovery would have been \"unimaginable\" a few years ago and that the telescope had revolutionized astronomers' picture of the universe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "When light passes through a gas like the atmosphere of a planet or star, the molecules that make up the gas absorb light of very specific colors. If you take this light and split it up into a rainbow, you can see dark lines where this light was absorbed.\n\nMany molecules have had their absorption lines mapped and those can be used to figure out which molecules are present in the gas that the light passed through.\n\nIf we point our telescope at a planet and are very careful, we can measure the light which passes through any atmosphere which may be present on it and can then detect which molecules are present there, including water.\n\nObjects which are in our solar system can be observed more directly than this, but similar techniques are still useful, particularly for very distant or dim objects. For planets outside of our solar system, this is pretty much the only way we can confirm anything about what is present in their atmospheres.\n\nThere are other theories and techniques regarding habitability, however. In particular, the size of the planet, the size of its star(s), and their proximity to each other are very important in determining what is likely to exist.\n\nAnd of course, this is all limited by our ability to imagine what life might even look like. We only have one example to work with, so other systems for something we would even recognize as life are all speculative, but it is very likely that the universe will surprise us with its creativity.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "11322595", "title": "Extraterrestrial liquid water", "section": "Section::::Indicators, methods of detection and confirmation.:Habitable zone.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 557, "text": "A planet's orbit in the circumstellar habitable zone is a popular method used to predict its potential for surface water at its surface. Habitable zone theory has put forward several extrasolar candidates for liquid water, though they are highly speculative as a planet's orbit around a star alone does not guarantee that a planet it has liquid water. In addition to its orbit, a planetary mass object must have the potential for sufficient atmospheric pressure to support liquid water and a sufficient supply of hydrogen and oxygen at or near its surface.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2592906", "title": "Planetary habitability", "section": "Section::::Suitable star systems.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 511, "text": "However, the question of what makes a planet habitable is much more complex than having a planet located at the right distance from its host star so that water can be liquid on its surface: various geophysical and geodynamical aspects, the radiation, and the host star's plasma environment can influence the evolution of planets and life, if it originated. Liquid water is a necessary but not sufficient condition for life as we know it, as habitability is a function of a multitude of environmental parameters\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10881051", "title": "Gliese 581d", "section": "Section::::Orbital characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 729, "text": "The orbital distance places it at the outer limits of the habitable zone, the distance at which it is believed possible for water to exist on the surface of a planetary body. At the time of its discovery, the planet's orbit was originally thought to be farther out. However, in late April 2009 the original discovery team revised its original estimate of the planet's orbital parameters, finding that it orbits closer to its star than originally determined with an orbital period of 66.87 days. They concluded that the planet is within the habitable zone where liquid water could exist, thus confirming previous studies. Moreover, the data also suggested that the proposed exoplanet could have at least one or more large oceans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14640471", "title": "Mars", "section": "Section::::Habitability and search for life.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 762, "text": "The current understanding of planetary habitability—the ability of a world to develop environmental conditions favorable to the emergence of life—favors planets that have liquid water on their surface. Most often this requires the orbit of a planet to lie within the habitable zone, which for the Sun extends from just beyond Venus to about the semi-major axis of Mars. During perihelion, Mars dips inside this region, but Mars's thin (low-pressure) atmosphere prevents liquid water from existing over large regions for extended periods. The past flow of liquid water demonstrates the planet's potential for habitability. Recent evidence has suggested that any water on the Martian surface may have been too salty and acidic to support regular terrestrial life.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9588", "title": "Extraterrestrial life", "section": "Section::::Cultural impact.:Recent history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 105, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 105, "end_character": 274, "text": "On 17 April 2014, the discovery of the Earth-size exoplanet Kepler-186f, 500 light-years from Earth, was publicly announced; it is the first Earth-size planet to be discovered in the habitable zone and it has been hypothesized that there may be liquid water on its surface.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44970257", "title": "Kepler-438b", "section": "Section::::Habitability.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 552, "text": "Researchers at the University of Warwick say that Kepler-438b is not habitable due to the large amount of radiation it receives. The question of what makes a planet habitable is much more complex than having a planet located at the right distance from its host star so that water can be liquid on its surface: various geophysical and geodynamical aspects, the radiation, and the host stars plasma environment can influence the evolution of planets and life, if it originated. The planet is more likely to resemble a larger and cooler version of Venus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14640471", "title": "Mars", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 799, "text": "There are ongoing investigations assessing the past habitability potential of Mars, as well as the possibility of extant life. Future astrobiology missions are planned, including the Mars 2020 and ExoMars rovers. Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars due to low atmospheric pressure, which is less than 1% of the Earth's, except at the lowest elevations for short periods. The two polar ice caps appear to be made largely of water. The volume of water ice in the south polar ice cap, if melted, would be sufficient to cover the entire planetary surface to a depth of . In November 2016, NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars. The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Arrest is done by a police officer based on either probable cause to believe that you are or have committed a crime, or on a warrant issued by a judge. You are detained and subjected to bail and/or other conditions of release (or held) while awaiting trial. Within a few days of arrest, a defendant is entitled to have the legality of the arrest reviewed by a judge, although it is not required to be a formal hearing.\n\n\"Charged\" and \"Indicted\" are both formal initiations of a criminal case. Indictments are handed down by grand juries, after presentation of the case by a prosecutor, while \"charges\" (called an information or complaint) are brought directly by the prosecutor without using a grand jury. It depends on the jurisdiction whether the prosecutor can choose (grand jury or information) or has to use one or the other. If a grand jury indicts, the case will be held over for trial. If an information/complaint is used, a preliminary hearing will be held so a judge can determine whether to hold the case over. \n\nA subpoena is a court order that demands the presence of a person or of documents in a person's possession. They are used to force people to show up in court, in both criminal and civil matters. They are also used to obtain information (like police records) before trial. Basically, it is a demand that carries the power of the court. \n\nHope that helps!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "12512562", "title": "Criminal charge", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 276, "text": "A criminal charge is a formal accusation made by a governmental authority (usually a public prosecutor or the police) asserting that somebody has committed a crime. A charging document, which contains one or more criminal charges or counts, can take several forms, including:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "170652", "title": "Bail", "section": "Section::::India.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 91, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 91, "end_character": 1174, "text": "When a person accused of a crime is arrested, his statement is recorded and information such as the name, residence address, birthplace, charges filed are noted. The police officer may also check back the criminal record if any in the police station and ask for fingerprints to file a case against the accused. Under the Code of Criminal Procedure 1973 (First Schedule), offences have been classified as \"bailable\" and \"non-bailable\" offences. In the case of bailable offences, if the accused produces proper surety, and fulfils other conditions, it is binding upon the Investigating officer to grant bail. However, in case of a non-bailable offence, the police cannot grant bail; it can only be granted by a Judicial Magistrate/Judge. The Investigating Officer must produce the accused before the Judicial Magistrate / Judge concerned within 24 hours of his arrest. At that time, the accused has a right to apply for bail. Depending upon the facts of the case, the judge decides whether bail should be granted. If bail is granted the accused must deposit money with the court. Generally, for lesser crimes, a standard amount is asked to be deposited for awarding the bail.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6087226", "title": "Law of South Korea", "section": "Section::::Criminal Law.:Due process.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 500, "text": "Additionally, no criminal suspect may be tortured or compelled to testify against himself. The Constitution also requires that a person arrested for a crime be given assistance of counsel (selected or appointed), be informed of the charges against him and of his right to counsel, and have the right to petition the court for \"habeas corpus\". A person arrested for a crime also has the right to have his family or other close kin promptly notified as to the reason, time, and place of his detention.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14141359", "title": "Criminal defense lawyer", "section": "Section::::United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 594, "text": "An arrest simply means a police officer, federal agent, or judge believes probable cause exists that a person committed a crime. Since an arrest is usually made by law enforcement, the arrest often is for a criminal charge that has not been levied or verified by an attorney or judge. Criminal defense lawyers also deal with the substantive issues of the crimes with which his or her clients are charged. Criminal defense lawyers may also help clients before charges have been filed by a prosecuting attorney. This is done when someone believes he or she is being investigated, or is arrested.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6131547", "title": "Power of arrest", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 259, "text": "The power of arrest is a mandate given by a central authority that allows an individual to remove a criminal's (or suspected criminal's) liberty. The power of arrest can also be used to protect a person, or persons from harm or to protect damage to property.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4091132", "title": "Stop and identify statutes", "section": "Section::::Police–citizen encounters.:Arrest.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 337, "text": "A detention requires only that police have reasonable suspicion that a person is involved in criminal activity. However, to make an arrest, an officer must have probable cause to believe that the person has committed a crime. Some states require police to inform the person of the intent to make the arrest and the cause for the arrest.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27425888", "title": "Criminal Procedure (Hong Kong)", "section": "Section::::Apprehension.:Power of Arrest.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 1041, "text": "Many government departments and agencies, like the police force, ICAC, immigration officials etc., have the power to arrest a suspect. This power of arrest is granted and regulated by law. But before an officer can actually arrest anyone, s/he is required by law to request an arrest warrant from a magistrate. If not, the person been wrongfully arrested can sue the officer for damages. The procedure is to protect the public's freedom from the potential abuse of power. Apparently, this is impossible to ask every government agent to request a warrant before arresting anyone in every case, especially in an emergency. For example, it would not be feasible for a police officer to ask for a warrant first and then go back to the crime scene of a bank robbery to arrest the robber. Hence, the law is somewhat flexible when it comes to determining whether or not an arrest is lawful. Still, all is under the control of law. For instance, Section 50 of the \"Police Force Ordinance\" considers an arrest to be lawful even without a warrant if:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Inertia: the resistance of any physical object to any change in its state of motion including changes to its speed and direction or the state of rest. \n\nPlus, low friction coefficient between the side of the mug and the liquid. \n\nEquals, the coffee tends to remain in the same place while the mug (and you) moves around it. \n\nIf you spun really quickly for a while, eventually the coffee would start spinning too. Then, when you stopped, the coffee would keep spinning. \n\nGive it a try and report back!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Since the coffee has relatively low viscosity, rotating the mug only moves the fluid \"layer\" closest to the edge, and this disturbance is not propagated very far into the interior of the coffee before it dies out. If you were to continue to spin the mug around, eventually the boundary layer would begin to transfer rotational motion to the interior, but it might take a while.\n\nIf you were to repeat this experiment with a high viscosity fluid like maple syrup, the vast majority of the fluid would immediately begin to rotate with the mug.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I see people mentioning inertia, but more precisely the [moment of inertia](_URL_1_) makes it hard to make the coffee rotate much given the small amount of torque you can apply. The coffee is being linearly accelerated just fine as the cup moves around the room.\n\nOf course, even this is a simplification, since the coffee is a fluid and each part of it can spin at a different rate. So you really need to measure the [vorticity](_URL_0_) of the coffee. But since the coffee never really starts spinning, we can pretend it is a rigid body and talk about the moment of inertia.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "10261414", "title": "Hot chocolate effect", "section": "Section::::Origin of the phenomenon.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 356, "text": "The phenomenon is explained by the effect of bubble density on the speed of sound in the liquid. The note heard is the frequency of a standing wave where a quarter wavelength is the distance between the base of the mug and the liquid surface. This frequency \"f\" is equal to the speed \"v\" of the wave divided by four times the height of the water column h:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3697368", "title": "Coffee ring effect", "section": "Section::::Flow mechanism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 443, "text": "The coffee-ring pattern originates from the capillary flow induced by the differential evaporation rates across the drop: liquid evaporating from the edge is replenished by liquid from the interior. The resulting edgeward flow can carry nearly all the dispersed material to the edge. As a function of time, this process exhibit a \"rush-hour\" effect, that is, a rapid acceleration of the edgeward flow at the final stage of the drying process.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3697368", "title": "Coffee ring effect", "section": "Section::::Applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 349, "text": "The coffee ring effect is utilized in convective deposition by researchers wanting to order particles on a substrate using capillary-driven assembly, replacing a stationary droplet with an advancing meniscus drawn across the substrate. This process differs from dip-coating in that evaporation drives flow along the substrate as opposed to gravity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1122675", "title": "Tasseography", "section": "Section::::Coffee reading.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 311, "text": "Coffee tasseography (, , ) is traditionally practiced using Turkish coffee or any method of coffee brewing that leaves grounds sitting at the bottom of the cup. Most of the coffee in the cup is consumed, but the sediments are left to settle. It is often believed that the querent should not read their own cup.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8866584", "title": "Jebena", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 460, "text": "Typically, when the coffee boils up through the jebena's neck, it is poured in and out of another container to cool it. The liquid is then poured back into the jebena until it bubbles up. To pour the coffee from the jebena a filter made from horsehair or other material is placed in the spout of the jebena to prevent the grounds from escaping. In Ethiopia, a small pottery cup called a \"sini\" or \"finjal\" is used to contain the coffee poured from the jebena.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10942172", "title": "Orientation entanglement", "section": "Section::::Elementary description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 627, "text": "Note that after this rotation, the cup has been returned to its original orientation, but that its orientation with respect to the walls is \"twisted\". In other words, if we lower the coffee cup to the floor of the room, the two bands will coil around each other in one full twist of a double helix. This is an example of orientation entanglement: the new orientation of the coffee cup embedded in the room is not actually the same as the old orientation, as evidenced by the twisting of the rubber bands. Stated another way, the orientation of the coffee cup has become entangled with the orientation of the surrounding walls.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8728856", "title": "AeroPress", "section": "Section::::Methods of brewing.:Traditional.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 318, "text": "According to the instructions, fine-ground coffee is placed in the bottom of the larger cylinder on top of a paper microfilter. Hot water at approximately is then poured over the coffee; this mixture is stirred for approximately 10 seconds before being forced through the microfilter by pushing the plunger downwards.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "To start, migraines are more of a disorder that will happen to a select few sufferers, while headaches are something that can affect everybody. Physiologically, migraines most often include nausea, sensitivity to light, sound, and temperature, and a sensory aura (like tunnel vision) to signal an incipient one. Migraines are usually on one side of the head or above one eye. The cause of most headaches is muscle tension, while the cause of most migraines is neurotransmitter or hormonal issues.\n\nWe used to believe migraines to be caused by vasodilation (blood vessels expand) and headaches by vasoconstriction, but I think it's more complicated. Changes in the volume of blood vessels of the brain - contraction *and* dilation* - occur, known as the \"squeeze and release\" mechanism. This starts in the occipital lobe that controls vision, hence the visual auras people get. The blood vessels first contract, then dilate enough that they become semipermeable and fluid starts to leak out. This process sets off pain receptors and triggers the inflammation response - this causes increased blood flow to the area. Each heartbeat sends another pulse of blood, hence the throbbing of the migraine.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "24224679", "title": "ICHD classification and diagnosis of migraine", "section": "Section::::Migraine without aura.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 549, "text": "Migraine without aura also referred to as a \"common migraine\", (previously known as \"hemicrania simplex\") is a specific neurological disorder characterized by recurrent, throbbing headaches that often affect one side of the head (i.e., it is unilateral), are of at least moderate intensity, and may cause nausea, phonophobia or photophobia. One defining characteristic of the common migraine is a lack of the visual disturbances known as an aura. The exact International Classification of Headache Disorders diagnostic criteria appear to the right.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "69893", "title": "Headache", "section": "Section::::Diagnostic approach.:Old headaches.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 654, "text": "Old headaches are usually primary headaches and are not dangerous. They are most often caused by migraines or tension headaches. Migraines are often unilateral, pulsing headaches accompanied by nausea or vomiting. There may be an aura (visual symptoms, numbness or tingling) 30–60 minutes before the headache, warning the person of a headache. Migraines may also not have auras. Tension type headaches usually have bilateral \"bandlike\" pressure on both sides of the head usually without nausea or vomiting. However, some symptoms from both headache groups may overlap. It is important to distinguish between the two because the treatments are different.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21035", "title": "Migraine", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 580, "text": "A migraine is a primary headache disorder characterized by recurrent headaches that are moderate to severe. Typically, the headaches affect one half of the head, are pulsating in nature, and last from a few hours to 3 days. Associated symptoms may include nausea, vomiting, and sensitivity to light, sound, or smell. The pain is generally made worse by physical activity. Up to one-third of people have an aura: typically a short period of visual disturbance that signals that the headache will soon occur. Occasionally, an aura can occur with little or no headache following it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21035", "title": "Migraine", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Pain phase.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 653, "text": "Classically the headache is unilateral, throbbing, and moderate to severe in intensity. It usually comes on gradually and is aggravated by physical activity. In more than 40% of cases, however, the pain may be bilateral and neck pain is commonly associated with it. Bilateral pain is particularly common in those who have migraines without an aura. Less commonly pain may occur primarily in the back or top of the head. The pain usually lasts 4 to 72 hours in adults, however in young children frequently lasts less than 1 hour. The frequency of attacks is variable, from a few in a lifetime to several a week, with the average being about one a month.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21035", "title": "Migraine", "section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 71, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 71, "end_character": 603, "text": "Other conditions that can cause similar symptoms to a migraine headache include temporal arteritis, cluster headaches, acute glaucoma, meningitis and subarachnoid hemorrhage. Temporal arteritis typically occurs in people over 50 years old and presents with tenderness over the temple, cluster headaches presents with one-sided nose stuffiness, tears and severe pain around the orbits, acute glaucoma is associated with vision problems, meningitis with fevers, and subarachnoid hemorrhage with a very fast onset. Tension headaches typically occur on both sides, are not pounding, and are less disabling.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1274833", "title": "Adverse drug reaction", "section": "Section::::Classification.:Severity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 367, "text": "A headache is severe, if it causes intense pain. There are scales like \"visual analog scale\" that help clinicians assess the severity. On the other hand, a headache is not usually serious (but may be in case of subarachnoid haemorrhage, subdural bleed, even a migraine may temporally fit criteria), unless it also satisfies the criteria for seriousness listed above.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2702930", "title": "Acephalgic migraine", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 599, "text": "Acephalgic migraine (also called acephalalgic migraine, migraine aura without headache, amigrainous migraine, isolated visual migraine, and optical migraine) is a neurological syndrome. It is a relatively uncommon variant of migraine in which the patient may experience aura, nausea, photophobia, hemiparesis, and other migraine symptoms, but does not experience headache. It is generally classified as an event fulfilling the conditions of migraine with aura with no (or minimal) headache. It is sometimes distinguished from visual-only migraine aura without headache, also called ocular migraine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The time aboard the ISS is Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) -- which is a time zone roughly halfway between Houston and Moscow, where the two main control centers are located. So when astronauts wake up (at around 7:00 GMT), it is 2 in the morning in Houston and 11 in the morning in Moscow.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Follow up question: How is time adjusted to time dilation?\n\nEDIT: Maybe I should have clarified more that I meant clocks on the ISS, not clocks in general.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "15043", "title": "International Space Station", "section": "Section::::Life aboard.:Crew activities.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 197, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 197, "end_character": 399, "text": "The time zone used aboard the ISS is Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The windows are covered at night hours to give the impression of darkness because the station experiences 16 sunrises and sunsets per day. During visiting Space Shuttle missions, the ISS crew mostly follows the shuttle's Mission Elapsed Time (MET), which is a flexible time zone based on the launch time of the shuttle mission.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30890", "title": "Time zone", "section": "Section::::Time zones in outer space.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 93, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 93, "end_character": 537, "text": "Orbiting spacecraft typically experience many sunrises and sunsets in a 24-hour period, or in the case of Apollo program astronauts travelling to the moon, none. Thus it is not possible to calibrate time zones with respect to the sun, and still respect a 24-hour sleep/wake cycle. A common practice for space exploration is to use the Earth-based time zone of the launch site or mission control. This keeps the sleeping cycles of the crew and controllers in sync. The International Space Station normally uses Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14163574", "title": "Mission Elapsed Time", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 413, "text": "The International Space Station (ISS) does not use an MET clock since it is a \"permanent\" and international mission. The ISS observes Coordinated Universal Time (UTC/GMT). When the shuttle visited ISS the ISS-crew usually adjusted their workday to the MET clock to make work together easier. The shuttles also had UTC clocks so that the astronauts could easily figure out what the \"official\" time aboard ISS was.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1784050", "title": "Timekeeping on Mars", "section": "Section::::Time of day.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 685, "text": "A convention used by spacecraft lander projects to date has been to enumerate local solar time using a 24-hour \"Mars clock\" on which the hours, minutes and seconds are 2.7% longer than their standard (Earth) durations. For the Mars Pathfinder, Mars Exploration Rover (MER), Phoenix, and Mars Science Laboratory missions, the operations teams have worked on \"Mars time\", with a work schedule synchronized to the local time at the landing site on Mars, rather than the Earth day. This results in the crew's schedule sliding approximately 40 minutes later in Earth time each day. Wristwatches calibrated in Martian time, rather than Earth time, were used by many of the MER team members.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9069866", "title": "Chamorro Time Zone", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 278, "text": "The Chamorro Time Zone, formerly the Guam Time Zone, is a United States time zone which observes standard time ten hours ahead of Coordinated Universal Time (). The clock time in this zone is based on the mean solar time of the 150th meridian east of the Greenwich Observatory.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9069816", "title": "Wake Island Time Zone", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 230, "text": "The Wake Island Time Zone observes standard time by adding twelve hours to Coordinated Universal Time (). The clock time in this zone is based on the mean solar time of the 180th degree meridian east of the Greenwich Observatory.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "524034", "title": "Alaska Time Zone", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 282, "text": "The Alaska Time Zone observes standard time by subtracting nine hours from Coordinated Universal Time (). During daylight saving time its time offset is eight hours (). The clock time in this zone is based on mean solar time at the 135th meridian west of the Greenwich Observatory.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Things that can help improve synaptic plasticity (and consequently memory performance):\n\n* [Repetition, spaced trials](_URL_1_)\n* Concentration\n* [Sleep](_URL_2_)\n* Some cognitive enhancers like [caffeine](_URL_3_)\n* [Diet and exercise](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3717", "title": "Brain", "section": "Section::::Research.:History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 116, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 116, "end_character": 564, "text": "Furthermore, even single neurons appear to be complex and capable of performing computations. So, brain models that don't reflect this are too abstract to be representative of brain operation; models that do try to capture this are very computationally expensive and arguably intractable with present computational resources. However, the Human Brain Project is trying to build a realistic, detailed computational model of the entire human brain. The wisdom of this approach has been publicly contested, with high-profile scientists on both sides of the argument.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2458955", "title": "Colin Blakemore", "section": "Section::::Research.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 720, "text": "Although initially controversial, the idea that the mammalian brain is 'plastic' and adaptive is now a dominant theme in neuroscience. The plasticity of connections between nerve cells is thought to underlie many different types of learning and memory, as well as sensory development. The changes in organisation can be remarkably rapid, even in adults. Blakemore has shown that the visual parts of the human cortex become responsive to input from the other senses, especially touch, in people who have been blind since shortly after birth. After stroke or other forms of brain injury, reorganisation of this sort can help the process of recovery, as other parts of the brain take over the function of the damaged part.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41121515", "title": "Traumatic brain injury modeling", "section": "Section::::Difficulties and limitations of TBI modeling.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 583, "text": "The brain is the most complex and least understood organ in the body, resulting in modeling the brain as a whole virtually impossible with current technology. In order to compensate for this complexity, models for the brain must be explicitly defined as to what exactly they model. Doing this inevitably results in many well defined models for different parts of the brain. However, they are all taken out of context of the 'whole brain', meaning that brain models do not incorporate aspects such as spatial and depth characteristics that a whole brain would have to prevent damage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "271430", "title": "Computational neuroscience", "section": "Section::::Major topics.:Cognition, discrimination, and learning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 404, "text": "The brain seems to be able to discriminate and adapt particularly well in certain contexts. For instance, human beings seem to have an enormous capacity for memorizing and recognizing faces. One of the key goals of computational neuroscience is to dissect how biological systems carry out these complex computations efficiently and potentially replicate these processes in building intelligent machines.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15011570", "title": "Living Brain", "section": "Section::::Powers and abilities.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 1181, "text": "Living Brain has the ability to analyze any situation and determine how best to achieve its goals. Like any computer, Living Brain can process and collate large amounts of information. Living Brain can find any weaknesses in a being or structure as well as determining the best situation to overcome this obstacle. Living Brain has dense metal exo-skeleton and possesses super-strength and speed. It can also fly and has clawed hands. The joints of Living Brain's limbs can rotate nearly 360 degrees. Originally, Living Brain had external controls on its thorax, with which it can be deactivated, yet Living Brain has always countered any attempts to reach it. Living Brain was later operated by remote-control. The Living Brain has great strength, ability to move upon command and its limbs can perform various motions...It has the ability to think due to its great computerized \"brain\"...It was short-circuited after its first introduction in the school and went hay-wire until Peter readjusted the machine back to normal. The \"souped-up\" later version had the ability to hover or fly and was quite stronger. He has even beaten the Avengers once due to his extreme intelligence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5064345", "title": "Metaplasticity", "section": "Section::::Hebbian plasticity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1563, "text": "The brain is \"plastic\", meaning it can be molded and formed. This plasticity is what allows you to learn throughout your lifetime; your synapses change based on your experience. New synapses can be made, old ones destroyed, or existing ones can be strengthened or weakened. The original theory of plasticity is called \"Hebbian plasticity\", named after Donald Hebb in 1949. A quick but effective summary of Hebbian theory is that \"cells that fire together, wire together\", together being the key word here which will be explained shortly. Hebb described an early concept of the theory, not the actual mechanics themselves. Hebbian plasticity involves two mechanisms: LTP and LTD, discovered by Bliss and Lomo in 1973. LTP, or long-term potentiation, is the increase of synapse sensitivity due to a prolonged period of activity in both the presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron. This prolonged period of activity is normally concentrated electric impulses, usually around 100 Hz. It is called \"coincidence\" detection in that it only strengthens the synapse if there was sufficient activity in both the presynaptic and postsynaptic cells. If the postsynaptic cell does not become sufficiently depolarized then there is no coincidence detection and LTP/LTD do not occur. LTD, or long-term depression, works the same way however it focuses on a lack of depolarization coincidence. LTD can be induced by electrical impulses at around 5 Hz. These changes are synapse specific. A neuron can have many different synapses all controlled via the same mechanisms defined here.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22189413", "title": "Up from Dragons", "section": "Section::::Concepts.:Humanities.:Braintech.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 521, "text": "Humans from early on when using stone tools have created technologies that have enhanced their abilities. This will continue with the still unexplored potential of the brain. One area is awareness of its hidden functioning as this is needed to better train it. The future of present functional imaging is proposed to be akin to that of . Like such past computers such technology will spiral down in price and convenience so that this braintech (like computers today) will become an essential part of everyday human life.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Software programs are nothing but text in a file (really binary) with some graphics.\n\nA movie is millions of pictures. Its immensely more data.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Good question. software programs aren't too big because they are mostly made of text. Text is easy to shrink because it's so plain and not a lot of space is needed to store it.. Pictures And video on the other hand require a lot more information to make like where each pixel is and what color it is. Videos are even larger because they are eessentially books of pictures with sound. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "256354", "title": "IBM System/34", "section": "Section::::Program sizes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 100, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 100, "end_character": 317, "text": "Since the S/34 ran \"16-bit\" programs, the largest program that could be compiled and run was 64K. Most were not nearly that large. Since memory addresses were stored in 16 bits, a 64K program was often a giant monster RPG screen program with 3,000 lines of code, five or six files, and forty-odd array/table entries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18847", "title": "Multics", "section": "Section::::Novel ideas.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 553, "text": "One disadvantage of this was that the size of segments was limited to 256 kilowords, just over 1 MiB. This was due to the particular hardware architecture of the machines on which Multics ran, having a 36-bit word size and index registers (used to address within segments) of half that size (18 bits). Extra code had to be used to work on files larger than this, called multisegment files. In the days when one megabyte of memory was prohibitively expensive, and before large databases and later huge bitmap graphics, this limit was rarely encountered.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33455", "title": "Web server", "section": "Section::::Load limits.:Anti-overload techniques.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 269, "text": "BULLET::::- Using different domain names or computers to separate big files from small and medium-sized files; the idea is to be able to fully cache small and medium-sized files and to efficiently serve big or huge (over 10 – 1000 MB) files by using different settings\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10541889", "title": "Microsoft App-V", "section": "Section::::Limitations of version 4.x.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 444, "text": "BULLET::::- Application Size: If the maximum client cache size is set to at least 4 GB (The max can be 64 GB), then the maximum size of application (sft file) which can be streamed on that machine is 4 GB. All applications that have an installed footprint greater than or equal to the max client size, set by the client, should not be sequenced. The maximum application size Softgrid can handle is 4GB, due to the use of the FAT32 file-system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "150178", "title": "X86 memory segmentation", "section": "Section::::Real mode.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 906, "text": "This could be confusing to programmers accustomed to unique addressing schemes, but it can also be used to advantage, for example when addressing multiple nested data structures. While real mode segments are always 64 KB long, the practical effect is only that no segment can be longer than 64 KB, rather than that every segment \"must\" be 64 KB long. Because there is no protection or privilege limitation in real mode, even if a segment could be defined to be smaller than 64 KB, it would still be entirely up to the programs to coordinate and keep within the bounds of their segments, as any program can always access any memory (since it can arbitrarily set segment selectors to change segment addresses with absolutely no supervision). Therefore, real mode can just as well be imagined as having a variable length for each segment, in the range 1 to 65,536 bytes, that is just not enforced by the CPU.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1203653", "title": "Micro Adventure", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 448, "text": "The programs themselves were actually quite impressive, some even being simple “shoot-em-up” games, yet were all designed to be small (none were over 2K in file size, a must given the limitations of some personal computers available at the time, such as the TI-99/4A) and easily typed in by even the most novice programmer. Instructions were included on how to \"tweak\" the programs to make them run on almost any popular home computer of the time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9912359", "title": "DRAKON", "section": "Section::::Design.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 324, "text": "BULLET::::- It is to note a large multi-purpose program with too large drakon-chart may be harder to be comprehended that a set of small programs that serve same purposes separately; similar problem of maintaining code of a single large program is occasionally referred to as \"rule of 30 [lines of code]\" among programmers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It depends on the game, or rather what type of DRM (anti-piracy software) the game is using. \n\nIn the old days, all you had to do to crack a game was figure out how CD keys were created for it and then make you own the same way. \n\nLater on, companies started connecting their singleplayer offline games to online servers, so you had to figure out what the game and servers said to each other and copy it. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They generally use a debugger to step through the computer instructions until they get to a logic point where the game decides whether it's running legitimately or not. Then they switch the instruction.\n\nGames with DRM have the added step that the DRM also has to be neutralized, which generally means finding that same type of logic step in the DRM and changing it.\n\nBeyond that, the actual method depends on what method was used to try and prevent piracy. It's a never-ending cat and mouse game.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There isn't really a single answer to this, because there isn't a single way to copy protect a game.\n\nAt a high level, all \"copy protections\" are is a specific set of code that looks for / does a specific thing. If the thing that it looks for isn't there or the action is tries to take doesn't work, the code won't allow the software to function. The pirates will then write a patch that disables or changes that specific line of code to do something else, so that it either doesn't check or always passes the check, thus allowing the software to continue to run.\n\nNow, actually writing that patch is often easier said than done, but that is the basic idea.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A few years ago this was really easy. Basically, whenever the game started there was a short check in the code whether the CD was inserted. The check (in pseudo code) looks like this: \"if CD is not inserted: stop program\". As a pirate you'd try to find out where exactly in the code this part is located (for example using a debugger) and then you replace the \"if not\" code with an \"if\". A simple analogy would be to see a mathematical term \"a - b = 3\" and adding a horizontal line in the minus to make it a plus. This changes the term completely without adding any additional symbols. This means that the game now exits when a CD is inserted instead of when it's out.\n\nNowadays it's a bit more complicated, as companies started adding additional checks, sometimes even checking whether the application has been tempered with. In the end it's just a lot of \"if\" checks, so you basically only have to find all of them and change them.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7043655", "title": "Puzzle Pirates", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 573, "text": "Puzzle Pirates is a massively multiplayer online game developed by Three Rings Design, a company acquired by Sega Sammy Holdings in 2011. The player takes the role of a pirate, adventuring on the high seas and pillaging money (\"pieces of eight\") from roaming enemy ships (human or computer-controlled). The mechanics of \"Puzzle Pirates\" are driven by puzzles. For example, to effectively sail a ship, players must play puzzle games representing work at the sails for speed, pumping bilge water to remove it from the ship, and carpentry to fix any damage the ship may take.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1431983", "title": "Pirates Constructible Strategy Game", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 602, "text": "An innovative feature of Pirates is the 'constructible' element of the game; each game piece (except for terrain) is created by popping out the small polystyrene pieces from placeholder cards and assembling them. As the ship, fort or sea monster is damaged by enemies during the course of game play, pieces of it are removed to record how much damage it has sustained, giving the game piece itself the appearance of slowly being destroyed. The elements removed from the piece - for example, a ship's masts - can no longer be used in the game unless another game element allows it to be replaced later.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7043655", "title": "Puzzle Pirates", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 579, "text": "\"Puzzle Pirates\" is open-ended and community-driven. Over time, pirates can join a crew, progress in rank within that crew, buy and run sailing vessels and shoppes, and perhaps even become captain of a crew, royalty within a flag (an alliance of crews), or governor of an island. Islands are governed and shoppes are managed exclusively by players. From time to time, players are also called upon to help expand the game, whether it be new puzzles (developed on Game Gardens), island objects to be used on new oceans (servers), or artwork used for a variety of purposes in-game.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4323323", "title": "Pirates versus Ninjas", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 526, "text": "Pirates vs. Ninjas is a comedic Internet and gaming meme regarding a theoretical conflict between archetypal Western pirates and Japanese ninjas, generally including arbitrary \"debate\" over which side would win in a fight. The meme is sometimes referred to as PvN and has a long history on the Internet. Humorist Jake Kalish writes (in the pro-ninja column) that the reason for the popularity of the meme is that \"pirates and ninjas are both cool, but kind of opposite, see, because one is loud and the other ... never mind.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "641817", "title": "Sid Meier's Pirates!", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 651, "text": "One of the most innovative features of \"Pirates!\" is the introduction of a dynamic playing field. In \"Pirates!\" many of the most important factors which affect player decisions are randomized at the beginning of the game and continue to shift during gameplay. This not only creates a new experience each time the game is played, but also requires the player to remain flexible, and be ready to exploit possibilities when they occur. Changes happen whenever time passes and they are unrelated to player actions. In fact, in this game in the series, random events do not have any graphical representation, and the player can do nothing to prevent them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5481172", "title": "Pop-up Pirate", "section": "Section::::Rules.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 433, "text": "The pirate is placed into a spring-loaded barrel and rotated to randomize the unlucky slot. Players must take it in turns to insert plastic swords into slots in the side of the barrel. If a player inserts the sword into a specific slot (which changes randomly every time the game is played), the pirate is launched out of the barrel and the player is eliminated. The last player remaining after all others have been eliminated wins.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1431983", "title": "Pirates Constructible Strategy Game", "section": "Section::::Configurations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 283, "text": "On October 25, 2006, WizKids released \"\", a non-collectible board game version of the Pirates game that uses gameplay elements and game pieces from the constructible strategy game, but is designed to be simplified, self-contained and sold in the board game section of retail stores.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Used to work at Wal-Mart. You can ask the customer service desk for shopping assistance. Past that I have no idea.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Not a bad question. In terms of reading nutritional information I can see the benefit.\n\nIn terms of picking out food, it would still be extraordinarily difficult to shop for food and therefore pointless in that sense.\n\nA better system would be a braille kiosk that functioned like a catalogue and coincided with braille labelling along the aisle. Pick out what you want, maybe the data is transferred to an audio thing, audio things tells you where to go generally, braille aisle thing confirms you are in front of the correct product.\n\nOr just get someone to help. That works too.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "36730921", "title": "Sinhala Braille", "section": "Section::::Introduction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 365, "text": "The blind community of Sri Lanka is alienating gradually from the use of braille due to a number of reasons. A recent survey reveals that only 15% of blind people use braille. Today, braille usage is limited to examination purposes in educational institutions. It is worth inquiring as to what could be the possible reasons leading to this alienation from braille.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42091770", "title": "Alternative formats", "section": "Section::::Braille.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 567, "text": "Braille can be the building block for language skills and a way to teach spelling, grammar, and punctuations to people with vision loss or who are deaf-blind. Not only do Braille codes represent alphabets, they also denote numbers, symbols, music and mathematical notations, enabling people to learn about different subjects in a different way from most of us. Braille books are available in all subject areas, ranging from modern fiction to mathematics, music and law. As with printed text, Braille makes it possible for people to access information in this format.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3933", "title": "Braille", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 374, "text": "Braille literacy is a social-justice issue. Early braille education is crucial to literacy, education and employment among the blind. However, in the face of changes in education policy and screen reader software, braille usage has declined in recent decades, despite the fact that technologies such as braille displays have also made braille more accessible and practical.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3933", "title": "Braille", "section": "Section::::Literacy.:United Kingdom.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 513, "text": "Though braille is thought to be the main way blind people read and write, in Britain (for example) out of the reported two million blind and low vision population, it is estimated that only around 15,000–20,000 people use braille. Younger people are turning to electronic text on computers with screen reader software instead, a more portable communication method that they can use with their friends. A debate has started on how to make braille more attractive and for more teachers to be available to teach it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1284866", "title": "Deafblindness", "section": "Section::::Technology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 450, "text": "Braille equipment includes a variety of multipurpose devices, which enhance access to distance communication. Some can be used as stand-alone devices connected via Wi-Fi, while others are paired with a mobile device to provide tactile access to e-mail, text messaging, and other modern communication resources. To receive Braille equipment, an eligible consumer must be proficient in Braille and must have access to the Internet or cellular service.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1434174", "title": "The Co-operative Group", "section": "Section::::Ethical trading and campaigning.:Food labelling.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 173, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 173, "end_character": 245, "text": "In 2001 the group became the first retailer to include Braille writing on its range of medicines and alcoholic drinks, a move which received three industry awards. In 2015 Braille can also be found on many products, including breakfast cereals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5671742", "title": "History of McDonald's", "section": "Section::::1960s and 1970s.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 209, "text": "Braille menus were first introduced in 1979, and picture menus in 1988. In March 1992, combination Braille and picture menus were reintroduced to accommodate those with vision, speech, or hearing impairments.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "When working properly, the sex cells (sperm and egg) simply have one example of each pair.\n\nWhen the sex-cells are generated, there can be problems where the gamete does not recieve exactly 1 of each chromosome. If this flawed gamete combines to form a fertilized egg, it frequently triggers the female body to terminate the pregnancy, and the mother may never even realize she was pregnant if his occurs early enough.\n\nIf cases where an embryo contains extra or missing chromosomes and survives to term can result in developmental problems of varrying severity, such as Downs Syndrome. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Our somatic cells (the ones that form all our body) have two pairs of each chromossome. Even though they carry the same functions, they're not identical, that's what lead to variations in our characteristics. In the reproductive cells formation, there is first a specialized somatic cell. During it's division, it develops intracelular structures called spindle apparatus, that organize each chromossome with its pair and then pull them apart to each side of the cell, then it splits and each side carry one sample of each chromossome. When the male and female reproductive cells merge, they form a zigote, that have the pairs made again. Of course this system can fail during the division, pulling the whole pair to one side and leaving the other without or breaking them in parts. That is the cause of some syndroms, like Down Syndrom, that happens when they have an extra chromossome on 21st pair; Turner syndrom, when the person gets just an X instead of two X or a X and a Y, Cri-du-chat syndrom, when a part of 5th cromossome is missing, etc.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "39413", "title": "Trisomy", "section": "Section::::Description and causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 303, "text": "If the chromosome pairs fail to separate properly during cell division, the egg or sperm may end up with a second copy of one of the chromosomes. (\"See\" non-disjunction.) If such a gamete results in fertilization and an embryo, the resulting embryo may also have an entire copy of the extra chromosome.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7123751", "title": "Sex chromosome", "section": "Section::::Differentiation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 762, "text": "The X chromosome is always present as the 23rd chromosome in the ovum, while either an X or a Y chromosomes can be present in an individual sperm. Early in female embryonic development, in cells other than egg cells, one of the X chromosomes is randomly and permanently partially deactivated: In some cells the X chromosome inherited from the mother is deactivated, while in others the X chromosome from the father is deactivated. This ensures that both sexes always have exactly one functional copy of the X chromosome in each body cell. The deactivated X-chromosome is silenced by repressive heterochromatin that compacts the DNA and prevents expression of most genes (see X-inactivation). This compaction is regulated by PRC2 (Polycomb Repressive Complex 2).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4002692", "title": "Sciara (gnat)", "section": "Section::::Soma line.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 305, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 305, "end_character": 248, "text": "In males during the 5th and 6th divisions of the embryo all the limited chromosomes are eliminated. Then paternal X chromosome is eliminated which are 2 in number. Hence male soma line cells have 3 pairs of autosomes and one maternal X chromosome.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "308793", "title": "Aneuploidy", "section": "Section::::Chromosomes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 258, "text": "During meiosis, when germ cells divide to create sperm and egg (gametes), each half should have the same number of chromosomes. But sometimes, the whole pair of chromosomes will end up in one gamete, and the other gamete will not get that chromosome at all.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19833554", "title": "Klinefelter syndrome", "section": "Section::::Cause.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 493, "text": "Another mechanism for retaining the extra chromosome is through a nondisjunction event during meiosis II in the egg. Nondisjunction occurs when sister chromatids on the sex chromosome, in this case an X and an X, fail to separate. An XX egg is produced, which when fertilized with a Y sperm, yields an XXY offspring. This XXY chromosome arrangement is one of the most common genetic variations from the XY karyotype, occurring in about one in 500 live male births. See also Triple X syndrome.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7429984", "title": "Isodicentric 15", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 801, "text": "The extra chromosome is occasionally found in the mosaic state, i.e. some of the cells carry the marker chromosome. However, mostly because of the marker's instability and tendency to be lost during cell division (mitosis), some cells are completely normal with 46 chromosomes. Occasionally, cells may have more than one idic(15), resulting in 48 or 49 chromosomes in all or some of their cells. A similar clinical picture albeit to a milder degree could be expected in individuals that have the extra chromosome 15 material as an interstitial duplication (when the extra piece of chromosome 15 is included \"within\" the long arm of one of the two copies of chromosome 15, rather than as a small extra 'marker' chromosome) - often abbreviated to int dup(15); the individual thus having 46 chromosomes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "607285", "title": "Haplotype", "section": "Section::::Y-DNA haplotypes from genealogical DNA tests.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 625, "text": "Unlike other chromosomes, Y chromosomes generally do not come in pairs. Every human male (excepting those with XYY syndrome) has only one copy of that chromosome. This means that there is not any chance variation of which copy is inherited, and also (for most of the chromosome) not any shuffling between copies by recombination; so, unlike autosomal haplotypes, there is effectively not any randomisation of the Y-chromosome haplotype between generations. A human male should largely share the same Y chromosome as his father, give or take a few mutations; thus Y chromosomes tend to pass largely intact from father to son,\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "So we haven't ruled out alternate gravity theories, but the majority of astronomers are definitely in the WIMP dark matter camp. There are alternate gravity people, but it hasn't really caught on at all. But yet, in the general public people seem to think of dark matter as some sort of weird phlogiston theory, and that it seems much \"simpler\" to \"just change gravity\".\n\nSo I'll try to defend why dark matter isn't as weird as it seems:\n\n1. We already know that there are particles that interact only through the weak nuclear force and gravity: neutrinos. We have built neutrino detectors and found them. We're just looking for a fatter neutrino, not something entirely different to anything we've ever seen before.\n\n2. The Bullet Cluster can't be explained by alternate gravity - it really shows that the gravity is not where the visible matter is.\n\n3. It's actually quite elegant physically, because we have all the physics for particles worked out. We can set up a simulation with a bunch of dark matter and see if it falls into galaxy-sized clumps etc. This means it's a very testable theory, because it's not as flexible as changing gravity. We have some unknowns (like the mass of the particle), but we aren't changing the basic laws of physics, so we can run simulations and make predictions for observations, and hence either confirm or rule-out dark matter. For example, dark matter should be its own anti-particle, so with a good enough instrument we should be able to observe the gamma-rays it produces\n\n4. Some fairly sensible extensions of the \"standard model of particle physics\" naturally produce a particle with properties very similar to what a dark matter particle should be. Although there's no proof that any of these models are correct yet, so this point is not super solid.\n\nAlthough it's worth pointing out that we really do need to actually find the particle before this is in the 100% confirmed category, it's definitely the favoured option.\n\nNext: why is changing gravity weirder than it seems?\n\n1. Einstein changed gravity by making a very small number of very strong assumptions, and all of general relativity naturally flowed from that. GR is basically the simplest possible solution that satisfies these basic assumptions. But if you're making GR more complex, you can change it in any direction you like. You can make it fit pretty much any data you want. You aren't bound by the laws of physics any more, because you're changing these laws. So if anything contradicts your theory, it's much easier to adjust your theory to make it fit. So it's much harder to prove or disprove the theory, and that makes it unsatisfying.\n\n2. The most popular model, Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) doesn't even change GR properly. It's more or less just an ad-hoc modification to basic Newtonian gravity to make it fit the data. The fundamental physics isn't justified at all, it's literally just changing the equations to fit the data.\n\nSo, to put it a bit harsher than it probably deserves, we have a choice between a minor adjustment (adding a new particle similar to other particles we have observed) that is inflexible enough and specific enough to be properly tested, and a major adjustment (changing the fundamental laws of general relativity) that is too flexible and unspecific for us to design really good tests to confirm or disprove it.\n\nThis is all my perspective as an astrophysicist. Someone who does particle physics or who works directly on general relativity may have a different opinion.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Matter that doesn't interact on the electromagnetic spectrum, but does interact with the higgs field does seem like a possibility. This is basically what dark matter is. We don't know what it is, but we know what it doesn't do. \n\nWe can't actually allow ourselves any more to just say we won't understand gravity well enough because through the standard model we have made great and vast predictions about what we thought it was, and so far they have all been right. Meaning we do have a sort of firm grasp on what gravity is, and our lack of understanding it cannot account for the effects that dark matter has.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Dark matter isn't that weird. In fact, we already have experimentally verified dark matter. They are called neutrinos. \"Dark\" means non EM interacting. When you look at it from the point of view of TV channels trying to mystify it, it becomes weird. But when you realize how simple the notion is, it becomes a rather logical extrapolation. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "56423189", "title": "Sabine Hossenfelder", "section": "Section::::Bibliography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 315, "text": "BULLET::::- Sabine Hossenfelder and Stacy S. McGaugh, \"Is Dark Matter Real? Astrophysicists have piled up observations that are difficult to explain with dark matter. It is time to consider that there may be more to gravity than Einstein taught us\", \"Scientific American\", vol. 319, no. 2 (August 2018), pp. 36–43.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8651", "title": "Dark matter", "section": "Section::::Observational evidence.:Bullet Cluster.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 561, "text": "If dark matter does not exist, then the next most likely explanation must be general relativity — the prevailing theory of gravity — is incorrect and should be modified. The Bullet Cluster, the result of a recent collision of two galaxy clusters, provides a challenge for modified gravity theories because its apparent center of mass is far displaced from the baryonic center of mass. Standard dark matter models can easily explain this observation, but modified gravity has a much harder time, especially since the observational evidence is model-independent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8651", "title": "Dark matter", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 454, "text": "Although the existence of dark matter is generally accepted by the scientific community, some astrophysicists, intrigued by certain observations which do not fit the dark matter theory, argue for various modifications of the standard laws of general relativity, such as modified Newtonian dynamics, tensor–vector–scalar gravity, or entropic gravity. These models attempt to account for all observations without invoking supplemental non-baryonic matter.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25881839", "title": "Entropic gravity", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 435, "text": "The theory of entropic gravity posits that what has been interpreted as unobserved dark matter is the product of quantum effects that can be regarded as a form of \"positive dark energy\" that lifts the vacuum energy of space from its ground state value. A central tenet of the theory is that the positive dark energy leads to a thermal-volume law contribution to entropy that overtakes the area law of anti-de Sitter space precisely at\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27228351", "title": "Axion Dark Matter Experiment", "section": "Section::::Background.:Dark matter.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 780, "text": "Although dark matter can't be seen directly, its gravitational interactions with familiar matter leave unmistakable evidence for its existence. The universe we see today simply wouldn't look the way it does without dark matter. Approximately five times more abundant than ordinary matter, the nature of dark matter remains one of the biggest mysteries in physics today. In addition to solving the strong CP problem, the axion could provide an answer to the question \"what is dark matter made of?\" The axion is a neutral particle that is extraordinarily weakly interacting and could be produced in the right amount to constitute dark matter. If the dark matter accounting for the bulk of all matter in our universe is axions, ADMX is one of only few experiments able to detect it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33778096", "title": "John Hartnett (physicist)", "section": "Section::::Research interests.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 219, "text": "According to Moshe Carmeli, Professor of Theoretical Physics at Ben Gurion University in Beer Sheva, Israel, Hartnett asserted in his theory that there is no need to assume the existence of dark matter in the universe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "985963", "title": "Lambda-CDM model", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 310, "text": "Dark matter is postulated in order to account for gravitational effects observed in very large-scale structures (the \"flat\" rotation curves of galaxies; the gravitational lensing of light by galaxy clusters; and enhanced clustering of galaxies) that cannot be accounted for by the quantity of observed matter.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "[Some evidence points to yes,](_URL_0_) but it's hardly a comprehensive study.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You're basically asking two different questions (even though you didn't necessarily know you were... how exciting). \n\n1.)The first is, \"Can [the activities you listed] cause a concussion/brain injury?\" \n\nA concussion occurs when there is a sufficient level of force applied to the brain that causes alterations in normal brain functions. There isn't a single number that can be used to define the force required to produce a concussion, but it's a fairly high G-force load. **Is it possible the activities you listed could produce sufficient force to cause a concussion? Yes. Do they on a regular basis? No.** So the answer to question one is yes, it can, but it would be pretty rare and would require some pretty aggressive circumstances.\n\n 2.) The second question is, \"Do repetitive subconcussive forces applied to the head lead to brain damage?\" I anticipate this was the question you were really more interested in, and unfortunately we don't really know. If you've heard in the news about the NFL players and Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE), this is what they're talking about. We've known for a long time that multiple concussions can cause lasting effects on the brain. What is new is the idea that hitting your head over and over and over, but not doing so hard enough to cause a concussion, might be bad as well. So far, the evidence suggests that doing this repetitively over many many many years, there could be some damage that occurs in the brain. We also think there might be a genetic link to the production of a protein that repairs the brain after these small hits, and that's actually what some of my research focuses on.\n\n**The key, however, is that we believe these subconcussive forces must occur with frequency over a long period of time in order to cause problems.** So someone who engages in the activities you listed on a normal basis, and doesn't do so with enough force to cause a concussion, should not experience any brain damage based on the current available research and thinking.\n\nHope that helps.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Doubtful that it can cause brain injury. There is some body of literature on the impact of heading on football (american soccer) players. Some neuropsychological findings seem to suggest a relation, but they are clouded by the clear impact of concussive episodes from head to head contact with other players. The evidence on the impact of heading is therefore unclear, and mixed. The accelerations from running, changing direction, headbanging dancing, etc, are going to be more minor. When it progresses to an actual concusssion, the evidence is pretty clear that there is brain damage. If you want to see the real science look at this \n \n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "192460", "title": "Motorcycle helmet", "section": "Section::::Function.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 931, "text": "Another hazard, susceptibility of the brain to shearing forces, plays a role primarily in injuries that involve rapid and forceful movements of the head, such as in motor vehicle accidents. In these situations rotational forces such as might occur in whiplash-type injuries are particularly important. These forces, associated with the rapid acceleration and deceleration of the head, are smallest at the point of rotation of the brain near the lower end of the brain stem and successively increase at increasing distances from this point. The resulting shearing forces cause different levels in the brain to move relative to one another. This movement produces stretching and tearing of axons (diffuse axonal injury) and the insulating myelin sheath, injuries which are the major cause of loss of consciousness in a head trauma. Small blood vessels are also damaged causing bleeding (petechial hemorrhages) deep within the brain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38993774", "title": "Sports-related traumatic brain injury", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 439, "text": "A sports-related traumatic brain injury is a serious accident which may lead to significant morbidity or mortality. Traumatic brain injury (TBI) in sports are usually a result of physical contact with another person or stationary object, these sports may include boxing, football, field/ice hockey, lacrosse, martial arts, rugby, soccer, wrestling, auto racing, cycling, equestrian, roller blading, skateboarding, skiing, or snowboarding.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43740334", "title": "Concussions in high school sports", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 705, "text": "Many teens engage in extracurricular activities including sports that can pose risk of injury. Some sports that create a more significant risk of a head injury or concussion include basketball, cheerleading, soccer, and football. High school football accounts for a significant percentage of head injuries that result from high school sports. While performing intense physical activity the brains' structure and functionality can be changed. This alteration in the brain may be a reason athletes in contact sports have concussions at higher. In combination with the contact and altered brain structure this can potentially lead to more severe concussions (Tremblay, Pascual-Leone, Théoret, 2018, p.172)..\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3722331", "title": "Myoclonic epilepsy", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 756, "text": "Myoclonus can be described as brief jerks of the body; it can involve any part of the body, but it is mostly seen in limbs or facial muscles. The jerks are usually involuntary and can lead to falls. EEG is used to read brain wave activity. Spike activity produced from the brain is usually correlated with brief jerks seen on EMG or excessive muscle artifact. They usually occur without detectable loss of consciousness and may be generalized, regional or focal on the EEG tracing. Myclonus jerks can be epileptic or not epileptic. Epileptic myoclonus is an elementary electroclinical manifestation of epilepsy involving descending neurons, whose spatial (spread) or temporal (self-sustained repetition) amplification can trigger overt epileptic activity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "365001", "title": "Hypnic jerk", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 554, "text": "Physically, hypnic jerks resemble the \"jump\" experienced by a person when startled, sometimes accompanied by a falling sensation. Hypnic jerks are associated with a rapid heartbeat, quickened breathing, sweat, and sometimes \"a peculiar sensory feeling of 'shock' or 'falling into the void. It can also be accompanied by a vivid dream experience or hallucination. A higher occurrence is reported in people with irregular sleep schedules. Moreover, when particularly frequent and severe, hypnic jerks have been reported as a cause of sleep-onset insomnia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "365001", "title": "Hypnic jerk", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 465, "text": "According to a study on sleep disturbances in the \"Journal of Neural Transmission\", a hypnic jerk occurs during the non-rapid eye movement sleep cycle and is an \"abrupt muscle action flexing movement, generalized or partial and asymmetric, which may cause arousal, with an illusion of falling\". Hypnic jerks are more frequent in childhood with 4 to 7 per hour in the age range from 8 to 12 years old, and they decrease toward 1 or 2 per hour by 65 to 80 years old.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15890990", "title": "Association football headgear", "section": "Section::::Headgear studies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 1305, "text": "Injury to the head can occur from repeatedly making contact with the ball through headers or from a single blow. The danger of this trauma is especially significant to children because their bodies are not fully developed and may not be able to counteract a blow to the head. Minor trauma similar to pugilistic dementia may occur from repetitively heading the ball. A study published in the British Journal of Sports Medicine found that headgear does not help reduce the impact on the head from ball contact. This is because a human head is stiffer than the soccer ball. On impact, the ball will deform more than the head. However, studies in 2006 by the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and the University of Pennsylvania found no link between brain injuries and routinely heading the ball. Because of this, the aim of wearing headgear turned to mitigating damage from accidental head on head collisions between players on the pitch. It was found that there was an overall 33% reduction of impact force on the head from head to head impacts when headgear was used. The U.S. Soccer Federation sees that protective headgear in soccer can provide measurable benefit in head to head contact, and permits players to wear headgear at their own discretion until more conclusive evidence is obtained.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Higher oxygen content would do two things I can think of off the top of my head.\n\nInsects size is constrained mainly by oxygen content because of how their breathing systems work. If you increased the oxygen content of the Earth, bugs would get bigger. Like, doubling their normal size.\n\nSecond, fire burns more intensely and easily with higher oxygen content. Globally, forest fires would be more common and more destructive, which would balance out the extra oxygen by releasing more CO2.\n\nBut a big problem with generating that extra oxygen in the first place would be the giant amounts of resources needed to ramp up tree planting or algae growth. Those efforts would almost certainly need industries which would pollute so much that it would be difficult to reach even 1%.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The atmosphere is 4,200,000,000 km^3, that's 4,200,000,000,000,000 m^3 or 147,000,000,000,000,000 ft^3. It's 21% oxygen, so let's round to 10,000,000,000,000 m^3 to raise it 1%. That's a lot. We mostly make oxygen gas by pulling it out of the air. You could split some water, but you'd have a huge amount of super dangerous hydrogen just looking for an excuse to burn and pull oxygen out of the air. It would take a ginormous amount of plants/algae to pull that out of the available CO2 -- **But Wait** -- the atmosphere is only 0.04% CO2. You could only get 1/25^th of the oxygen you want if your converted **ALL** the CO2.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "16733435", "title": "Salt marsh dieback", "section": "Section::::Waterlogging hypothesis.:Reduced aerobic respiration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 216, "text": "As aerobic respiration decreases, the plants become oxygen deficient, since the roots are unable to produce enough oxygen in the reduced soil conditions. Decreased oxygen uptake can also decrease plant productivity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17964574", "title": "List of ecoregions in North America (CEC)", "section": "Section::::Tropical Wet Forests.:Effects of climate change.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 461, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 461, "end_character": 609, "text": "Over the last 100 years the Earth's temperature has increased 0.6 degrees Celsius and it is predicted to increase an additional 3.5 degrees over the next century. Tropical wet forests account for only 6% of earth's land surface yet are responsible for 40% of earth’s oxygen production. Any type of change to this system can prove to have significant detrimental effects in terms of global oxygen availability. In addition, due to the sensitivity and fragile interactions between organisms and the atmosphere, ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration rates, will experience even larger adverse effects.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "216362", "title": "Biosphere 2", "section": "Section::::Group dynamics: psychology, conflict, and cooperation.:Challenges.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 536, "text": "Many suspected the drop in oxygen was due to microbes in the soil. The soils were selected to have enough carbon to provide for the plants of the ecosystems to grow from infancy to maturity, a plant mass increase of perhaps . The release rate of that soil carbon as carbon dioxide by respiration of soil microbes was an unknown that the Biosphere 2 experiment was designed to reveal. Subsequent research showed that Biosphere 2's farm soils had reached a more stable ratio of carbon and nitrogen, lowering the rate of release, by 1998.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1524053", "title": "Nicolas Théodore de Saussure", "section": "Section::::Career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1403, "text": "In \"Recherches chimiques sur la Végétation\", Saussure showed that the increase in the mass of a plant as it grows could not be due only to the uptake of CO, but was also a result of the incorporation of water into plant dry matter. In addition, Saussure demonstrated that plants obtain their carbon from the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, not through uptake from humus in the soil, as his immediate predecessors in photosynthesis research had generally believed. He also showed that plants require mineral nutrients, which they take up from the soil, and nitrogen, although he did not trace the source of plant nitrogen definitively to the soil. Saussure's finding that the source of plant minerals was the soil disproved the widely held view that mineral substances in plants arose from vague \"transmutations\" within the plant. His work enabled completion of the basic, overall chemical equation of photosynthesis, according to which carbon dioxide and water, in the presence of light, are converted by a green plant into fixed carbon (such as glucose, food for the plant), with gaseous oxygen released as a byproduct. Based on his accomplishments in plant chemistry and physiology, Saussure is considered the last of the major early pioneers of photosynthesis research, completing the work begun by his predecessors, including Jan van Helmont, Joseph Priestley, Jan Ingen-Housz, and Jean Senebier.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8103", "title": "Deforestation", "section": "Section::::Environmental effects.:Atmospheric.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 531, "text": "Rainforests are widely believed by laymen to contribute a significant amount of the world's oxygen, although it is now accepted by scientists that rainforests contribute little net oxygen to the atmosphere and deforestation has only a minor effect on atmospheric oxygen levels. However, the incineration and burning of forest plants to clear land releases large amounts of CO, which contributes to global warming. Scientists also state that tropical deforestation releases 1.5 billion tons of carbon each year into the atmosphere.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4128748", "title": "Oxygen-18", "section": "Section::::Plant physiology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 488, "text": "In the study of plants' photorespiration, the labeling of atmosphere by oxygen-18 allows us to measure the oxygen uptake by the photorespiration pathway. Labeling by gives the unidirectional flux of uptake, while there is a net photosynthetic evolution. It was demonstrated that, under preindustrial atmosphere, most plants reabsorb, by photorespiration, half of the oxygen produced by photosynthesis. Then, the yield of photosynthesis was halved by the presence of oxygen in atmosphere.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29957884", "title": "Carboniferous rainforest collapse", "section": "Section::::Biotic recovery and evolutionary consequences.:Invertebrates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 423, "text": "The depletion of plant life contributed to declining concentrations of oxygen in the atmosphere. High oxygen levels had made the enormous arthropods of the time possible. Due to the decreasing oxygen, these sizes could no longer be accommodated, and thus between this and the loss of habitat, the giant arthropods were wiped out in this event, most notably the giant dragonflies (Meganeura) and millipedes (Arthropleura)..\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They are not. Thats the point, Pi is a natural number where it may or may not be possible to find every finite number string.\n\nBy itself Pi is nothing special, the square root of 2 or log(2), or... have digits just as \"special\".", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Pi (The number), is not special, but the things which you can calculate from this number is very special. Without Pi we could not be able to calculate the surface area and volume of curved faced objects reliably. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Pi is an intrinsic property of nature. It holds true for **every** circle. It just happens to be irrational in our Universe. Can't really comprehend a situation where it isnt o.O but that's the way it is.\n\nThere isn't really anything special about the numbers itself, there are lots of other irrational numbers too!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are two main reasons the digits of pi are regarded as special, one is theoretical, the other is a respect based on the cultural/historical impact the number had.\n\nI consider theoretical interest to be the answer to why have we calculated out trillions of digits of pi. It remains a way to show off/test computing power. For people, in a similar manner it's a way of showing off memorization skills. All digits of pi of any significance have been known since the 1630s, when they finally calculated it to 39 digits.\n\nIf you use those 39 digits of pi, you can calculate the circumference of the observable universe [within the width of a hydrogen atom](_URL_0_). So we can see that there is no real practical purpose to calculate pi to the extreme lengths that we have, and even the amount most people might know off the top of their head is overkill for any practical application (off the top of my head I know 3.14159 which is good enough to estimate the circumference of earth and only be off by about 100 feet)\n\nIf we look at the history of math, I think it's easier to see where the interest comes from. The question of pi is simple, but the answer is very elusive. Anyone can understand the problem. If you have a circle, and the distance straight across is 1 unit long, what's the distance for a full trip around the outside? Without having pi as a starting point, how would you even start to estimate? I think it is the simple question compared with the elusiveness of the actual answer that has kept people interested for so long.\n\nThe first records that reference pi are from around 2000BC and they only had the first 2 digits right (3.1). At this time the value for pi was basically an educated guess at a number that seemed to closely match the diameter of real objects with their circumference. In 250AD, Archimedes created new math techniques that allowed him them to do more than just guess, with this they were able to get the value to 3.14, and by 480AD they had continued the work far enough to get to 3.141592. But even this wasn't actually calculating pi, it was calculating the total edge length of a shape with hundreds of sides that was slightly larger than the circle, and then calculating the total edge length of a shape that was slightly smaller than the circle. Finally, in the 1600s, Newton and calculus came along, and after more than 3500 years, mathematicians discovered a clear, straightforward way to calculate the value of pi directly. Newton himself used this new math to calculate pi to about 15 digits, he later wrote \"I am ashamed to tell you to how many figures I carried these computations, having no other business at the time.\"\n\nThis is the journey to the value of pi, it took over 2000 years to get more than 2 digits, it wasn't until 1200 AD that more than 7 digits were calculated. If you compare that to some of the numbers listed by other commenters, such as the square root of 2, the difficulty isn't even close. If you understand multiplication and simple guess and check, you can probably calculate more than 2 digits for the square root of two by yourself within a few minutes by just multiplying and adjusting repeatedly.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "19196523", "title": "Randomness", "section": "Section::::In science.:In mathematics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 289, "text": "Pi certainly seems to behave this way. In the first six billion decimal places of pi, each of the digits from 0 through 9 shows up about six hundred million times. Yet such results, conceivably accidental, do not prove normality even in base 10, much less normality in other number bases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "461277", "title": "PiHex", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 267, "text": "While the PiHex project calculated the least significant digits of pi ever attempted in any base, the second place is held by Peter Trueb who computed some 22+ trillion digits in 2016 and third place by \"houkouonchi\" who derived the 13.3 trillionth digit in base 10.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "617167", "title": "Piphilology", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 340, "text": "Until the 20th century, the number of digits of pi which mathematicians had the stamina to calculate by hand remained in the hundreds, so that memorization of \"all\" known digits at the time was possible. In 1949 a computer was used to calculate π to 2000 places, presenting one of the earliest opportunities for a more difficult challenge.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "424723", "title": "Palindromic prime", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 310, "text": "Except for 11, all palindromic primes have an odd number of digits, because the divisibility test for 11 tells us that every palindromic number with an even number of digits is a multiple of 11. It is not known if there are infinitely many palindromic primes in base 10. The largest known is (474,501 digits):\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "280582", "title": "Numerical digit", "section": "Section::::Digits in mathematics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 250, "text": "Despite the essential role of digits in describing numbers, they are relatively unimportant to modern mathematics. Nevertheless, there are a few important mathematical concepts that make use of the representation of a number as a sequence of digits.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26740942", "title": "Tonal system", "section": "Section::::Names for the numbers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 334, "text": "Because hexadecimal requires sixteen digits, Nystrom supplemented the existing decimal digits 0 through 9 with his own invented characters (shown on his clockface above) and changed the value of 9 to ten. Later, the hexadecimal notation overcame this same obstacle by using the digits 0 through 9 followed by the letters A through F.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1705121", "title": "Numeral prefix", "section": "Section::::Occurrences.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 245, "text": "Numerical prefixes are not restricted to denoting integers. Some of the SI prefixes denote negative powers of 10, i.e. division by a multiple of 10 rather than multiplication by it. Several common-use numerical prefixes denote vulgar fractions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Mars is pretty different to Earth. The atmosphere is about 1% of the thickness of Earth's - it would basically feel like a vacuum to any Earth organism. It also gets less than half the heat the Earth does. So you would need to pump in a lot of gas to make the air breathable, and to trap the heat in.\n\nIt is easy to underestimate the scale of this endeavour. All of the total sum of all of the carbon dioxide emission from all of the industry in the history of the Earth *has* made an effect on the atmosphere, but it's still on the order of hundreds of parts per million (though of course, this is affected by the natural processing of CO2).\n\nWe can use this as an estimate of the scale of the project. What would happen if this scale of industry was producing oxygen and nitrogen instead of CO2? While dedicated machinery might produce air more efficiently, it's unlikely we'll get that scale of dedicated machinery on Mars without already terraforming it already, so this is still a good estimate of an upper limit. We're talking about the effects of 7 billion people here...\n\nAccording to wikipedia, the sum of all of our CO2 emissions is 29,888,121,000 tonnes per year (let's say 3x10^10 ) , while Mars's atmosphere is 25,000,000,000,000 tonnes (25 x 10^12 tonnes). To multiply this by 100 (roughly what we need) would require 2.5 x 10^15 tonnes. So if we had the equivalent of Earth's entire industry on Mars, but producing air instead, it would take about 100,000 years to get an Earth-like atmosphere.\n\nSo even with an unrealistically large-scale industry on Mars producing air, it is not going to happen any time soon.\n\nEdit: No need to downvote the people responding to me - they're just follow-up questions!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One problem we would face is that the iron core of Mars has frozen which has made Mars lose its magnetic field. Without this magnetic field cosmic wind strips away the atmosphere. Before any real terraforming could take place we would have to find a way to jump start the magnetic field.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This one has been asked many, many times, and it always degenerates into the same rabble. Engineers and scientists will tell you why it's practically impossible and science fiction fans will tell you what they wish to believe. As much as I love science fiction, I can say without a doubt that we couldn't make Mars livable even if every single person on Earth were working towards that goal. The resources and technology simply don't exist.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[Read this article](_URL_0_) on terraforming mars.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Since most here seem to be discussing colonies on Mars...\n\nHow about Venus? There was one idea I ran across on wikipedia involving [Aerostat Colonies.](_URL_0_)\n\nFrom the link: \n\nAt an altitude of 50 km above Venusian surface, the environment is the most Earth-like in the solar system – a pressure of approximately 1 bar and temperatures in the 0°C–50°C range.[3] Because there is not a significant pressure difference between the inside and the outside of the breathable-air balloon, any rips or tears would cause gases to diffuse at normal atmospheric mixing rates, giving time to repair any such damages. In addition, humans would not require pressurized suits when outside, merely air to breathe, a protection from the acidic rain; and on some occasions low level protection against heat.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Mars is pretty different to Earth. The atmosphere is about 1% of the thickness of Earth's - it would basically feel like a vacuum to any Earth organism. It also gets less than half the heat the Earth does. So you would need to pump in a lot of gas to make the air breathable, and to trap the heat in.\n\nIt is easy to underestimate the scale of this endeavour. All of the total sum of all of the carbon dioxide emission from all of the industry in the history of the Earth *has* made an effect on the atmosphere, but it's still on the order of hundreds of parts per million (though of course, this is affected by the natural processing of CO2).\n\nWe can use this as an estimate of the scale of the project. What would happen if this scale of industry was producing oxygen and nitrogen instead of CO2? While dedicated machinery might produce air more efficiently, it's unlikely we'll get that scale of dedicated machinery on Mars without already terraforming it already, so this is still a good estimate of an upper limit. We're talking about the effects of 7 billion people here...\n\nAccording to wikipedia, the sum of all of our CO2 emissions is 29,888,121,000 tonnes per year (let's say 3x10^10 ) , while Mars's atmosphere is 25,000,000,000,000 tonnes (25 x 10^12 tonnes). To multiply this by 100 (roughly what we need) would require 2.5 x 10^15 tonnes. So if we had the equivalent of Earth's entire industry on Mars, but producing air instead, it would take about 100,000 years to get an Earth-like atmosphere.\n\nSo even with an unrealistically large-scale industry on Mars producing air, it is not going to happen any time soon.\n\nEdit: No need to downvote the people responding to me - they're just follow-up questions!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One problem we would face is that the iron core of Mars has frozen which has made Mars lose its magnetic field. Without this magnetic field cosmic wind strips away the atmosphere. Before any real terraforming could take place we would have to find a way to jump start the magnetic field.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This one has been asked many, many times, and it always degenerates into the same rabble. Engineers and scientists will tell you why it's practically impossible and science fiction fans will tell you what they wish to believe. As much as I love science fiction, I can say without a doubt that we couldn't make Mars livable even if every single person on Earth were working towards that goal. The resources and technology simply don't exist.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[Read this article](_URL_0_) on terraforming mars.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Since most here seem to be discussing colonies on Mars...\n\nHow about Venus? There was one idea I ran across on wikipedia involving [Aerostat Colonies.](_URL_0_)\n\nFrom the link: \n\nAt an altitude of 50 km above Venusian surface, the environment is the most Earth-like in the solar system – a pressure of approximately 1 bar and temperatures in the 0°C–50°C range.[3] Because there is not a significant pressure difference between the inside and the outside of the breathable-air balloon, any rips or tears would cause gases to diffuse at normal atmospheric mixing rates, giving time to repair any such damages. In addition, humans would not require pressurized suits when outside, merely air to breathe, a protection from the acidic rain; and on some occasions low level protection against heat.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "15257676", "title": "Aldebaran (comics)", "section": "Section::::Plot.:Situation before Aldebaran.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 511, "text": "Millions of dollars have been invested in these colonization projects by private companies. The first to inhabit the new colonies are selected following reconnaissance missions to the newly discovered planets, and the United Nations has put in place a charter regulating the colonization of new planets. Most notably, colonization must cease should the planet be found to harbor one, or potentially several species considered to be evolved, defined as a species which has discovered fire and can produce tools.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "782359", "title": "PlanetSide", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1934, "text": "After exploring through a deep space wormhole, the Terran Republic, a highly centralized oligarchic galactic government which had unconditionally ruled humanity for the past thousand years, discovered a single habitable planet. Not only was this planet suitable for the sustenance of life, but it also already possessed many native, highly developed, and staggeringly familiar flora. The Science Institute named this planet \"Auraxis\". Taking a keen interest in this aberration, the Republic quickly sent expeditions through the wormhole to explore and colonize the planet. Shortly after arriving, the colonists discovered the remains and technology of a lost and ancient alien species – the Vanu (or \"Ancients\"). This technology proved to be so complex and powerful as to barely be conceivable to human minds, involving levels of energy previously thought to be physically unquantifiable. This allowed for the quick colonization of the ten continents of Auraxis, the creation of power sources and vehicles for the use of the colonists and, most importantly, it facilitated the development of \"rebirthing\" technology. This nanotechnology allowed the Terrans to deconstruct and reconstruct their own bodies, allowing fast transportation across the world. Later on, it was discovered that dead workers could be brought back to life using the technology, revealing a startling new possibility: \"immortality\". Needless to say, the incredible power (and value) of this technology was systemically acknowledged, and despite the scale of the advances made due to the study of the technology, it was also recognized that humanity had not yet even scratched the surface of any future possibilities. Later on, the discovery that the planet itself had been an artificial construction of the Ancients further served to solidify the realization that, if left unchecked, Vanu technology would forever and irrevocably change humanity and its future.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "321564", "title": "CoDominium", "section": "Section::::Planets.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 782, "text": "During the CoDominium era, instantaneous interstellar travel as a result of the Alderson Drive easily gave humanity the ability to explore, colonize, and exploit various star systems. As a result, many of the space settlements are on planets that are similar to Earth. At the very least, a colony world was barely inhabitable for human life without technological support. Many colonies were founded by ethnic minorities, religious groups, or political groups. Some are started by businesses, for commercial reasons. Most lack an industrial base, and have little advanced technology as a result. The elite, more technologically advanced colonies are ones settled and supported by the Earth countries. These elite worlds have their own fleets and enjoy some independence from the CD.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "650483", "title": "Space: Above and Beyond", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 790, "text": "In the years leading up to 2063, humanity has begun to colonize other planets. Lacking technology that would enable them to travel faster than light, also known as \"FTL technology,\" colonization is accomplished by taking advantage of transient but predictable, naturally occurring wormholes in space, which allows them to traverse vast distances. Without warning, a previously unknown alien species, the \"Chigs\", attack and destroy Earth's first extra-solar colony and then destroy a second colony ship. The bulk of the Earth military forces sent to confront the Chigs are destroyed or outflanked, in part because the Chigs have some form of FTL, affording them greater freedom of movement (although this technology appears limited, and the Chigs also primarily utilize natural wormholes).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19600770", "title": "The Dream Millennium", "section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 360, "text": "In the first half of the starship's voyage, Devlin finds only two planets that had any potential for human colonization, and found both unsuitable. One planet was entering Roche's limit and would not remain habitable for much longer, and the other was already inhabited by hostile aliens whose planet was in even worse shape than the Earth he had left behind.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "867489", "title": "Colonization of the Moon", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 542, "text": "Permanent human habitation on a planetary body other than the Earth is one of science fiction's most prevalent themes. As technology has advanced, and concerns about the future of humanity on Earth have increased, the vision of space colonization as an achievable and worthwhile goal has gained momentum. Because of its proximity to Earth, the Moon is seen as the best and most obvious location for the first permanent off-planet colony. Currently, the main problem hindering the development of such a colony is the high cost of spaceflight.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29248", "title": "Space colonization", "section": "Section::::Involved organizations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 170, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 170, "end_character": 234, "text": "BULLET::::- The British Interplanetary Society promotes ideas for the exploration and utilization of space, including a Mars colony, future propulsion systems (see Project Daedalus), terraforming, and locating other habitable worlds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The 1907 trial of Big Bill Haywood in Idaho for the murder of former Governor Frank Steunenburg was a first ordeal for the upstart union, and also the most amazing event in US labor history. Read *Big Trouble* by J Anthony Lucas for the incredible story, a tapestry of American society of the time. Haywood's lawyer was Clarence Darrow. Pinkerton James McParland managed the prosecution's efforts. He had been instrumental in defeating the Molly McGuires, and was the go-to guy for anti-labor dirty work.\n\nAstounding shenanigans abound, with jury tampering the mildest of the cheating and skullduggery. The trial was a near-perfect reflection of the struggle between capital and labor at the time. While the trial brought attention to the IWW, it also depleted its meager resources, which might have been better used fending off trade unionism, which was already stronger and easier to sell to American workers. \n\nBy 1917, the Espionage Act allowed the government to characterize the Wobblies as enemies of the state. Haywood was convicted in 1918, and fled to the USSR in 1921. His energy and personality were lost to the Wobblies.\n\nThe emergence of the Bolsehvik regime in Russia, and the Red Scare in the US, marginalized the IWW. Its leadership had been convicted under the Espionage Act, and supportive voices like Emma Goldman's were also lost to Attorney General Palmer's continual suppression of radicals, especially foreign nationals. Also, the US entered the war in 1917, and the resultant nativism pulled workers away from the more radical, and European, approaches to the struggle. \n\nOverall, considering the reliance on Haywood as a leader, the direct efforts of capitalists to destroy the IWW, the legal attacks by the AG, the effects of the war on labor and the attitudes of workers, and the comparative attractiveness of trade unionism to American workers, it shouldn't be too surprising that the IWW lost its appeal and its power. Had the war not intervened, the Wobblies might have continued to grow after its success in Lawrence. \n\nAgain, read *Big Trouble.* It's an amazing telling of the intertwined social forces in play at the time.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "31172966", "title": "History of the Industrial Workers of the World", "section": "Section::::1924 split.:Impact of the divisions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 88, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 88, "end_character": 308, "text": "In spite of \"anti-radical hysteria\" during and just after the war years, the IWW continued to grow. The IWW's peak membership probably occurred in 1923. 1924 would see the beginning of a dramatic decline, and the recent repression would work to exacerbate the internal tensions responsible for that decline.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37062", "title": "Industrial Workers of the World", "section": "Section::::Activity after World War II.:1950–2000.:Taft–Hartley Act.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 337, "text": "The loss of the MMWIU, at the time the IWW's largest industrial union, was almost a deathblow to the IWW. The union's membership fell to its lowest level in the 1950s during the Second Red Scare, and by 1955, the union's fiftieth anniversary, it was near extinction, though it still appeared on government lists of Communist-led groups.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24283294", "title": "United States home front during World War I", "section": "Section::::Economics.:Labor.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 282, "text": "The AFL membership soared to 2.4 million in 1917. In 1919, the AFL tried to make their gains permanent and called a series of major strikes in meat, steel and other industries. The strikes ultimately failed, forcing unions back to membership and power similar to those around 1910.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26775", "title": "Syndicalism", "section": "Section::::Heyday.:Russian Revolution and post-war turmoil.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 713, "text": "The United States underwent an increase in labor militancy during the post-war period. 1919 saw a general strike in Seattle, large miners' strikes, a police strike in Boston, and a nationwide steel strike. The IWW, however, had been nearly destroyed in the previous two years by local criminal syndicalism laws, the federal government, and vigilante violence. It attempted to take credit for some of the strikes, but in reality was too weak to play a significant role. The post-war Red Scare intensified the attacks on the IWW and by the end of 1919 the IWW was practically powerless. In 1919 Canada was hit by a labor revolt, leading to the formation of One Big Union, which was only partly industrial unionist.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26271982", "title": "Panic selling", "section": "Section::::Examples.:The Stock Market Crash of 1929.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 575, "text": "After World War I, the United States experienced significant economic growth that was fueled by new technologies and improved production processes. Industrial production output increased 25% between the years 1927 and 1929. The speculative boom in the stock market resulted from the expanding economy and the market indices moved up nearly 400% from 1926 to 1929. In late October 1929, the decline emerged in the market and led to panic selling as more investors were unwilling to risk additional losses. The market sharply declined and was followed by the Great Depression.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "369155", "title": "Roaring Twenties", "section": "Section::::American politics.:Decline of labor unions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 149, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 149, "end_character": 479, "text": "Unions grew very rapidly during the war but after a series of failed major strikes in steel, meatpacking and other industries, a long decade of decline weakened most unions and membership fell even as employment grew rapidly. Radical unionism virtually collapsed, in large part because of Federal repression during World War I by means of the Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918. The major unions supported the third party candidacy of Robert La Follette in 1924.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5940274", "title": "History of Denver", "section": "Section::::20th century.:The Great Depression.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 647, "text": "When World War I ended, the economy continued to be strong for a short period. However, with less demand for goods, prices dropped and 1918 saw a short recession, followed by a more severe one between 1920 and 1921. The mining industry was hard hit by decreasing prices and increasing foreign competition during the post-war recession years. Coal mining in Colorado was particularly affected as alternative sources of fuel were widely adopted and labor strikes hurt production. In 1928 Denver was on the receiving end of a major natural gas pipeline from Texas and as more households and businesses switched to gas, the more demand for coal fell.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Iraq is a (mostly) Arabic speaking country, full of people who consider themselves Arabs. Iran is not - it is neither Arabic speaking nor do the people consider themselves Arabs (though there's a minority of Arabs living there). \n\nNone of the countries whose names end with -stan contain a majority of Arabs. I can't think of a single one, anyhow. Asking why they don't consider themselves Arabs is rather like asking why the French don't consider themselves Japanese. They have very different cultures and histories, and speak languages that belong to completely different families. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1439851", "title": "Mesopotamian Arabic", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 729, "text": "Due to Iraq's inherent multiculturalism as well as history, Iraqi Arabic in turn bears extensive borrowings in its lexicon from Aramaic, Akkadian, Persian, Turkish, the Kurdish languages and Hindustani. The inclusion of Mongolian and other Turkic elements in the Iraqi Arabic dialect should also be mentioned, because of the political role a succession of Turco-Mongol dynasties played after Mesopotamia was invaded by Mongol-Turkic colonizers in 1258 that made Iraq became part of Ilkhanate (Iraq is the only Arab country that was influenced by Mongols), and also because of the prestige Iraqi Arabic dialect and literature enjoyed in the part of Arab world, which was often ruled by sultans and emirs with a Turkic background.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "214907", "title": "Islamic republic", "section": "Section::::List of Islamic republics.:Current.:Iraq.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 331, "text": "Iraq, a country neighbouring Iran, is a federal Islamic Republic according to the constitution, consists of a republican, representative, parliamentary, and democratic system of government. Some Shiite leaders had proposed changing the country’s official name to the Islamic Republic of Iraq, a move opposed by Iraq’s secularists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "220950", "title": "Gulf Cooperation Council", "section": "Section::::Related states.:Iraq.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 75, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 75, "end_character": 434, "text": "Iraq is the only Arab country bordering the Persian Gulf that is not a member of the GCC. In 2012, Iraqi Defence Minister Saadoun al-Dulaimi stated that Iraq wanted to join the GCC. Kuwait supports Iraq joining the GCC. The lack of membership of Iraq is widely believed to be due to the low-income economy, its substantial Shia population, its republican political system, and its invasion of member state Kuwait during the Gulf War.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2185", "title": "Arabs", "section": "Section::::Demographics.:Arab world.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 84, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 84, "end_character": 746, "text": "Although all Arab states have Arabic as an official language, there are many non-Arabic-speaking populations native to the Arab world. Among these are Berbers, Toubou, Nubians, Jews, Kurds, Armenians. Additionally, many Arab countries in the Persian Gulf have sizable non-Arab immigrant populations (10–30%). Iraq, Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, United Arab Emirates and Oman have a Persian speaking minority. The same countries also have Hindi-Urdu speakers and Filipinos as sizable minority. Balochi speakers are a good size minority in Oman. Additionally, countries like Bahrain, UAE, Oman and Kuwait have significant non-Arab and non-Muslim minorities (10–20%) like Hindus and Christians from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and the Philippines.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3978097", "title": "Greater Iran", "section": "Section::::Provinces and regions.:Middle East.:Iraq.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 474, "text": "Testimony to the close relationship shared by Iraq and western Iran during the Abbasid era and later centuries, is the fact that the two regions came to share the same name. The western region of Iran (ancient Media) was called 'Irāq-e 'Ajamī (\"Persian Iraq\"), while central-southern Iraq (Babylonia) was called 'Irāq al-'Arabī (\"Arabic Iraq\") or Bābil (\"Babylon\"). And the name Iraq comes from the ancient Mesopotamian city Uruk, which suggests an even older relationship.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3041739", "title": "Battle of Siffin", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 296, "text": "Following the Roman–Persian Wars and the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars, there were deep-rooted differences between Iraq, formerly under the Persian Sassanid Empire, and Syria, formerly under the Byzantine Empire. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic state to be in their territory.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29490", "title": "Saddam Hussein", "section": "Section::::Paramilitary and police organizations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 894, "text": "Iraqi society fissures along lines of language, religion and ethnicity. The Ba'ath Party, secular by nature, adopted Pan-Arab ideologies which in turn were problematic for significant parts of the population. Following the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Iraq faced the prospect of régime change from two Shi'ite factions (Dawa and SCIRI) which aspired to model Iraq on its neighbour Iran as a Shia theocracy. A separate threat to Iraq came from parts of the ethnic Kurdish population of northern Iraq which opposed being part of an Iraqi state and favoured independence (an ongoing ideology which had preceded Ba'ath Party rule). To alleviate the threat of revolution, Saddam afforded certain benefits to the potentially hostile population. Membership in the Ba'ath Party remained open to all Iraqi citizens regardless of background. However, repressive measures were taken against its opponents.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I'm thinking that, because of gravity, no. A planet several thousand times larger than Earth would have many thousand times the gravitational pull as Earth, and so any lifeform would be \"sucked\" inward, in a manner of speaking. \n\nSomeone will hopefully be able to go into greater depth, but basically, the bigger the mass of the planet, the smaller the lifeform because of the gravitational pull.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are other scaling problems than just oxygen absorption. Strength is approximately related to the cross-sectional area of a muscle, but mass is proportional to volume. If you double in height your muscle cross section, and thus strength, go up by a factor of 4 but your weight goes up by a factor of 8. If you scale things up too much, you become too heavy to move. This is one reason why terrestrial animals are limited in size and why aquatic life can be bigger. A large planet would have higher gravity and would only make this problem worse.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Most replies deal with the planet's gravity, but there's a catch in the star's mass as well. The biggest star we've found so far has at most 150 times the mass of our Sun. Stars that massive have a puny life expectancy at a few million years at most. When you have such a massive star exploding in your face after only a couple million years, no giant humanoids have time to evolve.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Is there a terrestrial limit. Like, do terrestrial planets have a ratio of gravity to radius that it cant exceed?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I've been building a procedural universe generator and from what research I've come across its unlikely.\n\nI'll share what I've come up, mostly based on different papers and theories Ive read, and combined them... maybe the mods will delete it as I'm sure this breaches the quality standards, who knows.\n\nAnyway I broke my system into two zones based around the \"snow line\", the point where water freezes. This is important because light pressure from the star, it causes an effect which theoretically should push lighter molecules past the snow line (like dust in the wind or a reverse centrifuge). This means that gas giants aren't likely inside the snow line unless they are on a decaying orbit into the star. The snow line in our solar system is about half way between Mars and the asteroid belt I think. \n\nIn this scenario planets you will find will be similar to what we can see in our system. High in heavier metals, comparatively less organic compounds. I came across some research that pointed to a lot of atmospheric gases coming out of cooling planets. So you can expect to get similar atmospheres to what we see in our system, or specifically early earth. Which was predominately CO2. \n\nFor those wondering the CO2 gave way to N due to life excreting it, the primarily source being the planet crust and related scum layer. After those lifeforms subsided O2 producing ones took over. So hypothetically our atmosphere could occur anywhere where a life form starts eating the planet crust/scum. Because our planet is inside the snow line free water from comets, and organics compounds from outside the snow line will be dragged in those style of orbitals. Essentially our system should be fairly representative of a stable system.\n\nInside the snow line a high mass object will either succumb to gravity and collapse into the star. To avoid this it can increase orbit speed to resist the pull. Neither scenario leads to prospects for life. Hot gas giants reported so far have can have orbits around large stars of a day. As far as I'm aware our biology is to subtle to survive under such strain. \n\nSame goes for any object, to escape the gravity of the star (falling in) it will need to be orbiting (falling out) at a sufficient speed to counter act it. The larger the mass the faster it will have to go as each objects falls towards themselves. Close in high mass objects wont be pleasant to live on.\n\nIf the object is large enough to attract the lighter gases it will more than likely form a gas giant which should either continue to grow mass till it becomes heavy enough to collapse into a brown dwarf. To remain in orbit however it will need the fast orbit I just referred to.\n\nOutside the snowline the high mass object is going to accumulate the lighter gases and essentially become a gas giant. Apparently Jupiter is near the max size before a gas giant forms a dwarf star, so essentially Jupiter is the largest non-star formation you will see.\n\nNow this is for a stable system, a non stable system would involve interference from a third party. But as far as I can tell gravity is still the dictator, and once again objects you find will be similar to our system. If a high mass object entered from another system it could inside the snow line BUT it may be highly prone to colliding with things, asteroid, comet strikes that happen in early system formation would be a problem. So basically an unstable system would be a very messy thing, up to you if you think life could form in that scenario, its currently where I'm up to in my research, but my gut feeling is that you would end up with smashed planets and large rocks and not so much nice planets.\n\nSo to answer you question, I doubt it, I don't think physics is on your side. But weirder things have happened.\n\nAs for the smaller planet, if it has flowing water which can be achieved by atmospheric pressure or proximity to the star then yes. Beyond the snowline you wont have much light, so if there is life it will be one honed for a life in the dark. Inside the snowline, if the planet has a magnetosphere (derived or from a magma core) then it should hold atmospheric gases and most importantly water.\n\nIf I was to be a betting man, Id say comets are the source of life bringing complex hydrocarbons from past the snow line, to warmer planets. Since they are high in water I'd bet all life will hold a affinity towards water.\n\nAs I said feedback welcome. Or clarifications on any logic jumps I've made for that matter, explaining it helps me find my own flaws.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Maybe we are that planet, and there's a planet of really small humanoids somewhere. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A few people have answered why some of these things getting bigger are not possible. These probably are more relevant to why you asked the question but I will answer the consequences and likelihood of a 1000 times bigger sun in case you are interested.\n\nNow when you say bigger I don't know if you mean in terms of mass or in terms of size. When it comes to stars the dependences on size can be a bit obscure, for example in a few billion years the sun itself will be way more than 1000 times bigger in size than it is now. There are already loads of stars out there that size and some of them have planets. What life is like on those planets I don't know. The stars will be cooler but brighter so there probably exists some distance away from those stars where you could have a planet that supports life.\n\nI'm gonna go ahead and assume you mean mass. There are no stars 1000 times heavier than the sun, at most 300 or so is the limit (in the very early universe perhaps 500times was possible) and such stars are *incredibly* rare. This is because stars change when they get more massive. More massive stars are hotter, as you add mass they get more gravity so they get denser and hotter in the core and as a result they have more fusion. This makes the stars hotter and bluer. Because the stars are getting hotter they get brighter. They get very bright and in fact this is part of the reason that you cant have stars as big as 1000 times the sun, they get hot and bright before you can accumulate that much mass and they push all the gas away.\n\nA very hot, very bright star is a strange thing [wolf rayet stars](_URL_0_) are stars about 50 times more massive than the sun. They are so hot and bright that they are blowing themselves apart. Blowing the outer atmosphere away with the force of their light. These stars burn so bright they only live a few million years (compared to our suns 10billion+). This would be too short a time for life to evolve. Who knows anyway what the environment would be like the area around these stars is like for planets, huge amounts of stellar wind stripping away any protective magnetic fields and any atmosphere on a planet. Huge amounts of deadly ultraviolet radiation. Even if the planet itself could survive near one of these stars, no life could survive on the planet.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "526042", "title": "90377 Sedna", "section": "Section::::Origin.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 625, "text": "Caltech researchers Konstantin Batygin and Mike Brown have hypothesised the existence of a giant planet in the outer Solar System, nicknamed Planet Nine. The planet would be about 10 times as massive as Earth. It would have a highly eccentric orbit, and its average distance from the Sun would be about 20 times that of Neptune (which orbits at an average distance of ). Its orbital period would be 10,000 to 20,000 years. The planet's existence was hypothesised using mathematical modeling and computer simulations, but it has not been observed directly. It may explain the orbits of a group of objects that includes Sedna.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10883868", "title": "Super-Earth", "section": "Section::::Solar System.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 617, "text": "The Solar System contains no known super-Earths, because Earth is the largest terrestrial planet in the Solar System, and all larger planets have both at least 14 times the mass of Earth and thick gaseous atmospheres without well-defined rocky or watery surfaces; that is, they are either gas giants or ice giants, not terrestrial planets. In January 2016, the existence of a hypothetical super-Earth ninth planet in the Solar System, referred to as Planet Nine, was proposed as an explanation for the orbital behavior of six trans-Neptunian objects, but it is speculated also be an ice giant like Uranus or Neptune.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9588", "title": "Extraterrestrial life", "section": "Section::::Scientific search.:Extrasolar planets.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 629, "text": ", the least massive planet known is PSR B1257+12 A, which is about twice the mass of the Moon. The most massive planet listed on the NASA Exoplanet Archive is DENIS-P J082303.1-491201 b, about 29 times the mass of Jupiter, although according to most definitions of a planet, it is too massive to be a planet and may be a brown dwarf instead. Almost all of the planets detected so far are within the Milky Way, but there have also been a few possible detections of extragalactic planets. The study of planetary habitability also considers a wide range of other factors in determining the suitability of a planet for hosting life.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5671092", "title": "Gliese 876 d", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Mass, radius, and temperature.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 267, "text": "The low mass of the planet has led to suggestions that it may be a terrestrial planet. This type of massive terrestrial planet could be formed in the inner part of the Gliese 876 system from material pushed towards the star by the inward migration of the gas giants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9763", "title": "Exoplanet", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1038, "text": "The least massive planet known is Draugr (also known as PSR B1257+12 A or PSR B1257+12 b), which is about twice the mass of the Moon. The most massive planet listed on the NASA Exoplanet Archive is HR 2562 b, about 30 times the mass of Jupiter, although according to some definitions of a planet (based on the nuclear fusion of deuterium), it is too massive to be a planet and may be a brown dwarf instead. There are planets that are so near to their star that they take only a few hours to orbit and there are others so far away that they take thousands of years to orbit. Some are so far out that it is difficult to tell whether they are gravitationally bound to the star. Almost all of the planets detected so far are within the Milky Way. Nonetheless, evidence suggests that extragalactic planets, exoplanets farther away in galaxies beyond the local Milky Way galaxy, may exist. The nearest exoplanet is Proxima Centauri b, located 4.2 light-years (1.3 parsecs) from Earth and orbiting Proxima Centauri, the closest star to the Sun.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "615398", "title": "Mount John University Observatory", "section": "Section::::Discoveries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 458, "text": "In June 2008 it was reported at the meeting of American Astronomical Society that using their new MOA-II telescope, the observatory discovered what is at the time the smallest planet known outside of our Solar System. The planet MOA-2007-BLG-192Lb is just 3.3 times larger than Earth and is orbiting a small star, MOA-2007-BLG-192L (3000 light years from Earth). There is some possibility the planet has a thick atmosphere and a liquid ocean on its surface.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6767264", "title": "Mu Arae c", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 661, "text": "Assuming its true mass is comparable to those of Neptune and Gliese 436 b, 14 Earth masses is theoretically the maximum size for a terrestrial planet. A rocky planet this size could certainly have formed, since Mu Arae has a higher metallicity than our Sun. Also, it is thought to have formed well inside the system's \"snow line\" at 3.2 AU. However, various models of the system's formation have since converged that the planet attracted large amounts of volatiles before its star had cleared out the ice, and that it now has a core of only 6 Earth masses. Its core is likely enveloped in so much hot-ice and gas that the planet would behave more like Neptune.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Live TV broadcasts use geostationary satellites which orbit 22 thousand miles up. So a satellite feed has to go 22,000 miles from the broadcast truck to the satellite (actually it will be more as the satellite will not be directly overhead), then 22,000 miles back to the broadcast center. If the broadcast is from very far away, then it may need to go truck > satellite > satellite > tv station\n\nBy comparison a journey over internet fibre optic cables is only going to need to travel 12,500 miles, half the diameter of the earth", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because the television networks need a high-bandwidth guaranteed bandwidth, which your Xbox doesn't. So, they will use satellites for the feeds, which accounts for the lag.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "168079", "title": "2010 FIFA World Cup", "section": "Section::::Media.:Broadcasting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 206, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 206, "end_character": 273, "text": "New forms of digital media have also allowed viewers to watch coverage through alternative means. \"With games airing live on cell phones and computers, the World Cup will get more online coverage than any major sporting event yet,\" said Jake Coyle of the Associated Press.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11664080", "title": "SimCity (2013 video game)", "section": "Section::::Post-release.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 499, "text": "Senior producer Kip Katsarelis commented that the game servers were constantly at maximum capacity, partly due to the large number of players connected for extended periods of time, which has made it difficult for new users to connect: \"We added more servers to accommodate the launch in [Australia, Japan, and Europe]... our plan is to continue to bring more servers online until we have enough to meet the demand, increase player capacity and let more people through the gates and into the game.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6082373", "title": "Castle Crashers", "section": "Section::::Reception.:Technical issues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 1266, "text": "Some users experienced problems finding available online games, as well as their Xbox 360 sometimes freezing when attempting to join an Xbox Live game, or while already in a game. \"There are certain network settings,\" said Paladin, \"where, if you're in a very specific network environment, it won't work with another person's connection and that's what's happening. But that's something we're already addressing by working with Microsoft to get a patch out as fast as possible.\" In addition to multiplayer problems, the game could also occasionally suffer from corrupted save files, causing players to lose character progress. In an interview with Joystiq, Tom Fulp and Dan Paladin of the Behemoth stated that they were working with Microsoft to get a patch released as soon as possible in order to fix the issues. A patch for the game was released on December 24, 2008 fixing glitches and exploits as well as resolving networking issues that were experienced at the game's launch. Similar networking problems have also been reported for the PlayStation 3 version of the game. The PlayStation 3 version of the game only allows one profile to be signed in per console, with additional players being unable to use their own progress rather than of the profile in use.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21461831", "title": "Game in hand", "section": "Section::::How games in hand occur.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 312, "text": "Finally, especially since the advent of sport being broadcast live on digital television, games are now spread throughout a whole weekend and are not always played on the same day. Thus a team can have played fewer games than their opponents, simply because their opponents play earlier in the weekend schedule.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "538871", "title": "Live television", "section": "Section::::Types of shows.:Sports and other events.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 346, "text": "As of the current decade, major sporting events like the Super Bowl, World Cup and Olympic Games have been broadcast entirely live in all U.S. territories, encompassing both prime time hours of both U.S. coasts, simultaneous with the live global telecasts of these events in accordance with the official international broadcasters of such games.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "346300", "title": "2004 Summer Paralympics", "section": "Section::::Media coverage controversy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 349, "text": "Although the Paralympic Games were broadcast to around 1.6 billion viewers throughout 49 countries, some controversy was caused when no American television network stayed to broadcast the event. This resulted in some US viewers having to wait almost 2 months until the coverage was broadcast, compared with live feeds in the UK and other countries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5510225", "title": "World Cup Live", "section": "Section::::2010 World Cup Broadcast.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 521, "text": "World Cup Live later returned for the 2010 World Cup in South Africa. The same format was brought back and specific segments and ideas such as the “Shot-Tracker” were also reused. New commentators from ESPN and from global soccer programs such as Ian Darke and Chris Fowler joined the broadcasting team. The use of the Internet also came into effect more so then in 2006. A live feed of the show was available to not only Americans but also a variety of other countries that relied on US broadcasting for their coverage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "We still do! My friend went to Germany recently. The majority of texts in Chemistry are all German. The US has Tech but I can't begin to list the developments in Europe. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Germany was a rising industrial power with a particular focus on the chemicals industry and later rocketry/physics. The German government strongly encouraged the burgeoning chemicals industry (especially big firms like Siemens), which led to conflicting figures like Fritz Haber who invented the process by which pretty much all synthetic fertilizer is made (and without which we could not grow enough food to feed our growing population) and used it mostly to make explosives in WWI.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "For the most part, a government form appropriate to their position in the world, that realised the importance of science to their nation and encouraged its development despite a lack of popular support. It also helped that a lot of the scientific developments had more or less direct military applications.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "26964606", "title": "Austria", "section": "Section::::Culture.:Science and philosophy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 151, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 151, "end_character": 520, "text": "Austria was the cradle of numerous scientists with international reputation. Among them are Ludwig Boltzmann, Ernst Mach, Victor Franz Hess and Christian Doppler, prominent scientists in the 19th century. In the 20th century, contributions by Lise Meitner, Erwin Schrödinger and Wolfgang Pauli to nuclear research and quantum mechanics were key to these areas' development during the 1920s and 1930s. A present-day quantum physicist is Anton Zeilinger, noted as the first scientist to demonstrate quantum teleportation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "199804", "title": "Science and technology in the United States", "section": "Section::::The Atomic Age and \"Big Science\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 461, "text": "During these crucial years, a number of the most prominent European scientists, especially physicists, immigrated to the United States, where they would do much of their most important work; these included Hans Bethe, Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi, Leó Szilárd, Edward Teller, Felix Bloch, Emilio Segrè, and Eugene Wigner, among many, many others. American academics worked hard to find positions at laboratories and universities for their European colleagues.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "159806", "title": "Anglo-Irish people", "section": "Section::::Anglo-Irish social class.:Prominent members.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 613, "text": "In the 19th century, some of the most prominent mathematical and physical scientists of the British Isles, including Sir William Rowan Hamilton, Sir George Stokes, John Tyndall, George Johnstone Stoney, Thomas Romney Robinson, Edward Sabine, Thomas Andrews, Lord Rosse, George Salmon, and George FitzGerald, were Anglo-Irish. In the 20th century, scientists John Joly and Ernest Walton were also Anglo-Irish, as was the polar explorer Sir Ernest Shackleton. Medical experts included Sir William Wilde, Robert Graves, Thomas Wrigley Grimshaw, William Stokes, Robert Collis, Sir John Lumsden and William Babington.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19411413", "title": "History of Wrocław", "section": "Section::::German Empire.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 613, "text": "Modern science flourished in the city, with a wide array of achievements in almost every department. During the German Empire Breslau's scientists received four Nobel Prizes (plus two in literature). Above all, medical sciences were the flagship of academic research, where Breslau not only presented new theories but also new disciplines. Ferdinand Cohn, the director of the Institute of Plant Physiology, is considered a pioneer of bacteriology, while Albert Neisser, director of the Dermatology clinic, discovered gonorrhoea, and Alois Alzheimer, professor at the university, discovered the Alzheimer disease.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26964606", "title": "Austria", "section": "Section::::Culture.:Science and philosophy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 152, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 152, "end_character": 332, "text": "In addition to physicists, Austria was the birthplace of two of the most noteworthy philosophers of the 20th century, Ludwig Wittgenstein and Karl Popper. In addition to them, biologists Gregor Mendel and Konrad Lorenz as well as mathematician Kurt Gödel and engineers such as Ferdinand Porsche and Siegfried Marcus were Austrians.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31717", "title": "United Kingdom", "section": "Section::::Economy.:Science and technology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 105, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 105, "end_character": 1066, "text": "Major scientific discoveries from the 18th century include hydrogen by Henry Cavendish; from the 20th century penicillin by Alexander Fleming, and the structure of DNA, by Francis Crick and others. Famous British engineers and inventors of the Industrial Revolution include James Watt, George Stephenson, Richard Arkwright, Robert Stephenson and Isambard Kingdom Brunel. Other major engineering projects and applications by people from the UK include the steam locomotive, developed by Richard Trevithick and Andrew Vivian; from the 19th century the electric motor by Michael Faraday, the first computer designed by Charles Babbage, the first commercial electrical telegraph by William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone, the incandescent light bulb by Joseph Swan, and the first practical telephone, patented by Alexander Graham Bell; and in the 20th century the world's first working television system by John Logie Baird and others, the jet engine by Frank Whittle, the basis of the modern computer by Alan Turing, and the World Wide Web by Tim Berners-Lee.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1984214", "title": "Martian scientist", "section": "Section::::American Martian Scientists.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 380, "text": "Extraordinary World War II era Hungarian scientists who emigrated to the United States in the early half of the 20th century. The most prominent Martians (scientists) included Theodore von Kármán, John von Neumann, Eugene Wigner, and Edward Teller. They were referred to as \"Martians\" due to their brilliant problem solving and invention talents that seemed \"out-of-this world \".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The Japanese used *nengo* (年号), eras declared by the imperial court. They didn't have a set length and a new era could be declared for any of a number of reasons: a new Emperor taking the throne, a natural disaster, astrology, etc. The longest *nengo* lasted for thirty-five years, but the majority were less than a decade long.\n\nTo give some a few specific examples, the Genroku era began in 1688, but when a massive earthquake struck in Genroku 16 (1703), the court declared the beginning of the Hoei era. That lasted until Emperor Nakamikado took the throne in Hoei 8 (1711), at which point it became the Shotoku era. Then when Shogun Tokugawa Ietsugu died in Shotoku 6 (1716) the Kyoho era was declared. If this sounds like a mess, you're not wrong.\n\nI should also mention that these continue to be used in Japanese-language history books. They'll usually define an era once, telling you that Genroku 1 began in 1688, for example, and then just use the *nengo*.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "/u/cckerberos has already mentioned era names, or 年號, but it should always be mentioned that they were originally a Chinese tradition. The era name, or *nianhao* in modern Mandarin, was an essential component of the imperial register in East Asian languages. For a Vietnamese or Korean monarch to take an era name independent of the Chinese one(s) was tantamount to declaring autonomy or independence from the authority of the Son of Heaven, and for a tributary state to use a certain state's era name represented subservience to that state. This was why, in the 1630s, the [Manchus](_URL_0_) who had recently conquered Korea forced the Korean court to use the Manchu era name instead of the Chinese era names the Koreans had used for centuries. Era names were all meaningful and represented the circumstances of the period. For example, the first emperor of the Ming dynasty used the era name *Hongwu* for the rest of his life, which means something akin to \"vastly martial.\" Like other era names this was an intentional decision, highlighting the emperor's military origins and prowess.\n\nThe era name began to be used under Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty, who reigned from 140 to 87 BC and first took the era name *jianyuan*, roughly meaning \"establishing origins.\" He would take nearly a dozen era names during his long reign - as in Japan, era names were flexible and changed regularly according to the circumstances for most of Chinese history. Emperor Gaozong of the Tang dynasty used *fourteen* era names during his rule of 34 years!\n\nThe frequency with which era names changed was reduced greatly by the Ming dynasty, where the tradition of the emperor having only one era name for the entirety of his reign was established. Hence we generally refer to Ming and Qing emperors with their era names: the Hongwu Emperor (\"the emperor of vast martiality\"), the Yongle Emperor (\"the emperor of perpetual happiness\"), the Qianlong Emperor (\"the emperor of lasting eminence\").\n\nKorea, being a weak power and often with a strong Neo-Confucian overtone, used Chinese era names. An interesting quirk: even when Beijing was captured by the Manchus, many of the Korean intelligentsia did not consider the \"barbarians\" to be a legitimate Chinese dynasty. This meant that there were some Koreans who used the last Ming era name, *Chongzhen* (\"honor and auspiciousness\") which began in 1627 and ended in 1644, for centuries after the Chongzhen Emperor died. In fact, there were Koreans who wrote the year 1861 as \"the 234th year of Chongzhen\"! Vietnam is a bit more complicated case, but the monarchs there typically used the title *Hoàng Đế*, or emperor, and thus independent era names.\n\n**Sources:** I don't know of any good book on East Asian imperial language as a whole, and era names will generally be mentioned as a side fact in a book discussing other topics, so you might just want to check [our wiki.](_URL_1_) For Korea perhaps try the article *Contesting Chinese Time, Nationalizing Temporal Space: Temporal Inscription in Late Chosǒn Korea* in the anthology \"Time, Temporality, and Imperial Transition.\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9919443", "title": "Dating", "section": "Section::::Matchmakers.:Computers as matchmakers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 138, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 138, "end_character": 2398, "text": "Computer dating systems of the later 20th century, especially popular in the 1960s and 1970s, before the rise of sophisticated phone and computer systems, gave customers forms that they filled out with important tolerances and preferences, which were \"matched by computer\" to determine \"compatibility\" of the two customers. The history of dating systems is closely tied to the history of technologies that support them, although a statistics-based dating service that used data from forms filled out by customers opened in Newark, New Jersey in 1941. The first large-scale computer dating system, The Scientific Marriage Foundation, was established in 1957 by Dr. George W. Crane. In this system, forms that applicants filled out were processed by an IBM card sorting machine. The earliest commercially successfully computerized dating service in either the US or UK was Com-Pat, started by Joan Ball in 1964. Operation Match, started by Harvard University students a year later is often erroneously claimed to be the \"first computerized dating service.\" In actuality, both Com-Pat and Operation Match were preceded by other computerized dating services in Europe—the founders of Operation Match and Joan Ball of Com-Pat both stated they had heard about these European computer dating services and that those served as the inspiration for their respective ideas to create computer dating businesses. The longest running and most successful early computer dating business, both in terms of numbers of users and in terms of profits, was Dateline, which was started in the UK in 1965 by John Patterson. Patterson's business model was not fully legal, however. He was charged with fraud on several occasions for selling lists of the women who signed up for his service to men who were looking for prostitutes. Dateline existed until Patterson's death from alcoholism in 1997, and during the early 1990s it was reported to be the most profitable computer dating company in the world. In the early 1980s in New York City, software developer Gary Robinson developed a now–defunct dating service called \"212-Romance\" which used computer algorithms to match singles romantically, using a voice–mail based interface backed by community-based automated recommendations enhanced by \"collaborative filtering\" technologies. Compatibility algorithms and matching software are becoming increasingly sophisticated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1400", "title": "Anno Domini", "section": "Section::::Other eras.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 231, "text": "During the first six centuries of what would come to be known as the Christian era, European countries used various systems to count years. Systems in use included consular dating, imperial regnal year dating, and Creation dating.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1400", "title": "Anno Domini", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 1066, "text": "The \"Anno Domini\" dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus to enumerate the years in his Easter table. His system was to replace the Diocletian era that had been used in an old Easter table because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians. The last year of the old table, Diocletian 247, was immediately followed by the first year of his table, AD 532. When he devised his table, Julian calendar years were identified by naming the consuls who held office that year—he himself stated that the \"present year\" was \"the consulship of Probus Junior\", which was 525 years \"since the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ\". Thus Dionysius implied that Jesus' incarnation occurred 525 years earlier, without stating the specific year during which his birth or conception occurred. \"However, nowhere in his exposition of his table does Dionysius relate his epoch to any other dating system, whether consulate, Olympiad, year of the world, or regnal year of Augustus; much less does he explain or justify the underlying date.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22290735", "title": "Legacy of the Roman Empire", "section": "Section::::Calendar and measurement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 275, "text": "Roman monk of the 5th-century, Dionysius Exiguus, devised the modern dating system of the Anno Domini (AD) era, which is based on the reckoned year of the birth of Jesus, with AD counting years from the start of this epoch, and BC denoting years before the start of the era.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45811", "title": "Eponym", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 602, "text": "BULLET::::- During the Christian era, itself eponymous, many royal households used eponymous dating by regnal years. The Roman Catholic Church, however, eventually used the \"Anno Domini\" dating scheme based on the birth of Christ on both the general public and royalty. The regnal year standard is still used with respect to statutes and law reports published in some parts of the United Kingdom and in some Commonwealth countries (England abandoned this practice in 1963): a statute signed into law in Canada between February 6, 1994 and February 5, 1995 would be dated 43 Elizabeth II, for instance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22714412", "title": "2011 New Zealand voting system referendum", "section": "Section::::Referendum.:Alternative voting systems.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 207, "text": "First past the post was used in New Zealand prior to MMP, and the three other systems were recommended by the Royal Commission on the Electoral System for further scrutiny in 1986 and were voted on in 1992.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "174995", "title": "Japanese calendar", "section": "Section::::Official calendar.:Years.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 520, "text": "The official dating system known as (or, strictly speaking, ), has been in use since the late 7th century. Years are numbered within regnal eras, which are named by the reigning Emperor. Beginning with Meiji (1868–1912), each reign has been one era, but many earlier Emperors decreed a new era upon any major event; the last pre-Meiji Emperor's reign (1846–1867) was split into seven eras, one of which lasted only one year. The \"nengō\" system remains in wide use, especially on official documents and government forms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "it's a little simplified. saying \"created out of nothing\" sort of implies that there was nothingness beforehand, which is incorrect. Time itself was created then, so there was no 'beforehand.'\n\nI don't think I helped. This is a difficult concept.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Time began, as far as we know, at the big bang. At this instant, and slightly after it, our laws of physics don't really apply. And there is no definition of a \"before.\"\n\nHowever, it's wrong to say it was made out of \"nothing,\" because we don't know what it came from. In short, it came from nothing we've seen before or have observed etc., but we don't know quite why it happened.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "28688869", "title": "The Grand Design (book)", "section": "Section::::Reactions.:Positive reactions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 683, "text": "Cosmologist Lawrence Krauss, in his article \"Our Spontaneous Universe\", wrote that \"there are remarkable, testable arguments that provide firmer empirical evidence of the possibility that our universe arose from nothing. ... If our universe arose spontaneously from nothing at all, one might predict that its total energy should be zero. And when we measure the total energy of the universe, which could have been anything, the answer turns out to be the only one consistent with this possibility. Coincidence? Maybe. But data like this coming in from our revolutionary new tools promise to turn much of what is now metaphysics into physics. Whether God survives is anyone's guess.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1813173", "title": "Ex nihilo", "section": "Section::::Opposing arguments.:Christian.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 274, "text": "BULLET::::5. Creation-at-an-instant problem: We have no evidence in the history of the Universe after the Big Bang that entities can emerge instantaneously from absolute nothingness. As the earliest philosophers noted, out of nothing comes nothing (\"ex nihilo, nihil fit\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1781068", "title": "Edward Tryon", "section": "Section::::Is the universe a vacuum fluctuation?\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 410, "text": "Tryon also believed that this quantum event was without a purpose or cause. In essence, he was saying \"that our universe could have originated in this way and emphasized such a creation event would not require a cause\". This is why in his paper he said: \"In answer to the question of why it happened, I offer the modest proposal that our Universe is simply one of those things which happen from time to time\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60841932", "title": "Arationality", "section": "Section::::Arationality and novelty.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 571, "text": "As an example we could think of the event we call the Big Bang. Cosmologists affirm that our universe started with an explosion that brought into existence, not only the matter and energy that constitutes it, but also the very fabric of time and space. This means that the event itself must have happened outside of time and space, in a \"non-place\" and \"non-time\". Considering that our logic works exclusively within the categories of time and space, something that happened before these categories even existed is necessarily beyond logic, or in other words, arational.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1937408", "title": "Watchmaker analogy", "section": "Section::::Criticism.:David Hume.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 686, "text": "Hume also points out there is still a possibility that the universe could have been created by random chance but still show evidence of design as the universe is eternal and would have an infinite amount of time to be able to form a universe so complex and ordered as our own. He called that the 'Epicurean hypothesis'. It argued that when the universe was first created, the universe was random and chaotic, but if the universe is eternal, over an unlimited period of time, natural forces could have naturally 'evolved' by random particles coming together over time into the incredibly ordered system we can observe today without the need of an intelligent designer as an explanation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1781068", "title": "Edward Tryon", "section": "Section::::Is the universe a vacuum fluctuation?\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 973, "text": "In his paper, Tryon first deals with the idea of how our universe could have come from nothing and stay within the laws of physics. The first law of thermodynamics says that energy can not be created or destroyed. Tryon needed to assert that our universe could come from nothing without breaking this law of the conservation of energy. He theorized that all the positive mass energy and all the negative gravitational energy cancel each other out, leaving us with a universe with zero energy. Tryon gives credit for learning this idea from the general relativist Peter Bergmann. The person who first proposed the idea that we might live in a universe equaling zero because mass positive energy is equal to gravitation negative energy was the physicist Richard C. Tolman. Because Tryon believed our universe was equal to zero energy, in his paper Tryon said: \"If this be the case, then our Universe could have appeared from nowhere without violating any conservation laws.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28688869", "title": "The Grand Design (book)", "section": "Section::::Reactions.:Critical reactions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 834, "text": "Gerald Schroeder in \"The Big Bang Creation: God or the Laws of Nature\" explains that \"The Grand Design breaks the news, bitter to some, that … to create a universe from absolute nothing God is not necessary. All that is needed are the laws of nature. … [That is,] there can have been a big bang creation without the help of God, provided the laws of nature pre-date the universe. Our concept of time begins with the creation of the universe. Therefore if the laws of nature created the universe, these laws must have existed prior to time; that is the laws of nature would be outside of time. What we have then is totally non-physical laws, outside of time, creating a universe. Now that description might sound somewhat familiar. Very much like the biblical concept of God: not physical, outside of time, able to create a universe.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Not to be a pedant, but I believe you mean the 16th century (1500-1600) as the two rulers in question ruled then.\n\nIt's a little tricky to answer but my interpretation, is that the only army in continental Europe at the time which could truly be considered an 'imperial army' or an army directly linked to the state would be the Ottoman Army, with its large contingent of Janissary corps always ready for active military service.\n\nWars in the 16th Century, as Geoffrey Parker demonstrated, were fought with foreign mercenaries for the most part, but usually with some leadership and high command from the native country. For example, at the Battle of Pavia in 1525, the whole empire of Charles V was used to draw in soldiers and commanders, with the army led by a man from modern-day Belgium and the Garrison of Pavia led by a Spaniard. Henry Kamen states that the army itself had no clear national origin. Some 50% were German, 30% Spanish and the rest from all over Europe.\n\nFurthermore, land and vassals in the Empire of the 16th century would have provided the emperor with little troops, but probably some money via taxation and loans. This was spent, along with all the new world gold, on mercenaries.\n\nAt no point in the history of the Holy Roman Emperor was their a standing army of the kind which would be familiar today. Until the 15th century, it would have been drawn as you say, from vassals and the king's lands, but fairly early on in that century, such troops were entirely ineffective against professional mercenary types which rich emperors could make use of.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One of the big issues when it comes to English speakers and the Holy Roman Empire is that we translate two words as 'Imperial' that have different meanings in German. We tend to translate both *Reichs-* and *Kaiserliche-* as 'Imperial', when--in German--the former refers more to the institutions and idea of the realm/empire, whereas the latter focuses more on the personhood of the Emperor. So, when something is called 'the Imperial Army', it can either mean 'the Army of the Empire' or 'the Army of the Emperor'. This can lead to confusion in the Early Modern period, espescially when we're dealing with politicking in the Holy Roman Empire. However, as I understand it, convention is to call the army fighting for the Emperor--whoever that may be--gets to be called 'the Imperial Army', regardless of where it came from. Hopefully, this should answer your question. Simply being called 'the Imperial'--or as I often see it, the Imperialist Army--does not imply it was an army of the Holy Roman Empire, but rather could just be saying that it was the army fighting for the Emperor. \n\nHowever, to go into more depth, another concern is that armies did not tend to draw exclusively on one group. A Scotsman might very well find himself fighting for the Emperor against the French, even though his King is supporting the French against the Emperor.^1 So, almost all armies would consist of troops drawn from around Europe, even though they might pre-dominantly consist of recruits from one area or another. We tend to call these 'the Spanish Army' or the 'French Army' based off who they're fighting for, rather than where the troops came from. Charles V's army no doubt includes Germans, but also likely consisted of a great deal of Spaniards, Flemish, Italians, and other peoples from across his realm. \n\nA better question to ask if we're wondering whether the army is the army of the Empire or the Emperor is: \"Who is paying for the war?\" Is the army being paid for out of the Emperor's treasury, through his own incomes, or is it an army voted for and paid for by the *Reichstag* and Imperial Estates? Unfortunately, I don't know that information about the army Charles V brought with him to Italy, so I can't answer you there, but hopefully I would have helped you out somewhat with this issue. \n\n1: This is a hypotheticaal situation, not a statement about the Scottish king's position vis a vis the Italian Wars. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "30583", "title": "Thirty Years' War", "section": "Section::::Origins of the war.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 1403, "text": "The Holy Roman Empire was a fragmented collection of largely independent states (a fragmentation that the Peace of Westphalia would solidify). The position of the Holy Roman Emperor was mainly titular, but the emperors, from the House of Habsburg, also directly ruled a large portion of imperial territory (lands of the Archduchy of Austria and the Kingdom of Bohemia), as well as the Kingdom of Hungary. The Austrian domain was thus a major European power in its own right, ruling over some eight million subjects. Another branch of the House of Habsburg ruled over Spain and its empire, which included the Spanish Netherlands, southern Italy, the Philippines, and most of the Americas. In addition to Habsburg lands, the Holy Roman Empire contained several regional powers, such as the Duchy of Bavaria, the Electorate of Saxony, the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the Electorate of the Palatinate and the Landgraviate of Hesse. A vast number of minor independent duchies, free cities, abbeys, prince-bishoprics, and petty lordships (whose authority sometimes extended to no more than a single village) rounded out the empire. Apart from Austria and perhaps Bavaria, none of those entities was capable of national-level politics; alliances between family-related states were common, due partly to the frequent practice of partible inheritance, i.e. splitting a lord's inheritance among his various sons.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32355607", "title": "Army of the Holy Roman Empire", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 324, "text": "The Army of the Holy Roman Empire (German \"Reichsarmee\", \"Reichsheer\" or \"Reichsarmatur\"; Latin \"exercitus imperii\") was created in 1422 and came to an end when the Holy Roman Empire dissolved in 1806 as the result of the Napoleonic Wars. It must not be confused with the Imperial Army (\"Kaiserliche Armee\") of the Emperor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41200936", "title": "Imperial Military Constitution", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 675, "text": "The Imperial Military Constitution (, also called the \"Reichskriegsverfassung\") of the Holy Roman Empire, like the rest of the imperial constitution, grew out of various laws and governed the establishment of military forces within the Empire. It was the basis for the establishment of the Army of the Holy Roman Empire (\"Reichsarmee\"), which was under the supreme command of the Emperor but was distinct from his Imperial Troops, as it could only be deployed by the Imperial Diet. The last Imperial Defence Order (\"Reichsdefensionalordnung\"), entitled \"Reichsgutachten in puncto securitatis\", of 13/23 May 1681, completed the military constitution of the Holy Roman Empire.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "182007", "title": "List of Imperial Diet participants (1792)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 594, "text": "The Holy Roman Empire was a highly decentralized state for most of its history, composed of hundreds of smaller states, most of which operated with some degree of independent sovereignty. Although in the earlier part of the Middle Ages, under the Salian and Hohenstaufen emperors, it was relatively centralized, as time went on the Emperor lost more and more power to the Princes. The membership of the Imperial Diet in 1792, late in the Empire's history but before the beginning of the French Revolutionary Wars, gives some insight as to the composition of the Holy Roman Empire at that time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13277", "title": "Holy Roman Empire", "section": "Section::::Institutions.:Army.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 101, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 101, "end_character": 302, "text": "The Army of the Holy Roman Empire (German \"Reichsarmee\", \"Reichsheer\" or \"Reichsarmatur\"; Latin \"exercitus imperii\") was created in 1422 and came to an end even before the Empire as the result of the Napoleonic Wars. It must not be confused with the Imperial Army (\"Kaiserliche Armee\") of the Emperor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14747617", "title": "European wars of religion", "section": "Section::::Holy Roman Empire.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 909, "text": "The Holy Roman Empire, encompassing present-day Germany and surrounding territory, was the area most devastated by the wars of religion. The Empire was a fragmented collection of practically independent states with an elected Holy Roman Emperor as their titular ruler; after the 14th century, this position was usually held by a Habsburg. The Austrian House of Habsburg, who remained Catholic, was a major European power in its own right, ruling over some eight million subjects in present-day Germany, Austria, Bohemia and Hungary. The Empire also contained regional powers, such as Bavaria, the Electorate of Saxony, the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the Electorate of the Palatinate, the Landgraviate of Hesse, the Archbishopric of Trier, and Württemberg. A vast number of minor independent duchies, free imperial cities, abbeys, bishoprics, and small lordships of sovereign families rounded out the Empire.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19538029", "title": "18th-century history of Germany", "section": "Section::::Military and diplomatic history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 316, "text": "The Holy Roman Empire was formally dissolved on 6 August 1806 when the last Holy Roman Emperor Francis II (from 1804, Emperor Francis I of Austria) resigned. Francis II's family continued to be called Austrian emperors until 1918. In 1806, the Confederation of the Rhine was established under Napoleon's protection.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It pains me that I can't remember the source (a book tracing human migration through separate studies of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA), but I do remember reading that originally all homo sapiens had epicanthic folds, and a mutation in the population that eventually migrated to western Europe resulted in that group losing them. \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "158414", "title": "Epicanthic fold", "section": "Section::::Factors.:Ethnicity and geographic distribution.:Lower frequency populations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 512, "text": "Epicanthic folds also occur, at a considerably lower frequency, in other populations: Europeans (e.g., Scandinavians, English, Irish, Hungarians, Russians, Poles, Lithuanians, Finns, Estonians and Samis), Western Asians, Nilotes and Amazigh people. The degree of development of the fold between individuals varies greatly and its presence or absence is often subjective, also its frequency varies clinally across Eurasia. Its use, therefore, as a phenotypic marker to define biological populations is debatable.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2051700", "title": "Histogenesis", "section": "Section::::Germ layers.:Mesoderm.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 624, "text": "The mesoderm germ layer forms in the embryos of animals and mammals more complex than cnidarians, making them triploblastic. During gastrulation, some of the cells migrating inward to form the endoderm form an additional layer between the endoderm and the ectoderm. A theory suggests that this key innovation evolved hundreds of millions of years ago and led to the evolution of nearly all large, complex animals. The formation of a mesoderm led to the formation of a coelom. Organs formed inside a coelom can freely move, grow, and develop independently of the body wall while fluid cushions and protects them from shocks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1146946", "title": "Syncline", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 404, "text": "On a geologic map, synclines are recognized as a sequence of rock layers, with the youngest at the fold's center or \"hinge\" and with a reverse sequence of the same rock layers on the opposite side of the hinge. If the fold pattern is circular or elongate, the structure is a basin. Folds typically form during crustal deformation as the result of compression that accompanies orogenic mountain building.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "763490", "title": "Fold (geology)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 463, "text": "In structural geology, folds occur when one or a stack of originally flat and planar surfaces, such as sedimentary strata, are bent or curved as a result of permanent deformation. Synsedimentary folds are those due to slumping of sedimentary material before it is lithified. Folds in rocks vary in size from microscopic crinkles to mountain-sized folds. They occur singly as isolated folds and in extensive fold trains of different sizes, on a variety of scales.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51688280", "title": "Mapping of Venus", "section": "Section::::Unit classification and mapping schemes.:Stratigraphic classification scheme.:Global stratigraphy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 103, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 103, "end_character": 481, "text": "(2) Then, it came to Guinevere Period, which firstly, there was formation of Atropos (dense lineated plains, pdl), Lavinia (Ridged plains, pr), Akna (Mountain belts, mb), and Agrona (groove belt, gb). Later, there was global emplacement of Accruva (shied plains, psh), Rusalka (lower regional plains, rp1), and Ituana (upper regional plains, rp2) Formations. There are events of wrinkle ridges formed around the global. Mostly of the surface of Venus was resurfaced in this period\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6477769", "title": "Geometric art", "section": "Section::::Pottery in the Geometric style.:Protogeometric period.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 580, "text": "During the Protogeometric period (1050–900 BC), the shapes of the vessels have eliminated the fluid nature of the Mycenaean; creating a more strict and simple design. There are horizontal, decorative bands that feature geometric shapes, including, but not limited to, concentric circles or semicircles. Technological developments caused a new relationship between ornament and structure; causing differing stylistic choice from its Mycenaean influences. The Protogeometric period did not yet feature human figures within its art, but horses were pictured during this time period.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "763490", "title": "Fold (geology)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 689, "text": "Folds form under varied conditions of stress, hydrostatic pressure, pore pressure, and temperature gradient, as evidenced by their presence in soft sediments, the full spectrum of metamorphic rocks, and even as primary flow structures in some igneous rocks. A set of folds distributed on a regional scale constitutes a fold belt, a common feature of orogenic zones. Folds are commonly formed by shortening of existing layers, but may also be formed as a result of displacement on a non-planar fault (\"fault bend fold\"), at the tip of a propagating fault (\"fault propagation fold\"), by differential compaction or due to the effects of a high-level igneous intrusion e.g. above a laccolith.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Singaporean here. We are rich because we have low corporate taxes. When it comes to high-skilled, high-salaried industries like banking, petroleum and medicine, the operating costs (skilled labour, input materials, energy costs) are the same worldwide. Even though land is expensive here, over the Long run of a company’s life it represents a minor cost at best.\n\nSo companies trying to max out their profits go for low-tax counties like Singapore, to retain as much of the profit margin as possible. It helps that Singapore is extremely business friendly, English-educated and politically stable. Many companies from neighbouring regions such as Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, China like to set up operations in Singapore, while international companies from the EU/USA/Australia/Middle East set up regional hubs in Singapore to coordinate their operations in Southeast Asia /Asia as a whole.\n\nEventually, the government gets the money back through individual income taxes, GST taxes (VAT or sales taxes), some smaller amounts through vehicle ownership taxes, property taxes etc. They aggressively invest the tax revenue and the returns provide even more revenue. Since we don’t have social welfare (unemployment benefits, universal healthcare, etc) the government doesn’t need to spend much and accumulates a budget surplus most years. This is again reinvested and provides more income in the future.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "30297", "title": "Tax", "section": "Section::::In developing countries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 177, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 177, "end_character": 304, "text": "Some low-income countries have relatively high tax-to- GDP ratios due to resource tax revenues (e.g. Angola) or relatively efficient tax administration (e.g. Kenya, Brazil) whereas some middle-income countries have lower tax-to-GDP ratios (e.g. Malaysia) which reflect a more tax-friendly policy choice.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19261", "title": "Monaco", "section": "Section::::Economy.:Taxes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 79, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 79, "end_character": 1096, "text": "Monaco has never levied income tax on individuals, and foreigners are thus able to use it as a \"tax haven\" from their own country's taxes, because as an independent country, Monaco is not obligated to pay taxes to other countries. The absence of a personal income tax in the principality has attracted to it a considerable number of wealthy \"tax refugee\" residents from European countries who derive the majority of their income from activity outside Monaco; celebrities such as Formula One drivers attract most of the attention, but the vast majority of them are lesser-known business people. However, due to a bilateral treaty with France, French citizens are still required to pay applicable income and wealth taxes to the French state even if they are resident in Monaco, and the principality also actively discourages the registration of foreign corporations, charging a 33 per cent corporation tax on profits unless it can be shown that at least three-quarters of the turnover has been generated within its borders. Unlike classic tax havens, it does not offer offshore financial services.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "296328", "title": "Sales tax", "section": "Section::::Types.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 427, "text": "Most countries in the world have sales taxes or value-added taxes at all or several of the national, state, county, or city government levels. Countries in Western Europe, especially in Scandinavia, have some of the world's highest valued-added taxes. Norway, Denmark and Sweden have higher VATs at 25%, Hungary has the highest at 27% although reduced rates are used in some cases, as for groceries, art, books and newspapers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27318", "title": "Singapore", "section": "Section::::Economy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 76, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 76, "end_character": 517, "text": "Singapore has the world's highest percentage of millionaires, with one out of every six households having at least one million US dollars in disposable wealth. This excludes property, businesses, and luxury goods, which if included would increase the number of millionaires, especially as property in Singapore is among the world's most expensive. Singapore does not have a minimum wage, believing that it would lower its competitiveness. It also has one of the highest income inequalities among developed countries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19112", "title": "Economy of Malaysia", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 956, "text": "Malaysian citizens lead a much more affluent lifestyle compared to their peers in upper-middle income countries like Mexico, Turkey, and Brazil. This is due to a low national income tax, low cost of local food, transport fuel, household essentials, a fully subsidized single payer public-healthcare and comprehensive social welfare benefit with direct cash transfer. With an income per capita of 28,681 PPP Dollars (2017 World Bank) or 10,620 nominal US Dollars, Malaysia is the third wealthiest nation in Southeast Asia after the smaller city-states of Singapore and Brunei. Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy, which is relatively open and state-oriented. The Malaysian economy is highly robust and diversified with the export value of high-tech products in 2015 standing at US$57.258 billion, the second highest after Singapore in ASEAN. Malaysia exports the second largest volume and value of palm oil products globally after Indonesia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19266", "title": "Economy of Monaco", "section": "Section::::Modern times.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 408, "text": "Low taxes have drawn many foreign companies to Monaco and account for around 75% of the $5.748 billion annual GDP income in (2011). Similarly, tourism accounts for close to 15% of the annual revenue, as the Principality of Monaco also has been a major center for tourism ever since the famed Monte Carlo Casino, which was established in 1856. The casino is alluded to in the ABBA song \"Money, Money, Money\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30297", "title": "Tax", "section": "Section::::In developing countries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 175, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 175, "end_character": 582, "text": "In high-income countries, the highest tax-to-GDP ratio is in Denmark at 47% and the lowest is in Kuwait at 0.8%, reflecting low taxes from strong oil revenues. Long-term average performance of tax revenue as a share of GDP in low-income countries has been largely stagnant, although most have shown some improvement in more recent years. On average, resource-rich countries have made the most progress, rising from 10% in the mid-1990s to around 17% in 2008. Non resource rich countries made some progress, with average tax revenues increasing from 10% to 15% over the same period.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It really depends on what you mean by national identity. National identity definitely did exist to a degree but was not expressed in exactly the same ways as we do in the modern era. Pre modern national identity is not the same as modern nationalism and the reason why this is the case but I recommend the 'Invention of Tradition' edited by Hobsbawm and Ranger for a good series of discussions on this (especially the final chapter by Hobsbawm). Anyway I can give you an overview of some pre modern examples of what might be described as national identity. \n\nFirstly the term nation comes from the Latin 'natio' which, unsurprisingly, is not a modern invention but goes back to ancient Rome - so the term is pre-modern. From the Roman period and through the Middle Ages nation was only one word used to describe a group of people along with others such as gens (people although translated as race in a lot of earlier published texts) or lingua (tongue, language or people) and all of these mean more or less specific things depending on context. Nevertheless the idea that you can identify and demarcate discrete groups, including your own, goes back a long way. Herodotus in his histories gives an account of different cultural groups who are defined by their customs, political organisation and language and he even provides many of them, like the Scythians, with a mythical ancestral origin - so shared customs and origin of peoples this is very much like a picture of a nation. Various Greek thinkers also offered theories as to why different cultures existed including the idea that climate or location affected the temperament of peoples (which was advanced by Hippocrates but significantly developed by Galen) or notoriously Aristotle's assertion that some people are natural slaves. As might be expected this differentiation of other cultures or peoples solidified Greek self identification - they were in the temperate zone, they were not natural slaves. Likewise in Rome you can see a form of national mythmaking in the Aeneid and Tacitus' Germania is a very developed ethnography of different German tribes. Moreover Romans stressed a form of cultural self identity of 'Romanitas' (Romanness) which differentiated Romans from barbarians. This belief in Roman cultural superiority persisted even as the barbarians were at the gates - one letter writer Sidonius Apollinaris writes mockingly in private about how slurred and bad a Germanic king's Latin is all while writing Roman panegyrics for him (in an irony of history the Loeb edition of Sidonius' writing has an introduction from the translator moaning about how bad *Sidonius* is at Latin).\n\nAnyway so now Rome has fallen but in the middle ages we have a lot of evidence for national identities of one sort or another. Early Anglo-Saxon lawcodes have differences in wergild based on rank which seems to include a reduced amount for a free non Saxon. The Exeter Book riddles includes disparaging comments on the Welsh including differentiating them as physically distinct (\"dark Welshmen\"). Bede in his Ecclesiastical History of the English people makes sure to show the differences between nations and makes sure to stress the unity of the English in spite of political division. Nationality was, therefore, noted in the early middle ages even if there was not really a notion that the nation had to have a political entity to represent it - in fact for a king to have the allegiance of many peoples is prestigious (Asser proudly talks about how Alfred the Great had the allegiance of the different peoples of Britain). During the Viking age there are also explicit references to Englishmen and Danes in decrees - even when they are under the same ruler. The English and Danes also had recognised differences in grooming habits - as can be seen when an Anglo-Saxon monk (Alcuin) writes a letter saying that the English were basically asking to be invaded by Vikings as they had started trimming their beards like them! All throughout this period different peoples associate themselves genealogically as a group and trace descent - the Trojans are especially popular for this. \n\nLater on we see even more evidence of nations being identified with. After the Norman conquest Englishmen sometimes kept their beards as a sign of defiance. Histories of nations appear in which nations have a set character and sins (such as Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain). Ethnographies start to be written again by writers such as Gerald of Wales (who argues that different nations inherited traits from the climates of their ancestral lands). The importance of nation can also be inferred from the fact that having no nation is not viewed positively - one particularly furious pilgrim to Spain says that the Navarese were no true people (ne veres) and could not trace their ancestry back to a single nation and that this explained their nefarious behaviour (such as poisoning his horse). All of this, however, occurs in a context where a single all encompassing nation (to the exclusion of all others) is hard to find - Lowlanders and Highlanders in Scotland, for example, are sometimes presented as different peoples (gens) but other times as members of the Scottish people - by the same author! The easiest place to find strict national character defined, moreover, is where it is falling apart such as in the Statutes of Kilkenny in the 14^th century. These identify Irish characteristics and forbids English colonists to engage in Irish practises for fear of being tainted by Irishness - this was evidently not working. Nevertheless notions of national identity do exist in Pre-Modern Europe and they could include many ideas we see today - shared genealogy, language, culture, dress, methods of fighting etc. - and existed alongside other forms of identity such as religious.\n\nIf you want to read more I recommend you read the article by Robert Bartlett 'Medieval and Modern Concepts of Race and Ethnicity' as it especially gets into the problems of language when addressing nation/ethnicity/race in the pre modern period. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "16121959", "title": "Steven Grosby", "section": "Section::::Career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 296, "text": "In his book \"Biblical Ideas of Nationality: Ancient and Modern\", Grosby argues that the ideas of modern nationhood were already present in the Ancient Near East in places like Armenia, Edom, Egypt, and especially Biblical Israel, which later became the major model for European nation formation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "86646", "title": "National myth", "section": "Section::::Background.:Social background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 267, "text": "All modern national identities were preceded by nationalist movements. Although the term \"nation\" was used in the Middle Ages, it had totally different meaning than in the age of nationalism, where it was linked to the efforts aimed to creation of the nation-states.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20954277", "title": "Spanish American wars of independence", "section": "Section::::Effects of independence.:Government and politics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 75, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 75, "end_character": 801, "text": "Independence also did not result in stable political regimes, save in a few countries. First, the new nations did not have well-defined identities, but rather the process of creating identities was only beginning. This would be carried out through newspapers and the creation of national symbols, including new names for the countries (\"Mexico\", \"Colombia\", \"Ecuador\", \"Bolivia\", \"Argentina\"), that broke with the past. In addition, the borders were not firmly established, and the struggle between federalism and centralism, which began in independence, continued throughout the rest of the century. Two large states that emerged from the wars—Gran Colombia and the Federal Republic of Central America—collapsed after a decade or two, and Argentina would not consolidate politically until the 1860s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21627", "title": "Nation state", "section": "Section::::In practice.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 345, "text": "The notion of a unifying \"national identity\" also extends to countries that host multiple ethnic or language groups, such as India. For example, Switzerland is constitutionally a confederation of cantons, and has four official languages, but it has also a \"Swiss\" national identity, a national history and a classic national hero, Wilhelm Tell.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11054436", "title": "Rise of nationalism in Europe", "section": "Section::::Nationalism's growth and export.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 1933, "text": "The invention of a symbolic national identity became the concern of racial, ethnic or linguistic groups throughout Europe as they struggled to come to terms with the rise of mass politics, the decline of the traditional social elites, popular discrimination and xenophobia. Within the Habsburg empire the different peoples developed a more mass-based, violent and exclusive form of nationalism. This developed even among the Germans and Magyars, who actually benefited from the power-structure of the empire. On the European periphery, especially in Ireland and Norway, campaigns for national independence became more strident. In 1905, Norway won independence from Sweden, but attempts to grant Ireland the kind of autonomy enjoyed by Hungary foundered on the national divisions on the island between the Catholic and Protestant populations. The Polish attempts to win independence from Russia had previously proved to be unsuccessful, with Poland being the only country in Europe whose autonomy was gradually limited rather than expanded throughout the 19th century, as a punishment for the failed uprisings; in 1831 Poland lost its status as a formally independent state and was merged into Russia as a real union country and in 1867 she became nothing more than just another Russian province. Faced with internal and external resistance to assimilation, as well as increased xenophobic anti-Semitism, radical demands began to develop among the stateless Jewish population of eastern and central Europe for their own national home and refuge. In 1897, inspired by the Hungarian-born Jewish nationalist Theodor Herzl, the First Zionist Congress was held in Basle, and declared their national 'home' should be in Palestine. By the end of the period, the ideals of European nationalism had been exported worldwide and were now beginning to develop, and both compete and threaten the empires ruled by colonial European nation-states.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35859459", "title": "National consciousness", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 539, "text": "National identities in Europe and the Americas developed along with the idea of political sovereignty invested in the people of the state. In Eastern Europe, it was also often linked to ethnicity and culture. Nationalism requires first a national consciousness, the awareness of national communality of a group of people, or nation. An awakening of national consciousness is frequently ascribed to national heroes and is associated with national symbols, and was part of the dissolution of Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11197621", "title": "Australians", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 561, "text": "The development of a separate Australian identity and national character is often linked with the anti-transportation and nativist movements and the Eureka Rebellion during the colonial period and in the lead-up to Federation, as well as the period surrounding the First World War. However, Australian culture predates the federation of the Australian colonies by several decades – Australian literature, most notably the work of the bush poets, dates from colonial times. Modern Australian identity draws on a multicultural and Anglo-Celtic cultural heritage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Just working with Newtonian gravity, the maximum speed reached by falling towards the surface of an object is the same speed as escape velocity at that surface (both are calculated by equating gravitational potential to kinetic energy, just in different order). So, what kind of object has an escape velocity equal to that of light? A black hole. So to answer your question, if only Newtonian gravity applied this is what would happen if you fell towards a black hole.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "No.\n\nA lightweight object (such as a cat) falling to Earth from an unlimited distance would impact at escape velocity, approximately 11km/sec, unless slowed by external forces such as air resistance.\n\nThis is because gravity is not a constant strength but is proportional to 1/d^2 (where d is the cat's distance from the centre of gravity of Earth).\n\nAdditionally, relativity complicates things if your cat was instead falling toward a neutron star. It takes *much* more energy to accelerate things to relativistic speeds, and literally all the energy in the universe could not accelerate you to the speed of light.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Others have already answered what would happen for an object falling towards a fixed object, but what if it was falling towards an object that was constantly moving away so that the \"falling\" object could continue accelerating? In this instance, the object would still never reach the speed of light, because as it approached the speed of light time would actually dilate around it, making the object \"slow down in time\" while still accelerating. Eventually it would get REALLY close to light speed (like 99.999...%), but not quite 100% there. \n\nLet's say this object was a clock, how would this clock look to an outside observer? The clock would be moving at ALMOST light speed, but if you actually looked at the time on the clock face, the second hand wouldn't move because it's local time is so much slower than yours, and as it got closer to the speed of light, it would take longer and longer for the second hand to move.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "308", "title": "Aristotle", "section": "Section::::Natural philosophy.:Physics.:Motion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 360, "text": "Aristotle implies that in a vacuum the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible. Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the \"extreme view\" that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative, but other authors reject this.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "268475", "title": "Two New Sciences", "section": "Section::::Summary.:Day one: Resistance of bodies to separation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 802, "text": "[106] Aristotle believed that bodies fell at a speed proportional to weight but Salviati doubts that Aristotle ever tested this. He also did not believe that motion in a void was possible, but since air is much less dense than water Salviati asserts that in a medium devoid of resistance (a vacuum) all bodies—a lock of wool or a bit of lead—would fall at the same speed. Large and small bodies fall at the same speed through air or water providing they are of the same density. Since ebony weighs a thousand times as much as air (which he had measured), it will fall only a very little more slowly than lead which weighs ten times as much. But shape also matters—even a piece of gold leaf (the heaviest of metals) floats through the air and a bladder filled with air falls much more slowly than lead.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1411100", "title": "Introduction to general relativity", "section": "Section::::From special to general relativity.:Equivalence principle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 569, "text": "A person in a free-falling elevator experiences weightlessness; objects either float motionless or drift at constant speed. Since everything in the elevator is falling together, no gravitational effect can be observed. In this way, the experiences of an observer in free fall are indistinguishable from those of an observer in deep space, far from any significant source of gravity. Such observers are the privileged (\"inertial\") observers Einstein described in his theory of special relativity: observers for whom light travels along straight lines at constant speed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "389836", "title": "G-force", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 563, "text": "Objects allowed to free-fall in an \"inertial trajectory\" under the influence of gravitation only feel no g-force, a condition known as zero-g (which means zero g-force). This is demonstrated by the \"zero-g\" conditions inside an elevator falling freely toward the Earth's center (in vacuum), or (to good approximation) conditions inside a spacecraft in Earth orbit. These are examples of coordinate acceleration (a change in velocity) without a sensation of weight. The experience of no g-force (zero-g), however it is produced, is synonymous with weightlessness.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5382", "title": "Inflation (cosmology)", "section": "Section::::Theory.:Space expands.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 633, "text": "In a space that expands exponentially (or nearly exponentially) with time, any pair of free-floating objects that are initially at rest will move apart from each other at an accelerating rate, at least as long as they are not bound together by any force. From the point of view of one such object, the spacetime is something like an inside-out Schwarzschild black hole—each object is surrounded by a spherical event horizon. Once the other object has fallen through this horizon it can never return, and even light signals it sends will never reach the first object (at least so long as the space continues to expand exponentially).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17327", "title": "Kinetic energy", "section": "Section::::Relativistic kinetic energy of rigid bodies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 210, "text": "This formula shows that the work expended accelerating an object from rest approaches infinity as the velocity approaches the speed of light. Thus it is impossible to accelerate an object across this boundary.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33710707", "title": "Planck units", "section": "Section::::Planck units and the invariant scaling of nature.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 236, "text": "George Gamow argued in his book \"Mr Tompkins in Wonderland\" that a sufficient change in a dimensionful physical constant, such as the speed of light in a vacuum, would result in obvious perceptible changes. But this idea is challenged:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Do pianos require gravity? I always thought the hammers \"fell\" back into place after hitting their strings.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is all I can think of, although I wouldn't consider it an instrument:\n_URL_0_\n\nPercussion techniques would be quite difficult without gravity though.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Proper stick and mallet technique for drumming uses gravity tremendously. (The bass drum that I play uses a vertical mallet drop that is about 90% gravity, 10% muscle). Snare players in particular would find it very difficult to adjust as snare technique relies on microcontrol of the drumstick bouncing on the head in a certain way.\n\nShaker instruments that have loose beads that fly around, like [caxixi](_URL_0_) and [shekere](_URL_1_), would be problematic as those instruments are highly affected by gravity. A lot of the playing techniques for the shaker family involves well-defined up/down moves that are basically ways of letting the beads fall for a split second and then catching them again.\n\nI am wondering if hi-hats and kick-drum pedals of drumsets need gravity to reset to their default positions. don't know though, I don't play set...\n\nAll instruments that hang from straps on the player's bodies (guitars etc.), or that rest right on the body (like sousaphone), would shift around annoyingly. Though the players would probably adjust. It's amazing how much a slightly shifted instrument position can throw off a player, though. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A rain stick comes to mind! Not sure if that classifies as an instrument though.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Tubular bells (for the Mike Oldfield fans) - without gravity they would just clang incessantly against each other after the first strike. If you spaced them so far apart that they would not touch, you would have to chase them as they swung around for each note.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "23646085", "title": "Astronomical rings", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 354, "text": "Parts of the instrument go back to instruments made and used by ancient Greek astronomers. Gemma Frisius combined several of the instruments into a small, portable, astronomical-ring instrument. He first published the design in 1534, and in Petrus Apianus's \"Cosmographia\" in 1539. These ring instruments combined terrestrial and celestial calculations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52189964", "title": "Music in space", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 878, "text": "Music in space is music played in or broadcast from a spacecraft in outer space. According to the Smithsonian Institution, the first musical instruments played in outer space were an 8-note Hohner \"Little Lady\" harmonica and a handful of small bells carried by American astronauts Wally Schirra and Thomas P. Stafford aboard Gemini 6A. Upon achieving a space rendezvous in Earth orbit with their sister ship Gemini 7 in December 1965, Schirra and Stafford played a rendition of \"Jingle Bells\" over the radio after jokingly claiming to have seen an unidentified flying object piloted by Santa Claus. The instruments had been smuggled on-board without NASA's knowledge, leading Mission Control director Elliot See to exclaim \"You're too much\" to Schirra after the song. The harmonica was donated to the Smithsonian by Schirra in 1967, with his note that it \"...plays quite well\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2418830", "title": "Saint François d'Assise", "section": "Section::::Musical elements.:Orchestra.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 280, "text": "In addition to these, pitched percussion instruments are also used: one xylophone, one xylorimba, one marimba, one glockenspiel and one vibraphone, as well as three Ondes Martenot which the composer described in his interview with Claude Samuel as being 'very rare in an opera!'.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "364099", "title": "Gemini 6A", "section": "Section::::Flight.:A Christmas surprise.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 268, "text": "At that point, the sound of \"Jingle Bells\" was heard played on an eight-note Hohner \"Little Lady\" harmonica and a handful of small bells. The Smithsonian Institution claims these were the first musical instruments played in space and keeps the instruments on display.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52189964", "title": "Music in space", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 476, "text": "In the 1970s music tape cassettes were brought to the American space station Skylab, while Soviet cosmonauts Aleksandr Laveikin and Yuri Romanenko brought a guitar to the space station \"Mir\" in 1987. Musical instruments must be checked for gases they may emit before being taken aboard the confined environment of a space station. As of 2003, instruments that have been aboard the International Space Station include a flute, a keyboard guitar, a saxophone, and a didgeridoo.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28805894", "title": "Disability in the arts", "section": "Section::::Performing arts.:Music.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 521, "text": "In the UK the One Handed Musical Instrument Trust has the objective of removing the barriers to music-making faced by the physically disabled. It comments: \"There is currently no orchestral instrument that can be played without two fully functioning hands and arms, denying unlimited participation in musical life to those with congenital disabilities and amputees, as well as the millions who may have been injured, suffered a stroke or developed arthritis. The primary obstacle is the absence of suitable instruments.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "403114", "title": "List of musical instruments by Hornbostel–Sachs number", "section": "Section::::Instruments that do not fit into any of the above five categories.:Non-electrophonic quintephones.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 286, "text": "A number of computational musical instruments that are not electrophones have been invented, designed, built, and used in performances. These instruments are sound synthesizers that use mechanical, optical, or other forms of non-electric computation, sampling, processing, or the like.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yes, and that's part of why the entire duck doesn't freeze. Ducks, other birds, and even some mammals like deer have evolved so that the arteries and veins leading to their feet/hooves/ect. pass very close to each other for quite a long ways. As warm blood travels towards the feet, it passes heat to cold blood coming back in the veins. The result is that the duck's feet are maintained at a much lower temperature than the duck's core body. This reduces the rate at which they lose heat to their surroundings. Tropical apes like us don't have this adaptation, so we lose heat rapidly when we put our feet in cold water. A duck's feet will get cold, but the rest of the duck will remain toasty and warm. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "919526", "title": "Netta", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 204, "text": "These are gregarious ducks, mainly found on fresh water. They are strong fliers; their broad, blunt-tipped wings require faster wing-beats than those of many ducks and they take off with some difficulty.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37674", "title": "Duck", "section": "Section::::Behaviour.:Predators.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 319, "text": "Adult ducks are fast fliers, but may be caught on the water by large aquatic predators including big fish such as the North American muskie and the European pike. In flight, ducks are safe from all but a few predators such as humans and the peregrine falcon, which regularly uses its speed and strength to catch ducks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "217855", "title": "Diving duck", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 608, "text": "These are gregarious ducks, mainly found on fresh water or on estuaries, though the greater scaup becomes marine during the northern winter. They are strong fliers; their broad, blunt-tipped wings require faster wing-beats than those of many ducks and they take off with some difficulty. Northern species tend to be migratory; southern species do not migrate though the hardhead travels long distances on an irregular basis in response to rainfall. Diving ducks do not walk as well on land as the dabbling ducks; their legs tend to be placed further back on their bodies to help propel them when underwater.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "256010", "title": "Musk duck", "section": "Section::::Ecology and status.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 407, "text": "In the water, musk ducks display an effortless agility, twisting and turning on the surface with both feet and tail. In general, musk ducks remain in the water all day long, alternately loafing and feeding energetically, though they sometimes emerge to sit on a log or on dry land for a while. They stay on the water at night, sleeping well out from land with the head tucked into the body or under a wing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10908823", "title": "List of birds of Gibraltar", "section": "Section::::Ducks, geese and swans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 252, "text": "The family Anatidae includes the ducks and most duck-like waterfowl, such as geese and swans. These are birds adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet, flattened bills, and feathers that are excellent at shedding water due to an oily coating. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10907890", "title": "List of birds of Honduras", "section": "Section::::Ducks, geese, and waterfowl.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 251, "text": "The family Anatidae includes the ducks and most duck-like waterfowl, such as geese and swans. These are birds adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet, flattened bills, and feathers that are excellent at shedding water due to an oily coating.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10907860", "title": "List of birds of Guatemala", "section": "Section::::Ducks, geese, and waterfowl.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 251, "text": "The family Anatidae includes the ducks and most duck-like waterfowl, such as geese and swans. These birds are adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet, flattened bills, and feathers that are excellent at shedding water due to an oily coating.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yes. Things also get heavier from dust particles. You get lighter every time you breathe, because you take in O2 and expel CO2.\n\nBut the amount is so ridiculously small that it's irrelevant.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Ablation, erosion. Additionally, every solid and liquid has a \"vapor pressure\" where the atoms constantly escape into the atmosphere.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7295638", "title": "Primary/secondary quality distinction", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 488, "text": "BULLET::::- \"[I]t must certainly be concluded regarding those things which, in external objects, we call by the names of light, color, odor, taste, sound, heat, cold, and of other tactile qualities, [...]; that we are not aware of their being anything other than various arrangements of the size, figure, and motions of the parts of these objects which make it possible for our nerves to move in various ways, and to excite in our soul all the various feelings which they produce there.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7295638", "title": "Primary/secondary quality distinction", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 286, "text": "BULLET::::- \"I think that tastes, odors, colors, and so on are no more than mere names so far as the object in which we locate them are concerned, and that they reside in consciousness. Hence if the living creature were removed, all these qualities would be wiped away and annihilated\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42962805", "title": "Conservation and restoration of plastic objects", "section": "Section::::Deterioration.:Causes of deterioration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 594, "text": "BULLET::::3. Storage- When objects are improperly stored is when contamination and deterioration can occur. This often occurs when temperature or relative humidity fluctuate in the storage area as this causes the polymers to react to the environment and will begin to deteriorate and possible contaminate surrounding objects. Storage should also be thought of as when an object is on exhibit as this is when the object is on display with lights and its temperature and humidity can fluctuate, being able to create a plan to adjust the exhibit case while on display can help prevent any damage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4710820", "title": "New old stock", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 324, "text": "While damage to the original packaging is common, damage to its contents is generally not preferred in determining if an item is NOS; however, many items have been on shelves or in storage and over time may have developed some damage. This minor damage from shelf life does not detract from an item being identified as NOS.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50979026", "title": "Hot container composting", "section": "Section::::How it works.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 206, "text": "Let the collected material stand for aeration for 30 minutes to let the bad odor dissipate. Either remove the larger and medium-sized particles by hand or use a sifter. The larger pieces can be used again.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "226545", "title": "Anthropological theories of value", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 340, "text": "Marcel Mauss and Bronisław Malinowski for example wrote about objects that circulate in society without being consumed. Georges Bataille wrote about objects that are destroyed, but not consumed. Bruce Owens talks about objects of value that are neither circulating nor consumed (e.g. gold reserves, warehoused paintings, family heirlooms).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "774575", "title": "Outgassing", "section": "Section::::In a closed environment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 705, "text": "Outgassing can be significant if it collects in a closed environment where air is stagnant or recirculated. For example, new car smell consists of outgassed chemicals released by heat in a closed automobile. Even a nearly odorless material such as wood may build up a strong smell if kept in a closed box for months. There is some concern that plasticizers and solvents released from many industrial products, especially plastics, may be harmful to human health. Long-term exposure to solvent vapors can cause chronic solvent-induced encephalopathy (CSE). Outgassing toxic gases are of great concern in the design of submarines and space stations, which must have self-contained recirculated atmospheres.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The seasons are caused by the Earth's axial tilt, so yes there would still be seasonal temperature changes on the side of the planet receiving sunlight despite the tidal lock.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The seasons are caused by the Earth's axial tilt, so yes there would still be seasonal temperature changes on the side of the planet receiving sunlight despite the tidal lock.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "28483", "title": "Solstice", "section": "Section::::Relationship to seasons.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 566, "text": "The seasons occur because the Earth's axis of rotation is not perpendicular to its orbital plane (the plane of the ecliptic) but currently makes an angle of about 23.44° (called the obliquity of the ecliptic), and because the axis keeps its orientation with respect to an inertial frame of reference. As a consequence, for half the year the Northern Hemisphere is inclined toward the Sun while for the other half year the Southern Hemisphere has this distinction. The two moments when the inclination of Earth's rotational axis has maximum effect are the solstices.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1784050", "title": "Timekeeping on Mars", "section": "Section::::Years.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 532, "text": "On Earth, the variation in the lengths of the tropical years is small, but on Mars it is much larger. The northward equinox year is 668.5907 sols, the northern solstice year is 668.5880 sols, the southward equinox year is 668.5940 sols, and the southern solstice year is 668.5958 sols. Averaging over an entire orbital period gives a tropical year of 668.5921 sols. (Since, like Earth, the northern and southern hemispheres of Mars have opposite seasons, equinoxes and solstices must be labelled by hemisphere to remove ambiguity.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2592906", "title": "Planetary habitability", "section": "Section::::Planetary characteristics.:Orbit and rotation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 644, "text": "A planet's movement around its rotational axis must also meet certain criteria if life is to have the opportunity to evolve. A first assumption is that the planet should have moderate seasons. If there is little or no axial tilt (or obliquity) relative to the perpendicular of the ecliptic, seasons will not occur and a main stimulant to biospheric dynamism will disappear. The planet would also be colder than it would be with a significant tilt: when the greatest intensity of radiation is always within a few degrees of the equator, warm weather cannot move poleward and a planet's climate becomes dominated by colder polar weather systems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34341", "title": "Year", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 314, "text": "In temperate and subpolar regions around the planet, four seasons are generally recognized: spring, summer, autumn, and winter. In tropical and subtropical regions, several geographical sectors do not present defined seasons; but in the seasonal tropics, the annual wet and dry seasons are recognized and tracked.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "596116", "title": "Seasonal year", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 851, "text": "This suggestion is surprising because the seasons have been thought to be governed by the tilt of the Earth's axis (see Effect of sun angle on climate). The two types of years differ by a mere 4 days over 300 years, so Thompson's result may not be significant. However, the result is not unreasonable. The seasons can be considered to be an oscillating system driven by two inputs with slightly different frequencies: the total input of energy from the sun varies with the anomalistic year, while the distribution of this energy between the hemispheres varies with the tropical year. In other physical situations, oscillating systems driven by two similar frequencies can latch onto either one. One point that must be considered is that the oscillation arising from the tilt of the axis is much greater than that arising from the distance of the sun.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1784050", "title": "Timekeeping on Mars", "section": "Section::::Years.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 550, "text": "As on Earth, the sidereal year is not the quantity that is needed for calendar purposes. Rather, the tropical year would be likely to be used because it gives the best match to the progression of the seasons. It is slightly shorter than the sidereal year due to the precession of Mars' rotational axis. The precession cycle is 93,000 Martian years (175,000 Earth years), much longer than on Earth. Its length in tropical years can be computed by dividing the difference between the sidereal year and tropical year by the length of the tropical year.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "372608", "title": "Milankovitch cycles", "section": "Section::::Earth's movements.:Orbital shape (eccentricity).:Effect on lengths of seasons.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 383, "text": "The seasons are quadrants of the Earth's orbit, marked by the two solstices and the two equinoxes. Kepler's second law states that a body in orbit traces equal areas over equal times; its orbital velocity is highest around perihelion and lowest around aphelion. The Earth spends less time near perihelion and more time near aphelion. This means that the lengths of the seasons vary.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The short version is, it's subjective, and so what is \"good\" is whatever you like the flavor of. However, you can still discuss beer quality by breaking those qualities down into categories.\n\nThings that affect this: \n\n* How strong the beer's flavor is. In general, cheaper beers have less flavor (though again, you personally may like weaker beer)\n* What kind of flavor it has. Some people like the bitterness of beers made with lots of hops (IPAs, etc) while others prefer beers made with wheat (hefeweizen, etc) or something in between\n* What it's alcohol content is. Generally beers with a higher alcohol content will taste stronger, and the stronger it is, the \"boozier\" it tastes. Higher alcohol beers also tend to be more expensive\n* Whether it's filtered or not. Filtered beers will be clear in color and won't have any sediment, but may not have as much flavor as unfiltered beers (though this is not a hard and fast rule)\n* Whether it's pressurized with carbon dioxide (this is what naturally occurs) or with nitrogen (tends to give it a creamier texture)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Personally, I wouldn't try to overanalyze beer, and as with any consumable, people have a wide variety of tastes. \n \nI'd try an narrow down the type of beer you like. Some people like thick, malty, sweet beers which are typical of many (but not all) stouts. Other people like super hoppy and bitter IPAs. Try different beers and see what you like. Your bartender will often let you try a sip before ordering a pint and many places now serve \"flights\" of beers which typically come with 4 ounce pours of 4 different beers. \n \nI think when any beer tries to sacrifice something, the overall goodness is compromised. Two examples would be low-calorie and gluten free. Also, when brewers try to push the envelope, by adding questionable ingredients or trying to maximize particular characteristic (hoppyness, ABV, etc), the results don't alway turn out great. But there are definitely exceptions where a \"weird\" sounding beer can be quite wonderful. \n \nI also wouldn't listen to some of these misconceptions floating around, such as \"guinness is so heavy, it's like a meal in itself\" or \"like motor oil\". These are uninformed people just re-stating things they've heard. Guinness is quite delicious. \n \nI wouldn't focus too much on ABV, unless you are trying to get drunk on the cheap. But beware of the ABV when you are ordering/drinking beer as some can be much strong than others. \n \nShort answer, a good beer is one you enjoy drinking.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Whether a beer is good or not depends on several things. Obviously taste, so I'll talk most about that.\n\nAroma is important ( I want IPAs to smell like hops, piney, resiny, floral, citrusy, dank, whatever, and I want Marzens to be malty)\n\nMouthfeel, which is a made up sounding term, is also important. If you are tailgating, you want thin, crushable, watery beers. If you are washing down a good meal, you might want something a bit thicker. You dont want your PBR to be super thick, and you don't want your pliny the elder to go down like water.\n\nAppearance is also important (this is somewhat controversial to say), but if I have a wheat beer, I expect cloudiness, and if I have a pilsner, I expect clarity. \n\nSo first major component of taste is any off flavors. A beer with many off flavors is usually going to taste bad to anyone. Chlorophenols, for example, taste like rubbery medicine, and there might be some weirdos that like it, but it's universally accepted to be bad.\n\nOther compounds can be an off flavor in one style, but desirable to an extent in another style. DMS (dimethyl sulfide) is a corny tasting chemical that is acceptable in some adjunct lagers, but you definitely wouldn't want it in a stout. Kinda like how orange juice tastes good, and chocolate milk tastes good, but you wouldn't want to mix OJ and chocolate milk.\n\nThe second major component of taste is personal preference. There are so many compounds in beer, and each persons ability to taste them will be different. Diacetyl in another off flavor. Person A might drink a beer with diacetyl, and not really taste it, but think the beer is fine, while person B might think the beer tastes really buttery.\n\nNext there are beers that don't fit with the style. A brewery might call one of its beers a belgian dubbel, when really, it's a brown ale. Even if it tastes perfectly fine, you might call this a bad beer. Just like how if you tried to make waffles and ended up with pancakes, you made bad waffles. This is definitely a part of brewing that has a lot of wiggle room, though.\n\nFurther in the post you mention mass marketed beers. The reason so many are poorly rated, is because they are really only one style (adjunct lager) that is supposed to be low in flavor. I dont fault the people who brew budweiser for making flavorless beer, because they make it exactly how they are trying to make it, with ridiculous consistency. They just make what is marketable.\n\nThere are mass marketed beers of other styles, Guinness for stouts, Sierra Nevada pale ale for pale ales, Genessee cream ale for cream ales, carlsburg for pilsners, the list goes on an on.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "754199", "title": "Beer Bad", "section": "Section::::Writing and acting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 302, "text": "However, the most striking feature of \"Beer Bad\" is the twin moral: Beer and casual sex are bad. In a BBC interview, Petrie states: \"Well, very young people get unlimited access to alcohol and become horrible! We all do it — or most of us do it — and live to regret it, and we wanted to explore that.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3363", "title": "Beer", "section": "Section::::Nutritional information.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 86, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 86, "end_character": 343, "text": "Beers vary in their nutritional content. The ingredients used to make beer, including the yeast, provide a rich source of nutrients; therefore beer may contain nutrients including magnesium, selenium, potassium, phosphorus, biotin, chromium and B vitamins. Beer is sometimes referred to as \"liquid bread\", though beer is not a meal in itself.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "844954", "title": "Westvleteren Brewery", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 347, "text": "The brewery's three beers have acquired an international reputation for taste and quality, Westvleteren 12 being considered by some to be the best beer in the world. The beers are not brewed to normal commercial demands but are sold in small quantities weekly from the doors of the monastery itself to individual buyers on an advance-order basis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24438648", "title": "Milwaukee's Best", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 267, "text": "Milwaukee's Best is a 4.8% alcohol by volume, American-style pale lager brewed by Miller Brewing Company of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in the United States. Its sibling beers are Milwaukee's Best Ice and Milwaukee's Best Light. It is sometimes referred to as \"the beast\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21640", "title": "Low-alcohol beer", "section": "Section::::Categories.:Light (reduced alcohol) beer.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 356, "text": "Light beers may be chosen by drinkers who wish to manage their alcohol consumption or their calorie intake. However, these beers are sometimes criticized for being less flavorful than full-strength beers, being \"watered down\" (whether in perception or in fact), and thus advertising campaigns for light beers generally advertise their retention of flavor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1637673", "title": "Beer in Canada", "section": "Section::::Light Beer.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 1103, "text": "Of course, beer connoisseurs usually rate regular beers as preferable to the light, and especially to the ultra light, beers. For example, reviews generally consider Molson Canadian 67 to be too light in taste, without the rich beer flavor of more highly-rated products. Consumers who evaluate beer on Web sites such as Beer Advocate and Rate Beer consider the ultra light beers such as Molson Canadian 67 and Sleeman Clear 2.0 as refreshing at best and bland or watered down at worst. Nonetheless, consumers who prefer not to give up beer while on a diet can certainly find several options that get at least acceptable ratings, especially in the \"moderately low\" calorie/carb category. For example, the winners of the Light (Calorie-Reduced) Lager category in the 2016 Canadian Brewing Awards included Labatt's Bud Light, Moosehead's Cracked Canoe and Molson Coors' Coors Light. (According to the organizers, \"This competition is judged by approximately 40 Certified Beer Judges (BJCP) who consider five criteria: aroma, appearance, flavour, mouth-feel, and overall impression when judging the beer\".)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "362355", "title": "Microbrewery", "section": "Section::::National distribution.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 310, "text": "In a June 2014 interview, the owner of an Oregon-based microbrewery explained: \"You've got to do more than just make great beer. It's really about innovation, creativity—stepping outside the box of traditional beer marketing\", while an employee explained that \"heart and soul\" is the essence of the operation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Any given quantum state can hold at most 2 electrons, because [degeneracy](_URL_0_) of a state is 2s+1, and electrons have spin s = 1/2.\n\n \n > Also I have read about electron spin, but I'm still rather unsure about what that actually means. \n \nIt's an intrinsic property of particles, like charge is. There were historically some attempts to explain electron spin as electron being a small charged sphere, spinning on its axis, so spin would literally be a measure of how fast the sphere spins, but we now know that this isn't the case, since, among other things, even neutral particles like neutrons have non-zero spin.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "So the reason you have pairs is \nFirst: any particle can only exist at a certain energy level and if it can't it must find another\nSecond: Spin has to do with a lot of things and isn't actually a particle spinning in the classical sense. Essentially particles can have spins of 1 or 1/2(+ or - and 3/2 and such but too complicated for now) and in the case of 1/2 spins there are two wavefunctions( the possible state) for a given energy. One where the function is even and one is odd, they don't interfere and because of this electrons can exist one in one state and the other in the other state. This means the two electrons have equal(ish) energy and exist in the same set of locations at the same time. Spins of 1 don't have multiple functions so only 1 possible state at a certain energy. Because of this only 1 proton/neutron (some other 1 spin stuff) can only exist with 1 particle at any given set of locations. In case of atoms, electrons are in the orbital space and protons/neutrons in nucleus space/energy level\nDon't know how to add credentials so - undergraduate physics Chem double major 1 yr left.\nHope that helps\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A quick note that no-one has mentioned yet; while you'll never see electrons act in units of threes in a molecule due to quantum states only holding two electrons at a time, they can and do act alone sometimes. A molecule that has a quantum state containing only one electron instead of two is called a radical, and these tend to be highly unstable and reactive.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "378994", "title": "Lone pair", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 533, "text": "In chemistry, a lone pair refers to a pair of valence electrons that are not shared with another atom and is sometimes called an unshared pair or non-bonding pair. Lone pairs are found in the outermost electron shell of atoms. They can be identified by using a Lewis structure. Electron pairs are therefore considered lone pairs if two electrons are paired but are not used in chemical bonding. Thus, the number of lone pair electrons plus the number of bonding electrons equals the total number of valence electrons around an atom.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7376733", "title": "Electron pair", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 215, "text": "In chemistry, an electron pair or a Lewis pair consists of two electrons that occupy the same molecular orbital but have opposite spins. The electron pair concept was introduced in a 1916 paper of Gilbert N. Lewis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "376845", "title": "Cooper pair", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 647, "text": "The electrons in a pair are not necessarily close together; because the interaction is long range, paired electrons may still be many hundreds of nanometers apart. This distance is usually greater than the average interelectron distance so that many Cooper pairs can occupy the same space. Electrons have spin-, so they are fermions, but the total spin of a Cooper pair is integer (0 or 1) so it is a composite boson. This means the wave functions are symmetric under particle interchange. Therefore, unlike electrons, multiple Cooper pairs are allowed to be in the same quantum state, which is responsible for the phenomena of superconductivity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7376733", "title": "Electron pair", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 267, "text": "The pairing of spins is often energetically favorable and electron pairs therefore play a very large role in chemistry. They can form a chemical bond between two atoms, or they can occur as a lone pair of valence electrons. They also fill the core levels of an atom.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7071490", "title": "History of molecular theory", "section": "Section::::20th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 360, "text": "In other words, electron-pair bonds are formed when two atoms share an edge, as in structure C below. This results in the sharing of two electrons. Similarly, charged ionic-bonds are formed by the transfer of an electron from one cube to another, without sharing an edge A. An intermediate state B where only one corner is shared was also postulated by Lewis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "378994", "title": "Lone pair", "section": "Section::::Angle changes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 578, "text": "The pairs often exhibit a negative polar character with their high charge density and are located closer to the atomic nucleus on average compared to the bonding pair of electrons. The presence of a lone pair decreases the bond angle between the bonding pair of electrons, due to their high electric charge which causes great repulsion between the electrons. They are also used in the formation of a dative bond. For example, the creation of the hydronium (HO) ion occurs when acids are dissolved in water and is due to the oxygen atom donating a lone pair to the hydrogen ion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9476", "title": "Electron", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Quantum properties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 683, "text": "Electrons are identical particles because they cannot be distinguished from each other by their intrinsic physical properties. In quantum mechanics, this means that a pair of interacting electrons must be able to swap positions without an observable change to the state of the system. The wave function of fermions, including electrons, is antisymmetric, meaning that it changes sign when two electrons are swapped; that is, , where the variables \"r\" and \"r\" correspond to the first and second electrons, respectively. Since the absolute value is not changed by a sign swap, this corresponds to equal probabilities. Bosons, such as the photon, have symmetric wave functions instead.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Referring not to westboro specifically, this problem arises in a lot of religious organizations as a consequence of human free will and gods plan often seemingly being at odds. Basically even though god has already selected these people only god knows who they are and for those people to know god and be saved perhaps someone has to save them and perhaps one of those people is convinced by the westboro folks. Essentially if the westboro folks convert someone its not that they have changed gods plan, but rather that it was gods plan all along for them to be there to change that persons path in the first place. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "376898", "title": "Westboro Baptist Church", "section": "Section::::Church views.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 618, "text": "The Westboro Baptist Church considers membership in most other religious groups, such as the Roman Catholic Church or Islam, as akin to devil worship, and states these other churches to be \"Satanic frauds preaching Arminian lies\". The church defines itself as \"Old School (or, Primitive) Baptist\" and sees itself as defending the Five Points of Calvinism: total depravity, unconditional election, limited atonement, irresistible grace, and perseverance of the saints. Rebecca Barrett-Fox, a professor at Arkansas State University who completed a dissertation on Westboro Baptist, has labelled it as \"hyper-Calvinist\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "376898", "title": "Westboro Baptist Church", "section": "Section::::Church views.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 633, "text": "The religious practices of the Westboro Baptist Church are similar to many other Christian groups. Membership in the Church involves attending weekly service, and parishioners describe themselves as \"very religious\". Additionally, members believe in the Calvinist theology of predestination which includes believing that all disasters and catastrophes come from the hand of God. The public acts of the church have cast a political spotlight on the group that have given them vast attention for only having approximately 80 members. In particular, the religious connection to active political hate speech has led to much controversy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36969180", "title": "List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBT hate groups", "section": "Section::::Notable groups listed.:Westboro Baptist Church.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 93, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 93, "end_character": 661, "text": "The Westboro Baptist Church (WBC) is an American, Primitive Baptist church based in Topeka, Kansas known for its extreme ideologies, especially those against homosexuality. The church is widely described as a hate group and is monitored as such by the Anti-Defamation League and Southern Poverty Law Center. It consists primarily of members of the large family of the late Fred Phelps; in 2011, the church stated that it had about 40 members. The church is headquartered in a residential neighborhood on the west side of Topeka about three miles west of the Kansas State Capitol. Its first public service was held on the afternoon of Sunday, November 27, 1955.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31083623", "title": "Nathan Phelps", "section": "Section::::Criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 497, "text": "Westboro Baptist Church has itself been widely criticized, and has been described as \"roundly derided\" and \"widely rebuked and criticized\" by Christian groups which distance WBC's views from their own, and in other cases WBC is accused of \"misreading\" and \"misrepresenting\" the Bible. Phelps has responded to this position arguing that WBC's position was derived by his father from bona fide Biblical text and has written on the wider subject of mainstream Christianity's rejection of extremists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "437067", "title": "Hate group", "section": "Section::::Religious hate groups.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 233, "text": "Westboro Baptist Church is considered a hate group because of its provocative stance against homosexuality and the United States, and it has been condemned by many mainstream gay rights opponents as well as by gay rights supporters.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10476851", "title": "The Most Hated Family in America", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 945, "text": "Westboro Baptist Church bases its work around the belief that \"God Hates Fags\", and expresses the opinion, based on its Biblical interpretation, that nearly every tragedy in the world is God's punishment for homosexuality – specifically society's increasing tolerance and acceptance of gay, lesbian, and bisexual people. It maintains that God hates homosexuals above all other kinds of \"sinners\" and that homosexuality should be a capital crime. The church runs the website GodHatesFags.com, and GodHatesAmerica.com, and websites expressing condemnation of LGBT people, Roman Catholics, Muslims, Hindus, Jews, Sweden, Ireland, Canada, the Netherlands, and the United States. The organisation is monitored by the Anti-Defamation League and is classified as a hate group by the Southern Poverty Law Center. The group has achieved notoriety because of its picketing of funeral processions of U.S. soldiers killed in combat in Iraq and Afghanistan.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "376898", "title": "Westboro Baptist Church", "section": "Section::::Responses.:Criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 144, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 144, "end_character": 405, "text": "Katherine Weber of \"The Christian Post\" states that \"Westboro is considered an extremist group by most mainstream Christian churches and secular groups, and is well known for its aggressive protesting style.\" In Britain, the Methodist Church, Baptist Union, United Reformed Church, and Evangelical churches \"have issued a joint statement repudiating the actions of Westboro Baptist Church,\" stating that:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The USSR went through an extensive demobilisation process following the war. This was part of the vast, and generally quite successful, programme of reconstruction that retooled and rebuilt the economy. By 1950 the Soviet economic production had surpassed its pre-war levels. But on to the soldiers.\n\nFrom a starting point of 11m Soviet soldiers in 1945, at least 8.5m were demobilised in batches over the period 1945-48. As was typical in the USSR, the process was 'difficult' (to quote Harrison) with the state simply unable to manage the transportation and promised material support of returning veterans. (That 1946-47 were also famine years didn't help.) Many soldiers were simply handed their papers and told to make their own way home.\n\nBut if these were years of hardship then at least employment was not a problem. If the veterans did not return home as a privileged cohort (and the degree to which they did is still debated) they had the advantage of a strong labour market. Labour shortages had emerged as a chronic feature of the Soviet economy in the pre-war years and the immense loss of life during the war had only sharpened this. The returning veterans did not come close to filling this gap, hence migration of peasant labour continued to be a feature of the post-war economy.\n\nCrucially, demobilisation furthered this shift towards an urban economy. Approximately half of all veterans found their way into the cities, as part of the industrial workforce. Given that most soldiers had been recruited from the peasantry, this itself represented a significant demographic shift. Flitzer has some detailed figures on industry recruitment (see below, I unfortunately don't have the source to hand) but by and large they would have followed the patterns of pre-war industrial growth - eg metallurgy, mining, construction, etc.\n\nI can't say how many career soldiers emerged from the war. From a macro perspective however, the Soviet economy never entirely demobilised. Many of the war industries, and formations obviously, were maintained into the Cold War. Despite a brief respite under Khrushchev (with a further round of demobilisations in 1953-60) the USSR emerged from the war with an economic 'defence burden' as high, or higher, than that of 1940.\n\n**Sources**\n\nObviously my background is largely the economic and social impact of the war and demobilisation. In this I'm primarily drawing on Donald Filtzer (*Soviet Workers and Late Stalinism*), Mark Harrison (*The Soviet Union After 1945*, *The Soviet Industrial Defence Complex in WWII*) and Michael Ellman (*Socialist Planning*).\n\nI've not read it myself but I've heard good things about Mark Edele's *Soviet Veterans of the Second World War*. I suspect that that work would answer most of your questions.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "60830799", "title": "Soviet industry in World War II", "section": "Section::::Wartime economy and governmental actions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 588, "text": "The following table shows the employment of Soviet workforce during the years of the war starting with 1940, a year before the war. A drop of 13.8 million workers in total working population from 1940 to 1941 is due to the loss of European populated areas such as Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic and due to large casualties on the front line which needed to be replenished. The working population picks back up again by almost 10 million from 1943 to 1944, this is when the Red Army began to liberate previously occupied Soviet territories.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60830799", "title": "Soviet industry in World War II", "section": "Section::::Wartime economy and governmental actions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1164, "text": "June 26, 1941 the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Unionadopted a new decree \"On the working hours of workers and service members in wartime,\" which introduced overtime work with work on holidays and weekends. Furthermore, there were mobilization and national economic plans that were approved and they were all aimed at increasing military output. On June 30, 1941, the Committee for the Distribution of Labor (later the Committee for Accounting and the Distribution of Labor) was created under the Bureau of the Council of Constituencies. From 1942 till July 1945 this committee attracted more than 3 million people from the urban and rural population to permanent work in industry, agriculture and transport. Then more than 2.1 million adolescents were sent to educational institutions of labor reserves. This brought the average annual number of workers and service members to 28.6 million people in 1945, or to 84% of the 1940 level. In addition, in accordance with the resolutions of the State Defense Committee in January 10 and October 7, 1942, the workers' columns were mobilized Germans (over 120 thousand people), deported from various parts of the country\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29974", "title": "Total war", "section": "Section::::20th century.:World War II.:Soviet Union.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 459, "text": "The Soviet Union (USSR) was a command economy which already had an economic and legal system allowing the economy and society to be redirected into fighting a total war. The transportation of factories and whole labour forces east of the Urals as the Germans advanced across the USSR in 1941 was an impressive feat of planning. Only those factories which were useful for war production were moved because of the total war commitment of the Soviet government.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "376732", "title": "Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic", "section": "Section::::Economy.:After 1945.:Industry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 1496, "text": "During the post-war years, Ukraine's industrial productivity doubled its pre-war level. In 1945 industrial output totalled only 26 percent of the 1940 level. The Soviet régime, which still believed in the planned economy, introduced the Fourth Five-Year Plan in 1946. The Fourth Five-Year Plan would prove to be a remarkable success, and can be likened to the \"wonders of West German and Japanese reconstruction\", but without foreign capital; the Soviet reconstruction is historically an impressive achievement. In 1950 industrial gross output had already surpassed 1940-levels. While the Soviet régime still emphasised heavy industry over light industry, the light-industry sector also grew. The increase in capital investment and the expansion of the labour force also benefited Ukraine's economic recovery. In the prewar years, 15.9 percent of the Soviet budget went to Ukraine, in 1950, during the Fourth Five-Year Plan this had increased to 19.3 percent. The workforce had increased from 1.2 million in 1945 to 2.9 million in 1955; a increase of 33.2 percent over the 1940-level. The end result of this remarkable growth was that by 1955 Ukraine was producing 2.2 times more than in 1940, and the republic had become one of the leading producers of certain commodities in Europe. Ukraine was the largest per-capita producer in Europe of pig iron and sugar, and the second-largest per-capita producer of steel and of iron ore, and was the third largest per-capita producer of coal in Europe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45705591", "title": "Fitness culture", "section": "Section::::Development.:World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 281, "text": "In the Soviet Union, the Leninist Young Communist League created the Ready for Labour and Defence of the USSR in 1931, which was a fitness program that was designed to improve public health and prepare the population for highly productive work and the defense of \"the motherland\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34998994", "title": "Soviet working class", "section": "Section::::Standard of living.:Working conditions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 1350, "text": "Working conditions for a Soviet worker changed over time; for instance, at the beginning of the Communist regime the government pursued a policy of worker participation at the enterprise level. During Joseph Stalin's crash-industrialisation drive, workers lost their right to participate in the functioning of the enterprise, and their working conditions deteriorated. In 1940, for example, a decree was promulgated and became law stating that a worker could be arrested if he had three accumulated absences, late arrivals or changed jobs without the official authorisation. Shock work, which meant that workers had to work past regular hours, was introduced alongside central planning. During World War II the pressure on workers increased and it was expected of them to take on Herculean efforts in their work. In the post-war years conditions did not improve but in fact worsened in some cases. For instance, small theft became illegal; this had been allowed for several years to compensate for workers' low salaries. The situation for the common worker improved during the post-Stalin years, and some of the worst measures approved by the Stalin regime to improve worker productivity were repealed. Because of the lack of a stick and carrot policy under the Brezhnev administration, worker productivity and discipline decreased during the 1970s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49445384", "title": "Inside Fighting Russia", "section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 440, "text": "The vast resources of labor and materials were mobilized by the Communist leadership. Since the 1920s and 1930s, with great sacrifices made by the working class and peasants, the Soviet Union had been transformed through a series of Five-Year Plans, into the world's second greatest industrial power. Turning to war factories in Siberia, far from the front lines, workers turned out tanks and aircraft, the new weapons of a mechanized war.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The casino advantage in Blackjack is about going last. To simplify a bit, the dealer will win every hand where the player goes bust - but the player loses hands where they go bust and the dealer also goes bust (because the game stops before the dealer gets a chance to go bust).\n\nWhat this means in practice is that the dealer has an advantage when the card mix remaining in the deck creates high variances while the player is better off if the card mix creates low variances. The dealer wins by you going bust, so the casino wants to see a lot of cards that are likely to make you go bust - face cards and tens.\n\nBy counting how many low cards and how many high cards you've seen from the deck, you'll get a reasonable approximation of how 'volatile' the remaining deck is - and if it's too volatile (too high an advantage for the casino), you dial down your bets.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2285338", "title": "All Star Baseball", "section": "Section::::Game play.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 361, "text": "Each circular player card has a series of lines and numbers arranged in a circle around its center. The card is placed on a spinner, which the batting player spins. (Aficionados would spin the metal pointers with rubber bands to avoid blisters.) Once the spinner came to rest between two lines, the number for that section defined what happened to that batter.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "438494", "title": "Card counting", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 245, "text": "Card counting, also referred to as card reading, often refers to obtaining a sufficient count on the number, distribution and high-card location of cards in trick-taking games such as contract bridge or spades to optimize the winning of tricks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34976279", "title": "Distributed practice", "section": "Section::::Learning systems.:Leitner.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 541, "text": "In this method, cards are sorted into separate boxes based on how well you know the material on that card. If you succeed in recalling the answer on the card, it is moved into the next box, and if you fail it is moved into a previous box (if there is one). The further into the chain of boxes a card goes, the longer you must wait before attempting to recall its solution. The Leitner method is another example of studying strategies that take advantage of distributed practice and its associated principles, in this case spaced repetition.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19524960", "title": "25 Words or Less", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 781, "text": "The game is played by one player from each of the two teams drawing a card (1 between the two of them) and looking at the five words on the card. They then begin bidding words, starting at 25 and working backward, until one player passes. The player who passed then flips the timer, and the other player has one minute to give clues to their team, to try to get them to guess each of the five words on the card, where each word in the giver's clues counts as one of the words bid. If the Giver manages to get their team to guess all five words, their team keeps the card. If they run out of time, the card passes to the other team. Two new players from each team then start the next turn of bidding after looking at a new card. The game ends once one team has collected ten cards.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "193042", "title": "IBM card sorter", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 718, "text": "An IBM card sorter is a machine for sorting decks of punched cards in the format popularized by the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM), which dominated the punched card data processing industry for much of the twentieth century. Sorting was a major activity in most facilities that processed data on punched cards using unit record equipment. The work flow of many processes required decks of cards to be put into some specific order as determined by the data punched in the cards. The same deck might be sorted differently for different processing steps. The IBM 80 series sorters sorted input cards into one of 13 pockets depending on the holes punched in a selected column and the sorter's settings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "98229", "title": "Faro (card game)", "section": "Section::::Rules.:Procedure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 600, "text": "A device, called a \"casekeep\" was employed to assist the players and prevent dealer cheating by counting cards. The casekeep resembled an abacus, with one spindle for each card denomination, with four counters on each spindle. As a card was played, either winning or losing, one of four counters would be moved to indicate that a card of that denomination had been played. This allowed players to plan their bets by keeping track of what cards remained available in the dealing box. The operator of the case keep is called the \"casekeeper\", or colloquially in the American West, the \"coffin driver\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6261767", "title": "Bob's Full House", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Round One (Four Corners).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 368, "text": "In this round, Monkhouse asked 50/50 toss-up questions on the buzzer, open to all. The correct answer allowed a player to light up the number in one corner of their card, while the wrong answer caused them to become penalized, or \"wallied\" - in this case, unable to buzz-in on the next question. The first player to light all four corners of their card won the round.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "We think women controlled the material wealth of Viking-Age households because many wealthy women were buried with a [key](_URL_1_). We assume that within the longhouse, there would have been a locked pantry, and only the matriarch of the household had access to it. Presumably this included food, possibly alcohol, and I would guess textiles as well. [Silk](_URL_2_) or [sails](_URL_3_) were both extremely valuable. It would make sense for a matriarch to control the household food distribution and textile production/consumption, and this seems like a pretty solid interpretation of the archaeological evidence. In contrast, textile production became a male industry in the later middle ages.\n\n[Coins](_URL_4_) might also have been kept in these cupboards, although some hoards seem to have been buried in farmhouse floors. I suspect this would have been the safer option, since anyone with an axe could break through the pantry door, but you'd need to convince someone to tell you where the family purse was buried before you could get at the money. If a household were attacked, you could abandon the house, and even if it were burnt down, you'd still be able to dig any buried coins back up.\n\nSo women were probably in charge of managing food and textiles—which were the major material wealth of a Viking-Age farm—but there's less evidence that they were responsible for coins. Of course, much of the stuff that got moved around during the Viking Age was probably traded or gifted, rather than bought for cash. So although there was no such thing as a household 'budget' and even 'finances' seems like an ill-fitting word for Viking-Age households, women seem to have been in charge of the bulk of a farm or family's wealth.\n\nThe rest of the statement you're interested in seems much more dubious. Witchcraft or [seiðr](_URL_6_) wasn't solely associated with women, although some sorts of things that we would consider 'magic' were considered feminine. (Admittedly, 'magic' isn't quite the right word since 'magic' often suggests superstition or illusion.) I've seen no reason to assume that math was considered magic or a particularly feminine form of magic. Instead, [scales](_URL_5_) and [weights](_URL_0_) for measuring silver are often found in apparently male graves. So the reason you can't find proof that women and witchcraft and math and finances all went together as a regular thing ... is probably because there's no proof to find.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "16290254", "title": "Witch trials in the early modern period", "section": "Section::::Causes and interpretations.:Gender conflict and reaction to earlier feminist studies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 76, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 76, "end_character": 390, "text": "Nevertheless, it has been argued that the supposedly misogynistic agenda of works on witchcraft has been greatly exaggerated, based on the selective repetition of a few relevant passages of the \"Malleus maleficarum\". There are various reasons as to why this was the case. In Early Modern Europe, it was widely believed that women were less intelligent than men and more susceptible to sin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52536379", "title": "Women in Iceland", "section": "Section::::History.:Viking age (793–1066 AD).:Early Commonwealth Era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 236, "text": "During the Viking Age, Norse women worked in farming and commerce alongside men, and were often left in charge while their husbands were away or had been killed. Women's workshops for making woolen textiles have been found in Iceland. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20561", "title": "Malleus Maleficarum", "section": "Section::::Theological foundations and major themes.:Victims.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 585, "text": "The treatise describes how women and men become inclined to practice witchcraft. The text argues that women are more susceptible to demonic temptations through the manifold weaknesses of their gender. It was believed that they were weaker in faith and more carnal than men. Michael Bailey claims that most of the women accused as witches had strong personalities and were known to defy convention by overstepping the lines of proper female decorum. After the publication of the \"Malleus\", it seems as though about three quarters of those individuals prosecuted as witches were women. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32610", "title": "Vikings", "section": "Section::::History.:Expansion.:Motives.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 648, "text": "Researchers have suggested that Vikings may have originally started sailing and raiding due to a need to seek out women from foreign lands. Rich and powerful Viking men tended to have many wives and concubines, these polygynous relationships may have lead to a shortage of eligible women for the average Viking male. Due to this, the average Viking man could have been forced to perform riskier actions to gain wealth and power to be able to find suitable women. Polygynous marriage increases male-male competition in society because it creates a pool of unmarried men who are willing to engage in risky status-elevating and sex seeking behaviors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33051191", "title": "Human rights in Papua New Guinea", "section": "Section::::Women's rights.:Witch-hunts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 632, "text": "Women are 6 times more likely to be accused of sorcery than men and hundreds of accused witches and sorcerers are killed annually. The accusers often hire diviners known as a \"Glass man\" or \"Glass mary\" to confirm the accusation. The accused are often the weak of society, such as widows, while those with sons to support them have a higher chance of not being accused. Relatives often reject giving refuge to the accused because they have been paid a bride price by the husband, which would have to be returned if the wife leaves the husband. While killing witches used to be done discreetly, it has grown into a public spectacle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10205086", "title": "Women in piracy", "section": "Section::::Female interaction with pirates in the 18th century.:Marriage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 351, "text": "Some women chose to marry pirates. These men were often very wealthy, but their wives tended not to gain wealth as a result of their marriages, as it was difficult for pirates to send home wages and booty earned overseas. These women's houses and establishments were often used as safe havens for pirates, who were considered enemies of all nations. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "690849", "title": "Cunning folk in Britain", "section": "Section::::Services.:Other services.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 1522, "text": "There were also claims that certain cunning folk were known to occasionally perform bewitching or cursing for a fee, which under some definitions would enable them to be considered to be witches as well as cunning people. The folklorist Eric Maple, after examining several nineteenth-century cunning folk in Essex, noted that one of them, George Pickingill, also performed cursing for clients, but that the other whom he examined, James Murrell, considered it immoral and so did not. Indeed, other Essex cunning folk were associated with witchcraft, notable in the village of Sible Hedingham, where there lived an elderly French cunning man who had had his tongue cut out at some point in his past, and who was subsequently dumb, as well as being deaf. As a result he was known as \"Dummy\" in the local community, who generally disliked him, largely because of his 'otherness' in being both foreign and disabled, and rumours spread that he was a witch who would curse them. In 1863 a drunken mob attacked him, throwing him in a river to see if he would sink or float (a traditional method of identifying a witch, who it was believed would float, whereas an innocent would sink), but the resulting shock killed the elderly man, who was in his eighties. Another notable case of a cunning person performing cursing and malevolent witchcraft comes from nineteenth-century Norwich, where a wise woman who went by the pseudonym of \"Virtue\" used to demand gifts from her neighbours, threatening them with cursing if they refused.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In general, no, no area is more prone to observing meteorite events than any other.\n\nHowever, viewing patterns and environmental effects can make a large difference in observed rates at the individual level. Meteors are most likely to be observed pre-dawn, when the movement of the Earth is aligned with the skyward direction. Light pollution will also make observing smaller events much more difficult. And general time spent outside will obviously increase viewing rates.\n\nIt's certainly not unusual for these events to occur. There are many thousands of them all over the Earth every day. It's most likely a difference in your personal viewing habits. I'm guessing you didn't spend too much time staying up late at night outside while you were growing up.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2776501", "title": "Visible-light astronomy", "section": "Section::::Commonly observed objects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 227, "text": "Meteors, often called \"shooting stars\" are also commonly observed. Meteor showers, such as the Perseids and Leonids, make viewing meteors much easier, as a multitude of meteors are visible in a relatively short period of time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "997476", "title": "Night sky", "section": "Section::::Visual presentation.:Other objects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 349, "text": "Meteors (commonly known as shooting stars) streak across the sky very infrequently. During a meteor shower, they may average one a minute at irregular intervals, but otherwise their appearance is a random surprise. The occasional meteor will make a bright, fleeting streak across the sky, and they can be very bright in comparison to the night sky.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7647631", "title": "Lyrids", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 358, "text": "Shooting stars. This electrical [sic] phenomenon was observed on Wednesday morning last at Richmond and its vicinity, in a manner that alarmed many, and astonished every person that beheld it. From one until three in the morning, those starry meteors seemed to fall from every point in the heavens, in such numbers as to resemble a shower of sky rockets ...\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "63793", "title": "Meteoroid", "section": "Section::::Meteors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 706, "text": "Meteors become visible between about above Earth. They usually disintegrate at altitudes of . Meteors have roughly a fifty percent chance of a daylight (or near daylight) collision with Earth. Most meteors are, however, observed at night, when darkness allows fainter objects to be recognized. For bodies with a size scale larger than to several meters meteor visibility is due to the atmospheric ram pressure (not friction) that heats the meteoroid so that it glows and creates a shining trail of gases and melted meteoroid particles. The gases include vaporised meteoroid material and atmospheric gases that heat up when the meteoroid passes through the atmosphere. Most meteors glow for about a second.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "580076", "title": "Skyglow", "section": "Section::::Negative effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 262, "text": "Due to skyglow, people who live in or near urban areas see thousands fewer stars than in an unpolluted sky, and commonly cannot see the Milky Way. Fainter sights like the zodiacal light and Andromeda Galaxy are nearly impossible to discern even with telescopes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4323846", "title": "Identification studies of UFOs", "section": "Section::::Common causes of misidentification and UFOs.:Meteors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 734, "text": "The brightest meteors known as bolides are long lasting fireballs that leave a trail in the sky which can be visible for up to an hour after passing. Such events are relatively rare but can be witnessed by a large area of the Earth since most events occur kilometers up in the atmosphere. Those witnessing such events who are not familiar with meteors can be easily fooled into thinking that the meteor is a UFO. Because meteors are not predictable with the same degree of accuracy as planets, stars, or man-made objects such as satellites, these occurrences are more difficult to prove in retrospect, though UFO sightings during meteor showers, or where there are astronomical reports of bolides, are likely to be explained as such.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56568", "title": "Pleiades", "section": "Section::::Reflection nebulosity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 377, "text": "With larger amateur telescopes, the nebulosity around some of the stars can be easily seen; especially when long-exposure photographs are taken. Under ideal observing conditions, some hint of nebulosity around the cluster may even be seen with small telescopes or average binoculars. It is a reflection nebula, caused by dust reflecting the blue light of the hot, young stars.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Not really.\n\nReddit is stored on a series of servers, and you probably know how that works for the most part.\n\nWhat happens though, is that when you can't access the specific server needed, they often have one set up for \"overflow\" which is for when the site is really busy, which is dedicated to showing just that \"OW\" picture. Making it much simpler.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "\nLet's say you showed up at town hall and asked to see the mayor. Her assistant asks what you want to see her about, then comes back and tells you the mayor is too busy today. The assistant has plenty of time to shoot the breeze with you, but that doesn't make the mayor any less busy.\n\nWeb sites work the same way. They have a multi-tiered design, with different tiers doing different jobs. The top level tier just handles requests from the internet, while other tiers gather data and build web pages, doing the actual work. When they get bogged down, they web tier might not be busy...in fact, it might have enough free time to notice, and throw up a too busy to load page.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4042967", "title": "Referer spoofing", "section": "Section::::Application.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 450, "text": "Some websites, especially many image hosting sites, use referer information to secure their materials: only browsers arriving from their web pages are served images. Additionally a site may want users to click through pages with advertisements before directly being able to access a downloadable file — using the referring page or referring site information can help a site redirect unauthorized users to the landing page the site would like to use.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4555947", "title": "Search engine results page", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 848, "text": "Due to the huge number of items that are available or related to the query, there usually are several pages in response to a single search query as the search engine or the user's preferences restrict viewing to a subset of results per page. Each succeeding page will tend to have lower ranking or lower relevancy results. Just like the world of traditional print media and its advertising, this enables competitive pricing for page real estate, but is complicated by the dynamics of consumer expectations and intent— unlike static print media where the content and the advertising on every page is the same all of the time for all viewers, despite such hard copy being localized to some degree, usually geographic, like state, metro-area, city, or neighborhoods, search engine results can vary based on individual factors such as browsing habits.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1876262", "title": "Usage share of web browsers", "section": "Section::::Accuracy.:User agent spoofing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 421, "text": "Websites often include code to detect browser version to adjust the page design sent according to the user agent string received. This may mean that less-popular browsers are not sent complex content (even though they might be able to deal with it correctly) or, in extreme cases, refused all content. Thus, various browsers have a feature to \"cloak\" or \"spoof\" their identification to force certain server-side content.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23924341", "title": "Adaptive website", "section": "Section::::Overview.:Differentiation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 262, "text": "User landing pages (such as iGoogle) that allow the user to customize the presented content are not adaptive websites as they rely on the user to select rather than the automation of the selection and presentation of the web widget's that appear on the website.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37083506", "title": "Wait marketing", "section": "Section::::Wait Marketing Online.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 539, "text": "Another instance are landing pages, used by many businesses on their company websites and social media platforms. These are pop-up type boxes that appear over the web page encouraging the site user to follow them on a certain platform or sign up to their newsletter. Sometimes these are optional, and sometimes they are compulsory, where the user can only access the content if they follow the steps. This technique is often used to enable companies to keep in contact with their potential customers via their news feeds or email inboxes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2695651", "title": "Browser sniffing", "section": "Section::::Issues and standards.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 990, "text": "Many websites use browser sniffing to determine whether a visitor's browser is unable to use certain features (such as JavaScript, DHTML, ActiveX, or cascading style sheets), and display an error page if a certain browser is not used. However, it is virtually impossible to account for the tremendous variety of browsers available to users. Generally, a web designer using browser sniffing to determine what kind of page to present will test for the three or four most popular browsers, and provide content tailored to each of these. If a user is employing a user agent not tested for, there is no guarantee that a usable page will be served; thus, the user may be forced either to change browsers or to avoid the page. The World Wide Web Consortium, which sets standards for the construction of web pages, recommends that web sites be designed in accordance with its standards, and be arranged to \"fail gracefully\" when presented to a browser which cannot deal with a particular standard.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "487303", "title": "User agent", "section": "Section::::Use in HTTP.:User agent sniffing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 847, "text": "The term \"user agent sniffing\" refers to the practice of websites showing different content when viewed with a certain user agent. On the Internet, this will result in a different site being shown when browsing the page with a specific browser. One example of this is Microsoft Exchange Server 2003's Outlook Web Access feature. When viewed with Internet Explorer 6 or newer, more functionality is displayed compared to the same page in any other browsers. User agent sniffing is now considered poor practice, since it encourages browser-specific design and penalizes new browsers with unrecognized user agent identifications. Instead, the W3C recommends creating HTML markup that is standard, allowing correct rendering in as many browsers as possible, and to test for specific browser features rather than particular browser versions or brands.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Essentially there are two main theories:\n\n1) CP (charge parity) violations. If reversing charge and parity (flipping in the sign of one spatial coordinate) does not produce exactly the same physics, then the weak force can cause anti-matter to decay faster than ordinary matter.\n\n2) We are in a part of the universe in which matter dominates, in another part of the universe antimatter dominates. This could occur if matter and antimatter repelled one another under gravity, giving the universe a dipole structure.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The truth is, we don't know. The reason for the matter/antimatter asymmetry of the universe remains an open research question.\n\nWe do know that the excess of matter to antimatter was about 1 part per billion; for the most part, the antimatter annihilated with matter, leaving that 1 part per billion excess of matter to constitute the things we know and see today.\n\nOne possibility is that the universe just began asymmetrically, for whatever reason.\n\nAnother is that the universe generated an excess of matter to antimatter dynamically. In 1967, [Sakharov identified conditions](_URL_0_) needed for this to happen:\n\n1. The laws of physics must violate conservation of baryon number (the thing that distinguishes protons and neutrons from their antiparticles)\n\n2. The laws of physics must have terms that change under the transformations C (replace matter by antimatter fields and vice-versa) and CP (replace matter by antimatter and simultaneously turn things into their mirror images).\n\n3. The universe must have a period of time when it is not in thermal equilibrium.\n\nAll three of these conditions can be met within the Standard Model, but that does not mean that the Standard Model encodes the actual way the matter excess was produced. (Condition 1 arises due to *sphalerons*, processes that are ordinarily *exceedingly* rare, but could have been more abundant in an early, early universe; condition 2 is explicitly met by familiar terms in the Standard Model, and processes that violate C and CP have been observed at accelerators; and condition 3 can also be incorporated, and arises, for example, if the universe expands at a rate faster than the rate of matter-generating processes.)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7035802", "title": "Astroparticle physics", "section": "Section::::Topics of research.:Open questions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 332, "text": "Another question for astroparticle physicists is why is there so much more matter than antimatter in the universe today. Baryogenesis is the term for the hypothetical processes that produced the unequal numbers of baryons and anitbaryons in the early universe, which is why the universe is made of matter today, and not antimatter.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24731", "title": "Positron", "section": "Section::::Natural production.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 647, "text": "Antiparticles, of which the most common are positrons due to their low mass, are also produced in any environment with a sufficiently high temperature (mean particle energy greater than the pair production threshold). During the period of baryogenesis, when the universe was extremely hot and dense, matter and antimatter were continually produced and annihilated. The presence of remaining matter, and absence of detectable remaining antimatter, also called baryon asymmetry, is attributed to CP-violation: a violation of the CP-symmetry relating matter to antimatter. The exact mechanism of this violation during baryogenesis remains a mystery.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19673093", "title": "Matter", "section": "Section::::Antimatter.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 794, "text": "There is considerable speculation both in science and science fiction as to why the observable universe is apparently almost entirely matter (in the sense of quarks and leptons but not antiquarks or antileptons), and whether other places are almost entirely antimatter (antiquarks and antileptons) instead. In the early universe, it is thought that matter and antimatter were equally represented, and the disappearance of antimatter requires an asymmetry in physical laws called CP (charge-parity) symmetry violation, which can be obtained from the Standard Model, but at this time the apparent asymmetry of matter and antimatter in the visible universe is one of the great unsolved problems in physics. Possible processes by which it came about are explored in more detail under baryogenesis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1317", "title": "Antimatter", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 225, "text": "This asymmetry of matter and antimatter in the visible universe is one of the great unsolved problems in physics. The process by which this inequality between matter and antimatter particles developed is called baryogenesis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31880", "title": "Universe", "section": "Section::::Physical properties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 638, "text": "The Universe appears to have much more matter than antimatter, an asymmetry possibly related to the CP violation. This imbalance between matter and antimatter is partially responsible for the existence of all matter existing today, since matter and antimatter, if equally produced at the Big Bang, would have completely annihilated each other and left only photons as a result of their interaction. The Universe also appears to have neither net momentum nor angular momentum, which follows accepted physical laws if the Universe is finite. These laws are the Gauss's law and the non-divergence of the stress-energy-momentum pseudotensor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4116", "title": "Big Bang", "section": "Section::::Problems and related issues in physics.:Baryon asymmetry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 88, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 88, "end_character": 786, "text": "It is not yet understood why the universe has more matter than antimatter. It is generally assumed that when the universe was young and very hot it was in statistical equilibrium and contained equal numbers of baryons and antibaryons. However, observations suggest that the universe, including its most distant parts, is made almost entirely of matter. A process called baryogenesis was hypothesized to account for the asymmetry. For baryogenesis to occur, the Sakharov conditions must be satisfied. These require that baryon number is not conserved, that C-symmetry and CP-symmetry are violated and that the universe depart from thermodynamic equilibrium. All these conditions occur in the Standard Model, but the effects are not strong enough to explain the present baryon asymmetry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19673093", "title": "Matter", "section": "Section::::Definition.:Based on elementary fermions (mass, volume, and space).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 821, "text": "Thus, matter can be defined as everything composed of elementary fermions. Although we don't encounter them in everyday life, antiquarks (such as the antiproton) and antileptons (such as the positron) are the antiparticles of the quark and the lepton, are elementary fermions as well, and have essentially the same properties as quarks and leptons, including the applicability of the Pauli exclusion principle which can be said to prevent two particles from being in the same place at the same time (in the same state), i.e. makes each particle \"take up space\". This particular definition leads to matter being defined to include anything made of these antimatter particles as well as the ordinary quark and lepton, and thus also anything made of mesons, which are unstable particles made up of a quark and an antiquark.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The light from your headlights will propagate at exactly the speed of light, as for you and for any outside observer. The Problem with your argumentation is the same with which any relativity discussion starts, that time is a fixed thing. According to Einsteins theory however, this is not true. The only thing that stays fixed in any frame of reference is the speed of light. Time does change according to the lorentz factor, which tends to zero when approaching the speed of light. This means that the time in your spaceship is significantly larger for an outside observer. \nJust to clarify: 1. We cant even think about the concept, since your mass grows with that same lorentz factor and goes to infinity approaching the speed of light. That would mean infinite energy which simply is not there. Therefore thinking about that concept is physically very wrong!\n2. Newtons laws of motion are only valid for \"slow\" speeds. Anything faster than about 0.3c will have significant differences. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "37856", "title": "Alcubierre drive", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 487, "text": "Rather than exceeding the speed of light within a local reference frame, a spacecraft would traverse distances by contracting space in front of it and expanding space behind it, resulting in effective faster-than-light travel. Objects cannot accelerate to the speed of light within normal spacetime; instead, the Alcubierre drive shifts space around an object so that the object would arrive at its destination faster than light would in normal space without breaking any physical laws.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6508460", "title": "Tachyons in fiction", "section": "Section::::In popular culture.:Film.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 503, "text": "BULLET::::- In \"K-PAX\" (2001), in a conversation between Prot (played by Kevin Spacey) and Dr Powell (played by Jeff Bridges), Dr Powell explains \"according to a man who lived on our planet named Einstein, nothing can travel faster than the speed of light\". Prot replies \"what Einstein actually said was that nothing can accelerate to the speed of light, because its mass would become infinite. Einstein said nothing about entities already traveling at the speed of light or faster, at tachyon speeds\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2315180", "title": "De Sitter double star experiment", "section": "Section::::The effect.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 518, "text": "According to simple emission theory, light thrown off by an object should move at a speed of formula_1 with respect to the emitting object. If there are no complicating dragging effects, the light would then be expected to move at this same speed until it eventually reached an observer. For an object moving directly towards (or away from) the observer at formula_2 metres per second, this light would then be expected to still be travelling at formula_3 ( or formula_4 ) metres per second at the time it reached us.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27533725", "title": "Intergalactic star", "section": "Section::::Observation history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 715, "text": "In 2005, at the Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Warren Brown and his team attempted to measure the speeds of hypervelocity stars using the Doppler Technique, by which light is observed for the similar changes that occur in sound when an object is moving away or toward something. But the speeds found are only estimated minimums, as in reality their speeds may be larger than the speeds found by the researchers. \"One of the newfound exiles is moving in the direction of the constellation Ursa Major at about 1.25 million mph with respect to the galaxy. It is 240,000 light-years away. The other is headed toward the constellation Cancer, outbound at 1.43 million miles per hour and 180,000 light-years away.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "468939", "title": "1676 in science", "section": "Section::::Astronomy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 203, "text": "BULLET::::- December 7 – Danish astronomer Ole Rømer measures the speed of light by observing the eclipses of Jupiter's moons, obtaining a speed of 140,000 miles per second (approximately 25% too slow).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28736", "title": "Speed of light", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 742, "text": "For many practical purposes, light and other electromagnetic waves will appear to propagate instantaneously, but for long distances and very sensitive measurements, their finite speed has noticeable effects. In communicating with distant space probes, it can take minutes to hours for a message to get from Earth to the spacecraft, or vice versa. The light seen from stars left them many years ago, allowing the study of the history of the universe by looking at distant objects. The finite speed of light also limits the theoretical maximum speed of computers, since information must be sent within the computer from chip to chip. The speed of light can be used with time of flight measurements to measure large distances to high precision.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1447921", "title": "Pp-wave spacetime", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 243, "text": "In particular, the physical experience of an observer who whizzes by a gravitating object (such as a star or a black hole) at nearly the speed of light can be modelled by an \"impulsive\" pp-wave spacetime called the Aichelburg–Sexl ultraboost.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The IMAX 3D projector delivers 3D images of unsurpassed brightness and clarity, unlike any other 3D technology available today. IMAX 3D takes advantage of the fact that we see the world through two eyes. An IMAX 3D movie actually consists of two separate images projected onto a special silver-coated IMAX 3D screen at the same time. One image is captured from the viewpoint of the right eye, and the other shows the viewpoint of the left eye. IMAX 3D glasses separate the images, so the left and right eyes each see a different view. Your brain blends the views together to create an amazing three-dimensional image that appears to have depth beyond and in front of the screen.\n\nMore info: _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "576646", "title": "2.5D", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 516, "text": "The two-and-a-half-dimensional (2.5D, alternatively three-quarter and pseudo-3D) perspective is either 2D graphical projections and similar techniques used to cause images or scenes to simulate the appearance of being three-dimensional (3D) when in fact they are not, or gameplay in an otherwise three-dimensional video game that is restricted to a two-dimensional plane with a limited access to the third dimension. By contrast, games using 3D computer graphics without such restrictions are said to use \"true 3D\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23364842", "title": "3D stereo view", "section": "Section::::Implementation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 816, "text": "A 3D or 3-D (three-dimensional) film or S3D (stereoscopic 3D) film is a motion picture that enhances the illusion of depth perception. The most common approach to the production of 3D films is derived from stereoscopic photography. In it, a regular motion picture camera system is used to record the images as seen from two perspectives (or computer-generated imagery generates the two perspectives in post-production), and special projection hardware and/or eyewear are used to provide the illusion of depth when viewing the film. Some methods of producing 3D films do not require the use of two images. 3D films are not limited to feature film theatrical releases; television broadcasts and direct-to-video films have also incorporated similar methods, especially since the advent of 3D television and Blu-ray 3D.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35254302", "title": "Unchained Blades", "section": "Section::::Development.:Creation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 446, "text": "The Nintendo 3DS and PlayStation Portable versions are almost identical, the differences being mainly visual. The 3DS version is the only one that features stereoscopic 3D graphics. Additionally, the placement of the overhead map of the levels is different platforms; for the 3DS, it's on the second, bottom screen, where on the PSP, which lacks a second screen, it is merely layered over the main screen, with the option to toggle it on or off.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "173787", "title": "IMAX", "section": "Section::::Technical aspects.:Projectors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 462, "text": "IMAX Corporation has released four projector types that use its 15-perforation, 70 mm film format: GT (Grand Theatre), GT 3D (dual rotor), SR (Small Rotor), and MPX, which was designed for retrofitted theatres. In July 2008, the company introduced a digital projection system, which it has not given a distinct name or brand, designed for multiplex theatres with screens no wider than . All IMAX projectors, except the standard GT system, can project 3D images.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "173787", "title": "IMAX", "section": "Section::::Variations.:3D.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 308, "text": "Several of the early films that had been produced in digital 3D for release in conventional theaters were also presented in IMAX 3D, including \"Avatar\", \"Gravity\" and \"The Amazing Spider-Man\". The first full-color IMAX 3D film was the 1986 short documentary \"Transitions\", produced for Expo 86 in Vancouver.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "313216", "title": "Autodesk 3ds Max", "section": "Section::::Adoption.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 355, "text": "Many films have made use of 3ds Max, or previous versions of the program under previous names, in CGI animation, such as \"Avatar\" and \"2012\", which contain computer generated graphics from 3ds Max alongside live-action acting. Mudbox was also used in the final texturing of the set and characters in Avatar, with 3ds Max and Mudbox being closely related.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18567210", "title": "Computer graphics", "section": "Section::::Image types.:Three-dimensional.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 461, "text": "3D computer graphics are the same as 3D models. The model is contained within the graphical data file, apart from the rendering. However, there are differences that include the 3D model is the representation of any 3D object. Until visually displayed a model is not graphic. Due to printing, 3D models are not only confined to virtual space. 3D rendering is how a model can be displayed. Also can be used in non-graphical computer simulations and calculations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because they don't need to. They're limbs are mainly tendons that lock in place and many birds hang from trees, it's kinda like how horses sleep standing up (their knees lock)\n\nAlso if they lay down they'd just fall out of trees all the time. Some birds do lay down of course, bigger ones mainly, but they almost always are either non-flying birds or have some kind of stable nest or tree hole.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3410", "title": "Bird", "section": "Section::::Behaviour.:Resting and roosting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 107, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 107, "end_character": 1046, "text": "Many sleeping birds bend their heads over their backs and tuck their bills in their back feathers, although others place their beaks among their breast feathers. Many birds rest on one leg, while some may pull up their legs into their feathers, especially in cold weather. Perching birds have a tendon locking mechanism that helps them hold on to the perch when they are asleep. Many ground birds, such as quails and pheasants, roost in trees. A few parrots of the genus \"Loriculus\" roost hanging upside down. Some hummingbirds go into a nightly state of torpor accompanied with a reduction of their metabolic rates. This physiological adaptation shows in nearly a hundred other species, including owlet-nightjars, nightjars, and woodswallows. One species, the common poorwill, even enters a state of hibernation. Birds do not have sweat glands, but they may cool themselves by moving to shade, standing in water, panting, increasing their surface area, fluttering their throat or by using special behaviours like urohidrosis to cool themselves.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3410", "title": "Bird", "section": "Section::::Behaviour.:Resting and roosting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 105, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 105, "end_character": 584, "text": "The high metabolic rates of birds during the active part of the day is supplemented by rest at other times. Sleeping birds often use a type of sleep known as vigilant sleep, where periods of rest are interspersed with quick eye-opening \"peeks\", allowing them to be sensitive to disturbances and enable rapid escape from threats. Swifts are believed to be able to sleep in flight and radar observations suggest that they orient themselves to face the wind in their roosting flight. It has been suggested that there may be certain kinds of sleep which are possible even when in flight.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5066036", "title": "Unihemispheric slow-wave sleep", "section": "Section::::Benefits.:Adaptation to high-risk predation.:Regulation based on surroundings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 610, "text": "Birds can sleep more efficiently with both hemispheres sleeping simultaneously (bihemispheric slow wave sleep) when in safe conditions, but will increase the usage of USWS if they are in a potentially more dangerous environment. It is more beneficial to sleep using both hemispheres; however, the positives of unihemispheric slow-wave sleep prevail over its negatives under extreme conditions. While in unihemispheric slow-wave sleep, birds will sleep with one open eye towards the direction from which predators are more likely to approach. When birds do this in a flock, it's called the \"group edge effect\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "220570", "title": "Grey fantail", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 464, "text": "During waking hours the bird is almost never still. It flits from perch to perch, sometimes on the ground but mostly on the twigs of a tree or any other convenient object, looking out for flying insects. The birds are not shy, and will often flit within a few metres of people, especially in forested areas and suburban gardens. In doing so, it is able to catch any small flying insects that may have been disturbed by human activities such as walking or digging.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5066036", "title": "Unihemispheric slow-wave sleep", "section": "Section::::Future research.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 1021, "text": "Recent studies have illustrated that the white-crowned sparrow, as well as other passerines, have the capability of sleeping most significantly during the migratory season while in flight. However, the sleep patterns in this study were observed during migratory restlessness in captivity and might not be analogous to those of free-flying birds. Free-flying birds might be able to spend some time sleeping while in non-migratory flight as well when in the unobstructed sky as opposed to in controlled captive conditions. To truly determine if birds can sleep in flight, recordings of brain activity must take place during flight instead of after landing. A method of recording brain activity in pigeons during flight has recently proven promising in that it could obtain an EEG of each hemisphere but for relatively short periods of time. Coupled with simulated wind tunnels in a controlled setting, these new methods of measuring brain activity could elucidate the truth behind whether or not birds sleep during flight.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3410", "title": "Bird", "section": "Section::::Behaviour.:Resting and roosting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 106, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 106, "end_character": 599, "text": "Some birds have also demonstrated the capacity to fall into slow-wave sleep one hemisphere of the brain at a time. The birds tend to exercise this ability depending upon its position relative to the outside of the flock. This may allow the eye opposite the sleeping hemisphere to remain vigilant for predators by viewing the outer margins of the flock. This adaptation is also known from marine mammals. Communal roosting is common because it lowers the loss of body heat and decreases the risks associated with predators. Roosting sites are often chosen with regard to thermoregulation and safety.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14990054", "title": "Sleep in non-human animals", "section": "Section::::Birds.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 301, "text": "Opinions partly differ about sleep in migratory birds. The controversy is mainly about whether they can sleep while flying or not. Theoretically, certain types of sleep could be possible while flying, but technical difficulties preclude the recording of brain activity in birds while they are flying.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I had a professor by the name of Peter Lacovara who explained this theory in class and why it is wrong. The body of the sphinx is made up of limestone from a former quarry. Everything around it was cut up and taken away to build the nearby pyramids. Not wanting to leave this hunk of rock sticking above the ground they turned it into a statue by importing some other nearby rock to do the head, legs, and arms. It isn't erosion from water, it is quarry marks. It doesn't help that the limestone that makes up the body of the sphinx is of a poor quality and can more easily erode.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "34388536", "title": "Sphinx water erosion hypothesis", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 573, "text": "The Sphinx water erosion hypothesis is a fringe claim contending that the main type of weathering evident on the enclosure walls of the Great Sphinx was caused by prolonged and extensive rainfall that would have predated the time of Djedefre and Khafre, the Pharaohs credited by most modern Egyptologists with building the Great Sphinx and Second Pyramid at Giza around 2500 BC. Egyptologists, geologists and others have rejected the water erosion hypothesis and the idea of an older Sphinx, offering various alternative explanations for the cause and date of the erosion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34388536", "title": "Sphinx water erosion hypothesis", "section": "Section::::Response of other geologists.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 214, "text": "It is also agreed that wind erosion has played a significant role in eroding the Sphinx. Schoch states that wind erosion forms distinctive horizontal bands, whereas the water erosion features are clearly vertical.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34388536", "title": "Sphinx water erosion hypothesis", "section": "Section::::Hypothesis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 437, "text": "R. A. Schwaller de Lubicz, a French mystic and alternative Egyptologist, first claimed evidence of water erosion on the walls of the Sphinx enclosure in the 1950s. John Anthony West, an author and alternative Egyptologist, investigated Schwaller de Lubicz's ideas further and, in 1989, sought the opinion of Robert M. Schoch, a geologist and associate professor of natural science at the College of General Studies at Boston University.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "245173", "title": "Great Sphinx of Giza", "section": "Section::::Origin and identity.:Fringe hypotheses.:Water erosion hypothesis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 253, "text": "The Sphinx water erosion hypothesis contends that the main type of weathering evident on the enclosure walls of the Great Sphinx could only have been caused by prolonged and extensive rainfall, and must therefore predate the time of the pharaoh Khafra.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36346449", "title": "John Anthony West", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 283, "text": "John Anthony West (July 9, 1932 – February 6, 2018) was an American author, lecturer, guide and a proponent of the Sphinx water erosion hypothesis. His early career was as a copywriter in Manhattan and as a science fiction writer. He received a Hugo Award Honorable Mention in 1962.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "245173", "title": "Great Sphinx of Giza", "section": "Section::::Origin and identity.:Fringe hypotheses.:Water erosion hypothesis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 282, "text": "Colin Reader, a British geologist, studied the erosion patterns and noticed that they are found predominantly on the western enclosure wall and not on the Sphinx itself. He proposed the rainfall water runoff hypothesis, which also recognizes climate change transitions in the area.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34388536", "title": "Sphinx water erosion hypothesis", "section": "Section::::Response of other geologists.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 673, "text": "In an article published in the January 2015 issue of GEO ExPro magazine, geoscientist Jørn Christiansen provided his own analysis of the \"vertical weathering\" after visiting the Sphinx. Christiansen found evidence that shows that at least some of the erosion took place before the Sphinx was carved. He stated that water most likely seeped through natural fissures in the limestone before the Sphinx had been carved, causing the walls of the Sphinx to look like they were carved much earlier than they really were. As such, Christiansen determined that there was no geological evidence to suggest the Sphinx was carved earlier than any other monuments on the Giza plateau.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Poppers are a type of chemical known as alkyl nitrates. They typically come in the form of a liquid contained in a small bottle; by inhaling the vapors coming off this liquid, a brief high is produced.\n\n*This is not the same as huffing*. When you huff (inhale the vapors of gasoline, glue, solvents, etc), you are simply cutting off your brain's oxygen supply. Not only is this horribly dangerous and causes long-term damage, but the \"high\" you get is basically the same you could get from holding your breath. The chemical you're inhaling is usually not having any direct effect on you, and thus is not really a drug.\n\nPoppers *do* have a direct effect on you, and when you inhale them you just sniff a little bit of the vapors. You are not denying oxygen to your brain. Alkyl nitrates are considered to be among the *safest* of drugs.\n\nAsking personal opinions & experiences is not what ELI5 is for, but regardless, here's mine. I have used poppers before at parties. They are a fun novelty, but not something I would make a habit out of. I would definitely give it a try at least once if you are curious. They can cause a rapid drop in blood pressure, so sit down when you use them. **Do not drink or touch the liquid**, when ingested it is very dangerous and perhaps deadly. When sniffed, the only real danger is falling over from light-headedness.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The chemical amyl nitrite has a low vapor pressure, so it evaporates quickly. To distribute it to disco clubs in the 1970s, it was put into tiny glass ampules. Users crushed the ampule and the gas \"popped\" out so they could inhale it. Inhaling nitrites relaxes smooth muscles throughout the body dilating the arteries, as well the sphincter muscles of the anus and the vagina. It gives a feeling of warmth and excitement. Alas, the volume of blood is fixed and the reduced blood pressure can cause problems including death.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "185896", "title": "Club drug", "section": "Section::::Types.:Inhalants.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 767, "text": "\"Poppers\" are small bottles of volatile drugs which are inhaled by clubgoers for the \"rush\" or \"high\" that they can create. Nitrites such as alkyl nitrite originally came as small glass capsules that were popped open, which led to the nickname \"poppers.\" The drug became popular in the US first on the disco/club scene of the 1970s, where dancers used the drug for the \"rush\" it provides, and because it was perceived to enhance the experience of dancing to loud, bass-heavy disco. The drug became popular again in the mid-1980s and 1990s rave and electronic dance music scenes. As with disco clubgoers, rave participants and EDM enthusiasts used the drug because its \"rush\" or \"high\" was perceived to enhance the experience of dancing to pulsating music and lights.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1704222", "title": "Poppers", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 469, "text": "Popper use has a relaxation effect on involuntary smooth muscles, such as those in the throat and anus. Most widely sold products include the original amyl nitrite (isoamyl nitrite, isopentyl nitrite), but also variants such as isobutyl nitrite, isopropyl nitrite (2-propyl nitrite, increasingly, after EU ban of the isobutyl form). In some countries, to evade anti-drug laws, poppers are labelled or packaged as room deodorizers, leather polish, or tape head cleaner.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "310996", "title": "MIRC scripting language", "section": "Section::::Language features.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 439, "text": "BULLET::::- Popups are scripted context menu items. Popups are called when they are selected by the user. The term originally referred to the menus—which pop up upon a right click. It is still used this way in the manual. But the user community (who tend not to read scripting manuals) took to calling the individual items popups—perhaps thinking of the colourful novelty actions that are popular with many users as pages of a popup book.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43488", "title": "Rave", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Drug use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 934, "text": "\"Poppers\" is the street name for alkyl nitrites (the most well-known being amyl nitrite), which are inhaled for their intoxicating effects, notably the \"rush\" or \"high\" they can provide. Nitrites originally came as small glass capsules that were popped open, which led to the nickname \"poppers.\" The drug became popular in the US first on the disco/club scene of the 1970s and then at dance and rave venues in the 1980s and 1990s. In the 2000s, synthetic phenethylamines such as 2C-I, 2C-B and DOB have been referred to as club drugs due to their stimulating and psychedelic nature (and their chemical relationship with MDMA). By late 2012, derivates of the psychedelic 2C-X drugs, the NBOMes and especially 25I-NBOMe, had become common at raves in Europe. In the U.S., some law enforcement agencies have branded the subculture as a drug-centric culture, as rave attendees have been known to use drugs such as cannabis, 2CB, and DMT.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "466320", "title": "Pop-up ad", "section": "Section::::Pop-up blocking.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 396, "text": "Web development and design technologies allow an author to associate any item on a pop-up with any action, including with a cancel or innocent looking button. Because of bad experiences and apprehensive of possible damage that they may cause, some users do not click on or interact with any item inside a pop-up window whatsoever, and may leave the site that generated them or block all pop-ups.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1704222", "title": "Poppers", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 708, "text": "Popper is a slang term given broadly to the chemical class called alkyl nitrites, that are inhaled. It is used for practical purposes to facilitating anal sex by increasing blood flow and relaxing sphincter muscles or for recreational drug purposes, typically for the \"high\" or \"rush\" that the drug can create. Poppers have also been historically used for sexual encounters, initially within the gay community.If you trace the bottle of amyl (a type of alkyl nitrite) through late 20th century history, you trace the legacies of gay culture on popular culture in the 20th century. Poppers were part of club culture from the mid-1970s disco scene and returned to popularity in the 1980s and 1990s rave scene.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40168460", "title": "Sticker (messaging)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 441, "text": "A sticker is a detailed illustration of a character that represents an emotion or action that is a mix of cartoons and Japanese smiley-like \"emojis\". They have more variety than emoticons and have a basis from internet \"reaction face\" culture due to their ability to portray body language with a facial reaction. Stickers are elaborate, character-driven emoticons and give people a lightweight means to communicate through kooky animations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "South Germany being the richer half of the country is actually a very recent phenomenon. Over the course of history, the distribution of wealth has changed a lot, depending on political factors as well as the importance of various technologies and industries. The north used to be very rich due to trading etc. and Hamburg remains a rich city, while the south was very rural and agriculture-focussed up until the 20th century.\n\nFor post-war Germany, a good indicator is the \"Länderfinanzausgleich\". This is a fund into which the richer states (Bundesländer) pay money while the poorer states receive money in the form of subsidies. How much every state gets/pays is determined yearly.\n\nIf you look at the timeline of subsidies on the [Wikipedia page](_URL_0_) (section \"Finanzvolumen\"), then you can see for example for Bavaria (\"BY- Bayern\") that up until the mid-eighties, they were considered poorer than the national average and therefore got money from the fund. At this point, the manufacturing and high tech industry took off, propelling Bavaria into todays top position.\n\nNorthrhine-Westphalia (\"NW - Nordrhein-Westfalen), on the other hand, used to be \"in the green\" after the war on account of their massive coal and steel industry. But here we see a decline in the 80's due to rising competition of foreign steel and coal and the closing of mines and steel mills.\n\nAlso, the statistics are a bit skewed due to the fact, that the poorer, former East German states are all in the north, or at least in middle Germany.\n\nBut at the moment, it is basically the powerful automobile industry, their suppliers as well as high tech firms (optics, medical technology, manufacturing, etc.) that cement southern Germany's economical lead.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "714694", "title": "Northern England", "section": "Section::::Economy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 1134, "text": "Growth, employment and household income have lagged behind the South, and the five most deprived districts in England are all in Northern England, as are ten of the twelve most declining major towns in the UK. The picture is not clear-cut, as the North has areas which are as wealthy as, if not wealthier than, fashionable Southern areas such as Surrey. Yorkshire's Golden Triangle which extends from north Leeds to Harrogate and across to York is an example, as is Cheshire's Golden Triangle, centred on Alderley Edge. There are major disparities even across individual cities: Sheffield Hallam is one of the wealthiest constituencies in the country, and is the richest outside London and the South East, while Sheffield Brightside and Hillsborough, just on the other side of the city, is one of the most deprived. Housing in Northern England is more affordable than the UK average: the median house price in most Northern cities was below £200,000 in 2015 with typical increases of below 10% over the previous five years. However, some areas have seen house prices fall considerably, putting inhabitants at risk of negative equity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5404874", "title": "Northern Germany", "section": "Section::::Culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1381, "text": "Culturally and socially, Northern Germany is characterized by higher levels of income equality and gender equality than southern and south-western Germany. While the national federal Gini coefficient for Germany stands at around 30, the southern states have a Gini coefficient of 30.6 whereas for the Northern states the Gini coefficient stands at 27.5 which is closer to the Scandinavian average of 25. Traditional society in the western part of Northern Germany (Schleswig-Holstein, Lower Saxony and some parts of North Rhine-Westphalia and Saxony-Anhalt) until the early 20th century was based on well-off, literate and landowning yeoman farmers owning relatively large pieces of land, making a living growing grain crops and raising dairy cattle and pigs, and a large and educated middle class in the towns and cities working in the civil service, or as businessmen, artisans, blue-collar workers and skilled workers. Thus, the proportion of serfs, landless labourers, semi-skilled industrial workers and large landlords was relatively smaller, making for a more stable society than elsewhere in Germany like the Rhineland region and the region east of the Oder river. Additionally, Northern cities like Hamburg, Bremen and Rostock have always been economic powerhouses of trade and commerce and have had a long tradition of innovation and creativity in business and industry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4337123", "title": "Economic history of Germany", "section": "Section::::Industrial Revolution.:Regions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 442, "text": "The north German states were for the most part richer in natural resources than the southern states. They had vast agricultural tracts from Schleswig-Holstein in the west through Prussia in the east. They also had coal and iron in the Ruhr Valley. Through the practice of primogeniture, widely followed in northern Germany, large estates and fortunes grew. So did close relations between the owners and local as well as national governments.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1080344", "title": "History of the Southern United States", "section": "Section::::British colonial era (1607–1775).:Growth of the Southern colonies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 218, "text": "After the late 17th century, the economies of the North and the South began to diverge, especially in coastal areas. The Southern emphasis on export production contrasted with the Northern emphasis on food production.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36835395", "title": "Great Gatsby curve", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 467, "text": "Germans are richer on average than Greeks, and that difference in income tends to persist from generation to generation. When people look at the Great Gatsby curve, they omit this fact, because the nation is the unit of analysis. But it is not obvious that the political divisions that divide people are the right ones for economic analysis. We combine the persistently rich Connecticut with the persistently poor Mississippi, so why not combine Germany with Greece?\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31724", "title": "Geography of the United Kingdom", "section": "Section::::Human geography.:Economic geography.:Regional disparity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 125, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 125, "end_character": 680, "text": "The effect of changing economic fortune has contributed to the creation of the so-called North-South divide, in which decaying industrial and ex-industrial areas of Northern England, Scotland and Wales contrast with the wealthy, finance and technology-led southern economy. This has led successive governments to develop regional policy to try to rectify the imbalance. However, this is not to say that the north-south divide is uniform; some of the worst pockets of deprivation can be found in London, whilst parts of Cheshire and North Yorkshire are very wealthy. Nor is the North-South divide limited to the economic sphere; cultural and political divisions weigh heavily too.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3104216", "title": "North–South divide (England)", "section": "Section::::Explanation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 725, "text": "Industrial decline is most usually given as an explanation for the North-South divide. During the Industrial Revolution, many northern cities underwent a process of intense industrialisation, as raw materials such as coal and iron ore could be found in these areas. This led to comparatively high wealth; Shaw, Greater Manchester reportedly had the highest concentration of millionaires in the country at the time. It also led to over reliance on a few key industries and, as heavy industry began to leave the UK for developing countries under the 'New international division of Labour', these areas declined rapidly. Events like the UK miners' strike (1984–85) polarised public opinion and led to an increase in the divide.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I recently read a great overview of US riots-- Paul gilje's \"rioting in America\". He identifies many, many riots that achieved their goals, from the 17th c to the present.\n\nAmerican rioting, he argues, has strong roots in the medieval English system of collective violence by the plebeians, which was generally considered an acceptable form of expressing grievances because the patricians were understood as playing a paternalistic role, and therefore allowed their \"children\" to act out, and then made economic or political adjustments to make the people happy. Other successful riots regulated moral behavior in communities. All of these practices were continued in colonial America, frequently with success.\n\nI think it should be pointed out here that Gilje, like many others who've written on the topic, emphasizes the fact that the term \"riot\" is usually a very loaded word that is often only applied to people the speaker does not feel have legitimate justification for their actions, and frequently incorrectly assumes that it does not have a strong organized element. He defines riot as \"extralegal collective violence\" and does not draw a sharp distinction between riots and rebellions or mob-based vigilante violence. So, for Gilje, other examples of \"successful\" riots in American history are the hundreds of mob lynchings of blacks in the American South, whose ultimate purpose was to terrorize and oppress African Americans.\n\nEDIT I think it's also important to highlight gilje's argument that in the 20th c rioting, especially in urban ghettos, became MUCH LESS violent towards people, but more diffuse and destructive of property--being more of a venting of frustrations with a social and economic system that is far more depersonalized than that which existed previously, and this has led to a lesser ability to create change in the way many 17th and 18th century riots--which were often very unorganized themselves--were able to.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Sorry, we don't allow [throughout history questions](_URL_0_). These tend to produce threads which are collections of trivia, not the in-depth discussions about a particular topic we're looking for. If you have a specific question about a historical event or period or person, please feel free to re-compose your question and submit it again. Alternatively, questions of this type can be directed to more appropriate subreddits, such as /r/history or /r/askhistory.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "59612218", "title": "Dundas Riots", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 343, "text": "The riots came on the back of a period of civil unrest, variously sourced from feelings transferring from the French Revolution, further changes in the Corn Laws, food shortages, and a general unhappiness of the population with their leading figures in politics and law. A proclamation banning \"seditious writing\" had been passed in May 1792.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5949326", "title": "Spa Fields riots", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 298, "text": "The riots marked the start of a period of mass anti-government meetings, marches and riots, including the march of the Blanketeers (March 1817), the Pentrich rising (June 1817) and the Peterloo Massacre (August 1819) and only ending after the failure of the Cato Street Conspiracy (February 1820).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38280978", "title": "Overdetermination", "section": "Section::::Althusser and structuralist Marxism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 328, "text": "An instance of a popular riot calling for revolution could exemplify overdetermination. The event has to it, in capitalist culture, an over-application (determination) of agitation. The determinant contradictions (the reasons for popular revolt) are not addressed and so their great mass is \"displaced\" onto the singular event.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1202482", "title": "Captain Swing", "section": "Section::::Swing riots.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 315, "text": "However, reform was in the air. Many protestors found sympathy in middle-class radicals who encouraged protesters to spread far from their original sources. Further, early sentences by magistrates against the rioters, even those who destroyed threshing machines, were fairly light. Thus, riots continued into 1831.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32629706", "title": "Phoenix election riot", "section": "Section::::A History of Race Riots.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 1087, "text": "The riots of the late 1800's, although provoked by a different cause, were all a result of the political disenfranchisement that followed the reconstruction period. In the time immediately following the end of Reconstruction, the Federal Government of the United States restored white supremacist control to the South and adopted a \"laissez-faire\" policy in regard to African-Americans and their political and human rights. This change in policy resulted in African-American disfranchisement, social, educational and employment discrimination, and peonage. Deprived of their civil and human rights, African-Americans were reduced to a status of quasi-slavery or \"second-class\" citizenship. A tense atmosphere of racial hatred, ignorance, and fear bred lawless mass violence, murder, and lynching. To ensure and enforce blacks' second-class status, white Democrats enacted segregation and Jim Crow laws throughout the south. During the period of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, lynchings reached a peak in the South. Florida led the nation in lynchings per capita from 1900-1930.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15879402", "title": "Philadelphia Election riot", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 644, "text": "The Philadelphia Election Riot, along with other riots taking place during the same time period in cities like New York and Boston, are important in examining the American Revolution. Riots taking place in these cities represented a radical change in the way that citizens interacted with their government. \"This transformation involved quiescent lower-class elements; the organization of political clubs, caucuses, and tickets; the employment of political literature and inflammatory political rhetoric as never before; the involvement of the clergy and churches in politics; and the organization of mobs and violence for political purposes.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "391488", "title": "Habib Bourguiba", "section": "Section::::1957–87: Presidency.:1980s: Succession of crises and fall from power.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 128, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 128, "end_character": 213, "text": "By the time the protests ended on 5 January 1984 more than 150 of the rioters had been killed. President Bourguiba announced on 6 January 1984 that the increase in the price of bread and flour had been cancelled.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Most types of disinfectants that you can purchase for your home are scented in some way.\n\nThe standard cleaning chemicals for hospitals are generally unscented. What you are smelling are the unscented cleaning agents that are applied often because hospitals have to remain clean due to the number of possibly sick people going through it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "217226", "title": "Scrubs (TV series)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 447, "text": "Scrubs is an American medical comedy-drama television series created by Bill Lawrence that aired from October 2, 2001, to March 17, 2010, on NBC and later ABC. The series follows the lives of employees at the fictional Sacred Heart Hospital, which later becomes a Teaching Hospital. The title is a play on surgical scrubs and a term for a low-ranking person because at the beginning of the series, most of the main characters are medical interns.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "217226", "title": "Scrubs (TV series)", "section": "Section::::Production.:Main crew.:Medical advisors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 413, "text": "\"Scrubs\" writers worked with several medical advisors, including doctors Jonathan Doris, Jon Turk, and Dolly Klock. Their names serve as the basis for the names of characters John Dorian, Chris Turk, and Molly Clock (played by Braff, Faison, and Heather Graham, respectively). In the season eight finale \"My Finale\", the \"real J.D.\", Jonathan Doris, made a cameo appearance as the doctor who said \"adios\" to J.D.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1660277", "title": "Grey's Anatomy", "section": "Section::::Reception.:Impact.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 79, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 79, "end_character": 697, "text": "An additional study conducted by Brian Quick of the University of Illinois indicated that the show's portrayal of doctors being \"smart, good looking, capable, and interesting\", leads viewers to associating real-world doctors to be that way. Surgical resident Karen Zink, M.D., deemed the show's portrayal of interns inaccurate, adding: \"None of [the characters] have bags under their eyes. They all leave the hospital dressed cute, with their hair done and makeup on. That is so far away from the reality of interns. You are just dragging your butt, trying to stay alive. You don't have time to do your hair. You don't have time to put on makeup. Every surgical intern has bags under their eyes.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25808966", "title": "Manhattan Soap Company", "section": "Section::::Advertising.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 349, "text": "In April 1937 Manhattan Soap Company agreed to stop using the word \"doctor\" in ads, because the term might have led consumers to believe the company's products were made with the advice of a physician. The business also confirmed with the Federal Trade Commission that it would not use false prices on cartons or boxes in which its soap was packed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "146307", "title": "Doctors (2000 TV series)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 380, "text": "Doctors is a continuing British medical soap opera which first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 26 March 2000. Set in the fictional Midlands town of Letherbridge, defined (in the programme) as being in the city of Birmingham, the soap follows the lives of the staff of both a NHS Doctor's surgery and University Campus Surgery, as well as their families and friends.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26801927", "title": "Popular Health Movement", "section": "Section::::Principles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 369, "text": "'Common Sense,' I am aware, is quoted at a discount; especially by the medical profession, which proverbially ignores everything that has not the mixed odor of incomprehensibility and antiquity. Medical works are generally a heterogeneous compound of vague ideas and jaw-breaking words, in which the \"dead\" languages are largely employed to treat of \"living\" subjects.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20135647", "title": "Good Doctor (advertisement)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 917, "text": "Good Doctor (also credited as Doctor or Plague) is a television and cinema advertisement released in 2002 by Interbrew to promote its Stella Artois brand of lager within the United Kingdom. The 100-second spot was produced by advertising agency Lowe Lintas & Partners in London. \"Good Doctor\" premiered on British television in January 2002, with later appearances in cinemas. It is the seventh piece in the \"Jean de Florette\"-inspired \"Reassuringly Expensive\" series that had been running since 1992. The advert was directed by Czech director Ivan Zacharias with help from the production company Stink and post-production work by The Moving Picture Company. The commercial was a popular, financial, and critical success, boosting sales during the period in which it ran, and receiving more awards than any other campaign in 2002, including a Cannes Gold Lion, an Epica Award and several prizes from the D&AD Awards.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Rodric Braithwaite points out in Afgantsy: The Russians in Afghanistan 1979-89, that the 'liberalness' of Afghanistan was only ever really confined the urban middle and upper classes, who were very much a minority, the majority of the rural population were pretty conservative add the ruthless brutality of the Taliban into the mix and the 'fascism' of the 90's becomes possible.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "291717", "title": "Islamic State of Afghanistan", "section": "Section::::History.:Rise of the Taliban.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 534, "text": "The Taliban renamed the country to Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, and imposed an even more strict version of Sharia on the population they controlled. This especially negatively impacted women, who were forced to wear a burqa, stay indoors and banned from working outside the house with rare exceptions, female schools were closed and almost all girls lost access to education, increasing illiteracy rates (which had fallen during the communist era). Movie theaters, soccer stadiums, and television stations were now closed as well.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21985794", "title": "History of Afghanistan (1978–92)", "section": "Section::::Reforms and oppression, 1978–79.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 427, "text": "Such reforms however were not universally well-received, being viewed by many Afghans (particularly in rural areas) as the imposition of secular western values considered to be alien to Afghan culture and un-Islamic. As had happened earlier in the century, resentment with the government's programme and the manner in which it was imposed, along with widespread repression, provoked a backlash from tribal and Islamic leaders.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46006", "title": "Freedom of religion", "section": "Section::::Modern concerns.:Social hostilities and government restrictions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 140, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 140, "end_character": 499, "text": "The countries in North and South America reportedly had some of the lowest levels of \"government\" and \"social\" restrictions on religion, while The Middle East and North Africa were the regions with the highest. Saudi Arabia, Pakistan and Iran were the countries that top the list of countries with the \"overall\" highest levels of restriction on religion. Topping the Pew government restrictions index were Saudi Arabia, Iran, Uzbekistan, China, Egypt, Burma, Maldives, Eritrea, Malaysia and Brunei.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "323102", "title": "Freedom of religion in Afghanistan", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 320, "text": "Freedom of religion in Afghanistan has changed in recent years because the current government of Afghanistan has only been in place since 2002, following a U.S.-led invasion which displaced the former Taliban government. The Constitution of Afghanistan is dated January 23, 2004, and its initial three articles mandate:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16812883", "title": "Islam and secularism", "section": "Section::::Opposition and critique.:Secularism and authoritarianism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 111, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 111, "end_character": 305, "text": "A number of scholars believe that secular governments in Muslim countries have become more repressive and authoritarian to combat the spread of Islamism, but this increased repression may have made many Muslim societies more opposed to secularism and increased the popularity of Islamism the Middle East.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15012", "title": "Islamism", "section": "Section::::History.:Rise of Islamism by country.:Afghanistan (Taliban).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 133, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 133, "end_character": 607, "text": "In Afghanistan, the mujahideen's victory against the Soviet Union in the 1980s did not lead to justice and prosperity, due to a vicious and destructive civil war between political and tribal warlords, making Afghanistan one of the poorest countries on earth. In 1992, the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan ruled by communist forces collapsed, and democratic Islamist elements of mujahdeen founded the Islamic State of Afghanistan. In 1996, a more conservative and anti-democratic Islamist movement known as the Taliban rose to power, defeated most of the warlords and took over roughly 80% of Afghanistan.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39831259", "title": "Cities of Salt", "section": "Section::::Contexts.:Social context.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 331, "text": "The Arab world is also ambivalent about having a fully secular, western-style society. Iran is still a theocratic country and Saudi Arabia has monarchies. Government and general public are wary of Western influences that might corrupt their heart and mind. For example, Saudi Arabia did not lift the ban on cinemas until recently.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The inside of your car gets hot. Even in the winter, the sun is coming in through the windows. Over time, the heat and sunlight can cause chemicals in the plastic to leech out into your water. It's nothing super bad, but nothing you want to be doing often either.\n\nIf you refill your water bottles, the chemicals will eventually all be gone, and they can theoretically be refilled indefinitely", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's perfectly safe, it's the environment that kills you .....", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you open it, you potentially let bacteria and junk in. Leaving it in your car for a week, even sealed, gives the bad stuff a chance to reproduce and spread through the water.\n\nYou do want to drink a bottle full of bacteria poop?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "487247", "title": "Reuse of bottles", "section": "Section::::Health and safety concerns associated with reusable bottles.:Carcinogen misconception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 348, "text": "A university student's master's thesis incorrectly suggested that repeatedly rewashing plastic water bottles can lead to the leaking diethylhydroxylamine (DEHA) into the drinking water, and can be detrimental to human health. The results of this research were repeated by various sources and also became a chain email, later declared to be a hoax.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2007779", "title": "Water bottle", "section": "Section::::Consequences.:Environment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 285, "text": "The lowest impact water bottles are those made of glass or metal. They are not made from petroleum and are easily recyclable. By choosing to continuously fill any multi-use water bottle, the consumer keeps disposable bottles out of the waste stream and minimizes environmental impact.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11614796", "title": "Plastic bottle", "section": "Section::::Health and environmental issues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 1593, "text": "In the United States, plastic water bottles are regulated by the FDA which also inspects and samples bottled water plants periodically. Plastic water bottle plants hold a low priority for inspection due to a continuously good safety record. In the past, the FDA maintained that there was a lack of human data showing plastics pose health problems, however in January 2010, the FDA reversed its opinion saying they now have concerns about health risks. An article published on November 6, 2017 in Water Research reported on the content of microplastics in mineral waters packed in plastic or glass bottles, or beverage cartons. In 2018, research conducted by Sherri Mason from the State University of New York in Fredonia revealed the presence of polypropylene, polystyrene, nylon and polyethylene terephthalate microparticles in plastic bottles. Polypropylene was hereby found to be the most common polymeric material (54%) and nylon the second most abundant (16%) polymeric material. The study also mentioned that polypropylene and polyethylene are polymers that are often used to make plastic bottle caps. Also, 4% of retrieved plastic particles were found to have signatures of industrial lubricants coating the polymer. The research was reviewed by Andrew Mayes of the University of East Anglia (UEA) School of ChemistryThe European Food Safety Authority suggested most microplastics are excreted by the body, however the UN Food and Agriculture Organization warned that it is possible that the smallest particles ( 1.5 μm) could enter the bloodstream and organs, via the intestinal wall.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "327487", "title": "Service economy", "section": "Section::::Environmental effects of the service economy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 992, "text": "It is often applied to paint, tires, and other goods that become toxic waste if not disposed of properly. It is most familiar as the container deposit charged for a deposit bottle. One pays a fee to buy the bottle, separately from the fee to buy what it contains. If one returns the bottle, the fee is returned, and the supplier must return the bottle for re-use or recycling. If not, one has paid the fee, and presumably this can pay for landfill or litter control measures that dispose of diapers or a broken bottle. Also, since the same fee can be collected by anyone finding and returning the bottle, it is common for people to collect these and return them as a means of gaining a small income. This is quite common for instance among homeless people in U.S. cities. Legal requirements vary: the bottle itself may be considered the property of the purchaser of the contents, or, the purchaser may have some obligation to return the bottle to some depot so it can be recycled or re-used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "402923", "title": "Bottled water", "section": "Section::::Concerns.:Health concerns.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 125, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 125, "end_character": 473, "text": "Studies show that the plastics used for bottles contain chemicals having estrogenic activity, even when they claim otherwise. Although some of the bottled water contained in glass were found polluted with chemicals as well, the researchers believe some of the contamination of water in the plastic containers may have come from the plastic containers. Leaching of chemicals into the water is related to the plastic bottles being exposed to either low or high temperatures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "487247", "title": "Reuse of bottles", "section": "Section::::Health and safety concerns associated with reusable bottles.:Bacterial concerns.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 450, "text": "Reusable bottles can hold bacteria. Drinking from a reusable bottle can transfer bacteria from a person's mouth to the beverage it contains, which can contaminate both bottle and water. Contamination can cause bacterial or fungal growth in the liquid while it's stored. It is recommend that users clean reusable drinking bottles thoroughly before each used. Users should take care to wash the bottle cap as well after each use for proper sanitation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39806043", "title": "Bottled water ban", "section": "Section::::Motivation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 216, "text": "For these reasons some governments are interested in banning the use of single-use plastic water bottles in their regions to lower these impacts on the environment and promote sustainability within their boundaries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "That might have interesting effects on kids who swear in front of their mothers.\nThat said, to cross the skin barrier usually requires some sort of solvent to carry the molecule, DMSO is a good one. I wonder if the mint scent does more to wake you up than the caffeine. \nPlus, I've never heard of PEG being called a \"harsh ingredient\" before. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This question was asked and researched [here](_URL_1_) pretty thoroughly. The Guardian also did a short article [here](_URL_0_). Both suggest that in order to get any significant absorption, you would have to keep the caffeine against your skin for a few hours, which would not happen while showering.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "That might have interesting effects on kids who swear in front of their mothers.\nThat said, to cross the skin barrier usually requires some sort of solvent to carry the molecule, DMSO is a good one. I wonder if the mint scent does more to wake you up than the caffeine. \nPlus, I've never heard of PEG being called a \"harsh ingredient\" before. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This question was asked and researched [here](_URL_1_) pretty thoroughly. The Guardian also did a short article [here](_URL_0_). Both suggest that in order to get any significant absorption, you would have to keep the caffeine against your skin for a few hours, which would not happen while showering.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "15412386", "title": "Shower Shock", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 339, "text": "The addition of peppermint oil to the body soap is widely considered to help to stimulate the user's senses to effect an alert state in the user, as caffeine's ability to meaningfully diffuse through human skin is extremely limited and, as a result, users will generally not receive a meaningful dose of the drug through the soap itself. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1228836", "title": "Cleanser", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 238, "text": "BULLET::::- Bar soap has a high pH (in the area of 9 to 10), and the skin's surface pH is on average 4.7. This means that soap can change the balance present in the skin to favor the overgrowth of some types of bacteria, increasing acne.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "661100", "title": "Oleic acid", "section": "Section::::Uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 266, "text": "Oleic acid as its sodium salt is a major component of soap as an emulsifying agent. It is also used as an emollient. Small amounts of oleic acid are used as an excipient in pharmaceuticals, and it is used as an emulsifying or solubilizing agent in aerosol products.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28143", "title": "Salicylic acid", "section": "Section::::Safety.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 569, "text": "As a topical agent and as a beta-hydroxy acid (and unlike alpha-hydroxy acids), salicylic acid is capable of penetrating and breaking down fats and lipids, causing moderate chemical burns of the skin at very high concentrations. It may damage the lining of pores if the solvent is alcohol, acetone or an oil. Over-the-counter limits are set at 2% for topical preparations expected to be left on the face and 3% for those expected to be washed off, such as acne cleansers or shampoo; up to a 6% concentration can be used if necessary under prescription for these uses. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1228836", "title": "Cleanser", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 341, "text": "BULLET::::- Using bar soap on the face can remove natural oils from the skin that form a barrier against water loss. This causes the sebaceous glands to subsequently overproduce oil, a condition known as reactive seborrhoea, which will lead to clogged pores. In order to prevent drying out the skin, many cleansers incorporate moisturizers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29190384", "title": "Microbead", "section": "Section::::Use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 206, "text": "Microbeads are added as an exfoliating agent to cosmetics and personal care products, such as soap, facial scrub and toothpastes. They may be added to over-the-counter drugs to make them easier to swallow.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2691395", "title": "Isethionic acid", "section": "Section::::Reactions.:Derivatives.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 334, "text": "Fatty acid esters of isethionic acid (such as sodium lauroyl isethionate and sodium cocoyl isethionate) are used as biodegradable anionic surfactants. These materials are much milder to skin that other sulphate based surfactants (i.e. sodium lauryl sulfate) making them popular for use in make-up, shampoos and ‘Dove type’ soap bars.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "people are less likely to commit crimes if they know they are being recorded imho", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Insurance is cheaper with a CCTV network.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Detterent. Cheaper insurance. And even though you may not be able to identify people, it still serves to show what happened, which is often useful for insurance and legal purposes.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Security is never perfect -- it's all about cost-versus-benefits. A cheapo camera won't completely prevent crime, but it doesn't cost much, and it'll do a bit to dissuade casual shoplifting. As the others said, the gadget will probably pay for itself in insurance costs over a few years. Moreover, it *might* help in case of a serious robbery, accident, or liability event, and it may see some direct use in *watching the employees,* who often pilfer an awful lot of store merchandise. A grainy video might not let the management identify Hobo #19036 who smuggled a bottle of hooch out in his stink-rags and never came back, but they just might catch night-shift Steve walking out with a twelve-pack that he didn't ring up. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "First of all: storing high quality surveilance footage is EXTREMELY expensive. \n\nSecond: The most \"humiliating\" factor about surveilance cameras are the cameras themselves. If someone see that a place has surveilance, they are most likely to cover up their faces anyway. Trying to video someone who has covered their face, doesent get \"easier\" in 1080P 60FPS, if you get what Im trying to say.\n\nLow FPS, low resolution is enough to do the job, contra the costs of it. \n\n\nQuestioning this, would be like asking \"Why isnt there a police-officer standing at the door of every shop? It would make it so much harder for criminals to do their deeds\". It simply costs too much, and the consumers wouldnt pay for it either. \n\n\nIts all about cost efficiency vs. what you actually get.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "First off, you won't hear anything on the news about the guy who was quickly identified, arrested, and it's all taken care of. You'll see the footage displayed and a plea for anyone who can identify the individual, and often *people will call in and correctly identify them*. You're likely getting a false idea of how futile those cameras are since you only hear about the noteworthy whodunnits.\n\nThat said, any security is better than no security. It functions as a deterrant in many cases, and even if the footage only sees an individual wearing a blue shirt, black pants, wielding a knife, that information may help identify the perpetrator who has a blue shirt, black pants, and knife sitting in the corner of his bedroom when a search is conducted.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7769856", "title": "Video remote interpreting", "section": "Section::::Method of use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 905, "text": "Using VRI for medical, legal and mental health settings is seen as controversial by some in the deaf community, where there is an opinion that it does not provide appropriate communication access—particularly in medical settings where the patient's ability to watch the screen or sign clearly to the camera may be compromised. This is balanced by many in the services and public services sectors who identify with the benefits of being able to communicate in otherwise impossible (and sometimes life-threatening) situations without having to wait hours for an interpreter to turn up, even if this initial contact is used just to arrange a further face-to-face appointment. Therefore, businesses and organizations contend that it meets or exceeds the minimum threshold for reasonable accommodation as its principle is built around offering \"reasonable adjustment\" through increasing initial accessibility.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1657551", "title": "Automatic number-plate recognition", "section": "Section::::Challenges.:Controversy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 198, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 198, "end_character": 358, "text": "Other concerns include the storage of information that could be used to identify people and store details about their driving habits and daily life, contravening the Data Protection Act along with similar legislation (see personally identifiable information). The laws in the UK are strict for any system that uses CCTV footage and can identify individuals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31599889", "title": "Personalised television", "section": "Section::::Barriers to Adoption.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 228, "text": "BULLET::::- Technology: The technology to easily type and enter information on a TV is limited. Most remote controls can only interact with the TV on a basic level. This makes filling out any kind of personal profile difficult.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "87179", "title": "Closed-circuit television", "section": "Section::::Uses.:Increasing safety and security in public transport.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 202, "text": "A CCTV system may be installed where any example, on a driver-only operated train CCTV cameras may allow the driver to confirm that people are clear of doors before closing them and starting the train.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34006684", "title": "2011 Slovenian YouTube incident", "section": "Section::::Investigation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 1009, "text": "On 27 January 2012, Helena Kamnar, the Secretary-General of the Government, unofficially told for media that three people had access to the Spectiva remote viewing software, and could also watch the sessions from their home. Kamnar also explained that it was possible to find out who had access in which period but had no information due to the Police having confiscated one of the computers. On 28 January 2012, she told that according to the information she had received from the person who allocated the right to use the system, the three people were Janez Janša, the former Secretary-General Božo Predalič, and the former Secretary-General Milan M. Cvikl. They only had the possibility to use it in their respective terms. Predalič told that he used it perhaps twice, because he was present at Janša's sessions and did not have the option to use it during Pahor's sessions. Cvikl told that he refused to use it as it seemed redundant to him and due to security reasons even demanded it to be uninstalled.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17998869", "title": "Visual privacy", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1015, "text": "Visual Privacy is the relationship between collection and dissemination of visual information, the expectation of privacy, and the legal issues surrounding them. These days cameras are ubiquitous. They are one of the most common sensors found in electronic devices, ranging from smartphones to tablets, and laptops to surveillance cams. However, privacy and trust implications surrounding it limit its ability to seamlessly blend into our computing environment. In particular, large-scale camera networks have created increasing interest in understanding the advantages and disadvantages of such deployments. It is estimated that over 4 Million Cameras Deployed in the UK. Due to increasing security concerns, camera networks have continued to proliferate across other countries such as the United States. While the impact of such systems continues to be evaluated, in parallel, tools for controlling how these camera networks are used and modifications to the images or video sent to end-users have been explored.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26245054", "title": "Robbins v. Lower Merion School District", "section": "Section::::U.S. Senate Judiciary Subcommittee hearing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 130, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 130, "end_character": 453, "text": "Specter introduced legislation to clarify that it is illegal to capture silent visual images inside a person's home. Specter said: \"... a very significant invasion of privacy with these webcams ...\" ... us expect to ... video surveillance when we leave our homes and go out each day—at the ATM, at traffic lights, or in stores ... we do not expect is ... surveillance in our homes, in our bedrooms ... we do not expect it for our children in our homes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "when enough people think it is a word, it is a word. The fact people understand it without explanation just helps it along to becoming a word. You have to realize, no word ever existed until people started using it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "My guess as to why 'conversate' (and many other 'words that people use all the time') isn't recognised as a word is because like 'converse', a word probably already exists and does the job more efficiently. That said, I don't know an existing word that covers 'misremember'. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "When people say something like \"misremember\" is not a word, they're invoking the idea of an official, regulated language and enforcing its standards. This has some social purposes. For instance, we segregate job applicants by who is capable of speaking and writing in a professional/literate manner (which is defined by, among other things, avoiding non-words like \"ain't\"). The use of and enforcement of standardized language serves a surrogate for educational level and cultural identity.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "That's a perfectly promulent explanation", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "side question: who determines what grammar is correct", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The speaker decides when and how to evolve language at whim. The only criteria is having listeners understand it without explanation.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Our vocabulary is constantly growing and evolving, so there will always be 'new words'. But because we are busy people, with busy lives, and other things to worry about, we can't dedicate *all* our time to learning them. So - a long time ago - we agreed that we had to have certain rules to follow, to make understanding easier. Once you *break* the rules, you significantly increase the chance that comprehension will be lost.\n\nNow to your scenario: although you structured things in unfamiliar ways, you actually *were* still following certain rules, which is why your dad could understand you. \n\n**For example:** Take the word 'misremember'. The reason this makes sense is because the prefix (mis)' is following a well-known rule that means 'mistaken' or 'incorrect' (e.g.: misspell, mislead, misconduct).\n\nAlthough you've put it together in a non-standard way, you're still actually adhering to a known convention, and so people can link the prefix with the verb, and reach a logical conclusion.\n\n**Example 2:** In the word 'conversate', the suffix (ate) means 'to cause to be' (e.g.: originate, resonate, sublimate).\n\nIf you were to *really* make the word up, such as 'griep-remember', or 'converslig' suddenly the meaning is lost completely, because you're not adhering to any convention at all.\n\nAnd so while language is free to morph (and as it catches on, it will become accepted), each individual transition still has to be related to some form of protocol in order to acquire depth of meaning.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The key here is that when people say \"That's not a word,\" what they mean is that it's considered non-standard. That would include not only neologisms but also an awful lot of words that have been in use for hundreds of years, like my personal favorite, \"ain't\".", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Editor here. If a word is *used* regularly, then it is a 'word' in the genetic sense, meaning a unit of speech with a sufficiently discrete and consistent definition to facilitate the communication of ideas. It does not matter if the word is broadly accepted, appears in books, or otherwise meets conventional standards of what most people mean when they say that something \"is a word.\"\n\nWhen people say this, what they really mean is one of several other things:\n\n1) The word is nonstandard, and inappropriate for the setting or situation.\n\n2) The word is improper, which usually means that it's a malformation of the proper form. (*E.g.,* \"irregardless\" for \"regardless\") Or, it is a standard word, but the *wrong one*. (*E.g.,* Rhode Islanders may say that they're 'agitated' when they mean irritated. Agitation is a rapid reciprocating mechanical action, and it would certainly be very unpleasant if you were being agitated -- throttling is one example of agitation -- but they mean something else when they say this.)\n\n3) The word is not widely accepted. This is the most common meaning, and if you parse it out rationally, it's similar to why men wear neckties: because other men do. People will say something is \"not a word\" if *they* feel that way, and believe that *most others* do, too. In most cases, they're correct about that, but that does not make it not a word.\n\nIn general, if a word is unique, not a malformation or misuse of some other word, and has a discrete and consistent meaning, it's a 'word' for practical considerations. However, many people may still object, and that is their right. Language is a living thing that we construct together, and that comes with plenty of push-pull, usage voting, and compromise.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Yeah totally what is there deal?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "\"What are we looking for?\"\n\n\"Anything hinky.\"\n\n\"Why do you use that word?\"\n\n\"What word?\"\n\n\"Hinky. It's a made up word.\"\n\n\"All words are made up words.\"\n\n -- Abby & McGee, *NCIS*\n\n___\n\n'... There's glory for you!'\n\n'I don't know what you mean by \"glory\",' Alice said.\n\nHumpty Dumpty smiled contemptuously. 'Of course you don't — till I tell you. I meant \"there's a nice knock-down argument for you!\"'\n\n'But \"glory\" doesn't mean \"a nice knock-down argument\",' Alice objected.\n\n'When I use a word,' Humpty Dumpty said, in rather a scornful tone, 'it means just what I choose it to mean — neither more nor less.'\n\n -- *Through the Looking Glass*, Lewis Carroll", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Eh it's a fluid concept. It depends on your opinion, but to a lot of people the dictionary is important, or the academic community at large. When you say \"people\" you really just mean the people that you are familiar with. It's entirely possible that someone would have a certain standard of how to speak, and that you and the people you know would not measure up to it. People speak differently, and in general you will be more respected if you sound like you're educated and thus only use \"real\" words.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Student of linguistics here! (Okay, that was fun.)\n\nThere are two main categories of words (and language). Prescriptive, and descriptive. \n\nThe rule of which your father was referencing was prescriptive. Prescriptive grammar, at its simplest, is your English class. Its about shoulds and should nots, even if it says its about cans and cannots. Prescriptive rules are set by society and those in power. Sometimes these are official government bodies, but in the United States it would be academic organizations, media, and politicians. Its this idea of a standard language that must be spoken, to conform within the dialect that has prestige. To show you can follow the rules. It is very slow to adopt change to language, because of its meant to be like that. Eventually it will accept, and people will forget. (Take for example \"smog\". No prescriptivist would argue that it is a non-word, but its just a blend of smoke and fog, and fairly recently made too). \n\nDescriptive language is what linguists are concerned with! It is how language is actually used and formed. How people actually talk. Within descriptive language, we may say something is idiolectical (a.k.a. You're the only human to say it on the whole planet), but once two or more people start saying it with an agreed upon meaning, then in the descriptive mindset... Congratulations its a word! Linguists would argue there is no right or wrong way to speak or use language, because it is always moving and adapting. While misremember may not be standard now, it may become widely adopted by groups, making it no different than any other word ever. \n\n\nTLDR; Prescriptive language is English class, slow to adapt and resistant to additions for reasons of prestige and commonality. Descriptive language is Linguistics class, quicker to adapt to change in language and concerned with how language is actually used by the people who speak it. Prescriptivists are slow to adopt new words and it has to be commonplace amongst positions of power to do so. Descriptivists just want to see it used amongst people in similar situations.\n\nExtra TLDR: \"The Man\" says he decides and tells everyone that! But really, you decide! \n\nSee here (or google) for more info: _URL_0_\n\nEdit: Did some cleaning to make it more jargon friendly/free. \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I read this ELI5 in Zoolander's voice. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This doesn't answer your question, but you might enjoy it anyway. When I was in middle school, grades 5-8, in the 80s, we had a teacher that would make us write a poem 100 times if he heard us say the word \"ain't\". He was the History teacher, but he would make you stay after school and write the poem no matter where he heard you saying it, even at recess, lunch, or in the hallway. I wish I could remember it. I know it started with:\n\nThere once was a boy who said \"ain't\" \nHe fell in a bucket of red paint. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Every \"word\" is a real word, regardless of whether or not someone agrees to their meaning and use. If every English speaker were to die, except for you, would all of the words you use not be real words anymore? \n\nWe all speak the same language a little differently. Some people don't agree on the way other's use words. When enough people agree though you get dialects. When even more people agree you get a new language.\n\nYou are either helping the language of your father to evolve or break away and form a new language.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you're still interested in this topic, /r/linguistics is a great place to check out.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Conversate is not a combo of conversation and converse. It's something people say when they don't know the word converse.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I am very much a game-keeper turned poacher on this issue.\n\nThis is precisely how I feel about language. I used to be a bit of a (i.e. an enormous) language fascist, pointing out errors in grammar and mis-use of words; but as you say, the point of language is to be understood. If your meaning is understood, what does it matter if you make up words?\n\nWhich means more to you: \"John is pauciloquent.\" or \"John is not very speaky.\"? Possibly not a brilliant example, but hopefully you get what I mean.\n\nI feel the same about 'phrases'. I have witnessed (and intervened in, with intent to pacify) discussions about whether the expression runs \"He was given free rein on the project\" or \"He was given free reign on the project\". The one that people who want to appear clever will say is 'correct' is the first one, but I'm not really sure how they define 'correctness'. A phrase is just a group of words. If the syntax is legible and the meaning of the words in the phrase is known, *what do you mean by saying \"That's not right.\"*?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I haven't read the entire thread but so far I haven't seen this answer. In the UK for an \"non-word\" to become a \"word\" it must be submitted to the oxford English dictionary people (wherever they are) and the word must have a unique definition, pronunciation, etymology and have been used by 1000+ people in the same way. This is all then submitted to a draft of the dictionary. \"non-words\" that don't meet the criteria are still stored on card by the dictionary people for future reference. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Linguist here. This is probably going to get lost in here, but here goes:\n\nBasically, there is no one magical rule that makes something a word. What you consider to be a word pretty much depends on what approach you take to language in general. Some accept a word only if it is grammatically correct and is accepted by the vast majority of our society (prescriptivism). Some accept anything as a word as long as it can effectively convey the intended meaning and can serve the intended communicative purposes (descriptivism). But most importantly, these two approaches coexist in our society and both contribute to accepting new words. While we have standardized our languages to fit the patterns we have accepted as rules, a good part of what we consider to be 'correct' language comes solely from our intuition that we develop when we learn the language. And so, if the rules mess with our intuition we often simply opt out of the rule. Which means that we can utilize both our intuition and grammar knowledge to accept and create new words, however, whether those words will be understood by the rest pretty much depends entirely on whether the other party shares the same linguistic context. In other words, as an individual, you are free to decide on your own what can and can't be a word depending on the communicative circumstances you're in, however, that does not mean that society will agree with you.\n\nTL;DR Feel free to trust your linguistic intuition to decide on your own what is and isn't a word but don't expect everyone else to agree.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Misremembering is indeed a real word, a quick Google search finds the following examples:\n\n* The death close before me was terrible, but far more terrible than death was the dread of being misremembered after death.\n\"Great Expectations\" by Charles Dickens\n\n* I misremember what occurred, but subsequint the storm A Freeman's Journal Supplemint was all my uniform.\n\"Barrack-Room Ballads\" by Rudyard Kipling\n\t\n* Shall I go back and tell him I misremembered for a moment where the creek is?\n\"A Texas Ranger\" by William MacLeod Raine\n\t\n* I may misremember indifferent circumstances, but can be right in substance.\n\"Memoir, Correspondence, And Miscellanies, From The Papers Of Thomas Jefferson\" by Thomas Jefferson\t\n\n* I misremember exactly who fired it; wos it you, Meetuck?\n\"The World of Ice\" by R.M. Ballantyne\t\n\n* Didn't I misremember that?\n\"The Floating Light of the Goodwin Sands\" by R.M. Ballantyne\t\n\n* All right, Mr. 2001, I says, I'll not misremember.\n\"A Son of Hagar\" by Sir Hall Caine\t\n\n* Judy, darlin', I misremember what I came here for.\n\"Soldier Stories\" by Rudyard Kipling\t\n\n* I do misremember it, lording: but 'tis surely of no account.\n\"Robin Hood\" by Paul Creswick\t\n\n* Only, if ever I were gay, which I misremember, I am gay no more.\n\"The Works of Robert Louis Stevenson - Swanston Edition Vol. 25 (of 25)\" by Robert Louis Stevenson\t\n\n\n > Our names are all unspoken, our regiments forgotten,\n > For some of us were pretty bad and some of us were rotten;\n > And some will misremember what once they learnt with pain\n > And hit a bloody sergeant and go to clink again.\n\n\"The Old Soldiers\" by Edward Shanks\n\n[Source](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[The Online Etymology Dictionary says \"misremember\" is attested in use back to the 1530s.](_URL_0_)\n\nRoger Clemens had a long career, but I never realized he was that old!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > Same with a word like conversate, apparently it's a combination of conversation and converse\n\nNo, it's a [back-formation](_URL_0_) from \"conversation\", by analogy with words like \"integrate\", \"congregate\" and \"estimate\".", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They mean not a *dictionary* word.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I took a few courses in linguistics and have studied the 20th century post modernists.\n\nLanguage is not a collection of words. Language is your life. In this way you speak a very different language than I do.\n\nWhen you use a word I don't understand, let's say (_URL_0_ Word of the Day) grammatology, I don't understand you, because you're not using a word that is relevant or needed in my life. Maybe a screen writer might really understand this word... but I don't. To me... it's not a word.\n\nIf however for some reason script writing becomes a part of my life than suddenly it enters my vocabulary as a word proper.\n\nLudwig Wittgenstein was asked by his faculty and students to solve all of the problems of philosophy. He Bertrand Russell and a group of 10 students each a dictionary, taught them how to use a dictionary and how usage of words is simply a case of confusion and no actual problems of philosophy.\n\nThe word \"boobies\" isn't actually a word, some might argue. But if I ran into a crowd and yelling \"BOOBIES BOOBIES BOOBIES\" no doubt every single woman, mother, and father might feel a need to slap me. Despite it 'not being a word\" it has a context and a real image that is understood.\n\nIf words are only the ones you are allowed to play in Scrabble... then perhaps boobies isn't a word. But if it isn't a word, then why do we understand it? Words are simply the building blocks of a language. Boobies is clearly a building block for an idea in a sentence. Under this explanation boobies is so clearly a word... but then again so is everything.\n\nA language snob might look at the word \"jiggy\" (as in gettin' jiggy with it) as not a word. All you need to do is tell them, if it's not a word then I'm going to go gettin jiggy with it with Person X mom or dad... on your couch.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Language is a living breathing thing. Those who restrict it are dorks imo. That does not excuse bad grammar though. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "My wife is really big on the natural progression of language. Language is not a static being but rather is a constantly changing organism.\n\nTake the word \"can\" for instance. \"Can\" is so thoroughly understood to imply \"may\" you do something that it basically has that definition now. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You see buddy, way back when when English was very very young, he attended The Scandinavian Private Elementary School. One year, he starred in the school production of Beowulf, and boy was he good. He was a sensation, and people still talk about this production to this day.\n\nBut then English grew older. For whatever reason, he could no longer go to private school, and he attended public school. While in public school, his speech grew rougher and he began speaking in slang. All of his friends thought he was pretty cool, so they imitated him and started shortening words and speaking in slang too.\n\nThen in high school English fell in with the wrong crowd. There was one guy named Shakespeare in his gang, and English just started going down a dark path. He and Shakespeare must have done drugs together, because they were making up nonsense words like \"addicted\" and \"swagger.\" By this time English's old elementary school chums had completely disappeared, and most of his middle school friends could barely recognize him.\n\nAfter high school, English became pretty popular, mainly due to the fact that he was friends with a lot of popular people. Because he was so popular, many people wanted to hang out with him. You know how you are a slightly different person depending on whether you are hanging out with your grandmother or your best friend? Well, English had the same problem. He had different friend groups that he didn't like to mix. And when they did mix, it could sometimes be awkward as one friend group tried to get English to do something that English would never do with the other friend group.\n\n\"Say 'lorry\" for us English!\" his British friend would cheer. \n\"'Lorry?' you must be joking!\" his American friend would sneer.\n\nThis problem was only exacerbated when English discovered technology such as television and the internet. Now English is a personal friend with everyone, and he is also growing up much faster. \n\nJust like how English's old elementary school friends wouldn't recognize the man English is today, sometimes you don't recognize him when he is acting completely different with other people. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[\"Authority and American Usage\" by David Foster Wallace](_URL_0_) is a review of a specialist dictionary and usage guide that actually does a rather good job of explaining the different philosophies for the ratification of words, and makes several salient points about how the language we approve of and respects reflects our culture. It's also funny as hell. It's worth a read if you're curious about this topic.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1858124", "title": "Height discrimination", "section": "Section::::Lexicology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 430, "text": "The word is an example of \"Time\" magazine's habit of supplying new words through \"unusual use of affixes\", although \"Time\" itself objected to the term's inclusion in the 1991 \"Random Webster's College Dictionary\", citing it as an example of the dictionary \"straining ... to avoid giving offense, except to good usage\" and \"[lending] authority to scores of questionable usages, many of them tinged with politically correct views.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17142975", "title": "Magyar szótár", "section": "Section::::Bartos’ credo.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 392, "text": "\"Words are not synonyms on their own. What happens is, that we, speaking the same language, “match make them” every day... You never look for a word by locating it as a vector diagram in a system theory... The latest edition of Encyclopædia Britannica does not even waste space for synonyms... The ambition to locate the appropriate word for the correct use of language is sought no more...\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14648690", "title": "Glosa", "section": "Section::::Parts of speech.:Question and answer words.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 82, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 82, "end_character": 418, "text": "Words used to ask or answer a question of who, where, what, when, why, how or how much. These words form a set in a semi-systematic manner with a particle of the compound indicating abstract quantity (what person or thing, what place, what time, for what reason, in what manner, what is the amount) and the prefix/other particle indicating the specific function of the word (exactly which, all, some, negating, etc.).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4149", "title": "Bulgarian language", "section": "Section::::Grammar.:Other features.:Conjunctions and particles.:But.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 194, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 194, "end_character": 445, "text": "While there is some overlapping between their uses, in many cases they are specific. For example, is used for a choice – – \"not this one, but that one\" (compare Spanish ), while is often used to provide extra information or an opinion – – \"I said it, but I was wrong\". Meanwhile, provides contrast between two situations, and in some sentences can even be translated as \"although\", \"while\" or even \"and\" – – \"I'm working, and he's daydreaming\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26172457", "title": "Lao grammar", "section": "Section::::Questions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 107, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 107, "end_character": 205, "text": "There are numerous ways to ask when something will occur, many of which are formed by adding ໃດ (dai ) \"which\" after a noun marking time, e.g., ເວລາໃດ (vela dai ), ຍາມໃດ (gnam dai ), and ປານໃດ (pan dai ).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55838746", "title": "Osmo (game system)", "section": "Section::::Products.:Words.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 330, "text": "Words is a game where players examine on-screen picture clues and then spell out words with tangible letter tiles. According to Common Sense Education, “The range of difficulty means every student can be challenged, and the variety of word packs — and the option to add your own — makes it really versatile for fun and learning.”\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4149", "title": "Bulgarian language", "section": "Section::::Grammar.:Other features.:Conjunctions and particles.:But.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 195, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 195, "end_character": 451, "text": "Very often, different words can be used to alter the emphasis of a sentence – e.g. while and both mean \"I smoke, but I shouldn't\", the first sounds more like a statement of fact (\"...but I mustn't\"), while the second feels more like a \"judgement\" (\"...but I oughtn't\"). Similarly, and both mean \"I don't want to, but he does\", however the first emphasizes the fact that \"he\" wants to, while the second emphasizes the \"wanting\" rather than the person.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Swords are designed for specific styles of fencing and combat. Also, while a crossguard protects your hand, it also hinders your movements, determining how you attack and defend. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "While there were some (elaborately decorated) cross-guards invented in the Edo period called *katanatsuba* (刀鍔) and another type called *mamorokobushi* (護拳) katanas generally lacked cross guards and hand protections for the simple reason that they were quick withdraw* (not primarily for thrusting however, as I've been corrected) weapons, whereas European swords with the exception of rapiers (which usually have hilts like 刀鍔) were usually broad weapons.\n\nJapan had a different style of combat with the sword--Katanas were quick withdraw weapons, meant to be compatible with a Japanese concept called *Ieaidou* (居合道). The Japanese have developed a whole artform around this concept of swordplay, and it has developed into the sword tradition that Japan has today, with a focus on quick movements as opposed to slower, heavier striking.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They had no need to - the tsuba was more than enough function as a guard to protect the wielder's hand, as the various other functions of larger crossguards (e.g. to lock swords) were not seen in most styles. A small, round disc to simply ensure you didn't accidentally slip was all that was needed. Swordsmiths were (relatively) more focused on the design of the blade itself, such as the curvature of blades (which you can definitely see the progression of in naginata and katana), were of a larger concern. You could mention too that the katana, being a primarily slashing weapon (note - primarily), combined with how it was used against its contemporary armour counterparts, meant that a larger crossguard had no specific function or significant advantage over a smaller one, such as the tsuba. Not even to mention that the katana was rarely used anyway.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A related question - why would Japanese swordsmen just attack the hands of someone wielding a Japanese sword?\n\nI come from a fencing background, and in Sabre and Epee (weapons where the hand is target), the hand could be considered one of the main targets to go for (cus it's closer). These sport weapons have much more complete guards that protect the entire hand much more than the Japanese tsuba - yet hands still get hit all the time, with both a cut in sabre and a thrust in epee.\n\nIt seems to me like it would be strangely easy to strike the hands (namely the part holding the sword, not the wrists) of someone holding a japanese sword. What prevents this? Is it cultural? Or is there a technique or something that makes it a poor strategy?\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "24322585", "title": "List of National Treasures of Japan (crafts: swords)", "section": "Section::::Treasures.:Sword mountings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 658, "text": "For protection and preservation, a polished Japanese sword needs a scabbard. A fully mounted scabbard (\"koshirae\") may consist of a lacquered body, a taped hilt, a sword guard (\"tsuba\") and decorative metal fittings. Though the original purpose was to protect a sword from damage, from early times on Japanese sword mountings became a status symbol and were used to add dignity. Starting in the Heian period, a sharp distinction was made between swords designed for use in battle and those for ceremonial use. Tachi long swords were worn edge down suspended by two cords or chains from the waist belt. The cords were attached to two eyelets on the scabbard.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10938185", "title": "Shoami", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 223, "text": "Shoami (or \"Ko-Shoami\") is a name of artistic school (style) for making sword-guards (tsuba), mounted on a Japanese sword (\"uchi-gatana\" or just katana). The sword-guard is one of the most important symbols of the samurai.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1687159", "title": "Shintō Musō-ryū", "section": "Section::::Modern day Shintō Musō-ryū.:Weapons and training gear.:Ken – The sword.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 76, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 76, "end_character": 423, "text": "The Japanese sword, with its long history and many variations, has a prominent role in Shintō Musō-ryū. For training purposes, wooden swords (\"bokken\") are used to minimize the risk of injuries. Practitioners use both the long wooden sword, generally called a bokutō or bokken, and the short wooden sword that is referred to as a kodachi (meant to represent the wakizashi, or simply \"short sword\" in both interpretations).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17098", "title": "Kendo", "section": "Section::::Equipment and clothing.:Equipment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 268, "text": "The \"shinai\" is meant to represent a Japanese sword (katana) and is made up of four bamboo slats, which are held together by leather fittings. A modern variation of a \"shinai\" with carbon fiber reinforced resin slats is also used. \"Shinai\" have also been used in WWE.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8222194", "title": "Shin guard", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 356, "text": "The shin guard was inspired by the concept of a greave. A greave is a piece of armor used to protect the shin. It is a Middle English term, derived from an Old French word, greve (pronounced gri’v), meaning shin or shin armor. The etymology of this word not only describes the use and purpose of shin guards, but also contributes to dating the technology.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "905622", "title": "Iaitō", "section": "Section::::Materials and manufacture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 292, "text": "Some imitation Japanese swords are made in countries other than Japan. They may even be made of folded steel, much like a real katana, but with a blunt edge. Such weapons would face the same use and ownership restrictions in Japan as genuine swords, and would not be called \"iaitō\" in Japan.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8222194", "title": "Shin guard", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 567, "text": "As time progressed into the 19th century a major shift in the application of shin guards occurred. The overall purpose of protecting the shin was maintained, but instead of being used for fighting, it became applied to sports. This paradigm shift dominates today’s market use of shin guards as they are used mostly in sports. Other applications do exist though for protecting the lower leg in other physical activities such as hiking, mixed martial arts, and kickboxing, but all these activities can also be considered for sport instead of being necessary in battle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I am not knowledgeable enough on historical oral hygiene practices to answer the first part of your question.\n\nHowever, I can answer your second question:\n\n > Has kissing always been a part of people's love lives?\n\nWell, prior to written history, we have a hard time concluding whether or not people kissed. There are various hypotheses for how kissing developed, ranging from \"feeding\" hypotheses, akin to canines and birds who pass food to juveniles through their mouths, to hypotheses which imply that kissing is a way of exchanging olfactory information. It's a very interesting anthropological discussion.\n\nBut from a HISTORICAL perspective, kissing is mentioned in writing about 5,000 years ago, in Sumerian poetry: (Kramer, Samuel Noah (1981). History Begins at Sumer (3rd revised. ed.). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press., _URL_1_)\n\nLater examples from Egypt also mention kissing, and are fairly specific: _URL_0_, _URL_2_\n\nSo I can't tell you about how people felt about kissing due to oral hygiene, but people were definitely kissing in a romantic context since almost the beginning of recorded history.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'd like to try to answer this, but the way you've worded this questions makes it difficult. \n\nKissing has been around quite a while - some early evidence we have for kissing dates back to around 1500 B.C.E. from The Four Vedic Sanskrit Texts (The Vedas). There's no mention of the word “kiss,” (or the Sanskrit version of it, rather) but there are references to “licking,” and “drinking moisture of the lips.” By the third century C.E. we have the Vatsyayana Kamasutra (better known as the Kama Sutra), which includes a chapter describing how to kiss.\n\nIndia wasn't the only part of the world kissing that far back (e.g. kissing is mentioned in Homer's epics), but it's a convenient example.\n\nSome experts - I'm citing Vaughn Bryant, an anthropologist at Texas A & M - have speculated that kissing came from sniffing. Basically, that there was a lot of sniffing / sniffing greetings going on, and \"at some point, they slipped and ended up on the lips, and they thought that was a lot better.\" (Bryant). Another good source for this kissing / sniffing theory is *The Science of Kissing*, by Sheril Kirshenbaum. \n\nWhen you say \"oral hygiene\" and \"contemporary methods\" is where I lose you. I'm not sure what you mean by these terms - people have been cleaning our teeth as far back as written history goes. Assyrian cuneiform medical texts from 3000 B.C.E. mention teeth-cleaning procedures and toothpicks from roughly the same time have been found in Iraq (Mesopotamia). Greek writings note that Aesculapius - the Greek god of medicine - advocated for oral hygiene. \n\nSo I suppose my problem is that, without knowing what you consider \"oral hygiene\" or \"contemporary methods\", your question can't be answered. Based on what I remember and what I've read, at least, there's no record that a lack of oral hygiene was a deterrent to kissing. \n\nSo I guess, no?\n\nEdit: Poorly researched sidenote - I remember reading that body odor being considered unpleasant is a relatively recent phenomenon, associated with a lack of cleanliness, and that for a long time people liked the smell of BO. Perhaps hand in hand with that is not minding bad breath quite as much. \n\nAnyway, this isn't really my area but I hate to see this thread look so raggedy. Best answer I've got for you, sorry I cant' do better.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The \"Jests of Hierocles\" has a whole section related to bad breath and it references the issues it caused for romance. I know \"AskHistorians\" isn't normally a venue for jokes, but it seems apropos given the context...\n\n#234:\n\"A person with offensive breath asked his wife, 'Why do you hate me?' She replied saying, 'Because you love me.' \"\n\n\nAvailable on Google Books:\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Isn't it worth mentioning that before the advent of processed foods, oral hygiene was not as necessary as it is today? For example, tribal people still have very healthy teeth. Or is this a misconception?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I can't answer for kissing on the mouth, but I do know that, *tragically*, oral sex was considered taboo in Ancient Greece and Rome due to a fear of \"pollution\" - and not just limited to worries of hygiene. In Greco-Roman society, where there was so much interaction by way of conversation, kisses on the cheeks and mouth, and communal eating and drinking, there was a fear that oral sex could cause some sort of moral pollution, with a physical manifestation comparable to a curse. Additionally, it was thought that oral sex was a form of penetration, so a man who gave head would probably be treated rather similarly to a man who enjoyed getting pegged in the modern day (sort of).\n\nAs a result, there's a lot of poetry by more salacious Roman poets on the subject - Martial has over sixty poems that mention it, and one of the Latin schoolboy's favourite poems, Catullus 16, is bookended by the phrase, \"I'm going to bum you both and make you blow me.\" Also, there's a graffito from Pompeii which rather succinctly sums up Roman attitudes to cunnilingus:\n\n > III.5.3 (on the wall in the street); 8898: Theophilus, don’t perform oral sex on girls against the city wall like a dog\n\nThink on that next time you watch that scene with Jon Snow and Ygritte in the cave.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's important to remember that oral hygiene wasn't always lacking in the ancient world. It depends very much on which population and which time period you're talking about.\n\nFor example, Indians have been using twigs from the *neem* tree to brush their teeth for thousands of years (and still do today). The way it works is that they take a twig and chew on it for a few seconds until the fibers separate, and then it becomes a toothbrush. They then use this to brush their teeth.\n\nThe mechanical action of brushing, as well as antimicrobials present in the *neem* tree, are very effective at combating tooth decay. In fact, studies have [found no statistically significant difference](_URL_0_) between the incidence of plaque, cavities and gingivitis using this method, compared to a modern toothbrush and toothpaste.\n\nSimilarly, in many Arab countries the twig of the *Arak* tree (called a miswak) is used as a toothbrush. [Studies have also shown](_URL_3_) that [using a miswak](_URL_1_) is just as effective as using a modern toothbrush/paste.\n\nIt's also good to remember that the incidence of tooth and gum diseases is very related to one's diet. Specifically, diets that are high in sugars and simple starches, or carbonated drinks, predispose to tooth decay and gum disease. Such diets were not widely available in the distant past, so the incidence of these diseases was also low. There are [studies on populations living thousands of years ago](_URL_2_) that show many ancient populations had exceptionally healthy teeth.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If I remember correctly, in Chaucer's \"Miller's Tale,\" Absalon sweetens his breath with cardamon and licorice in hopes of stealing a kiss from the adulterous Alison. I think this could possibly suggest some awareness of bad breath in the 1300s when the *Canterbury Tales* are thought to have been written.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "32324913", "title": "Premastication", "section": "Section::::History and culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 622, "text": "In many human cultures, the act of premastication and direct mouth-to-mouth feeding is linked with the showing of affection, known as \"kiss feeding\". In the Manus cultures of the Admiralty Islands, the act of premastication has been used by a women to remind children and descendants of their obligations to her. Some human cultures such as the people of Papua New Guinea in fact use mouth to mouth contact primarily for feeding premasticated food, with sexual kissing only observed after the arrival of Europeans. This form of feeding is believed to have evolved into the modern human acts of kissing and French kissing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50399", "title": "Kiss", "section": "Section::::Biology and evolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 101, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 101, "end_character": 779, "text": "Kissing in humans is postulated to have evolved from the direct mouth-to-mouth regurgitation of food (kiss-feeding) from parent to offspring or male to female (courtship feeding) and has been observed in numerous mammals. The similarity in the methods between kiss-feeding and deep human kisses (e.g. French kiss) are quite pronounced; in the former, the tongue is used to push food from the mouth of the mother to the child with the child receiving both the mother's food and tongue in sucking movements, and the latter is the same but forgoes the premasticated food. In fact, through observations across various species and cultures, it can be confirmed that the act of kissing and premastication has most likely evolved from the similar relationship-based feeding behaviours.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50399", "title": "Kiss", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 287, "text": "Anthropologists are divided into two schools on the origins of kissing, one believing that it is instinctual and intuitive and the other that it evolved from what is known as \"kiss feeding\", a process used by mothers to feed their infants by passing chewed food to their babies' mouths.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "414350", "title": "Tooth decay", "section": "Section::::Prevention.:Oral hygiene.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 88, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 88, "end_character": 270, "text": "Alternative methods of oral hygiene also exist around the world, such as the use of teeth cleaning twigs such as miswaks in some Middle Eastern and African cultures. There is some limited evidence demonstrating the efficacy of these alternative methods of oral hygiene.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "580879", "title": "Cheek kissing", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 329, "text": "In cultures and situations where cheek kissing is the social norm, the failure or refusal to give or accept a kiss is commonly taken as an indicator of antipathy between the people, and to dispel such an implication and avoid giving offense may require an explanation, such as the person has a contagious disease such as a cold.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50399", "title": "Kiss", "section": "Section::::Biology and evolution.:Disease transmission.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 108, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 108, "end_character": 476, "text": "Kissing on the lips can result in the transmission of some diseases, including infectious mononucleosis (known as the \"kissing disease\") and herpes simplex when the infectious viruses are present in saliva. Research indicates that contraction of HIV via kissing is extremely unlikely, although there was a documented case in 1997 of an HIV infection by kissing. Both the woman and infected man had gum disease, so transmission was through the man's blood, not through saliva.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "105807", "title": "Infectious mononucleosis", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 91, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 91, "end_character": 215, "text": "Yale School of Public Health epidemiologist Alfred E. Evans confirmed through testing that mononucleosis was transmitted mainly through kissing leading to it being referred to colloquially as \"the kissing disease\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The House of Representatives impeaches him and the Senate holds a trial with the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court presiding. He can't pardon himself in this case.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's an open question about whether a sitting president can be put on trial through the standard criminal justice system instead of the impeachment process. It simply hasn't come up because no prosecutor has ever tried to prosecute a sitting president. There are legal experts on both sides of the issue who believe that the president can only be tried through impeachment or that they can also be tried in a normal court.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "26156113", "title": "Threatening the President of the United States", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 618, "text": "Threatening the President of the United States is a federal felony under United States Code Title 18, Section 871. It consists of knowingly and willfully mailing or otherwise making \"any threat to take the life of, to kidnap, or to inflict bodily harm upon the President of the United States\". This also includes presidential candidates and former Presidents. The United States Secret Service investigates suspected violations of this law and monitors those who have a history of threatening the President. Threatening the President is considered a political offense. Immigrants who commit this crime can be deported.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26156113", "title": "Threatening the President of the United States", "section": "Section::::Penalties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 1739, "text": "Threatening the President of the United States is a felony under United States Code Title 18, Section 871. The offense is punishable by up to 5 years in prison, a $250,000 maximum fine, a $100 special assessment, and 3 years of supervised release. Internet restrictions such as a prohibition on access to email have been imposed on offenders who made their threats by computer. The U.S. Sentencing Guidelines set a base offense level of 12 for sending threatening communication, but when a threat to the President is involved, a 6-level \"official victim\" enhancement applies. Moreover, \"an upward departure may be warranted due to the potential disruption of the governmental function.\" Further enhancements can apply if the offender evidenced an intent to carry out the threat (6-level enhancement); made more than two threats (2-level enhancement); caused substantial disruption of public, governmental, or business functions or services (4-level enhancement); or created a substantial risk of inciting others to harm federal officials (2-level enhancement). Since each 6-level increase approximately doubles the Guidelines sentencing range, it is not particularly rare for an offender who threatens the President to receive a sentence at or near the maximum, especially if he has a criminal history and/or does not qualify for a reduction for acceptance of responsibility. There is a 4-level decrease available for a threat involving a \"single instance evidencing little or no deliberation\", which would usually apply to spur-of-the-moment verbal threats. The maximum penalty for threatening a United States judge or a Federal law enforcement officer is 10 years imprisonment — double the maximum penalty for threatening the President.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28125153", "title": "United States v. Stickrath", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 383, "text": "United States v. Stickrath, 242 F. 151 (S.D. Ohio 1917), is a case that was decided by the United States District Court for the Southern District of Ohio, in which it was ruled that threatening the President of the United States was akin to treason. It was also held that stating the President \"ought\" to be killed was more serious than saying that the President \"should\" be killed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25866816", "title": "2010 Jos riots", "section": "Section::::Response.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 370, "text": "Vice President Jonathan, who was the acting president at the time, urged that the killers be caught. The police announced that 313 people were arrested in relation to the January 2010 violence, while 200 people were arrested following the March 2010 violence. As of 2013, federal prosecutors had secured convictions of at least 129 people involved in the 2010 violence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53353392", "title": "Timeline of the Woodrow Wilson presidency", "section": "Section::::1916.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 217, "text": "BULLET::::- December 2 - Two men are arrested on charges of trying to murder President Wilson. President Wilson delivers a speech at the banquet celebrating the illumination of the Statue of Liberty in New York City.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27856740", "title": "Dada Sahib", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 238, "text": "But finally he finds himself being arrested on charges of espionage, treason and terrorist activity and the court too gives its final verdict-the death sentence. The President too rejects his plea and finally the sentence is carried out.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "218464", "title": "President of Austria", "section": "Section::::Legal protection.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 85, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 85, "end_character": 273, "text": "The president is particularly protected by special criminal law provisions. This includes in particular § 249 StGB, \"Violence and dangerous threat against the president\". The offense belongs to the fifteenth section of the Criminal Code, \"Attacks on supreme state organs\":\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You may be interested in my answers in these previous threads:\n\n* [At what point did Australians and New Zealanders begin to consider themselves as distinct from the British?](_URL_1_)\n\n* [Why did Great Britain grant independence/autonomy to Australia and Canada? Was it political necessity or were there economic concerns?](_URL_0_)\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "282220", "title": "Colonial history of the United States", "section": "Section::::Unification of the British colonies.:Ties to the British Empire.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 116, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 116, "end_character": 805, "text": "The colonies were very different from one another but they were still a part of the British Empire in more than just name. Demographically, the majority of the colonists traced their roots to the British Isles and many of them still had family ties with Great Britain. Socially, the colonial elite of Boston, New York, Charleston, and Philadelphia saw their identity as British. Many had never lived in Britain in over a few generations, yet they imitated British styles of dress, dance, and etiquette. This social upper echelon built its mansions in the Georgian style, copied the furniture designs of Thomas Chippendale, and participated in the intellectual currents of Europe, such as the Enlightenment. The seaport cities of colonial America were truly British cities in the eyes of many inhabitants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17998086", "title": "British diaspora", "section": "Section::::History of British diaspora.:Up to the 19th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 496, "text": "In colonies such as Southern Rhodesia, Hong Kong, Singapore, Jamaica, Barbados, British East Africa and the Cape Colony, permanently resident British communities were established and while never more than a numerical minority these Britons exercised a dominant influence upon the culture and politics of those lands. In Australia, Canada and New Zealand people of British origin came to constitute the majority of the population contributing to these states becoming integral to the Anglosphere.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19097669", "title": "British people", "section": "Section::::Geographic distribution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 456, "text": "In colonies such as Southern Rhodesia, British East Africa and Cape Colony, permanently resident British communities were established and whilst never more than a numerical minority these Britons \"exercised a dominant influence\" upon the culture and politics of those lands. In Australia, Canada and New Zealand \"people of British origin came to constitute the majority of the population\" contributing to these states becoming integral to the Anglosphere.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19097669", "title": "British people", "section": "Section::::Geographic distribution.:New Zealand.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 607, "text": "A long-term result of James Cook's voyage of 1768–1771, a significant number of New Zealanders are of British descent, for whom a sense of Britishness has contributed to their identity. As late as the 1950s, it was common for British New Zealanders to refer to themselves as British, such as when Prime Minister Keith Holyoake described Sir Edmund Hillary's successful ascent of Mount Everest as putting \"the British race and New Zealand on top of the world\". New Zealand passports described nationals as \"British Subject: Citizen of New Zealand\" until 1974, when this was changed to \"New Zealand citizen\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4037118", "title": "European New Zealanders", "section": "Section::::Alternative terms.:British and Irish New Zealanders.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 692, "text": "The New Zealand 2006 census statistics reported citizens with British (27,192), English (44,202), Scottish (15,039), Irish (12,651), Welsh (3,771) and Celtic (1,506) origins. Historically, a sense of 'Britishness' has figured prominently in the identity of many New Zealanders. As late as the 1950s it was common for New Zealanders to refer to themselves as British, such as when Prime Minister Keith Holyoake described Sir Edmund Hillary's successful ascent of Mt. Everest as \"\"[putting] the British race and New Zealand on top of the world\"\". New Zealand passports described nationals as \"British Subject and New Zealand Citizen\" until 1974, when this was changed to \"New Zealand Citizen\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18040905", "title": "British Nationality Act 1948", "section": "Section::::Background to the Act.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 546, "text": "Broadly speaking, nationals of the United Kingdom, the Dominions, and the various British colonies had always shared a common citizenship status of \"British subject\". However, in 1946 the Canadian parliament passed the \"Canadian Citizenship Act\", which established a separate Canadian citizenship. In response, a Commonwealth conference met in London in 1947, where it was agreed that each of the Commonwealth member states would be free to legislate for its own citizenship, while still retaining elements of a common Commonwealth citizenship. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "282220", "title": "Colonial history of the United States", "section": "Section::::Unification of the British colonies.:Colonial wars: a common defense.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 107, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 107, "end_character": 420, "text": "One event that reminded colonists of their shared identity as British subjects was the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) in Europe. This conflict spilled over into the colonies, where it was known as \"King George's War\". The major battles took place in Europe, but American colonial troops fought the French and their Indian allies in New York, New England, and Nova Scotia with the Siege of Louisbourg (1745).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They can, it's called crosstalk and it's a big design problem. Normally the signals are small enough that the interference is minimal, and can be fixed by spacing the wires apart. When that doesn't work, foil shielding is used. And if that doesn't work, you can use balanced connections. \n\nA balanced connection is when the signal and the opposite of the signal are sent on two lines. Then at the other end they are subtracted, this doubles the strength of the signal and any shared interference is removed. Professional audio cables are an example of balanced connections, but that's done to prevent interference from the environment. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm on mobile, but look into twisted pair and common mode rejection. The answers you're looking for are there. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "258958", "title": "Balanced audio", "section": "Section::::Interference reduction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 615, "text": "The wires are also twisted together, to reduce interference from electromagnetic induction. A twisted pair makes the loop area between the conductors as small as possible, and ensures that a magnetic field that passes equally through adjacent loops will induce equal levels of noise on both lines, which is canceled out by the differential amplifier. If the noise source is extremely close to the cable, then it is possible it will be induced on one of the lines more than the other, and it won't be canceled as well, but canceling will still occur to the extent of the amount of noise that is equal on both lines.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22435060", "title": "Network isolator", "section": "Section::::Technical requirements.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 348, "text": "Network connections made with unshielded cables are occasionally used as a form of isolation, in that no shield connection exists between the device and the network. However, this fails to provide sufficient protection in the scope of IEC 60601-1, as the data lines themselves are not isolated, and may be floating at dangerous voltage potentials.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "80506", "title": "Twisted pair", "section": "Section::::Cable shielding.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 351, "text": "Twisted pair cables often incorporate shielding in an attempt to prevent electromagnetic interference. Shielding provides an electrically conductive barrier to attenuate electromagnetic waves external to the shield; and provides a conduction path by which induced currents can be circulated and returned to the source via ground reference connection.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10956197", "title": "Balanced circuit", "section": "Section::::Driving and receiving circuits.:Electronic balance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 228, "text": "Because the currents in the two lines are equal and opposite, this has the further advantage that radiated signals cancel each other except in the near field of the conductors, thereby reducing cross-talk onto other conductors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30003", "title": "Telephone", "section": "Section::::Basic principles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 856, "text": "A major expense of wire-line telephone service is the outside wire plant. Telephones transmit both the incoming and outgoing speech signals on a single pair of wires. A twisted pair line rejects electromagnetic interference (EMI) and crosstalk better than a single wire or an untwisted pair. The strong outgoing speech signal from the microphone (transmitter) does not overpower the weaker incoming speaker (receiver) signal with sidetone because a hybrid coil (A3) and other components compensate the imbalance. The junction box (B) arrests lightning (B2) and adjusts the line's resistance (B1) to maximize the signal power for the line length. Telephones have similar adjustments for inside line lengths (A8). The line voltages are negative compared to earth, to reduce galvanic corrosion. Negative voltage attracts positive metal ions toward the wires.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11915445", "title": "Powerlock", "section": "Section::::Safety.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 433, "text": "Nevertheless, the potential exists for connection errors, such as failing to properly connect earth or neutral, attempting connection / disconnection under load, incomplete connection of parallel circuits, or inappropriate combinations of circuit breakers and downstream equipment. For this reason all single-pole connectors including Powerlock are intended to be operated (connected and disconnected) only by trained professionals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "321524", "title": "Twin-lead", "section": "Section::::Characteristics and uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 706, "text": "Twin lead and other types of parallel-conductor transmission line are mainly used to connect radio transmitters and receivers to their antennas. Parallel transmission line has the advantage that its losses are an order of magnitude smaller than that of coaxial cable, the main alternative form of transmission line. Its disadvantages are that it is more vulnerable to interference, and must be kept away from metal objects which can cause power losses. For this reason, when installed along the outside of buildings and on antenna masts, standoff insulators must be used. It is also common practice to twist the twin lead on long free standing lengths to further reject any induced imbalances to the line.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Here's the start of an answer: \"Anarchism\" was not a widely used keyword until 1880 or so, around the time of the establishment of the The International Working People's Association or \"Black International.\" Prior to that, anarchist ideas played a role in organizations like the International Association of the 1850s and the First International, and informed some elements in uprisings like the June Days of 1848 and the Paris Commune. In North America, they were also part of the movement for \"equitable commerce,\" informed the radical wing of the abolitionist movement and inspired the organizers of the various New England reform leagues. But they were, in this early period, generally expressed in the context of larger socialist and/or internationalist movements. Those movements were marked by all sorts of internal struggles, including significant disagreements between anarchistic factions. It was arguably not until after the splits in the International that the various elements, anarchists among them, would emerge as movements in their own right, with the new divisions drawing anarchists together as socialism and the international labor movement split apart. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "47246185", "title": "History of socialism", "section": "Section::::Anarchism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 71, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 71, "end_character": 274, "text": "Anarchism as a social movement has regularly endured fluctuations in popularity. Its classical period, which scholars demarcate as from 1860 to 1939, is associated with the working-class movements of the 19th century and the Spanish Civil War-era struggles against fascism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2274182", "title": "Anarchism in the United States", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 818, "text": "Anarchism in the United States began in the mid-19th century and started to grow in influence as it entered the American labor movements, growing an anarcho-communist current as well as gaining notoriety for violent propaganda of the deed and campaigning for diverse social reforms in the early 20th century. In the post-World War II era, anarchism regained influence through new developments such as anarcho-pacifism, the American New Left and the counterculture of the 1960s. In contemporary times, anarchism in the United States influenced and became influenced and renewed by developments both inside and outside the worldwide anarchist movement such as platformism, insurrectionary anarchism, the new social movements (anarcha-feminism, queer anarchism and green anarchism) and the alter-globalization movements.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1063286", "title": "History of anarchism", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 858, "text": "Modern anarchism was a significant part of the worker's movement at the end of the 19th century. Modernism, industrialisation, reaction to capitalism and mass migration helped anarchism to flourish and to spread around the globe. Major tendencies of anarchism sprouted up as anarchism grew as a social movement, particularly anarcho-collectivism, anarcho-communism, anarcho-syndicalism, and individualist anarchism. As the workers' movement grew, the divide between anarchists and Marxists grew as well. The two currents formally split at the fifth congress of the First International in 1872, and the events that followed did not help to heal the gap. Anarchists participated enthusiastically in the Russian Revolution, but as soon as the Bolsheviks established their authority, anarchists were harshly suppressed, most notably in Kronstadt and in Ukraine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1063286", "title": "History of anarchism", "section": "Section::::Late 19th century to early 20th century: classical anarchism as a worker's movement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 374, "text": "The last decades of the 19th and the first of the 20th centuries, constitute the \"belle epoque\" of anarchism. Anarchism played a prominent role in working class struggles, along with Marxism, not only in Europe but in North and Latin America, Asia and Australia. Modernism, mass migration, the railroads and access to printing all helped anarchists to advance their causes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1063286", "title": "History of anarchism", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 312, "text": "Anarchism has remained a political and cultural force in various political struggles continuing into the 21st century. Anarchism prominently influenced the Occupy Movement, and anarchist ideology, particularly the green anarchist thought of Murray Bookchin, has played a prominent role in the Rojava Revolution.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12", "title": "Anarchism", "section": "Section::::History.:Classical anarchism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 617, "text": "The turning point towards anarchism was the French Revolution in which the anti-state and federalist sentiments began to take a form, mostly by Enragés and \"sans-culottes\". Some prominent figures of anarchism begun developing the first anarchist currents. That is the era of classical anarchism that lasted until the end of the Spanish Civil War of 1936 and was the golden age of anarchism. William Godwin espoused philosophical anarchism in England morally delegitimizing the state, Max Stirner's thinking paved the way to individualism and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's theory of mutualism found fertile soil in France.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8874671", "title": "Anarchism in Brazil", "section": "Section::::Anarcho-syndicalist labour movement, press and schools.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 892, "text": "Anarchism or anarcho-syndicalism was the dominant ideology underpinning the Brazilian labour movement at the beginning of the twentieth century. Syndicates and labour federations were erected, mainly pressing for shorter workdays, better working conditions and higher salaries. Various strikes, i.e. in the harbour of Santos and among railway workers, were inspired by anarchist sympathies. In 1906 the first nationwide Brazilian workers' congress was held, and from then on the May Day celebrations, with prominent anarchists delivering speeches, started to attract large crowds. The second national workers' congress in 1913 was initially meant to be a Pan-American anarchist congress, but only two Argentinians showed up. The labour agitation eventually culminated in the large strike movements of 1917 and 1919, biggest in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, but echoed throughout the country.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's something like 4000 miles from there to Moscow, and 2000 miles to California. In both cases most of the trip would be across wilderness terrain with no major roads or infrastructure to speak of. In the age of nuclear weapons, the war would be over long before an army crossing the Bering Strait reached anything remotely important. Even if nuclear war did not break out, a large ground force making such a long and difficult journey would have little hope of survival. They would be hit by air strikes for weeks or months, and then would face a prepared defense if they ever made it to their goal.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "53212", "title": "Bering Strait", "section": "Section::::\"Ice Curtain\" border.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 761, "text": "During the Cold War, the Bering Strait marked the border between the Soviet Union and the United States. The Diomede Islands—Big Diomede (Russia) and Little Diomede (US)—are only apart. Traditionally, the indigenous peoples in the area had frequently crossed the border back and forth for \"routine visits, seasonal festivals and subsistence trade\", but were prevented from doing so during the Cold War. The border became known as the \"Ice Curtain\". It was completely closed, and there was no regular passenger air or boat traffic. In 1987, American swimmer Lynne Cox symbolically helped ease tensions between the two countries by swimming across the border, and was congratulated jointly by American President Ronald Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53212", "title": "Bering Strait", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 298, "text": "The Bering Strait is a strait of the Pacific, which separates Russia and Alaska slightly south of the Arctic Circle at about 65° 40' N latitude. The present Russia-US east-west boundary is at 168° 58' 37\" W. The Strait is named after Vitus Bering, an explorer in the service of the Russian Empire.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59120", "title": "Strait of Tartary", "section": "Section::::History.:Recent history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 669, "text": "The southeastern part of the Strait of Tartary was the site of one of the tensest incidents of the Cold War, when on September 1, 1983, Korean Air Lines Flight 007, carrying 269 people including a sitting U.S. congressman, Larry McDonald, strayed into the Soviet air space and was attacked by a Soviet Su-15 interceptor just west of Sakhalin Island. The plane came down on the waters off the strait's only land mass, Moneron Island. An intensive naval search by the U.S. with assistance of Japanese and Korean vessels was carried on in a area of the strait just north of Moneron Island (see \"Search for KAL 007 in International Waters\" of Korean Air Lines Flight 007).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "305109", "title": "Northeast Passage", "section": "Section::::History.:After the Russian Revolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 435, "text": "The introduction of radio, steamboats, and icebreakers made running the Northern Sea Route viable. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Soviet Union was isolated from the western powers, which made it imperative to use this route. Besides being the shortest seaway between the western and far eastern USSR, it was the only one that lay completely inside Soviet internal waters and did not impinge on waters of opposing countries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11125471", "title": "Borders of the United States", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 843, "text": "The Russia – United States maritime boundary was defined by a disputed agreement covering the Bering Sea, Bering Strait, and Arctic Ocean. The International Date Line essentially acts as the de facto border between the two nations; the USA ratified the USSR-USA Maritime Boundary Agreement, but the USSR failed to ratify it before dissolving, and it was subsequently never ratified by Russia. During the winter, travel between Russia's uninhabited Big Diomede Island and Alaska's Little Diomede Island with a population of 110 is theoretically possible, although not legal, on some occasions when ice flowing through the Bering Strait clogs between the two islands. West of Puerto Rico, the Mona Passage serves as maritime boundary with the Dominican Republic, and the US shares a border with the United Kingdom east of the US Virgin Islands.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8379168", "title": "Dmitry Shparo", "section": "Section::::Professional background.:Goodwill ambassador.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 507, "text": "In 1989, Shparo and his American colleague, Paul Schurke, led the Bering Bridge Expedition from Siberia to Alaska in an attempt to reconnect Arctic cultures separated by the Cold War. Until World War II, the Inuit of Siberia and Alaska had traveled back and forth across the Bering Strait to hunt walrus and visit relatives. However, in 1948, the Stalin and the Truman governments locked down the border. Shparo and Schurke asked the Kremlin and the White House to open the border to a sled dog expedition.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4649758", "title": "Karl Bushby", "section": "Section::::Goliath Expedition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 804, "text": "In March 2006, Bushby and French adventurer Dimitri Kieffer crossed the Bering Strait on foot, having to take a roundabout 14-day route across a frozen section to cross the wide strait from Alaska to Siberia. They were detained by Russian border troop officers while they were crossing the Russian border near the Chukotkan village of Uelen, for not entering Russia at a correct port-of-entry. They were threatened with being banned from Russia, which would stop the journey. It was announced on 5 May 2006 that the Russian appeal court had upheld Bushby's application and his walk would continue. This was reported to be the result of consultation between John Prescott, the then British Deputy Prime Minister (and MP in Bushby's home town of Hull), and Roman Abramovich, the then Governor of Chukotka.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There have been a few previous answers that might be helpful here:\n\n[How easy was it for fugitives to evade capture in the Roman Empire?](_URL_3_) by [u/mpixieg](_URL_2_)\n\n[How were crimes investigated in Roman times?](_URL_1_) by [u/AwesomeDog59](_URL_4_)\n\nAnd a couple by me:\n\n[Prior to DNA evidence, finger prints, etc. how did they solve murders and actually know if they convicted the right person?](_URL_0_)\n\n[I'm living in Ancient Rome and I just murdered someone. What chances do I have of getting caught?](_URL_5_)\n\nIn short - no one! If someone got murdered, that was a problem for the murdered person's family. If they could bring the murderer to court, then the government would deal with it. If not, then there was nothing to investigate. In Rome, the praetor was in charge of investigating, if someone was brought to him. But the government did not investigate crimes on its own.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "18474334", "title": "The Slave-Girl from Jerusalem", "section": "Section::::Themes.:Roman Law.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 454, "text": "BULLET::::- Criminal enforcement is largely private in Ancient Rome; unlike today, there is no public system of enforcement, such as a prosecuting attorney ostensibly bringing a case on behalf of the community (e.g., \"People vs. _______\", or \"Crown vs. ________\".) For instance, Celer confesses to murder in the gallery, before several witnesses, but the judge states that he has no authority to try Celer unless another citizen brings suit against him.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "487201", "title": "Rostra", "section": "Section::::History.:Tribal assemblies and tribunals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 821, "text": "The Rostra was also used for meetings of courts. In Republican Rome, criminal prosecutions took place in the Forum either before a tribal assembly with a magistrate prosecuting (a procedure specified in the Twelve Tables and the normal mode of prosecution in the middle Republic) or in a jury-court (\"quaestio de repetundis\") established by statute and presided over by a magistrate with a jury (after 70 BC) of about 50-75 jurors. For trials held in the Comitium, the Rostra served as the tribunal upon which the magistrate sat in his curule chair with a small number of attendants. \"This was enough in itself to establish a court, though it was supplemented by benches (\"subsellia\") for the jurors, the parties to the case, and their supporters.\" The circle of onlookers (\"corona\") either stood or sat on nearby steps.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5236980", "title": "Criminal investigation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 437, "text": "Criminal investigation is an ancient science that may have roots as far back as c. 1700 BCE in the writings of the Code of Hammurabi. In the code it is suggested that both the accuser and the accused had the right to present evidence they collected. In the modern era criminal investigations are most often done by government police forces. Private investigators are also commonly hired to complete or assist in criminal investigations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "512655", "title": "Brabant killers", "section": "Section::::Investigation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 398, "text": "A initially promising lead for the enquiry concerned a member of a family of Romany origin that was well known in the underworld, who led a group of armed robbers. He was charged with being one of the Brabant Killers and at one point made (later retracted) admission to having participated without his gang in the massacres, but provided no details, and the line of investigation proved fruitless.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33136259", "title": "Donna Roma", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 449, "text": "The Commissioner Friederike Heise explains her case with analytical and forensic-psychological knowledge (Profiler) to murder, their causes are very difficult to determine. First, it is only because of the arranged assistance for very personal reasons, then later in Rome. My partner, Chief Inspector Marcello Pascarella and they often get together once, anyway, or just feel attracted to each other and therefore form a good team of investigators.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15032952", "title": "Law & Order: UK", "section": "Section::::Premise.:The police portion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1110, "text": "The detectives often have few or no good clues — they might not even know the victim's identity — and must usually chase several dead ends before finding a likely suspect. They investigate the crime by collecting evidence at the crime scene (with the help of scenes of crime officers (SOCOs)), visit the forensic pathologist for clues to the victim's cause and time of death (sometimes the victim's identity from dental records or fingerprints). The police will also inform relatives of the victim's death, interview witnesses, trace the victim's last known movements (by talking to the victim's family and friends). as well as visiting the crime laboratory for evidence (e.g. such as fingerprints, DNA and ballistics etc.), records and research for information on financial details and background information on both victim(s) and suspect(s). In some instances, psychologists and/or psychiatrists are called in for insight into the criminal's behaviour or \"modus operandi\". All the while, the detectives report to their commanding officer, keeping them informed and being advised on how best to proceed next.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53090762", "title": "Death in Captivity", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1421, "text": "A murder has been committed, but not in the usual confines of the secluded English country house so typical of the Golden age of detective fiction. Instead, a Greek prisoner of war interned in a camp for British officers is found dead in a secret underground tunnel that a number of the officers have been tirelessly working on in the hope of fleeing the camp. No one knows how the Greek could have gotten there or who could have killed him. Hoping to protect their tunneling activities, a committee of senior officers designates a scholarly fellow officer to investigate the death and attempt to determine who had killed the Greek and somehow get him into their tunnel. Most of the rest of the book concerns his attempts to carry out a discreet investigation within the heavily guarded camp. Just as he is about to finally reveal who has committed the crime, word comes that the Italians, who have now officially left the war, are about to turn the camp over to German forces. The tunnel can just barely be completed in the next few hours—will they then be able to evacuate the entire camp before the Germans arrive? The final chapters of the book relate the adventures of three escaped officers as they attempt to traverse the Italian countryside and reach the safety of the Allied lines. Gilbert himself, in real life, escaped with two fellow officers, and the book is dedicated to the actual names of those officers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Barometers can be used to predict the weather or estimate your altitude. If you put your phone in a bag and submerge it underwater, you can use a bit of math to measure its depth.\n\nMost useful stuff the barometer can do, apps already do.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Air pressure decreases as elevation increases. Air pressure increases as it becomes more saturated with moisture/cools down.\n\nSo, if you monitor the change in pressure, you can tell the elevation change if the weather stays the same, or predict weather changes if you don’t change elevation.\n\nAnd as your phone also contains a GPS which can pinpoint your elevation outside, you can easily track weather systems based on the air pressure — of course, your weather app can do that too.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "47488", "title": "Barometer", "section": "Section::::Types.:MEMS Barometers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 654, "text": "A barometer can also be found in smartphones such as the Samsung Galaxy Nexus, Samsung Galaxy S3-S6, Motorola Xoom, Apple iPhone 6 smartphones, and Timex Expedition WS4 smartwatch, based on MEMS and piezoresistive pressure-sensing technologies. Inclusion of barometers on smartphones was originally intended to provide a faster GPS lock. However, third party researchers were unable to confirm additional GPS accuracy or lock speed due to barometric readings. The researchers suggest that the inclusion of barometers in smartphones may provide a solution for determining a user's elevation, but also suggest that several pitfalls must first be overcome.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47488", "title": "Barometer", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 314, "text": "A barometer is a scientific instrument that is used to measure air pressure in a certain environment. Pressure tendency can forecast short term changes in the weather. Many measurements of air pressure are used within surface weather analysis to help find surface troughs, pressure systems and frontal boundaries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39901907", "title": "EurObserv'ER", "section": "Section::::Publications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 271, "text": "The barometers do not only provide reliable figures on the markets but also analysis and description of the facts and trends in each RES sector. They publish comparable data by using collection and calculation methodologies that are the same for all the countries of EU.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47488", "title": "Barometer", "section": "Section::::Types.:Aneroid barometers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 959, "text": "An aneroid barometer is an instrument used for measuring pressure as a method that does not involve liquid. Invented in 1844 by French scientist Lucien Vidi, the aneroid barometer uses a small, flexible metal box called an aneroid cell (capsule), which is made from an alloy of beryllium and copper. The evacuated capsule (or usually several capsules, stacked to add up their movements) is prevented from collapsing by a strong spring. Small changes in external air pressure cause the cell to expand or contract. This expansion and contraction drives mechanical levers such that the tiny movements of the capsule are amplified and displayed on the face of the aneroid barometer. Many models include a manually set needle which is used to mark the current measurement so a change can be seen. This type of barometer is common in homes and in recreational boats. It is also used in meteorology, mostly in barographs and as a pressure instrument in radiosondes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14417117", "title": "Microbarometer", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 689, "text": "Microbarometers are sensitive barometers that can measure air pressure with high precision. Microbarometers typically have a resolution of microbars (μbar) or pascals (Pa), while ordinary barometers can only resolve in hectopascals (hPa) or millibars (mbar). Recording microbarometers, or microbarographs, distributed around the world are planned to be used to monitor compliance with the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (upon entry into force) by detecting the infrasound signature of a nuclear explosion, which can propagate for very long distances. By analyzing the data received at several of these monitoring stations, the location and yield of the explosion can be determined.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3281057", "title": "Thermodynamic instruments", "section": "Section::::Thermodynamic meters.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 278, "text": "BULLET::::- Barometer - a device which measures pressure. An ideal gas barometer may be constructed by mechanically connecting an ideal gas to the system being measured, while thermally insulating it. The volume will then measure pressure, by the ideal gas equation \"P=NkT/V\" .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47488", "title": "Barometer", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 396, "text": "Barometers and pressure altimeters (the most basic and common type of altimeter) are essentially the same instrument, but used for different purposes. An altimeter is intended to be used at different levels matching the corresponding atmospheric pressure to the altitude, while a barometer is kept at the same level and measures subtle pressure changes caused by weather and elements of weather.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You are not legally entitled to most government benefits; you must be eligible. If not using illegal drugs is a condition for eligibility, then you can be required to prove that to obtain the benefits. That's not unconstitutional, because you're not being compelled to do anything--it is your choice to seek the benefit of the program.\n\nMandatory tests for intoxication without any suspicion are highly questionable, but that's a very different situation. Going about your lawful business and being required to submit to a test is not the same thing as applying for a benefit and having to submit to a test to prove eligibility.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It is not a violation of the 5th Amendment, because neither driving nor receiving gov't aid is a right.\n\nWhen you choose to drive, you are giving implied consent to certain kinds of searches. If you do not want to consent, you can choose not to drive.\n\nSimilarly, when you ask for assistance, the gov't can ask you to give up some of your rights in return.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "986871", "title": "Drug test", "section": "Section::::Legality, ethics and politics.:United Kingdom.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 83, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 83, "end_character": 430, "text": "A study in 2004 by the Independent Inquiry into Drug Testing at Work found that attempts by employers to force employees to take drug tests could potentially be challenged as a violation of privacy under the Human Rights Act 1998 and Article 8 of the European Convention of Human Rights. However, this does not apply to industries where drug testing is a matter of personal and public safety or security rather than productivity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31476749", "title": "Hawaii's Opportunity Probation with Enforcement", "section": "Section::::HOPE model.:Drug Testing Hotline.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 341, "text": "To induce probationers to appear for testing even when they know their drug test will be positive, HOPE provides for more severe sanctions for those who abscond than for those who test dirty but admit and turn themselves in. To make the threat effective, law enforcement officers are available to promptly arrest those who failed to appear.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "986871", "title": "Drug test", "section": "Section::::Legality, ethics and politics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 81, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 81, "end_character": 438, "text": "people taking the drug test within risk groups so that those who pose more of a danger to the public can be incapacitated through incarceration or other restrictions on liberty. Thus, the drug testing serves a crime control purpose even if there is no expectation of rehabilitating the drug user through treatment, deterring drug use through sanctions, or sending a message that drug use is a deviant behavior that will not be tolerated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21109533", "title": "Social programs in the United States", "section": "Section::::Analysis.:Drug testing for applicants.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 75, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 75, "end_character": 786, "text": "The United States adopted the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act in 1996, which gave individual states the authority to drug test welfare recipients. Drug testing in order for potential recipients to receive welfare has become an increasingly controversial topic. Richard Hudson, a Republican from North Carolina claims he pushes for drug screening as a matter of \"moral obligation\" and that testing should be enforced as a way for the United States government to discourage drug usage. Others claim that ordering the needy to drug test \"stereotypes, stigmatizes, and criminalizes\" them without need. States that currently require drug tests to be performed in order to receive public assistance include Arizona, Florida, Georgia, Missouri, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and Utah.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "986871", "title": "Drug test", "section": "Section::::Legality, ethics and politics.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 87, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 87, "end_character": 927, "text": "Testing positive can lead to bail not being granted, or if bail has already been granted, to bail revocation or other sanctions. Arizona also adopted a law in 1987 authorizing mandatory drug testing of felony arrestees for the purpose of informing the pretrial release decision, and the District of Columbia has had a similar law since the 1970s. It has been argued that one of the problems with such testing is that there is often not enough time between the arrest and the bail decision to confirm positive results using GC/MS technology. It has also been argued that such testing potentially implicates the Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination, the right to due process (including the prohibition against gathering evidence in a manner that shocks the conscience or constitutes outrageous government conduct), and the prohibition against unreasonable searches and seizures contained in the Fourth Amendment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17360843", "title": "Drug policy of Sweden", "section": "Section::::Implementation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 336, "text": "In recent years, drug testing of suspected abusers has been used as a first step in motivating them to seek treatment. Conditional sentences for drug offenses includes such measures as mandatory urine tests or treatment. The anti-drug program also includes information and low cost treatment for any citizen with an addiction to drugs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6439580", "title": "Drug Interventions Programme", "section": "Section::::Tough Choices.:Required Assessment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 397, "text": "Individuals who test positive under the \"Test on Arrest\" scheme are required to see a drug worker for a single appointment. Although the Drugs Act 2005 had introduced a contingency for a \"Follow-up Required Assessment\" process, this measure was not implemented until March 2007. Individuals who fail to attend either of these appointments could face up to three months in prison or a £2,500 fine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Great question!\n\nIn the twelfth century Latin Christian attitudes to this question were rather conflicted. On the one hand you have categorical prohibitions against miscegenation and on the other you have early depictions in chronicles and popular literature where such relationships are romantic and quite beautiful. \n\nWith respect to the former, two decades after the establishment of the Crusader states and Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem the religious and secular elite of these nascent communities met at the Council of Nablus in 1120 to pass sweeping new legislation aimed at policing the sexual ethics and morals of Latin Christians and multi-confessional neighbours. According to canons 12 and 15 Christian men and women who voluntarily had sexual intercourse with Muslims would suffer mutilation; men would be castrated and women would have their noses cut of (rhinotomy). \n\nThis was motivated in part due to a recent history of military defeat, exemplified most dramatically in the annihilation of the Antiochene field army in 1119 at the *Ager Sanguinis* or Field of Blood. The death of Roger of Salerno on the field with the majority of his men signalled to some Latin Christian observers within the Levant that God was punishing the faithful for their moral depravity and lasciviousness with non-Christians. \n\nHowever I should note that there is little evidence of the canons of the Council of Nablus being enforced, so it is uncertain whether or not local administrations had the capacity or will to enforce such laws.\n\nFinally on the other hand we have popular literary depictions of twelfth century knighthood. One of the most famous is the *Cycle of William of Orange,* a collection of tales involving the eponymous protagonist who fights valiantly in a fictionalized and deeply fantastical ninth century context against the enemies of Louis the Pious (the son of Charlemagne). \n\nIn the *Prise D'Orange* the tale recounts how William of Orange seduces Orable, the Muslim wife of the similarly \"pagan\" ruler of Orange, Thiebault. This romance is made licit in the tale through her conversion to Christianity, which obviously complicates the interfaith element of your question. However the point I am making is that Muslim individuals were not necessarily seen as being a maligned *other* and could themselves have great internal virtue making them worthy of Christian affection. Her confessional identity does not complicate William's desire and love, and her conversion is therefore a culmination of her joining him, his house and his faith. Also the emphasis upon a dazzling and beautiful foreign princess who would willingly submit to the sexual prowess of a Christian hero should not be terribly surprising given our enduring tendency towards eroticization and orientalism. \n\nThe earliest chronicles of the First Crusade also discuss how quickly Latin Christian settlers adapted to their new cultural and religious surroundings. Fulcher of Chartres explicitly records in Book III how Catholics took non-Catholic wives and came to embrace some of the local customs and dress. Although once again even Fulcher is careful to state that those saracens who were taken as wives had nevertheless been received into the church through baptism. Whether this is true or not is another matter, although given his clerical perspective it is easy to see why such a detail would be worth emphasizing. The First Crusade: Edward Peters, *The Chronicle of Fulcher of Chartres\" and Other Source Materials* (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972), 281. \n\nPerhaps the canonists of Nablus were troubled by the scale of the issue but simply had no means of confronting it despite the notional authority granted by these new legislative prohibitions. \n\n\n\n \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "395673", "title": "Marriage in the Catholic Church", "section": "Section::::History of marriage in the Catholic Church.:Medieval period.:Sacramental development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 568, "text": "The medieval view of the sacramentality of marriage has been described as follows: \"Like the other sacraments, medieval writers argued marriage was an instrument of sanctification, a channel of grace that caused God's gracious gifts and blessings to be poured upon humanity. Marriage sanctified the Christian couple by allowing them to comply with God's law for marriage and by providing them with an ideal model of marriage in Christ the bridegroom, who took the church as his bride and accorded it highest love, devotion, and sacrifice, even to the point of death.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24439076", "title": "Women in the Middle Ages", "section": "Section::::Marriage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 980, "text": "Medieval marriage was both a private and social matter. According to canon law, the law of the Catholic Church, marriage was a concrete exclusive bond between husband and wife; giving the husband all power and control in the relationship. Husband and wife were partners and were supposed to reflect Adam and Eve. Marriage in elite families was also used as an abuse of power and violence. Even though wives had to submit to their husbands' authority, wives still had rights in their marriages. McDougall concurs with Charles Reid's argument that both men and women shared rights in regards to sex and marriage; which includes: \"the right to consent to marriage, the right to ask for marital debt or conjugal (sexual) duty, the right to leave a marriage when they either suspected it was invalid or had grounds to sue for separation, and finally the right to choose one's own place of burial, death being the point at which a spouse's ownership of the other spouse's body ceased\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24439076", "title": "Women in the Middle Ages", "section": "Section::::Marriage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 566, "text": "Regionally and across the time span of the Middle Ages, marriage could be formed differently. Marriage could be proclaimed in secret by the mutually consenting couple, or arranged between families as long as the man and woman were not forced and consented freely; but by the 12th century in western canon law, consent (whether in mutual secrecy or in a public sphere) between the couple was imperative. Marriages confirmed in secrecy were seen as problematic in the legal sphere due to spouses redacting and denying that the marriage was solidified and consummated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5092578", "title": "Marriage law", "section": "Section::::Common law marriage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 219, "text": "In medieval Europe, marriage came under the jurisdiction of canon law, which recognized as a valid marriage one where the parties stated that they took one another as wife and husband, even in absence of any witnesses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "194261", "title": "Common-law marriage", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 219, "text": "In medieval Europe, marriage came under the jurisdiction of canon law, which recognized as a valid marriage one where the parties stated that they took one another as wife and husband, even in absence of any witnesses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19728", "title": "Marriage", "section": "Section::::History.:Europe.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 288, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 288, "end_character": 884, "text": "In Medieval Western Europe, later marriage and higher rates of definitive celibacy (the so-called \"European marriage pattern\") helped to constrain patriarchy at its most extreme level. For example, Medieval England saw marriage age as variable depending on economic circumstances, with couples delaying marriage until the early twenties when times were bad and falling to the late teens after the Black Death, when there were labor shortages; by appearances, marriage of adolescents was not the norm in England. Where the strong influence of classical Celtic and Germanic cultures (which were not rigidly patriarchal) helped to offset the Judaeo-Roman patriarchal influence, in Eastern Europe the tradition of early and universal marriage (often in early adolescence) as well as traditional Slavic patrilocal custom led to a greatly inferior status of women at all levels of society.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3711825", "title": "Marriage in England and Wales", "section": "Section::::History.:Medieval period.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 433, "text": "In medieval Europe, marriage was governed by canon law, which recognised as valid only those marriages where the parties stated they took one another as husband and wife, regardless of the presence or absence of witnesses. It was not necessary, therefore, to be married by any official or cleric. The Fourth Lateran Council (1215) forbade clandestine marriage, and required marriages to be publicly announced in churches by priests.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " > would it be cylindrical and would bend back in on itself at the edges if we ever found the theoretical \"edge\". Think of it as going to the top edge of a map in a video game and ending up at the bottom edge.\n\nNo, that would be roughly what happens in a *finite* universe (well, provided it's either not subject to accelerating expansion or you left early enough in the lifetime of the universe). No edge; just wrapping back around on itself. More like the surface of a sphere than a cylinder, though.\n\nIn an infinite universe, you just keep going. Forever.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1253280", "title": "Hartle–Hawking state", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 587, "text": "Hartle and Hawking suggest that if we could travel backwards in time towards the beginning of the Universe, we would note that quite near what might otherwise have been the beginning, time gives way to space such that at first there is only space and no time. According to the Hartle–Hawking proposal, the Universe has no origin as we would understand it: the Universe was a singularity in both space and time, pre-Big Bang. Thus, the Hartle–Hawking state Universe has no beginning, but it is not the steady state Universe of Hoyle; it simply has no initial boundaries in time or space.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28916407", "title": "Mark M. Goldblatt", "section": "Section::::Theology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 509, "text": "In \"Did the World Have a Beginning?\" he argues that the temporal world cannot always have existed. An actual infinity is impossible, he reasons, because infinity is a potential value that cannot be reached. A line, for example, may be extended infinitely—that is, without a limit—but at no point will the actual measure of the line become infinite. Likewise, time itself, whether measured by minutes or millennia, cannot comprise an actual infinity. Therefore, the temporal world cannot have existed forever.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "863918", "title": "Eternal return", "section": "Section::::Premise.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 251, "text": "The basic premise proceeds from the assumption that the probability of a world coming into existence exactly like our own is nonzero. If space and time are infinite, then it follows logically that our existence must recur an infinite number of times.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28916407", "title": "Mark M. Goldblatt", "section": "Section::::Theology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 1542, "text": "In a follow up article, \"Talking About God\", Goldblatt teases out the ramifications of his conclusion about the impossibility of an actual infinity with respect to the concept of an infinite God. Since we know that the temporal world cannot have existed forever, it therefore must have come into existence \"in the beginning\". It cannot have come into existence without an efficient cause (since that would violate the law of causality, one of the basic laws of thought). That First Cause, Goldblatt states, following the Cosmological Argument of Thomas Aquinas, is what all men call God. But this realization leads to a paradox. On the one hand, it would seem God cannot be infinite either since an actual infinity is impossible. On the other hand, God cannot have come into existence since that would require a cause prior to the First Cause and lead to an infinite regress of causes . . . which, in turn, would comprise an actual infinity (which cannot be). Therefore, we must suppose an infinite God as the First Cause of the world—even though an actual infinity violates the laws of thought. But whatever violates the laws of thought cannot be subject to rational language; it cannot be said to exist any more than a sentient stone (i.e. a sentient non-sentient being) can be said to exist. (At the moment a stone becomes sentient, in other words, it ceases to be a stone.) Goldblatt concludes that two theological statements, which seem irreconcilable, are nevertheless necessarily true: 1) God created the world; 2) God does not exist.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5992663", "title": "Kumārila Bhaṭṭa", "section": "Section::::Criticism of Buddhism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 548, "text": "3. The Sautrantika Buddhist school believed that the universe was momentary (kshanika). Kumārila said that this was absurd, given that the universe does not disappear every moment. No matter how small one would define the duration of a moment, one could divide the moment into infinitely further parts. Kumārila argues: \"\"if the universe does not exist between moments, then in which of these moments does it exist?\"\" Because a moment could be infinitesimally small, Bhaṭṭa argued that the Buddhist was claiming that the universe was non-existent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4116", "title": "Big Bang", "section": "Section::::Problems and related issues in physics.:Flatness problem.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 108, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 108, "end_character": 583, "text": "The problem is that any small departure from the critical density grows with time, and yet the universe today remains very close to flat. Given that a natural timescale for departure from flatness might be the Planck time, 10 seconds, the fact that the universe has reached neither a heat death nor a Big Crunch after billions of years requires an explanation. For instance, even at the relatively late age of a few minutes (the time of nucleosynthesis), the density of the universe must have been within one part in 10 of its critical value, or it would not exist as it does today.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6516", "title": "Cosmological argument", "section": "Section::::Versions of the argument.:Kalām cosmological argument.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 318, "text": "Craig defends the second premise, that the Universe had a beginning starting with Al-Ghazali's proof that an actual infinite is impossible. However, If the universe never had a beginning then there indeed would be an actual infinite, an infinite amount of cause and effect events. Hence, the Universe had a beginning.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The first multi-cellular organisms appeared because of evolutionary advantages of having specialised cells. Some seaweeds, for example, give us a look at what the most primitive multicellular organisms were like - they only have a few specialised cells, such as those that grip rock and those that are involved in reproduction. The rest of the cells all do exactly the same thing. The same concept applied to the first animals - initially, there were groups of cells, some of which performed different functions, such as allow the organism to move, while others all performed rudimentary function. We don't know for sure when the first epigenetic mechanisms arose, but we do know for certain that there was an obvious selective pressure towards organisms with a wider variety of specialised cells. Over generations, this resulted in organisms with more specific bundles of cells responsible for different functions - these were the first organs.\n\nThe great thing is that there are many organisms in various stages of evolutionary development. Maggots, for example, don't have a \"brain\", but they do have areas where the density of neurones is greater, which shows us that, perhaps, this is how the first brains came to be. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "17384301", "title": "Liver", "section": "Section::::Other animals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 123, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 123, "end_character": 488, "text": "The liver is found in all vertebrates, and is typically the largest visceral (internal) organ. Its form varies considerably in different species, and is largely determined by the shape and arrangement of the surrounding organs. Nonetheless, in most species it is divided into right and left lobes; exceptions to this general rule include snakes, where the shape of the body necessitates a simple cigar-like form. The internal structure of the liver is broadly similar in all vertebrates.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17384301", "title": "Liver", "section": "Section::::Other animals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 124, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 124, "end_character": 425, "text": "An organ sometimes referred to as a liver is found associated with the digestive tract of the primitive chordate \"Amphioxus\". Although it performs many functions of a liver, it is not considered a true liver but a homolog of the vertebrate liver. The amphioxus hepatic caecum produces the liver-specific proteins vitellogenin, antithrombin, plasminogen, alanine aminotransferase, and insulin/Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17384301", "title": "Liver", "section": "Section::::Development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 1268, "text": "Organogenesis, the development of the organs takes place from the third to the eighth week during embryogenesis. The origins of the liver lie in both the ventral portion of the foregut endoderm (endoderm being one of the three embryonic germ layers) and the constituents of the adjacent septum transversum mesenchyme. In the human embryo, the hepatic diverticulum is the tube of endoderm that extends out from the foregut into the surrounding mesenchyme. The mesenchyme of septum transversum induces this endoderm to proliferate, to branch, and to form the glandular epithelium of the liver. A portion of the hepatic diverticulum (that region closest to the digestive tube) continues to function as the drainage duct of the liver, and a branch from this duct produces the gallbladder. Besides signals from the septum transversum mesenchyme, fibroblast growth factor from the developing heart also contributes to hepatic competence, along with retinoic acid emanating from the lateral plate mesoderm. The hepatic endodermal cells undergo a morphological transition from columnar to pseudostratified resulting in thickening into the early liver bud. Their expansion forms a population of the bipotential hepatoblasts. Hepatic stellate cells are derived from mesenchyme.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44464978", "title": "Regeneration in humans", "section": "Section::::History of human tissue regeneration.:History of regeneration techniques.:Regeneration by 3D printing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 242, "text": "The first organ ever induced and made in the lab was the bladder, which was created in 1999. In 2014, there had been various tissues regenerated by the 3d printer and these tissues included: the bladder, muscle, vagina, penis and the thymus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43096170", "title": "Al-Risalah al-Dhahabiah", "section": "Section::::Contents.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 257, "text": "Imam al-Rida names the main organs of the human body as the heart, the nerves, the brain, the hands and the Legs the ear and the eye. He discusses their characteristics and functions in detail. Regarding the human body containing systems and cells he said:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28346382", "title": "Organelle biogenesis", "section": "Section::::Discovery.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 328, "text": "Following the discovery of cellular organelles in the nineteenth century, little was known about their function and synthesis until the development of electron microscopy and subcellular fractionation in the twentieth century. This allowed experiments on the function, structure, and biogenesis of these organelles to commence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "152776", "title": "Organ (anatomy)", "section": "Section::::Origin and evolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 754, "text": "Given the ancient origin of most vertebrate organs, researchers have looked for model systems, where organs have evolved more recently, and ideally have evolved multiple times independently. An outstanding model for this kind of research is the placenta, which has evolved more than 100 times independently in vertebrates, has evolved relatively recently in some lineages, and exists in intermediate forms in extant taxa. Studies on the evolution of the placenta have identified a variety of genetic and physiological processes that contribute to the origin and evolution of organs, these include the re-purposing of existing animal tissues, the acquisition of new functional properties by these tissues, and novel interactions of distinct tissue types.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "**Part 1**\n\nI have previously wrote answers to similar questions [here](_URL_0_), [here](_URL_2_), and [here](_URL_3_) and it is not really possible to gauge the number of how many members of the Wehrmacht were directly involved in war crimes, not at least because the difficulty of establishing what \"directly\" means in this context: E.g. was a group of soldiers guarding an Einsatzgruppen mass shooting directly involved or not?\n\nThe question of how many knew of war crimes and what they knew of them is easier to answer, especially in light of the newer research by Felix Römer as well as Sönke Neitzel and Harald Welzer. They worked extensively with Allied protocols of conversations between German POWs recorded in Allied camps when they didn't think anybody was listening. Their research uncovered that knowledge of war crimes was ubiquitous among members of the Wehrmacht. Every soldier knew of atrocities that had been committed against Jews and other civilians because they had either been present, had participated or had been told about them by their comrades. During their time as POWs, they quite freely discussed these crimes. To exemplify this, Römer cites among others the following exchange between the Viennese Artillerie-Gefreitem Franz Ctorecka and the Panzer-Gefreiten Willi Eckenbach in August 1944 in Fort Hunt (translation my own):\n\n > C: And then Lublin. There is a crematoria, a death camp. Sepp Dietrich is involved there. He was somehow caught up in this in Lublin.\n > \n > E: Near Berlin, they burned the corpses in one of these thingies [\"einem Dings], the people were forced into this hall. This hall was wired with high-voltage power-lines and in the moment they switched on these lines, the people in the hall turned to ashes. But while still alive! The guy who was in charge of the burning told 'em: \"Don't be afraid, I will fire you up!\" He always made such quips. And then they found out that the guy who was in charge of burning the people also stole their gold teeth. Also other stuff like rings, jewellery etc.\n\n[Römer, p. 435f.]\n\nWhat this passage shows is that these Wehrmacht soldiers, who after all were both on the lower side of the ladder, being only Gefreite (lance corporals) were uncannily well informed even if the story about using electricity for executions wasn't true. But knowing not only of the Majdanek death camp near Lublin but also knowing about Sepp Dietirch's involvement proves them to be very well informed.\n\nOr take this exchange between two Wehrmacht soldiers, Obergefreiter Karl Huber and Pioniersoldat Walter Gumlich, in Fort Hunt:\n\n > H: One day, one guy just came and stole this Russian's cow and so the Russian defended himself. And then we had to hang fifty or a hundred men and women and let them hang there for three or four days. Or they had to dig a trench, line themselves up at the edge and were shot so they fell backwards into it. Fifty to a hundred people and more. That were the so-called \"retributions\". But that didn't help anything. Or when we set the village son fire [...] Partisans were naturally dangerous, we had to defend ourselves against them but this was something different [...]\n > \n > G: Ach, that were war operations. They [the people who did the above] are not really criminals.\n > \n > H: Exterminating whole families, shooting their kids etc., literally killing whole families? We are guilty if the military without any right or any order steals the last bread of some farmer.\n > \n > G: Oh, come on.\n > \n > H: Ach, don't defend them.\n\nThese and so many more conversations of this kind between Wehrmacht soldiers show that virtually every soldiers had either heard or seen these crimes if he had not participated in them himself. And given how numerous the crimes of the Nazis and the Wehrmacht were in the Soviet Union and elsewhere, this is hardly surprising. You already mentioned it in your expanded text above and I go into this in the linked answers but it is imperative to realize that the war against the Soviet Union was planned, conceptualized and fought as a war of annihilation, being in itself basically a huge war crime. Nobody is this fact more obvious than in the OKW's Kriegsgerichtsbarkeit Erlass, which actually forbid Wehrmacht soldiers from being persecuted for war crimes in the Soviet Union. That this was seen as necessary, tells you not just how deeply the Wehrmacht was involved but just what kind of war they planned to fight: One where combat operations and war crimes bled into each other seamlessly.\n\nThe background of this is touched upon in my linked answers as well as by Dr. Waitman Beorn in the linked AMA [here](_URL_1_).\n\nNow when it comes to the question of rationalization, the protocols reviewed by Römer et. al. are also rather enlightening. As you might have noticed in the converstaion between Huber and Gumlich above, these crimes were sometimes regarded as controversial. Römer in his analysis proposes based on the protocols that Wehrmacht soldiers did indeed distinguish between what they viewed as legitimate and illegitimate violence.\n\nTake this exchange Römer cites between soldier Friedrich Held and Obergefreiter Walter Langfeld about the topic of anti-Partisan warfare:\n\n > H: Against Partisans, it is different. There, you look front and get shot in the back and then you turn around and get shot from the side. There simply is no Front.\n > \n > L: Yes, that's terrible. [...] But we did give them hell [\"Wir haben sie ganz schön zur Sau gemacht\"],\n > \n > H: Yeah, but we didn't get any. At most, we got their collaborators, the real Partisans, they shot themselves before they were captures. The collaborators, those we interrogated.\n > \n > L: But they too didn't get away alive.\n > \n > H: Naturally. And when they captured one of ours, they killed him too.\n > \n > L: You can't expect anything different. It's the usual [Wurscht ist Wurscht]\n > \n > H: But they were no soldiers but civilians.\n > \n > L: They fought for their homeland.\n > \n > H: But they were so deceitful...\n\n[Römer, p. 424]\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "11075690", "title": "Responsibility for the Holocaust", "section": "Section::::Involved.:German military.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 1024, "text": "It was particularly difficult for commanders on the eastern front to avoid knowing what was happening in the areas behind the front. Many individual soldiers photographed the massacres of Jews by the \"Einsatzgruppen\". Some generals and officers, such as Walther von Reichenau, Erich Hoepner, and Erich von Manstein, actively supported the work of the \"Einsatzgruppen\". A number of Wehrmacht units provided direct or indirect assistance to the \"Einsatzgruppen\"—all the while mentally normalizing amoral behaviors in the conduct of war through specious justification that they were destroying the Reich's enemies. Many individual soldiers who ventured to the killing sites behind the lines voluntarily participated in the mass shootings. Cooperation between the SS police units and Wehrmacht also occurred when they took hostages and carried out reprisals against partisans, particularly in the Eastern theater, where the war took on the complexion of a racial war as opposed to the conventional one being fought in the West.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1703245", "title": "Andreas Hillgruber", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 347, "text": "In his controversial book \"Zweierlei Untergang\", he wrote that historians should \"identify\" with the Wehrmacht fighting on the Eastern Front and asserted that there was no moral difference between the Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950) and Soviet mass rape during the occupation of Germany on the one hand and the Holocaust on the other.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53509992", "title": "Mogilev Conference", "section": "Section::::Assessment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 839, "text": "In explaining the Wehrmacht's willingness to participate in the genocide, Beorn opines that the Wehrmacht's long history of harsh treatment of civilians, paranoia about a not-yet-existent partisan threat, institutional and individual racism, and its own criminal actions against Red Army commissars all predisposed the army towards accepting mass murder. This was done under the guise of anti-partisan warfare where Jews were targeted as Bolsheviks and thus partisan supporters. Consequently, the division between the Holocaust and the anti-partisan war still prevalent in historiography is a false one. Beorn concludes that \"the Mogilev conference shows that these two were never separate, but intentionally connected in an effort to include the combat power of the Wehrmacht more efficiently in Hitler's genocidal projects in the east\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "61095", "title": "Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)", "section": "Section::::Movements in the later stages of the war.:Evacuation and flight to areas within Germany.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 365, "text": "Late in the war, as the Red Army advanced westward, many Germans were apprehensive about the impending Soviet occupation. Most were aware of the Soviet reprisals against German civilians. Soviet soldiers committed numerous rapes and other crimes. News of atrocities such as the Nemmersdorf massacre were exaggerated and disseminated by the Nazi propaganda machine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4751135", "title": "Soviet war crimes", "section": "Section::::World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 595, "text": "As the Red Army withdrew after the German attack of 1941 which is known as Operation Barbarossa, numerous reports of war crimes committed by Soviet armed forces against captured German Wehrmacht and Luftwaffe soldiers from the very beginning of hostilities were documented in thousands of files of the Wehrmacht War Crimes Bureau which was established by Nazi Germany in September 1939 to investigate violations of the Hague and Geneva conventions by Germany's enemies. Among the better documented Soviet massacres are those at Broniki (June 1941), Feodosia (December 1941) and Grishino (1943).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "939629", "title": "Trent Park", "section": "Section::::Trent Park House.:Second World War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 267, "text": "Many Wehrmacht soldiers became witnesses to the Holocaust because they happened to be present or were invited to take part in a mass shooting. In one cell conversation, army General Edwin Graf von Rothkirch und Trach talks about his time in the Polish town of Kutno:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "123443", "title": "Death squad", "section": "Section::::By continent.:Europe.:Germany.:Nazi Germany.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 120, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 120, "end_character": 784, "text": "Following the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the German military was followed by four travelling death squads called \"Einsatzgruppen\" to hunt down and kill Jews, Communists and other so-called undesirables in the occupied areas. This was the first of the massacres which comprised the Holocaust. Typically, the victims, who included women and children, were forcibly marched from their homes to open graves or ravines before being shot. Many others suffocated in specially designed poison trucks called gas vans. Between 1941 and 1944, the \"Einsatzgruppen\" killed some two million people, including about 1.3 million Jews, as well as tens of thousands of suspected political dissidents, most of the Polish upper class and intelligentsia, POWs, and uncounted numbers of Romany.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Under a \"classical\" gold standard, money is not convertible into gold; money IS gold. The monetary unit is defined in terms of a weight of gold, and the law defines a right of any individual to go to a mint and turn that weight of gold into an official coin.\n\nThe circulating media of exchange consisted of both these coins, bank notes issued upon those coins, and checking. In many places these bank notes were central bank notes; but many countries lacked central banks, and privately-issued notes traded instead.\n\nThese banks notes were roughly analogous to banking deposits in a checking account. They are a promise to pay backed by a specific banking institution. So just as you usually spend most of your checking account balance without taking cash, but do withdraw some physical currency, people mostly used bank notes, but did redeem some for metallic currency. The metallic stuff was also used between banks.\n\nSo the answer is: yes, during the \"classical\" gold standard period, individuals could turn to the banking system and exchange their dollar-denominated assets for physical gold; and when the financial system was underdeveloped or malfunctioning, they would.\n\nLater, after WWI in Europe, and after the Gold Seizures in the U.S. there existed various gold-exchange regimes. These were not \"classical\" gold standards, and under them, only certain people and foreign governments could exchange paper tender for physical gold. Under these systems it would be more accurate to say that money was \"backed by\" gold (often imperfectly) than to say that money \"consisted of\" gold.\n\nThe answer I have just given is substantially drawn from the following excellent article, which discusses your question in greater depth, and which demonstrates the limited historical scope of a true gold standard:\n\nSelgin, George, The Rise and Fall of the Gold Standard in the United States (August 27, 2012). Available at SSRN: _URL_1_ or _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "58296", "title": "California Gold Rush", "section": "Section::::Forty-niners.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 622, "text": "Only a small number (probably fewer than 500) traveled overland from the United States that year. Some of these \"forty-eighters\", as the earliest gold-seekers were sometimes called, were able to collect large amounts of easily accessible gold—in some cases, thousands of dollars worth each day. Even ordinary prospectors averaged daily gold finds worth 10 to 15 times the daily wage of a laborer on the East Coast. A person could work for six months in the goldfields and find the equivalent of six years' wages back home. Some hoped to get rich quick and return home, and others wished to start businesses in California.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6890967", "title": "Gold dollar", "section": "Section::::Final years, abolition, and collecting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 1152, "text": "A total of 19,499,337 gold dollars were coined, of which 18,223,438 were struck at Philadelphia, 1,004,000 at New Orleans, 109,138 at Charlotte, 90,232 at San Francisco and 72,529 at Dahlonega. According to an advertisement in the February 1899 issue of \"The Numismatist\", gold dollars brought $1.80 each, still in demand as a birthday present and for jewelry. That journal in 1905 carried news of a customer depositing 100 gold dollars into a bank; the teller, aware of the value, credited the account with $1.60 per coin. In 1908, a dealer offered $2 each for any quantity. As coin collecting became a widespread pastime in the early 20th century, gold dollars became a popular specialty, a status they retain. The 2014 edition of R.S. Yeoman's \"A Guide Book of United States Coins\" rates the least expensive gold dollar in very fine condition (VF-20) at $300, a value given for each of the Type 1 Philadelphia issues from 1849 to 1853. Those seeking one of each type will find the most expensive to be a specimen of the Type 2, with the 1854 and 1855 estimated at $350 in that condition; the other two types have dates valued at $300 in that grade.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2592308", "title": "Bullion coin", "section": "Section::::Gold.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 759, "text": "The largest demand for gold in the world is jewelry, which consumes 50% of world production. Industry uses 9%, coins use 10% and the rest is for investments. Starting in 1821, with Britain moving to the gold standard, countries monetary unit became associated with the value of circulating gold or stored gold bullion, but not both. During this time, gold coins were circulated for general use. During the early years of the Great Depression, nations dropped the gold standard and most gold coins were no longer minted. The South African Kruggerand became the first modern coin minted in 1967 to help market South African gold produced by Rand Refinery and the South African Mint. By 1980, the Krugerrand accounted for 90% of the global gold coin production.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12240", "title": "Gold", "section": "Section::::Monetary use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 104, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 104, "end_character": 405, "text": "The first known coins containing gold were struck in Lydia, Asia Minor, around 600 BC. The \"talent\" coin of gold in use during the periods of Grecian history both before and during the time of the life of Homer weighed between 8.42 and 8.75 grams. From an earlier preference in using silver, European economies re-established the minting of gold as coinage during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22024384", "title": "International monetary systems", "section": "Section::::Historical overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 686, "text": "Throughout history, precious metals such as gold and silver have been used for trade, sometimes in the form of bullion, and from early history the coins of various issuers – generally kingdoms and empires – have been traded. The earliest known records of pre-coinage use of precious metals for monetary exchange are from Mesopotamia and Egypt, dating from the third millennium BC. Early money took many forms, apart from bullion; for instance bronze spade money which became common in Zhou dynasty China in the late 7th century BC. At that time, forms of money were also developed in Lydia in Asia Minor, from where its use spread to nearby Greek cities and later to many other places.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48152", "title": "Commodity money", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 953, "text": "Long after gold coins became rare in commerce, the Fort Knox gold repository of the United States functioned as a theoretical backing for federally issued \"gold certificates\" representing the gold. Between 1933 and 1970 (when the U.S. officially left the gold standard), one U.S. dollar was technically worth exactly 1/35 of a troy ounce (889 mg) of gold. However, actual trade in gold bullion as a precious metal within the United States was banned after 1933, with the explicit purpose of preventing the \"hoarding\" of private gold during an economic depression period in which maximal circulation of money was desired by government policy. This was a fairly typical transition from commodity to representative to fiat money, with people trading in other goods being forced to trade in gold, then to receive paper money that purported to be \"as good as gold,\" and finally a fiat currency backed by government authority and social perceptions of value.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58296", "title": "California Gold Rush", "section": "Section::::Profits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 478, "text": "Recent scholarship confirms that merchants made far more money than miners during the Gold Rush. The wealthiest man in California during the early years of the rush was Samuel Brannan, a tireless self-promoter, shopkeeper and newspaper publisher. Brannan opened the first supply stores in Sacramento, Coloma, and other spots in the goldfields. Just as the rush began he purchased all the prospecting supplies available in San Francisco and re-sold them at a substantial profit.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The issuing bank gets a cut and so does the network operator (visa/mastercard/etc).\n\nThat's why banks want you to use *their* cards. Well that and since they're the ones financing your credit they get the interest on the transactions.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are a surprising number of people involved to process a single credit card transaction.\n\nThe store has a merchant account at a merchant bank, this allows them to process CC transactions. The merchant typically pays somewhere around 25 cents + 2.0% of the amount on each transaction (it varies from merchant to merchant).\n\nTo authorize the transaction, the merchant bank sends the transaction through the card network, which involves several different parties (processors, acquirers, and sometimes other merchant banks), each one taking a tiny portion of that 25 cents + 2% fee. Visa and MC get their tiny chunk at the end. Their portion of the fee is really, really tiny, but remember they get this for *every single* Visa/MC transaction worldwide, so those tiny amounts add up insanely fast.\n\nOnline stores usually have another party involved, called a merchant gateway, and it's used for processing secure online transactions. This is usually another 10 cents or so per transaction and goes directly to the gateway processor.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "32026892", "title": "AT HOP card", "section": "Section::::Card operation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 600, "text": "Cards may be \"topped-up\" or monthly passes purchased in the following ways: online, at ticket machines, at ticketing offices, and at selected retail outlets such as bookshops. Top ups may be made by credit or debit card, with the latter three mediums accepting cash payment. The card is designed to reduce the number of transactions at ticket offices and the number of paper tickets. Usage is encouraged by offering cheaper fares than the cash ticket option, although there is an initial once-only fee to purchase the card. Monthly and/or multiple trip travel is only available with the AT HOP card.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "246920", "title": "Visa Inc.", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 788, "text": "Visa Inc. ( or ) (also known as Visa, stylized as VISA) is an American multinational financial services corporation headquartered in Foster City, California, United States. It facilitates electronic funds transfers throughout the world, most commonly through Visa-branded credit cards, gift cards, and debit cards. Visa does not issue cards, extend credit or set rates and fees for consumers; rather, Visa provides financial institutions with Visa-branded payment products that they then use to offer credit, debit, prepaid and cash-access programs to their customers. In 2015, the Nilson Report, a publication that tracks the credit card industry, found that Visa's global network (known as VisaNet) processed 100 billion transactions during 2014 with a total volume of US$6.8 trillion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "378791", "title": "Mastercard", "section": "Section::::Prepaid debit cards.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 627, "text": "In June 2013, Mastercard announced a partnership with British Airways to offer members the Executive Club Multi-currency Cash Passport, which will allow members to earn extra points and make multi-currency payments. The Passport card allows users to load up to ten currencies (euro, pound, U.S. dollar, Turkish Lira, Swiss franc, Australian dollar, Canadian dollar, New Zealand dollar, U.A.E. dirham and South African rand) at a locked-in rate. When used, the card selects the local currency to ensure the best exchange rate, and if the local currency is not already loaded onto the card, funds are used from other currencies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1647050", "title": "Visa Debit", "section": "Section::::Usage.:Germany.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 326, "text": "However, over the course of the last years, certain financial institutions such as Consorsbank and ING-DiBa have started issuing cards that are linked to a checking account but use the Visa protocols. These cards allow free cash withdrawals on ATMs owned by other banks; the issuing banks absorb the fees of the Visa network.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "416499", "title": "Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore)", "section": "Section::::Fares and ticketing.:Ticketing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 84, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 84, "end_character": 317, "text": "Since 4 April 2019, Mastercard users are able to use their bank cards or mobile phones to pay for public transport rides, by linking their card to the new SimplyGo account-based system. The system will support Visa cards from 6 June 2019, and other travel cards will be able to use the system by the end of the year.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "378791", "title": "Mastercard", "section": "Section::::Banknet.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 121, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 121, "end_character": 508, "text": "Mastercard's network differs significantly from Visa's. Visa's is a star-based system where all endpoints terminate at one of several main data centers, where all transactions are processed centrally. Mastercard's network is an edge-based, peer-to-peer network where transactions travel a meshed network directly to other endpoints, without the need to travel to a single point. This allows Mastercard's network to be much more resilient, in that a single failure cannot isolate a large number of endpoints.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26747651", "title": "Centurion Card", "section": "Section::::Features.:Benefits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 499, "text": "The card, available for personal and business use, offers services such as a dedicated concierge and travel agent; complimentary companion airline tickets on international flights on selected airlines with the purchase of a full-fare ticket; personal shoppers at retailers such as Dot & Vic's Rathon Station, Gucci, Escada, and Saks Fifth Avenue; access to airport clubs; first-class flight upgrades; membership in Sony's Cierge personal shopping program and dozens of other elite club memberships.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Perhaps while you're at it you'd like an ELI5 of the proof of Fermat's last theorem, and a simple explanation of the Hodge conjecture?\n\nSome concepts are suitable for simplified explanations. This is not one of them.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "36283711", "title": "Umbral moonshine", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 253, "text": "In mathematics, umbral moonshine is a mysterious connection between Niemeier lattices and Ramanujan's mock theta functions. It is a generalization of the Mathieu moonshine phenomenon connecting representations of the Mathieu group M24 with K3 surfaces.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36283711", "title": "Umbral moonshine", "section": "Section::::Umbral moonshine.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 351, "text": "The name of umbral moonshine derives from the use of shadows in the theory of mock modular forms. Other moonlight-related words like 'lambency' were given technical meanings (in this case, the genus zero group attached to a shadow \"S\", whose level is the dual Coxeter number of the root system \"X\") by Cheng, Duncan, and Harvey to continue the theme.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "204634", "title": "The Moonstone", "section": "Section::::Etymology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 323, "text": "The Moonstone of the title is a diamond (not to be confused with the semi-precious moonstone gem). It has gained its name from its association with the Hindu god of the moon, Chandra. It is protected by three hereditary guardians on the orders of Vishnu, and waxes and wanes in brilliance along with the light of the moon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37808646", "title": "Moonshine (Bruno Mars song)", "section": "Section::::Background and release.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 435, "text": "During an interview, with \"Rolling Stone\", Mars explained the origin of \"Moonshine\", by saying \"We all [Mars, Ronson and Bhasker] went out one night, and they had actual moonshine on the menu. We drank it all night, then headed to the studio – Jeff got on keyboards, Mark starts playing electronic drums that sound like Eighties Prince and I started screaming, 'Moonshine, take us to the stars!' There were a lot of nights like that\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35763311", "title": "Onyx Moonshine", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 241, "text": "Onyx Moonshine is an American twice-distilled alcoholic beverage. Although legally produced, it is marketed as \"moonshine\". It is made in a microdistillery in East Hartford, Connecticut. It was the official spirit of the 2012 Grammy Awards.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "728168", "title": "Monstrous moonshine", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 237, "text": "In mathematics, monstrous moonshine, or moonshine theory, is the unexpected connection between the monster group \"M\" and modular functions, in particular, the \"j\" function. The term was coined by John Conway and Simon P. Norton in 1979.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37808646", "title": "Moonshine (Bruno Mars song)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 737, "text": "\"Moonshine\" is a song by American singer-songwriter Bruno Mars for his second studio album \"Unorthodox Jukebox\" (2012). It was written by Bruno Mars, Philip Lawrence, Ari Levine, Andrew Wyatt, Jeff Bhasker and Mark Ronson who also served as its producer along with the former three, under their alias, The Smeezingtons, and Bhasker. \"Moonshine\" is a midtempo pop, power pop and R&B record. In addition to be heavily influenced by quiet storm and dance-pop styles, as well as, presenting a \"disco groove\". Development of \"Moonshine\" began while Mars, Ronson and Bhasker \"went out one night\" and drunk moonshine all night long. When they returned to the studio they started jamming, while Mars screamed \"Moonshine, take us to the stars!\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It may be a form of confirmation bias. Before learning about the term, you subconsciously disregarded every instance of its expression, but now you aknowledge it at every corner because it is fresh in your memory.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's called the Baader-Meinhof phenomenon. It happens with band-names, artists and types of food too. Our attention is quite selective and we tend to subconsciously ignore things we don't understand.\n\nAfter we learn it we have confirmation bias where it seems that something we've just learned about is all of a sudden quite common. Sometimes it is but more often it's just that we previously weren't paying attention. \n\nThere's more about it [here](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's called the [Baader-Meinhof phenomenon](_URL_0_), also known as the frequency/recency illusion.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Normally happens when i or someone i know buys a new car. Never seem to see one. Then you get one and its the most common car on the road", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Neil Degrass Tyson on the JRE? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You just notice things more if your brain thinks there's a reason to, that's all. The reality is that if you consciously noticed **everything**, you'd go insane. Your higher mind can't handle that much content, so it constantly tunes a great deal of stuff out, based on heuristic training. (Should you notice that? Then you will. Otherwise, not.)\n\nOne example of this was an experiment proving that drivers only notice road signs where they expect to see them. A regular Stop Sign was erected halfway down a residential block with no other cues. Almost every single driver tested completely failed to notice it. The reason is that our experience teaches us (heuristic learning) to only look for such signs where they normally appear, not where we rationally assume they would not.\n\nA much more common form of this phenomenon is one that almost everyone who's gotten a new (to them) car has experienced: Suddenly, you start seeing 'your' car **everywhere**. This is because your brain now has a reason to pay attention to that kind of car, whereas it previously just tuned it out, so you didn't consciously notice it. This very common experience was lampooned in the video game Vice City, where whenever you steal any car, the game starts spawning a lot more of that same car in the environment.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Same thing here. Ever since Joe Rogan and Neil Tyson talked about that word I've heard it too many times.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This happens with the number 444 and recently the word \"troglodyte\", or more specific \"troglodytes\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You only see what you recognize. People are constantly bloviating, so myriad words are just floating around for the taking.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm more concerned when one person I know uses an odd word a few times, then suddenly lots of other people, who don't know the first one, also start using it. It's very discombobulating ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It’s due to your neural pathways being recently activated in relation to recognizing that pattern, er..word. Freshly activated pathways/connections are more likely to be ready to fire again so you recognize this pattern right away.\n\n I have no source for this besides what I remember from psychology classes. \nIt is really the explanation behind the “Baader-Meinhoff” effect which explains that this happens and reassures you that you’re not alone in noticing this, but doesn’t explain explicitly why. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Sometimes, as others have said, it's the Baader-Meinhof phenomenon. Other times you are literally hearing it 5x as often as normal because word usage doesn't have a perfectly even distribution over time. Here is the [search frequency](_URL_0_) for the Baader-Meinhof phenomenon to give you an idea of how that all works.\n \n\nWhen it gets down to it, language is a deeply social tool and people constantly copy from each other. This is why we had all those movies about asteroids and then zombies and then dystopian YA universes back to back. It's not some secret to the universe that you've only just been keyed in on, people literally just made more movies of that type as they became popular. I would argue that this phenomenon is waaaaaaay more common than the Baader-Meinhof phenomenon.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I know there's the Baader Meinhof but I don't know if I buy that. I consider myself a pretty intelligent person and like to learn things I don't know. So if I see a word I don't recognize or know I, ya know, look it the fuck up because I want to know what it means. I'm not going to read something and just skip over a word because my brain doesn't recognize it...that's not how that goes.\n\nSo when I see a word I don't know and look it up, I find it really odd when I start to notice it all over the place because it's like...where was this word before? I wasn't just ignoring it, WHY WOULD I?\n\nMore evidence for simulation theory if you ask me. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is crazy. I just learned about this phenomenon last week and I keep seeing it referenced. This is so meta. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "**Literally** used all the time.\n\nMy kiddo does this a lot. Among the words and phrases:\n\n1. Literally\n2. If you know what I mean\n3. To be honest\n4. No offense\n\nHe never actually uses them correctly, but that’s why it’s funny. I often follow up his use of the word “literally” with the British pronunciation “lit-trilly” just to mess with him.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I once called a lawyer from the big 5 city of London law firms fetching.\n\nOld English Shakespeare quote.......\n\nTorrent of abuse for that use of the English language because Id compared her to a dog! ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Happened to me with introvert; had to google it and going from never heard it in my life to hearing it like 12times in a month lol ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The above hypotheses are good but ~~we~~ you can't discount the solipsistic hypothesis that you and you alone are the author of the universe so you are just making more use of your newly created word. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because new things are interesting and cool. You eat a new food (that you like)all the time. Eventually the novelty wears off. \n\nEdit: thought you said “use it” not “see it used.” \nIn that case you are now aware it exists so you notice it. Kinda like you don’t pay mind to foreign languages because you don’t know their meaning. Once a word has new meaning you listen for it involuntarily. That wears off too. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Everyone's saying it's psychological but I have a different theory. If you learned the new word on reddit, hundreds of redditors learned it at the same time and a bunch of them want to flex their new vocabulary.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is a decorative star hanging on about every 10th house. You’ll start seeing them now.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Since no ones said it yet, it’s to do with a part of the brain called the Reticular Activating System which essentially acts as a filter on the mind for what we subconsciously want to see (for example the car we just bought or are planning to get)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1810640", "title": "Namlish", "section": "Section::::Some observations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 386, "text": "BULLET::::- 'I'm coming now now', 'I'm coming just now', 'I'm coming now now', 'I'm coming right now': All rather vague variations regarding time. Each repetition of the word \"now\" represents a closer approximation of the typical English \"now\". Three repetitions of the word is generally the most you will hear. It usually means a minute or less before the activity in question begins.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55145032", "title": "Negative evidence in language acquisition", "section": "Section::::Utility of indirect negative evidence.:Indirect negative evidence and word learning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 737, "text": "Child and adult speakers rely on 'suspicious coincidences' when learning a new word meaning. When learning a new word meaning, children and adults use only the first few instances of hearing that word in order to decide what it means, rapidly constricting their hypothesis if only used in a narrow context. In an experiment conducted by Xu and Tenebaum, 4-year-old participants learning a novel word 'fep' readily decided that it referred only to Dalmatians if only hearing it while shown pictures of Dalmatians; although they received no information that 'fep' was unable to refer to other kinds of dogs, the suspicious coincidence that they had never heard it in other contexts caused them to restrict their meaning to just one breed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45212973", "title": "Eve V. Clark", "section": "Section::::Research.:Young children's uptake of new words in conversation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 659, "text": "From this study, Clark's results displayed that children repeated the new words about twice as much as they repeated utterance information from ordinary conversations. Her hypothesis was supported in that there is a difference in the function of repetition differs between new words and new information. Children are aware of new words, and rely on the introduction of them using the deictic frame. Clark wanted to continue this phenomenon of children and how they integrate these new words into their vocabulary, so she began to use words that young children surround themselves with everyday, but do not quite get exposed to in language, and that is color.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33963629", "title": "Mental lexicon", "section": "Section::::Development.:First language development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 452, "text": "Research suggests that, despite the fast mapping hypothesis, words are not just learned as soon as we are exposed to them, each word needs some type of activation and/or acknowledgement before it is permanently and effectively stored. For young children, the word may be accurately stored in their mental lexicon, and they can recognize when an adult produces the incorrect version of the word, but they may not be able to produce the word accurately.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1104562", "title": "Fast mapping", "section": "Section::::Cross-situational learning versus propose but verify.:Criticisms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1027, "text": "There is also controversy over whether words learned by fast mapping are retained or forgotten. Previous research has found that generally, children retain a newly learned word for a period of time after learning. In the aforementioned Carey and Bartlett study (1978), children who were taught the word \"chromium\" were found to keep the new lexical entry in working memory for several days, illustrating a process of gradual lexical alignment known as \"extended mapping.\" Another study, performed by Markson and Bloom (1997), showed that children remembered words up to 1 month after the study was conducted. However, more recent studies have shown that words learned by fast mapping tend to be forgotten over time. In a study conducted by Vlach and Sandhofer (2012), memory supports, which had been included in previous studies, were removed. This removal appeared to result in a low retention of words over time. This is a possible explanation for why previous studies showed high retention of words learned by fast mapping.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6968451", "title": "Concept learning", "section": "Section::::Methods of learning a concept.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 239, "text": "Words – Hearing or reading new words leads to learning new concepts, but forming a new concept is more than learning a dictionary definition. A person may have previously formed a new concept before encountering the word or phrase for it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1404732", "title": "Vocabulary development", "section": "Section::::In school-age children.:Means.:Prior knowledge.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 758, "text": "Past experiences or general knowledge is often called upon in conversation, so it is a useful context for children to learn words. Recalling past experiences allows the child to call upon their own visual, tactical, oral, and/or auditory references. For example, if a child once went to a zoo and saw an elephant, but did not know the word \"elephant\", an adult could later help the child recall this event, describing the size and color of the animal, how big its ears were, its trunk, and the sound it made, then using the word \"elephant\" to refer to the animal. Calling upon prior knowledge is used not only in conversation, but often in book reading as well to help explain what is happening in a story by relating it back to the child's own experiences.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Creases form on our hands in the womb. They allow our hand skin to squeeze and stretch without bunching up. These creases are called Palmar Flexion creases.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "11995021", "title": "Skin fold", "section": "Section::::Skin creases, skin folds and lines.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 233, "text": "The skin crease as a fixed and permanent line, according to their histology, is related to connective tissue attachments with the underlying structures or extensions of the underlying muscle fibers in the dermis of the crease site. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5830123", "title": "Pustulosis", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 251, "text": "Pustulosis is highly inflammatory skin condition resulting in large fluid-filled blister-like areas - pustules. Pustulosis typically occurs on the palms of the hands and/or the soles of the feet. The skin of these areas peels and flakes (exfoliates).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17104647", "title": "Paper print", "section": "Section::::Second effort at reformatting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 284, "text": "Look at the palm of your hand when it is in a relaxed position. Notice the soft wrinkles. Then open your hand—there are no wrinkles on the palm. Now you know what happens to the emulsion of a photograph that is laid out flat after having been in a curved position for half a century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20850385", "title": "Gyrification", "section": "Section::::Mechanical factors.:Growth speed.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 341, "text": "Creases on the brain's surface are formed as a result of instability, and tangential growth models reach levels of instability that cause creasing more frequently than isotropic models. This level is called a critical point, at which, the models prefer to release potential energy by destabilizing and forming creases to become more stable.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8282362", "title": "Crease pattern", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 653, "text": "The use of crease patterns originated with designers such as Neal Elias, who used them to record how their models were made. This allowed the more prolific designers to keep track of all their models, and soon crease patterns began to be used as a means for communication of ideas between designers. After a few years of this sort of use, designers such as Robert J. Lang, Meguro Toshiyuki, Jun Maekawa and Peter Engel began to design using crease patterns. This allowed them to create with increasing levels of complexity, and the art of origami reached unprecedented levels of realism. Now most higher-level models are accompanied by crease patterns.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "166618", "title": "Palmistry", "section": "Section::::Lines.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 550, "text": "The normal position for the simian crease is starting below the index finger and ending where normally the heart line terminates at the edge of the hand below the little finger. The upper part of the palm lying immediately below the fingers is considered to represent the higher or intellectual nature and the lower part of the palm to represent the materialistic side of the nature. If one of these parts is larger than the other, as decided by the central placement of the simian crease, it shows greater development of that aspect of the nature. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "249922", "title": "Callus", "section": "Section::::Cause.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 832, "text": "Normally, a callus will form on any part of the skin exposed to excess friction over a long period of time. For example, people often develop calluses on the middle finger of their dominant hand due to writing with a pen or pencil. Another cause is from playing string instruments like the guitar or the violin; calluses will develop on the four fingers of the hand used in holding the strings down to the fingerboard, and sometimes on the fingers of the hand used for pizzicato or strumming. Weightlifters commonly experience callus on the upper-palm area due to repeated friction. Calluses are also very common on the fingers of rock climbers on almost all of their fingers. There are many activities that can result in the formation of a callus, which may even be viewed as a badge of experience and commitment to the activity. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This is such a very broad topic that there are no scholarly works that deal with the whole thing. On the one hand, you can try Phyllis Tortora's *Survey of Historic Costume*, which is a textbook that can give a broad overview; like all textbooks, though, you lose the nuances and sometimes it's incorrect on the details. On the other, I list more specific works [in my profile](_URL_0_), which won't give you the complete history of high fashion/everyday dress/military uniforms/etc. but are helpful for more specific periods.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "23620443", "title": "Europe (magazine)", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 360, "text": "Since the 1950s, \"Europe\" has issued thematic titles considered as a reference work. It also contains book and cultural reviews and publishes poetry or fiction. \"Europe\" has published works by authors as diverse as Aragon, Jean-Richard Bloch, Louis-Ferdinand Céline, Emile Danoën, Jean Giono, Panaït Istrati, Rabindranath Tagore or Tristan Tzara, for example.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2428307", "title": "The Europeans", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 397, "text": "The Europeans: A sketch is a short novel by Henry James, published in 1878. It is essentially a comedy contrasting the behaviour and attitudes of two visitors from Europe with those of their relatives living in the 'new' world of New England. The novel first appeared as a serial in \"The Atlantic Monthly\" for July–October 1878. James made numerous minor revisions for the first book publication.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12496757", "title": "1100–1200 in European fashion", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 230, "text": "Twelfth century European fashion was simple and differed only in details from the clothing of the preceding centuries. Men wore knee-length tunics for most activities, and men of the upper classes wore long tunics, with hose and \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8761514", "title": "1400–1500 in European fashion", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 344, "text": "Fashion in 15th-century Europe was characterized by a series of extremes and extravagances, from the voluminous robes called houppelandes with their sweeping floor-length sleeves to the revealing doublets and hose of Renaissance Italy. Hats, hoods, and other headdresses assumed increasing importance, and were draped, jewelled, and feathered.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55669529", "title": "Costume book", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 449, "text": "A significant example of an early 19th century costume book is French painter Louis Dupré's \"Voyage à Athènes et à Constantinople\" (Paris: Dondey-Dupré, 1825). The book primarily depicts the inhabitants of Ottoman Greece. It emphasizes modernity and cultural diversity with a heavily philhellenic bias. However, it moves away from the stereotypes common in other costume studies in order to delineate the antiquity of the contemporary Greek scene. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40363382", "title": "Illustrated Europe", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 369, "text": "Illustrated Europe was a series of travel guide books to Europe published by Orell Fussli & Co. of Zürich and C. Smith & Son of London. It also appeared in a German-language edition (\"Europäische Wanderbilder\") and a French-language edition (\"L'Europe illustré\"). The guides described localities in Austria, Germany, Hungary, Italy, and Switzerland in the 1880s-1890s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12243885", "title": "Wilhelm von Bibra", "section": "Section::::External links.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 525, "text": "BULLET::::- A Cyclopaedia of Costume Or Dictionary of Dress, Including Notices of Contemporaneous Fashions on the Continent: A general history of costume in Europe, Volume 2 of A Cyclopaedia of Costume Or Dictionary of Dress, Including Notices of Contemporaneous Fashions on the Continent: A General Chronological History of the Costumes of the Principal Countries of Europe, from the Commencement of the Christian Era to the Accession of George the Third, James Robinson Planché, Publisher Chatto and Windus, 1879, page 136\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " > how do we define when it stopped being a clump of rock?\n\nBut it still is a big clump of rock. That's not mutually exclusive with being categorized as a planet, and the actual definition of a planet is rather arbitrary. Pluto is a good example, as it was classified as a planet initially, but the International Astronomical Union updated its definition of a planet in a way that disqualified Pluto, reclassifying it as a dwarf planet instead.\n\nUsing the IAU's definition of a planet, the Earth became one once it met the following criteria:\n\n_URL_0_ in orbit around the Sun, \n2.has sufficient mass to assume hydrostatic equilibrium (a nearly round shape), and \n3.has \"cleared the neighborhood\" around its orbit.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "11603215", "title": "Geological history of Earth", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 413, "text": "The geological history of Earth follows the major events in Earth's past based on the geological time scale, a system of chronological measurement based on the study of the planet's rock layers (stratigraphy). Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago by accretion from the solar nebula, a disk-shaped mass of dust and gas left over from the formation of the Sun, which also created the rest of the Solar System.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21830", "title": "Nature", "section": "Section::::Earth.:Historical perspective.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 561, "text": "Earth is estimated to have formed 4.54 billion years ago from the solar nebula, along with the Sun and other planets. The moon formed roughly 20 million years later. Initially molten, the outer layer of the Earth cooled, resulting in the solid crust. Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing water vapor, most or all of which came from ice delivered by comets, produced the oceans and other water sources. The highly energetic chemistry is believed to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26780222", "title": "Earth analog", "section": "Section::::Attributes and criteria.:Terrestrial.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 452, "text": "Many of Earth's surface materials and landforms are formed as a result of interaction with water (such as clay and sedimentary rocks) or as a byproduct of life (such as limestone or coal), interaction with the atmosphere, volcanically or artificially. A true Earth analog therefore might need to have formed through similar processes, having possessed an atmosphere, volcanic interactions with the surface, past or present liquid water and life forms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1114005", "title": "Geology of the Capitol Reef area", "section": "Section::::Primary deposition of sediments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 620, "text": "Some important concepts: A \"formation\" is a formally named and defined geologic unit with unique characteristics. Those characteristics were created during a largely unbroken period of time and result from the specific depositional environment that the formation was laid down in. A \"member\" is a minor unit in a formation and a \"bed\" is a distinct subunit of a member. \"Groups\" are sets of formations that are related in significant ways such as, for example, all being deposited during a dry period that lasted millions of years or as the result of an ocean periodically flooding the same area over millions of years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "670655", "title": "Kolob", "section": "Section::::Doctrine and exegesis.:Mormon exegesis and speculation.:Birthplace for the Earth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 358, "text": "The idea that the Earth was formed elsewhere and then migrated to orbit around the Sun differs from the scientific explanation of the Earth's formation. According to scientific consensus, the Earth formed in orbit around the Sun about 4.5 billion years ago by accretion from a protoplanetary disk, and has remained near its original orbit until the present.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21989082", "title": "West African Craton", "section": "Section::::Wanderings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 512, "text": "The Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago. As it cooled, the lithosphere, consisting of the crust and the rigid uppermost part of the mantle, solidified. The lithosphere rides on the asthenosphere, which is also solid but can flow like a liquid on geological time scales. The lithosphere is broken up into tectonic plates, which slowly move in relation to one another at speeds of 50–100 mm annually, colliding, combining into continents, splitting and drifting apart to form new continental configurations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "145700", "title": "Crust (geology)", "section": "Section::::Earth's crust.:Formation and evolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 714, "text": "Earth formed approximately 4.6 billion years ago from a disk of dust and gas orbiting the newly formed Sun. It formed via accretion, where planetesimals and other smaller rocky bodies collided and stuck, gradually growing into a planet. This process generated an enormous amount of heat, which caused early Earth to melt completely. As planetary accretion slowed, Earth began to cool, forming its first crust, called a primary or primordial crust. This crust was likely repeatedly destroyed by large impacts, then reformed from the magma ocean left by the impact. None of Earth's primary crust has survived to today; all was destroyed by erosion, impacts, and plate tectonics over the past several billion years. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because it was the last month of the year.\n\nThe old Roman calendar had ten months -- which is why we see prefixes like Oct- and Dec- -- eight and ten -- for what was at the time the eighth and tenth months. In Rome, the year started with March.\n\nSo, what about the time between December and March? Originally, it was all \"fuck it, it's winter, doesn't deserve a month\". But eventually that became impractical, probably for reasons of commerce. So, they added two months -- January and February, the latter getting the leftovers.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Actually I believe it was because of the Greek ceasers Julius and Augustus... they took days from February to make their months longer. But I dunno for sure it might be an old wives tale ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "First you have to understand why ancient peoples constructed their calendars. They did it either to time\n\n* When to plant, harvest and perform other agricultural tasks.\n* When to have religious events and festivals. \n\nIn the period that would become February, the ancient Romans did neither of these things. They therefore considered those days to not belong on a calendar and not be part of any year. \nLater on the Roman calendar year was brought up in length so as to cover the full solar year. But there weren't enough left-over days to make two full months. February became the runt of the litter, a decision we've kept up till today. \n(This is also why September through December are months 9-12 but are named for the numbers 7-10 - they *used to be* the 7th, 8th, 9th and 10th months of a 10-month year)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's basically what was said March was the beginning of the year, but calendars were based on the Moon not the Sun which makes for not as accurate calendaring think about how Easter can be from end of March to Mid April. Ceaser decreed that a better calendar should be made so he had it done. The experts he used decided to go with a solar calendar like the Egyptians. So they had to add 67 days to the year 45 BCE or January and February with an extra day added every 4 years (leap year). It was because of this calendar that January became the start of the new year. As January 1st allows for a significant lengthening of the hours in the day after the solstice.\n\nSo most calendar questions I just think Caesar did it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "10845", "title": "February", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 503, "text": "February is the second and shortest month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendar with 28 days in common years and 29 days in leap years, with the quadrennial 29th day being called the \"leap day\". It is the first of five months to have a length of fewer than 31 days (the other four months that fall under this category are: April, June, September, and November), and the only month to have a length of fewer than 30 days, with the other seven months having 31 days. In 2020, February 28 days.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "311400", "title": "Common year", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 403, "text": "The common year of 365 days has 52 weeks and one day, hence a common year always begins and ends on the same day of the week (for example, January 1 and December 31 fell on a Sunday in 2017) and the year following a common year will start on the subsequent day of the week. In common years, February has four weeks, so March will begin on the same day of the week. November will also begin on this day.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10845", "title": "February", "section": "Section::::Patterns.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 764, "text": "February is also the only month of the calendar that, once every six years and twice every 11 years consecutively, either back into the past or forward into the future, has four full 7-day weeks. In countries that start their week on a Monday, it occurs as part of a common year starting on Friday, in which February 1st is a Monday and the 28th is a Sunday; this occurred in 1965, 1971, 1982, 1993, 1999 and 2010, and occur will again in 2021. In countries that start their week on a Sunday, it occurs in a common year starting on Thursday, with the next occurrence in 2026, and previous occurrences in 1987, 1998, 2009 and 2015. The pattern is broken by a skipped leap year, but no leap year has been skipped since 1900 and no others will be skipped until 2100.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1068915", "title": "Februarius", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 685, "text": "Februarius or February, fully the \"February month\" (), was the shortest month of the Roman calendar. It was eventually placed second in order, preceded by \"Ianuarius\" (\"January\") and followed by \"Martius\" (\"Mars' month\", March). In the oldest Roman calendar, which the Romans believed to have been instituted by their legendary founder Romulus, March was the first month, and the calendar year had only ten months in all. \"Ianuarius\" and \"Februarius\" were supposed to have been added by Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, originally at the end of the year. Julius Caesar decided in 46 BC to move the start of the calendar from the beginning of March to the beginning of January.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8850", "title": "December 21", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 252, "text": "In the Northern Hemisphere, December 21 is usually the shortest day of the year and is sometimes regarded as the first day of winter. In the Southern Hemisphere, December 21 is usually the longest day of the year and occurs during the southern summer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5463983", "title": "Ordinal date", "section": "Section::::Calculation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 230, "text": "For these purposes it is convenient to count January and February as month 13 and 14 of the previous year, for two reasons: the shortness of February and its variable length. In that case the date counted from 1 March is given by\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21445", "title": "November", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 438, "text": "November is a month of late spring in the Southern Hemisphere and late autumn in the Northern Hemisphere. Therefore, November in the Southern Hemisphere is the seasonal equivalent of May in the Northern Hemisphere and vice versa. In Ancient Rome, Ludi Plebeii was held from November 4–17, Epulum Jovis was held on November 13 and Brumalia celebrations began on November 24. These dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There is a little bit of truth in the idea that if you can't explain it simply, then you don't really understand it. But that's not always the case, sometimes what you explain might just be really complicated. I mean, you can explain nuclear fission pretty simply, but the simple explanation is useless when it comes to application. You just need to remember that the ELI5 answers aren't meant to be research level answers. They just answer the little questions the person wants to know.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Explaining things to others generally requires empathy. If you can't imagine not knowing something, you can't explain it. \n\nThis is why questions from young children can be so perplexing. \"Why is the sky blue?\" or \"Why is it called a jet ski?\" is challenging to you because you just accept these things as background. You don't remember not knowing and you've not thought about what not knowing would be like.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3143150", "title": "History of scientific method", "section": "Section::::Emergence of inductive experimental method.:Isaac Newton.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 103, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 103, "end_character": 214, "text": "To explain all nature is too difficult a task for any one man or even for any one age. 'Tis much better to do a little with certainty, and leave the rest for others that come after you, than to explain all things.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6312487", "title": "Ludwig Mestler", "section": "Section::::From His Journals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 452, "text": "We have allowed our life to become exceedingly complicated. But even now it is still possible to find, here and there an individual that loves simplicity and tries, whenever he can to eliminate or reduce complicated and replace it with simple. This task in itself is complicated, or should I say, complex, and yet again simple, because it means as often to avoid things, or methods, as to use other things or other methods. Ludwig Mestler 15. IX. 1957\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2355942", "title": "Cartesian circle", "section": "Section::::Modern commentators.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 330, "text": "\"...as I sometimes think that others are in error respecting matters of which they believe themselves to possess a perfect knowledge, how do I know that I am not also deceived each time I add together two and three, or number the sides of a square, or form some judgment still more simple, if more simple indeed can be imagined?\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13229615", "title": "Piece of Me (Britney Spears song)", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 303, "text": "\"Wherever you go, there's a lot of people who ask questions, and sometimes you don't know their intentions and stuff like that. So, it is kind of a cute way of putting it out there. You know, like, 'You want a piece of me?', you know, in a cool, cute and clever way. It is a cute song [...] I like it\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "80646", "title": "Elliott Smith", "section": "Section::::Career.:1998–2000: \"XO\" and \"Figure 8\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 310, "text": "Yeah, I don't know. I mean, I mostly only know things are different because people ask me different questions, but I don't feel like things are very changed. I mean, I still, I do the same things that I did before … I think about the same things, so … I'm the wrong kind of person to be really big and famous.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18956166", "title": "Stereotype", "section": "Section::::Functions.:Cognitive functions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 614, "text": "Gordon Allport has suggested possible answers to why people find it easier to understand categorized information. First, people can consult a category to identify response patterns. Second, categorized information is more specific than non-categorized information, as categorization accentuates properties that are shared by all members of a group. Third, people can readily describe objects in a category because objects in the same category have distinct characteristics. Finally, people can take for granted the characteristics of a particular category because the category itself may be an arbitrary grouping.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1269056", "title": "Harry Lee (sheriff)", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 221, "text": "\"I think people like me because I do a good job and because I tell it like it is\", he once said. \"If you ask me something, I'll give you an answer, straight up. People may not like it, but I'm not going to sugarcoat it.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Strictly speaking, PCM is a codec for sound to digital data,while Dolby and DTS are companies that create other codecs (although I think the consumer codec made by DTS may also be called, simply, DTS).\n\nPCM is the most basic codec and basically involve converting the actual audio waves directly to numerical values. It's many thousands of numbers per second specifying exactly how loud the speaker output should be _right now_. That means it's very data intensive, especially as you add additional audio channels (like center, rear left and right, etc)\n\nThe other codecs made by Dolby and DTS are all about encoding more channels of sound, more efficiently than just PCM. \n\n If you're interested in the specifics of the differences between DTS codecs and Dolby codecs I suggest you don't bother. I'm sure that high end audio engineers and audio equipment enthusiasts will pop up talking about the relative merits of each, but as far as I can tell the distinction only really exists to give these people something to argue about.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In a nutshell PCM is an open standard for storing analog waveforms as digital samples. Pulse Code Modulation. It's not fancy but it's free and all samples are preserved without a loss of quality. DTS, Atmos, Dolby Digital, are proprietary audio formats that convert raw PCM data, into a proprietary audio stream. They modify the original samples and may or may not be lossy/lossless, and you need to pay a license royalty to the companies in order to encode or decode audio using their format. \n\nYou have 2 files on your computer. One is a .wav file, and the other is a .mp3. They both contain music, but .wav is an open standard supported by everything and it contains uncompressed PCM audio, and mp3 is a licensed encoding scheme that requires a mp3 decoder, and the license (it's free now but didn't use to be) to allow software to decode it. The decoded MP3 is converted to PCM (just like the raw format of the .wav) and sent to the sound card where it's played back. \n\nWhen you connect a digital output from a bluray player, computer, or game console to a stereo or TV, the physical connection is just like the files on your computer. They physically share the same type of storage and transmission, but the format of the data is different and needs different decoders to play it back. \n\nPCM sends sound data over SPDIF or HDMI using a format that the stereo or TV recognizes as PCM, and the PCM data is sent to the digital to analog converter or DAC where it emerges as audio. \n\nPCM is not compressed meaning the original samples are preserved. It can have 2 or more channels over the same cable, which get separated out and converted to your center, subwoofer, and surround sounds. \n\nDTS is it's own format though. It uses the same physical cabling (like files on a disk) but the format of the data (like .wav versus .mp3) is different. In order for a stereo or TV to decode the DTS data, it has to have a DTS decoder. Once the DTS decoder finishes with it it's converted back to PCM, the audio is then sent to the DAC just like the PCM data was. \n\nDolby Digital, Atmos, TrueHD, etc are also other formats that can be sent over the HDMI cable. If the stereo or TV has a Dolby decoder on board, it can convert that data into regular PCM samples which are then sent to the DAC and decoded like normal. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1754335", "title": "DTS (sound system)", "section": "Section::::Comparison with other formats.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 79, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 79, "end_character": 945, "text": "DTS and Dolby Digital (AC-3), DTS's chief competitor in the cinema theatre and home theatre markets, are often compared because of their similarity in product goals, though Dolby believed that the surround channels should be diffused and DTS said they should be directional. In theatrical installations, AC-3 audio is placed between sprocket holes on the 35 mm film itself, leaving the audio content susceptible to physical damage from film wear and mishandling. DTS audio is stored on a separate set of CD-ROM media, with greater storage capacity that affords the potential to deliver better audio fidelity and is not subject to the usual wear and damage suffered by the film print during the normal course of the movie's theatrical screening. Disregarding the separate CD-ROM assembly as a potential point of failure, the DTS audiopath is comparatively impervious to film degradation, unless the film-printed timecode is completely destroyed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "255849", "title": "LaserDisc", "section": "Section::::Design.:Audio.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 743, "text": "Only one 5.1 surround sound option exists on a given LaserDisc (either Dolby Digital or DTS), so if surround sound is desired, the disc must be matched to the capabilities of the playback equipment (LD player and receiver/decoder) by the purchaser. A fully capable LaserDisc playback system includes a newer LaserDisc player that is capable of playing digital tracks, has a digital optical output for digital PCM and DTS audio, is aware of AC-3 audio tracks, and has an AC-3 coaxial output; an external or internal AC-3 RF demodulator and AC-3 decoder; and a DTS decoder. Many 1990s A/V receivers combined the AC-3 decoder and DTS decoder logic, but an integrated AC-3 demodulator is rare both in LaserDisc players and in later A/V receivers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "450085", "title": "Dolby Laboratories", "section": "Section::::Technologies.:Audio encoding/compression.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 763, "text": "BULLET::::- Dolby Digital (also known as AC-3) is a lossy audio compression format. It supports channel configurations from mono up to six discrete channels (referred to as \"5.1\"). This format first allowed and popularized surround sound. It was first developed for movie theater sound and spread to Laserdisc and DVD. It has been adopted in many broadcast formats including all North American digital television (ATSC), DVB-T, direct broadcast satellite, cable television, DTMB, IPTV, and surround sound radio services. It is also part of both the Blu-ray and the now defunct HD DVD standards. Dolby Digital is used to enable surround sound output by most video game consoles. Several personal computers support converting all audio to Dolby Digital for output.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "450085", "title": "Dolby Laboratories", "section": "Section::::Technologies.:Audio encoding/compression.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 472, "text": "BULLET::::- Dolby Stereo (also known as \"Stereo A\"): original analog optical technology developed for 35 mm prints and is encoded with four sound channels: Left/Center/Right (which are located behind the screen) and Surround (which is heard over speakers on the sides and rear of the theatre) for ambient sound and special effects. This technology also employs A-type or SR-type noise reduction, listed above with regards to analog cassette tapes. See also Dolby Surround\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "87710", "title": "Dolby noise-reduction system", "section": "Section::::Dolby SR.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 321, "text": "In the motion picture industry, as far as it concerns distribution prints of movies, the Dolby A and SR markings refer to Dolby Surround which is not just a method of noise reduction, but more importantly encodes two additional audio channels on the standard optical soundtrack, giving left, center, right, and surround.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "82898", "title": "Dolby Digital", "section": "Section::::Versions.:Dolby Digital.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 399, "text": "Dolby Digital is the common version containing up to six discrete channels of sound. The most elaborate mode in common use involves five channels for normal-range speakers () (right, center, left, right surround, left surround) and one channel ( allotted audio) for the subwoofer driven low-frequency effects. Mono and stereo modes are also supported. AC-3 supports audio sample-rates up to 48 kHz.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "290807", "title": "Low-frequency effects", "section": "Section::::Home theater systems.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 758, "text": "In the 1990s surround sound home theater systems became available to enhance the experience of viewing DVD and Blu-ray films. Prior to the advent of home theater systems, when VCRs were used, the enhanced sound option was stereo high-fidelity sound or Dolby Pro Logic for Dolby Surround-encoded tapes. With home theater systems, a multichannel audio system was used to deliver different sounds to six or more different speakers. The widely used 5.1-channel audio system consists of five full range main (Left, Center, Right, Left rear Surround, and Right rear Surround) plus a Low-Frequency Effects (LFE) channel. Many typical home theater systems, especially home theater in a box systems, are incapable of accurately reproducing LFE in the 20 Hertz range.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "From [_URL_1_](_URL_0_)\n\n > The surface of the Earth is whizzing by as Hubble orbits, and the pointing system, designed to track the distant stars, cannot track an object on the Earth. The shortest exposure time on any of the Hubble instruments is 0.1 seconds, and in this time Hubble moves about 700 meters, or almost half a mile. So a picture Hubble took of Earth would be all streaks.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Many people don't know this, but the Hubble telescope was roughly based on a line of spy satellites called [\"Keyhole\" or \"Kennan\"](_URL_0_), satellites that are designed to look down. Another interesting fact is that the Space Shuttle's payload bay was specifically designed to accommodate these satellite/telescopes.\n\nAs others have said, the Hubble telescope isn't able to image the surface, but there are many satellites in orbit that are very good at that. There's an urban legend that they can read a newspaper headline from orbit.\n\nEDIT: qualification", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I think by the time you did enough \"what ifs\" to make the image not blurry and high enough resolution and all that... You would be better off just using a military spy satellite, which I would be willing to guess at this point would probably at least tell you if your shoes are tied, ants might still be a little outside the reach.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7960760", "title": "Hubble volume", "section": "Section::::Hubble limit as an event horizon.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 285, "text": "For objects at the Hubble limit the space between us and the object of interest has an average expansion speed of \"c\". So, in a universe with constant Hubble parameter, light emitted at the present time by objects outside the Hubble limit would never be seen by an observer on Earth. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44163394", "title": "(486958) 2014 MU69", "section": "Section::::Observation.:2018 occultations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 668, "text": "Hubble observations were carried out on 4 August 2018, to support the occultation campaign. Hubble could not be placed in the narrow path of the occultation, but due to the favourable location of Hubble at the time of the event, the space telescope was able to probe the region down to from . This is much closer than the region that could be observed during the 17 July 2017 occultation. No brightness changes of the target star have been seen by Hubble, ruling out any optically thick rings or debris down to from . Results of the 2017 and 2018 occultation campaigns were presented at the 50th meeting of the AAS Division for Planetary Sciences, on 26 October 2018.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38767094", "title": "2014 in science", "section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:April.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 140, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 140, "end_character": 214, "text": "BULLET::::- NASA astronomers report that the Hubble Space Telescope can now precisely measure distances up to 10,000 light-years away by using spatial scanning, a ten-fold improvement over earlier measurements. ()\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44163394", "title": "(486958) 2014 MU69", "section": "Section::::Observation.:2017 occultations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 828, "text": "On 17 July 2017, the Hubble Space Telescope was used to check for debris around , setting constraints on rings and debris within the Hill sphere of at distances of up to from the main body. For the third and final occultation, team members set up another ground-based \"fence line\" of 24 mobile telescopes along the predicted ground track of the occultation shadow in southern Argentina (Chubut and Santa Cruz provinces) to better constrain the size of . The average spacing between these telescopes was around . Using the latest observations from Hubble, the position of was known with much better precision than for the June 3 occultation, and this time the shadow of was successfully observed by at least five of the mobile telescopes. Combined with the SOFIA observations, this will put constraints on possible debris near .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55024475", "title": "PicSat", "section": "Section::::PicSat Techspecs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 581, "text": "However, the standard pointing accuracy of a CubeSat is not sufficient to allow the telescope to send the light from the star exactly into the small opening of the fibre all the time. The telescope will wiggle and wobble too much as it orbits the Earth. The PicSat team devised an innovative solution for this problem by connecting the optical fibre to a small plate, a so-called piezoelectric actuator, that can move very fast. By moving the fibre very fast around the star, it can track where the star is drifting off to, and then immediate follow it, so as to remain on target.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40203", "title": "Hubble Space Telescope", "section": "Section::::Conception, design and aim.:Ground support.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 1331, "text": "One rather complex task that falls to STScI is scheduling observations for the telescope. Hubble is in a low-Earth orbit to enable servicing missions, but this means that most astronomical targets are occulted by the Earth for slightly less than half of each orbit. Observations cannot take place when the telescope passes through the South Atlantic Anomaly due to elevated radiation levels, and there are also sizable exclusion zones around the Sun (precluding observations of Mercury), Moon and Earth. The solar avoidance angle is about 50°, to keep sunlight from illuminating any part of the OTA. Earth and Moon avoidance keeps bright light out of the FGSs, and keeps scattered light from entering the instruments. If the FGSs are turned off, however, the Moon and Earth can be observed. Earth observations were used very early in the program to generate flat-fields for the WFPC1 instrument. There is a so-called continuous viewing zone (CVZ), at roughly 90° to the plane of Hubble's orbit, in which targets are not occulted for long periods. Due to the precession of the orbit, the location of the CVZ moves slowly over a period of eight weeks. Because the limb of the Earth is always within about 30° of regions within the CVZ, the brightness of scattered earthshine may be elevated for long periods during CVZ observations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "216601", "title": "Hubble Deep Field", "section": "Section::::Target selection.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 483, "text": "These criteria restricted the field of potential target areas. It was decided that the target should be in Hubble's 'continuous viewing zones' (CVZs)—the areas of sky which are not occulted by the Earth or the moon during Hubble's orbit. The working group decided to concentrate on the northern CVZ, so that northern-hemisphere telescopes such as the Keck telescopes, the Kitt Peak National Observatory telescopes and the Very Large Array (VLA) could conduct follow-up observations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "[There's a website for that](_URL_0_)\n\n\n > This is a reference to the phrase context-free grammar, which is a technical term used in formal language theory. The play on words is that Cueball does not provide any context for his statement.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[zincake's really important post](_URL_0_) is buried underneath a negative comment and I want to make sure it (and the point of the comic) gets seen.\n\nOne part of linguistics theory is the study of different classes (or \"types\" of languages, and one of these is a [formal language](_URL_2_) - mentioned in the first panel of the comic. \n\nIf you must know about the various languages, then you might as well check out the [Chomsky hierarchy](_URL_1_). In order to understand the comic, you will need to understand the hierarchy up to a point. What it essentially boils down to (keep in mind I'm summarizing one of Chomsky's greatest papers in like, one sentence) is that a language can be ranked by the way building blocks of the sentence can be formed. \n\nSometimes you get some really terse, really formal languages in the lowest level of languages. Cue zincake's post. Mathematics is a formal language. In it, we have sentences like \"5 + 5 = 10.\" Isn't that a cute sentence. There's a lot of surprising complexity to it, but pretty much everyone over the age of, say, 7 should be able to read it. Even if we gussy it up, \"\\exists x s.t. {x \\equals 5} \\implies x + 5 \\equals 5 + 5 \\implies x + 5 \\equals 10\", the language itself is still easily put together. Note, you will need to be able to read LaTeX and understand mathematical notation to really get what the sentence is saying, but the mechanics are all there. \"Let's say X = 5, then that means that X + 5 = 5 + 5, and therefore X + 5 must equal 10, because we already know that 5+5 equals 10.\" Every bit of the sentence directly flows to the next part, and everything is nice and simple in the end.\n\nAnd so we come to our first type of transitional language, context-free. In it, we say that our sentence is composed of one word. Any word can either terminate (the transition does not continue) or it can propagate, that is, it transitions to some other words *which mean the same thing*. I'm flubbing the explanation here because I don't want to get into the theory of it. Instead, I will show an example. Let's have a language that we just made up, and in it we have a sentence S. Maybe S can be broken down into a noun phrase NP and a verb phrase VP. So now, our sentence S is represented by S - > NP VP. Maybe NP can be represented by the word \"I\", which is a first-person pronoun. Maybe VP can be represented by the phrase \"love you\", which itself contains a verb and a direct object.\n\nWell now, our sentence \"S\", being \"S - > NP VP\", is actually \"S - > NP VP - > I love you\", because the \"NP\" became \"I\" and \"VP\" became \"love you\". We simplify this by just saying \"I love you\", no arrows included. This example doesn't mean that S must always be NP VP (though it seems to be the case quite often), nor that NP can only be the word \"I\" (or, failing that, just pronouns), nor that the only verb phrase in the world is \"love you.\" Rather, \"S - > NP VP - > I love you\" is simply one context-free derivation of the sentence S, using our alphabet and rules. \"I love cake.\" is also a possible sentence, but it's just as much a sentence as \"Mindy is I's cat.\" Wait a second. What happened there? Assuming you've got a pretty decent grasp of English, that last sentence, heck even that one word should have thrown a red flag. What exactly is wrong with using the word \"I's\" to mean first-person possessive pronoun? I mean, it has all the parts that are important, right? Let's draw an analogy. The word \"Mindy's\" makes sense, right? What if it was \"Mindy's catfood\"? That seems OK. Can all possessive nouns be written as \"NP\" followed by an apostrophe-s? Is there a significant difference between \"Mindy's\" and \"I's\", if \"Mindy\" is an NP... and \"I\" is an NP? Do you think \"I's\" should be a valid word in English?\n\nFor better or for worse, \"I's\" is not valid English, because A) grammer and B) context. The two of them go together hand-in-hand, and they manifest themselves in our rules (such as S - > NP VP). The further up the Chomsky hierarchy you go (the next level is context-sensitive and then to recursively enumarable) the more complex the rules become. \n\nBut those systems are not the point of the XKCD comic, at least in my interpretation. Here's a question for you: is English context-sensitive, or is English context-free? Answer? We don't actually know the answer to that question. We're had some good evidence that it's not context-free (such as the Mindy is I's cat sentence), but nobody's proved it is definitely context-sensitive. Why do we have so much trouble figuring it out? Because grammer is a fickle mistress and languages are always changing. And so in the comic, cueball (representing grammer), breaks into the conference without any context. The joke itself is a pun. Check out the alt-text.\n\n > [audience looks around] 'What just happened?' 'There must be some context that we're missing.'", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "With XKCD, reading the title text helps. Mouse over the image and you get the title text. You could say it gives you... context?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "10879712", "title": "Art School Confidential (comics)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 279, "text": "The comic is a satire of American art schools, presented in the manner of a sensationalistic exposé and ostensibly based on Clowes' own experiences at the Pratt Institute. (The story is signed \"By D. Clowes, B.F.A.\" and a Pratt Institute diploma appears on a wall in one panel.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14383677", "title": "The Comic", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 456, "text": "The Comic is a 1969 Pathécolor comedy film co-written, co-produced, and directed by Carl Reiner. It stars Dick Van Dyke as Billy Bright (which was the original title of the film), Michele Lee as Bright's love interest, and Reiner himself and Mickey Rooney as Bright's friends and work colleagues. Reiner wrote the screenplay with Aaron Ruben; it was inspired by the end of silent film era, and, in part, by the life of silent film superstar Buster Keaton.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1742392", "title": "Christopher B. Wright", "section": "Section::::\"Help Desk\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 454, "text": "The comic draws heavily from real-life events in the computer software industry and lampoons those events through its cast of characters. It features a daily slogan on the title bar. Examples include \"We code what angels fear and dread\", \"Fear, Uncertainty, and Doubt\", \"Our lawyers are better\", \"It's not a bug... It's just really really bad\", \"Standing on the necks of giants\", \"Four out of five dentists reboot\", and \"We put the pain in painstaking\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38380966", "title": "Marzolino Tarantola", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 361, "text": "The comic consists in a zany parody of Albert Robida's \"Saturnin Farandoul\". It tells of Marzolino Tarantola, an adventurous, snob nobleman of British origins who takes part to the San Francisco-Paris car rally accompanied by the faithful butler Alfred and by Enrico l'Equipaggio (Henry the crew), a hulking speech-impaired man that solves any kind of problem.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57485017", "title": "Comics (British TV series)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 597, "text": "Comics is a two-part British television miniseries, written and created by Lynda La Plante, that broadcast on Channel 4 in June 1993. Adapted from La Plante's novel of the same name, the series stars Tim Guinee as Johnny Lazar, a down-and-out American comedian who tries to regain his status as an international superstar by embarking on a tour of working men's clubs and universities in England. But on his first night, Johnny is witness to a gangland murder and finds himself having to go on the run as he becomes the target of hit men who want to eliminate any chance of them being identified.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3459528", "title": "Heroes of the Equinox", "section": "Section::::Notes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 438, "text": "BULLET::::- This album is a parody of American superhero comics – all of the action shots are drawn in the American comic book style with suitable accompanying sound effects. The most explicit reference is in plate 14 when two bystanders comment on the champions departing for Filene. \"Those four are fantastic!\" says the first (a reference to the Marvel comic \"The Fantastic Four\"). \"Yes, really super those heroes,\" replies the second.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11048382", "title": "Super Bad James Dynomite", "section": "Section::::The Book.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 245, "text": "The comic is based upon the 1970s and the era of films known as Blaxploitation. Each issue features various references to movie and characters of that time including John Shaft, Black Belt Jones, Foxy Brown (film), Super Fly and even Bruce Lee.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yes, we can make lighter stable elements split into even lighter elements, but below iron, it requires more energy to split them than you get back. Light elements require more energy to split, and give more energy when fused; heavy elements as opposite -- they require more energy to fuse, and give more energy when split. Iron is basically the middle-ground, the point where the transition between light and heavy happens.\n\nSo, you can split iron or lighter elements, but it requires more energy than you'll get out from the fission.\n\nThis is why we do fission with the heaviest elements (uranium, plutonium, etc.), but we try to produce fusion with the lighest elements (hydrogen).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "77474", "title": "Nihonium", "section": "Section::::Isotopes.:Stability and half-lives.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 1128, "text": "The stability of nuclei quickly decreases with the increase in atomic number after curium, element 96, whose half-life is over ten thousand times longer than that of any subsequent element. All isotopes with an atomic number above 101 undergo radioactive decay with half-lives of less than 30 hours: this is because of the ever-increasing Coulomb repulsion of protons, so that the strong nuclear force cannot hold the nucleus together against spontaneous fission for long. Calculations suggest that in the absence of other stabilising factors, elements with more than 103 protons should not exist. Researchers in the 1960s suggested that the closed nuclear shells around 114 protons and 184 neutrons should counteract this instability, and create an \"island of stability\" containing nuclides with half-lives reaching thousands or millions of years. The existence of the island is still unproven, but the existence of the superheavy elements (including nihonium) confirms that the stabilising effect is real, and in general the known superheavy nuclides become longer-lived as they approach the predicted location of the island.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55017", "title": "Fusion power", "section": "Section::::Safety and the environment.:Waste management.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 252, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 252, "end_character": 676, "text": "The half-life of the radioisotopes produced by fusion tends to be less than those from fission, so that the inventory decreases more rapidly. Unlike fission reactors, whose waste remains radioactive for thousands of years, most of the radioactive material in a fusion reactor would be the reactor core itself, which would be dangerous for about 50 years, and low-level waste for another 100. Although this waste will be considerably more radioactive during those 50 years than fission waste, the very short half-life makes the process very attractive, as the waste management is fairly straightforward. By 500 years the material would have the same radiotoxicity as coal ash.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "62200", "title": "Oganesson", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Nuclear stability and isotopes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 1457, "text": "The stability of nuclei quickly decreases with the increase in atomic number after curium, element 96, whose half-life is four orders of magnitude longer than that of any subsequent element. All isotopes with an atomic number above 101 undergo radioactive decay with half-lives of less than 30 hours. No elements with atomic numbers above 82 (after lead) have stable isotopes. This is because of the ever-increasing Coulomb repulsion of protons, so that the strong nuclear force cannot hold the nucleus together against spontaneous fission for long. Calculations suggest that in the absence of other stabilizing factors, elements with more than 104 protons should not exist. However, researchers in the 1960s suggested that the closed nuclear shells around 114 protons and 184 neutrons should counteract this instability, creating an \"island of stability\" where nuclides could have half-lives reaching thousands or millions of years. While scientists have still not reached the island, the mere existence of the superheavy elements (including oganesson) confirms that this stabilizing effect is real, and in general the known superheavy nuclides become exponentially longer-lived as they approach the predicted location of the island. Oganesson is radioactive and has a half-life that appears to be less than a millisecond. Nonetheless, this is still longer than some predicted values, thus giving further support to the idea of this \"island of stability\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "67611", "title": "Tennessine", "section": "Section::::Predicted properties.:Nuclear stability and isotopes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 1741, "text": "The stability of nuclei quickly decreases with the increase in atomic number after curium, element 96, whose half-life is four orders of magnitude longer than that of any subsequent element. All isotopes with an atomic number above 101 undergo radioactive decay with half-lives of less than 30 hours. No elements with atomic numbers above 82 (after lead) have stable isotopes. This is because of the ever-increasing Coulomb repulsion of protons, so that the strong nuclear force cannot hold the nucleus together against spontaneous fission for long. Calculations suggest that in the absence of other stabilizing factors, elements with more than 104 protons should not exist. However, researchers in the 1960s suggested that the closed nuclear shells around 114 protons and 184 neutrons should counteract this instability, creating an \"island of stability\" where nuclides could have half-lives reaching thousands or millions of years. While scientists have still not reached the island, the mere existence of the superheavy elements (including tennessine) confirms that this stabilizing effect is real, and in general the known superheavy nuclides become exponentially longer-lived as they approach the predicted location of the island. Tennessine is the second-heaviest element created so far, and all its known isotopes have half-lives of less than one second. Nevertheless, this is longer than the values predicted prior to their discovery: the predicted lifetimes for Ts and Ts used in the discovery paper were 10 ms and 45 ms respectively, while the observed lifetimes were 21 ms and 112 ms respectively. The Dubna team believes that the synthesis of the element is direct experimental proof of the existence of the island of stability.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1246386", "title": "Unbibium", "section": "Section::::History.:Synthesis attempts.:Future.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 1028, "text": "It is possible that fusion-evaporation reactions will not be suitable for the discovery of unbibium or heavier elements. Various models predict increasingly short alpha and spontaneous fission half-lives for isotopes with \"Z\" = 122 and \"N\" ~ 180 on the order of microseconds or less, rendering detection nearly impossible with current equipment. The increasing dominance of spontaneous fission also may sever possible ties to known nuclei of livermorium or oganesson and make identification and confirmation more difficult; a similar problem occurred in the road to confirmation of the decay chain of Og which has no anchor to known nuclei. For these reasons, other methods of production may need to be researched such as multi-nucleon transfer reactions capable of populating longer-lived nuclei. A similar switch in experimental technique occurred when hot fusion using Ca projectiles was used instead of cold fusion (in which cross sections decrease rapidly with increasing atomic number) to populate elements with \"Z\" 113.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26266872", "title": "Corium (nuclear reactor)", "section": "Section::::Composition and formation.:Corium composition and reactions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 436, "text": "Brief re-criticality (resumption of neutron-induced fission) in parts of the corium is a theoretical but remote possibility with commercial reactor fuel, due to low enrichment and the loss of moderator. This condition could be detected by presence of short life fission products long after the meltdown, in amounts that are too high to remain from the pre-meltdown reactor or be due to spontaneous fission of reactor-created actinides.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "888488", "title": "Fast-neutron reactor", "section": "Section::::Introduction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 455, "text": "Although does not undergo fission by the neutrons released in fission, thermal neutrons can be captured by the nucleus to transmute the uranium into . has a neutron cross section similar to that of , and most of the atoms created this way will undergo fission from the thermal neutrons. In most reactors this accounts for as much as ⅓ of generated energy. Some remains, and the leftover, along with leftover , can be recycled during nuclear reprocessing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "1 gram of food is about the size a jelly bean. I don’t think there are any beef jerkies with 1 gram servings. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You've misread something maybe you should upload the packet so we can understand where you've got it wrong. Beef jerky has approximately 33g of protein per 100g. It's impossible for 1 gram of jerky to have 10 grams of protein.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1548665", "title": "Chimichanga", "section": "Section::::Origins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 314, "text": "According to data presented by the United States Department of Agriculture, a typical 183-gram (6.5-ounce) serving of a beef and cheese chimichanga contains 443 calories, 20 grams protein, 39 grams carbohydrates, 23 grams total fat, 11 grams saturated fat, 51 milligrams cholesterol, and 957 milligrams of sodium.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "238209", "title": "Biltong", "section": "Section::::Eating.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 214, "text": "Biltong is a high-protein food. Often, 200 g of beef are required to make 100 g of biltong, and the process of making biltong preserves most of the protein content. Some biltong can have up to 67% protein content.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2953473", "title": "Food group", "section": "Section::::The most common food groups.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 254, "text": "BULLET::::- Meat, sometimes labelled protein and occasionally inclusive of legumes and beans, eggs, meat analogues and/or dairy, is typically a medium- to smaller-sized category in nutrition guides. Examples include chicken, fish, turkey, pork and beef.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8710101", "title": "Richard K. Bernstein", "section": "Section::::Low-carbohydrate diabetes diet and treatment plan.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 341, "text": "BULLET::::- As a starting dose for a non insulin resistant who makes no insulin (0 cpeptide), 8 grams of carbohydrates require 1 unit of regular insulin, and 2 ounces of protein food require 1 unit of regular insulin. An ounce of protein food is the amount that contains 6 grams of protein, like one egg, or 30 grams (or 1 ounce) of meat...\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5376446", "title": "Kabab koobideh", "section": "Section::::Preparation and cooking.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 379, "text": "Lamb or beef (precisely 20% fat, 80% meat) is minced twice for finer consistency. Salt, garlic powder, black pepper, celery powder, sumac, very finely grated onion (the extra juice is squeezed out and saved for later) and one egg yolk per pound of meat are added. All ingredients are mixed, covered, and left to marinate in the refrigerator for at least four hours or overnight.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "102213", "title": "Essential amino acid", "section": "Section::::Recommended daily intake.:Protein per calorie.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 1058, "text": "Protein content in foods is often measured in protein per serving rather than protein per calorie. For instance, the USDA lists 6 grams of protein per large whole egg (a 50-gram serving) rather than 84 mg of protein per calorie (71 calories total). For comparison, there are 3 grams of protein in a serving of raw broccoli (91 grams) or 96 mg of protein per calorie (31 calories total). An egg contains twice as much protein per serving, but 12 mg less protein per calorie. The ratio of essential amino acids (the quality of protein) is not taken into account. It can be shown that common vegetable sources contain adequate protein, often more protein per calorie than the standard reference, whole raw egg, while other plant sources, particularly fruits contain less. It is recommended that adult humans obtain 10–35% of their calories as protein, or roughly 11–39 mg of protein per cal per day (22–78 g for 2000 cal). A carrot has 23 mg protein per cal or twice the minimum recommendation, a banana meets the minimum, and an apple is below recommendation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4012192", "title": "Reconstituted meat", "section": "Section::::Properties and production.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 319, "text": "The meat is first finely ground and mixed with water. The mixture is then used in a centrifuge or with an emulsifier to separate the fats and myoglobin from the muscle. The product is then allowed to settle into three layers: meat, excess water, and fat. The remaining liquefied meat is then flash-frozen and packaged.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A thread is a fancy way to say a task. Let's say you want to send shipments of Egyptian cotton from Sicily to Malta. If you have a single plane that can fly 500 mph, you have to wait until it flies there and back (a single clock cycle) before you can load it up and send it out again. In that sense it isn't very quick.\n\nNow imagine you have a fleet of 8 planes. Even though they all fly at 500 mph, you're transporting 8x as much cotton as you were before. This is why the speed (measured in GHz) doesn't mean a whole lot. In the case of the i7 series, it has hyperthreading, which is a fancy way of saying there are twice as many virtual cores as physical cores. Since an i7 is a quad core chip (at least the desktop version I'm familiar with is), there are 8 usable cores, as detected by windows task manager. A core 2 duo, the second generation of Core Duo, only have 2 usable cores. \n\nThe way a thread works is fairly complex, but each core is basically set up to run one thread at a time, but cycle through them so fast that the user interprets them as running in parallel (wikipedia \"time-division multiplexing\"). The only downside to having a lot of cores running in parallel is that a lot of software can only utilize 2-4 cores at once, meaning you have a bunch of cores on an i7 doing nothing for a lot of the time unless you're seriously multitasking. \n\nTo most directly answer your question, it works by splitting a \"job\" into many smaller tasks called \"threads\" and then going through all the threads and doing them individually, but so fast that it looks like they're running simultaneously. If there is more than one core doing this then many tasks can be done at once.\n\nAnyone with more experience in this field can correct me.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A thread is a fancy way to say a task. Let's say you want to send shipments of Egyptian cotton from Sicily to Malta. If you have a single plane that can fly 500 mph, you have to wait until it flies there and back (a single clock cycle) before you can load it up and send it out again. In that sense it isn't very quick.\n\nNow imagine you have a fleet of 8 planes. Even though they all fly at 500 mph, you're transporting 8x as much cotton as you were before. This is why the speed (measured in GHz) doesn't mean a whole lot. In the case of the i7 series, it has hyperthreading, which is a fancy way of saying there are twice as many virtual cores as physical cores. Since an i7 is a quad core chip (at least the desktop version I'm familiar with is), there are 8 usable cores, as detected by windows task manager. A core 2 duo, the second generation of Core Duo, only have 2 usable cores. \n\nThe way a thread works is fairly complex, but each core is basically set up to run one thread at a time, but cycle through them so fast that the user interprets them as running in parallel (wikipedia \"time-division multiplexing\"). The only downside to having a lot of cores running in parallel is that a lot of software can only utilize 2-4 cores at once, meaning you have a bunch of cores on an i7 doing nothing for a lot of the time unless you're seriously multitasking. \n\nTo most directly answer your question, it works by splitting a \"job\" into many smaller tasks called \"threads\" and then going through all the threads and doing them individually, but so fast that it looks like they're running simultaneously. If there is more than one core doing this then many tasks can be done at once.\n\nAnyone with more experience in this field can correct me.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "45303", "title": "Thread (computing)", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 826, "text": "Threads made an early appearance under the name of \"tasks\" in OS/360 Multiprogramming with a Variable Number of Tasks (MVT) in 1967. Saltzer (1966) credits Victor A. Vyssotsky with the term \"thread\". The process schedulers of many modern operating systems directly support both time-sliced and multiprocessor threading, and the operating system kernel allows programmers to manipulate threads by exposing required functionality through the system-call interface. Some threading implementations are called \"kernel threads\", whereas \"light-weight processes\" (LWP) are a specific type of kernel thread that share the same state and information. Furthermore, programs can have \"user-space threads\" when threading with timers, signals, or other methods to interrupt their own execution, performing a sort of \"ad hoc\" time-slicing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45303", "title": "Thread (computing)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 672, "text": "In computer science, a thread of execution is the smallest sequence of programmed instructions that can be managed independently by a scheduler, which is typically a part of the operating system. The implementation of threads and processes differs between operating systems, but in most cases a thread is a component of a process. Multiple threads can exist within one process, executing concurrently and sharing resources such as memory, while different processes do not share these resources. In particular, the threads of a process share its executable code and the values of its dynamically allocated variables and non-thread-local global variables at any given time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21803100", "title": "Micro-Threads (multi core)", "section": "Section::::Introduction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1364, "text": "Micro-threading is a software-based threading framework that creates small threads inside multi-core or many-core processors. Each core may have two or more tiny threads that utilize its idle time. It is like hyper-threading invented by Intel or the general multi-threading architecture in modern micro-processors. It enables the existence of more than one thread running on the same core without performing expensive context switching to system's main memory, even if this core does not have multi-threading hardware logic. Micro-threads mainly hide memory latency inside each core by over lapping computations with memory requests. The main difference between micro-threads and current threading models is that micro-threads context switching overhead is very small. For example, the overhead micro-threads implementation on Cell Broadband Engine is 160 nano seconds; meanwhile, the overhead of context switching of the whole core's (SPE) thread is around 2000 micro-seconds. This low overhead is due to three main factors. First, micro-threads are very small. Each micro-thread runs one or two simple but critical functions. Second, micro-threads context include only the register file of the core currently the micro-thread is executing on. Third, micro-threads are context switched to core's dedicated cache, which makes this process very fast and efficient.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6857", "title": "Computer multitasking", "section": "Section::::Multithreading.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 428, "text": "Threads were born from the idea that the most efficient way for cooperating processes to exchange data would be to share their entire memory space. Thus, threads are effectively processes that run in the same memory context and share other resources with their parent processes, such as open files. Threads are described as \"lightweight processes\" because switching between threads does not involve changing the memory context.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47767", "title": "Threaded code", "section": "Section::::Threading models.:Direct threading.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 369, "text": "Addresses in the thread are the addresses of machine language. This form is simple, but may have overheads because the thread consists only of machine addresses, so all further parameters must be loaded indirectly from memory. Some Forth systems produce direct-threaded code. On many machines direct-threading is faster than subroutine threading (see reference below).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23041908", "title": "XCore Architecture", "section": "Section::::Programming model.:Parallel programming model.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 85, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 85, "end_character": 522, "text": "A thread can, with a single instruction, synchronise with a group of threads using a barrier synchronisation. Alternatively a thread can synchronise using a lock, providing mutual exclusion. In order to communicate data when using barriers and locks, threads can either write data into the registers of another thread, or they can access memory of another thread (provided both threads execute on the same core). If shared memory is used, then the compiler or the programmer must ensure that there are no race conditions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51496360", "title": "Thread block (CUDA programming)", "section": "Section::::Hardware perspective.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 515, "text": "Although we have stated the hierarchy of threads, we should note that, threads, thread blocks and grid are essentially a programmer’s perspective. In order to get a complete gist of thread block, it is critical to know it from a hardware perspective. Hardware groups threads that execute the same instruction in to warps. Several warps constitute a thread block. Several thread blocks are assigned to a Streaming Multiprocessor (SM). Several SM constitute the whole GPU unit (which executes the whole Kernel Grid).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It has a few but the law allows them to round down. So it's approximately zero. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is sugar in an orange so there are calories in an orange.\n\nThe sparkling water might have an sweetener that our bodies cannot digest (= 0 calories), or one that does not need very much to achieve the same level of sweetness that sugar does ( < 5 calories = 0 calories). ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Basically those drinks have only a tiny amount of actual fruit juce just so they can advertise it but still round down the resulting small number of calories. Their flavour is completely due to artificial sweeteners and aromas.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "52824", "title": "Orange juice", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 353, "text": "The health value of orange juice is debatable: it has a high concentration of vitamin C, but also a very high concentration of simple sugars, comparable to soft drinks. As a result, some government nutritional advice has been adjusted to encourage substitution of orange juice with raw fruit, which is digested more slowly, and limit daily consumption.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52824", "title": "Orange juice", "section": "Section::::Standards and regulations.:Regulations in Canada.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 907, "text": "For Canadian markets, orange juice must be the fruit juice obtained from clean, sound, and mature oranges. The juice must also contain a minimum of 1.20 milliequivalents of free amino acids per 100 millilitres, contain a minimum of 115 milligrams of potassium per 10 milliliters, and possess a minimum absorbance value for total polyphenolics of 0.380. Sweeteners such as sugar, invert sugar, dextrose or glucose solids may be added. The orange juice must have a Brix reading of at least 9.7, excluding the sweetening ingredients, and contain between 0.5 and 1.8 percent of acid by weight calculated as anhydrous citric acid. Added orange essences, orange oils and orange pulp adjusted in accordance with good manufacturing practice is permitted. Orange juice is also permitted to contain sugar, invert sugar, dextrose in dry form, glucose solids, a Class II preservative, amylase, cellulase and pectinase.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25439732", "title": "Juice", "section": "Section::::Health effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 242, "text": "Juices are often consumed for their perceived health benefits. For example, orange juice with natural or added vitamin C, folic acid, and potassium, but may have added sugar, such as grape juice having as much or more sugar than soft drinks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52824", "title": "Orange juice", "section": "Section::::Nutrition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 243, "text": "Citrus juices contain flavonoids (especially in the pulp) that may have health benefits. Orange juice is also a source of the antioxidant hesperidin. Because of its citric acid content, orange juice is acidic, with a typical pH of around 3.5.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52824", "title": "Orange juice", "section": "Section::::Processing and manufacture.:Manufacture of \"not from concentrate\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 1210, "text": "Single strength orange juice (SSOJ) can either be \"not from concentrate\" (NFC) orange juice or juice that is reconstituted from a concentrate with the addition of water to reach a specific single strength brix level. The processing of SSOJ also begins with the selection of orange. The most common types of orange used to produce orange juice are the Pineapple orange, Valencia orange, and Washington Navel oranges from Florida and California. The manufacturing journey begins when oranges are delivered to processing plants by trucks holding about 35,000 to 40,000 pounds of fruit. The fruit is unloaded at the plant for inspection and grading to remove unsuitable fruit before the oranges enter the storage bins. An automatic sampler contraption removes oranges for determination of acid and soluble solids. The bins are organized based on ratio of soluble solids to acids in order to blend oranges appropriate to produce juice with uniform flavor. After the fruit leaves the bins, they are scrubbed with detergent on a rotary brush washer and subsequently rinsed with potable water. Throughout the processing stages, there are multiple points with facilities that inspect oranges and discard damaged fruit.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52824", "title": "Orange juice", "section": "Section::::Standards and regulations.:Regulations in the United Kingdom.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 781, "text": "In the United Kingdom, orange juice from concentrate is a product of concentrated fruit juice with the addition of water. Any lost flavour or pulp of the orange juice during the initial concentration process may be restored in the final product to be equivalent to an average type of orange juice of the same kind. Any restored flavour or pulp must come from the same species of orange. Sugar may be added to the orange juice for regulating the acidic taste or sweetening, but must not exceed 150g per litre of orange juice. Across the UK, the final orange juice from concentrate product must contain a minimum Brix level of 11.2, excluding the additional sweetening ingredients. Vitamins and minerals may be added to the orange juice in accordance with Regulation (EC) 1925/2006.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52824", "title": "Orange juice", "section": "Section::::Physical and chemical properties.:Molecular composition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 425, "text": "On a molecular level, orange juice is composed of organic acids, sugars, and phenolic compounds. The main organic acids found in orange juice are citric, malic, and ascorbic acid. The major sugars found in orange juice are sucrose, glucose, and fructose. There are approximately 13 phenolic compounds in orange juice including hydroxycinnamic acids, flavanones, hydroxybenzoic acids, hesperidin, narirutin, and ferulic acid.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The star can spin which can make the poles behave differently. The balance of gravity pulling in and fusion pushing out will tend to smooth out differences, so it's about as homogenous as a well stirred soup, it might not exactly be equal and there might be some bubbles but on the scale that matter its really is. If you have a kettle on with a lid and heat it up that lid is going to fly off in the direction the kettle is open even if the exact direction could depend a little how the water inside is distributed. Likewise a supernova is going to expand in the \"up\" direction.\n\nThe conditions for fusion to stop happen first on the inside. There are multiple shells of conditions that are conductive to different kinds of fusions. But a region that is now hot enough to do a more demanding kind of fusion must have risen to that temperature and pressure ie passed through the other conditions. Big stars can support significant multiple kinds going on at once while small stars run out of the lighter fuels which ramps the conditions for the next layer.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are a number of things to pick apart here.\n\nFirst of all, not all supernovae are core collapse supernovae, but due to thermal runaway processes on White Dwarfs. The mechanisms are different, and the explosions in these cases can in fact be highly asymmetric.\n\nRegarding core collapse supernovae:\n\n > Are coexistent shells the best way to illustrate it? Like is there really a clear and distinct boundary between regions where different elements fuse? \n\nYes, the shell model is the best way to illustrate it. The borders between the shells are not particularly sharp, but the dynamics of the matter inside the star lead to the postulated stratification. It's probably better to imagine the shells as *enriched* of the different elements, than exclusively consisting of them.\n\n > Rather than \"this fuses and then this fuses and then this fuses\" aren't they all kind of going simultaneously?\n\nIt's both in a way. You have these distinct shells, and in all shells, fusion takes place. Even in a late stage star, you have hydrogen fusion, helium fusion, carbon fusion, etc. at the same time, but not necessarily at the same places.\n\n > And then my final question: is the collapse symmetrical? It gets presented as an all at once, from all directions, thing. \n\nYes, the core collapse is symmetrically. However, there have been [processes discovered in simulations](_URL_0_), which can lead to an overall asymmetry in the resulting explosion.\n\n > I get that planetary nebulae seem to come in a variety of shapes... \n\nVery important to point out here that planetary nebulae are **not** the result of supernovae. This type of nebulae is formed from Red Giants shedding their outer layers and usually only contain a White Dwarf. \n\nSupernova remnants are (if they aren't extremely old and distorted by interaction with surround gas and dust) [usually rather spherical](_URL_1_).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "43846958", "title": "Pulsational pair-instability supernova", "section": "Section::::Light curves and spectra.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 457, "text": "Pulsational pair-instability supernovae are likely the most common pair-instability events and are probably common causes of supernova impostor events. Depending on the nature of the progenitor star they may take the appearance of either a type II, type Ib or type Ic supernova. . Like full scale pair-instability supernovae, pulsational pair-instability supernova are very bright and last for many months longer than a typical type II or type I supernova.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "471487", "title": "Cosmic distance ladder", "section": "Section::::Extragalactic distance scale.:Supernovae.:Measuring a supernova's photosphere.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 206, "text": "We can assume that a supernova expands in a spherically symmetric manner. If the supernova is close enough such that we can measure the angular extent, \"θ\"(\"t\"), of its photosphere, we can use the equation\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27680", "title": "Supernova", "section": "Section::::Current models.:Asymmetry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 85, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 85, "end_character": 680, "text": "A long-standing puzzle surrounding Type II supernovae is why the remaining compact object receives a large velocity away from the epicentre; pulsars, and thus neutron stars, are observed to have high velocities, and black holes presumably do as well, although they are far harder to observe in isolation. The initial impetus can be substantial, propelling an object of more than a solar mass at a velocity of 500 km/s or greater. This indicates an expansion asymmetry, but the mechanism by which momentum is transferred to the compact object a puzzle. Proposed explanations for this kick include convection in the collapsing star and jet production during neutron star formation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3728323", "title": "Type Ia supernova", "section": "Section::::Consensus model.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 232, "text": "Type Ia supernova differ from Type II supernova, which are caused by the cataclysmic explosion of the outer layers of a massive star as its core collapses, powered by release of gravitational potential energy via neutrino emission.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27680", "title": "Supernova", "section": "Section::::Classification.:Type II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 352, "text": "The supernovae of Type II can also be sub-divided based on their spectra. While most Type II supernovae show very broad emission lines which indicate expansion velocities of many thousands of kilometres per second, some, such as SN 2005gl, have relatively narrow features in their spectra. These are called Type IIn, where the 'n' stands for 'narrow'.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27680", "title": "Supernova", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 787, "text": "Theoretical studies indicate that most supernovae are triggered by one of two basic mechanisms: the sudden re-ignition of nuclear fusion in a degenerate star or the sudden gravitational collapse of a massive star's core. In the first class of events, the object's temperature is raised enough to trigger runaway nuclear fusion, completely disrupting it. Possible causes are accumulation of sufficient material from a binary companion through accretion, or a merger. In the massive star case, the core of a massive star may undergo sudden collapse, releasing gravitational potential energy as a supernova. While some observed supernovae are more complex than these two simplified theories, the astrophysical mechanics have been established and accepted by most astronomers for some time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "943817", "title": "Convective overturn", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 278, "text": "The convective overturn model of supernovae was proposed by Bethe and Wilson in 1985, and received a dramatic test with SN 1987A, and the detection of neutrinos from the explosion. The model is for type II supernovae, which take place in stars more massive than 8 solar masses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It takes a constant caloric energy feed to support every gram of muscle. You're evolved to face the danger of imminent starvation at any time. \n\nSo the muscles grow in proportion to the exercise they get. Which is proportional to your daily activity. They generally stop growing when they are the size that daily activity does not damage them.\n\nYour body doesn't want them to be much stronger than you need. Look up about the loss of strength people in 0g or being bedridden for even a handful of days experience.\n\nEven with manual labor or purposeful exercise, they will respond by growing if you have proper nutrition. There is an upper maximum limit to their growth even in this case (which weight lifters strive to push).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Your body tries to adapt in ways that helps its survival. Sure having a super strong bicep might help you in some survival instance but what people might not know is your tendons are basically set at a max strength. So if your muscles get too strong they will rip tendons off of bone. This is the main reason for limits on muscle strength growth.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "35152005", "title": "Hardgainer", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 316, "text": "Difficulty building muscle is often associated with the ectomorph body somatotype, however other common reasons also include a lack of proper nutrition, suitable physical activity level or not allowing enough recovery time for the stressed muscles to regain their previous state and then grow bigger (overtraining).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1240348", "title": "Strength training", "section": "Section::::Technique.:Intensity, volume, and frequency.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 876, "text": "These variables are important because they are all mutually conflicting, as the muscle only has so much strength and endurance, and takes time to recover due to microtrauma. Increasing one by any significant amount necessitates the decrease of the other two, e.g. increasing weight means a reduction of reps, and will require more recovery time and therefore fewer workouts per week. Trying to push too much intensity, volume and frequency will result in overtraining, and eventually lead to injury and other health issues such as chronic soreness and general lethargy, illness or even acute trauma such as avulsion fractures. A high-medium-low formula can be used to avoid overtraining, with either intensity, volume, or frequency being high, one of the others being medium, and the other being low. One example of this training strategy can be found in the following chart:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19723734", "title": "Muscle", "section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Hypertrophy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 507, "text": "Independent of strength and performance measures, muscles can be induced to grow larger by a number of factors, including hormone signaling, developmental factors, strength training, and disease. Contrary to popular belief, the number of muscle fibres cannot be increased through exercise. Instead, muscles grow larger through a combination of muscle cell growth as new protein filaments are added along with additional mass provided by undifferentiated satellite cells alongside the existing muscle cells.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37841887", "title": "Elastic mechanisms in animals", "section": "Section::::Elastic mechanisms for power attenuation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 601, "text": "Similarly, tendons are unable to entirely insulate muscles from dynamic extension. Tendons affect muscles when muscles lengthen, which affects peak forces experienced due to energy absorbing actions in the muscle tendon unit. Active lengthening of muscle fibers results in both an accumulation and loss of energy. Even though energy is briefly stored in stretched elastic elements are also released, there is an overall net gain. This shows that muscle fibers are effective in both power production and for energy consumption utilized by the body or individual body segments with muscle-tendon units.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "571549", "title": "Myocyte", "section": "Section::::Development.:Muscle fiber growth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 462, "text": "Muscle fibers grow when exercised and shrink when not in use. This is due to the fact that exercise stimulates the increase in myofibrils which increase the overall size of muscle cells. Well exercised muscles can not only add more size but can also develop more mitochondria, myoglobin, glycogen and a higher density of capillaries. However muscle cells cannot divide to produce new cells, and as a result we have fewer muscle cells as an adult than a newborn.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18447032", "title": "Muscle contracture", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 203, "text": "Muscle contractures can occur for many reasons, such as paralysis, muscular atrophy, and forms of muscular dystrophy. Fundamentally, the muscle and its tendons shorten, resulting in reduced flexibility.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29806193", "title": "Motor unit plasticity", "section": "Section::::Structural Changes of the Motor Unit.:Effector Muscle Size.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 591, "text": "Muscle fibers have the ability to drastically increase in size as a result of all types of training. Muscle size is not directly related to muscle strength (force output) as would most likely be assumed. Endurance training can increase the size of low force-producing slow twitch muscle by as much as resistance training can increase the size of high force-producing fast twitch muscle. These situations have the ability to result in two muscles of equal size, but the slow twitch muscle produces only a small fraction of the maximum contractile strength produced by the fast twitch muscle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Neuroimaging of sign language is a bit thin on the ground; there's only a handful of studies, but they suggest that signed language uses many of the same areas but isn't as lateralized or localized as spoken language processing (e.g., Corina, et al., 2003; Soderfeldt, Ronnberg, & Risberg, 1994; for a dissenting opinion, see Macsweeney, et al., 2002).\n\nTypically, cochlear implantation occurs early in life, but we do have evidence that implantees pick up fine-grained native-like performance on even low-level language tasks, even when their implantation occurs years after typically-hearing controls (Bouton, et al., 2012).\n\n\n**References:**\n\nBouton, S., Serniclaes, W., Bertoncini, J., & Cole, P. (2012). Perception of speech features by French-speaking children with cochlear implants. *Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research*, 55(1), 139-153.\n\nCorina, D. P., San Jose-Robertson, L., Guillemin, A., High, J., & Braun, A. R. (2003). Language lateralization in a bimanual language. *Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience*, 15(5), 718-730.\n\nMacSweeney, M., Woll, B., Campbell, R., McGuire, P. K., David, A. S., Williams, S. C., Suckling, J., Calvert, G. A., & Brammer, M. J. (2002). Neural systems underlying British Sign Language and audio‐visual English processing in native users. *Brain*, 125(7), 1583-1593.\n\nSoderfeldt, B., Ronnberg, J., & Risberg, J. (1994). Regional cerebral blood flow in sign language users. *Brain and Language*, 46(1), 59-68.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "30872390", "title": "Prelingual deafness", "section": "Section::::Language acquisition.:Speech acquisition.:Cochlear implants.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 554, "text": "Speech perception can be corrected prior to language acquisition with cochlear implants. After a year and a half experience, researchers found the deaf culture was able to identify words and comprehend movements of others' lips. There is a greater opportunity to hear a sound depending on the location of electrodes compared to the tissue and the number of remaining neurons located in the auditory system. In addition, individual capacities as well as the neural supply to the cochlea play a role in the process of learning with cochlear implantation. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41113085", "title": "Language acquisition by deaf children", "section": "Section::::Cochlear implants.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 840, "text": "A cochlear implant is placed surgically inside the cochlea, which is the part of the inner ear that converts sound to neural signals. There is much debate regarding the linguistic conditions under which deaf children acquire spoken language via cochlear implantation. Some studies have concluded that long-term use of sign language impedes the development of spoken language and reading ability in deaf and hard of hearing children, and that using sign language is not at all advantageous, and can be detrimental to language development. However, studies have found that sign language exposure actually facilitates the development of spoken language of deaf children of deaf parents who had exposure to sign language from birth. These children outperformed their deaf peers who were born to hearing parents following cochlear implantation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35035141", "title": "Language deprivation", "section": "Section::::Deaf Children.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 618, "text": "While Cochlear implants may help in making spoken first language acquisition more possible, this effect is unreliable; children with Cochlear implants exposed only to spoken language can still show a serious lack of spoken language ability when compared to hearing peers. In contrast, implanted children exposed to signing from birth, a more accessible medium of language, do not show this deficiency, despite having spoken language as their second language. This suggests that even when implanted, the period of language deprivation prior to implantation is enough to seriously impact a child's language development.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26945761", "title": "Cross modal plasticity", "section": "Section::::Plasticity in the deaf.:Cochlear implants.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 1026, "text": "Another way to see cross modal plasticity in the deaf is when looking at the effects of installing cochlear implants. For those who became deaf pre-lingually, cross modal plasticity interfered with their ability to process language using a cochlear implant. For the pre-lingual deaf, the auditory cortex has been reshaped to deal with visual information, so it cannot deal as well with the new sensory input that the implant provides. However, for post-lingual deaf their experience with visual cues like lip reading can help them understand speech better along with the assistance of a cochlear implant. The post-lingual deaf do not have as much recruitment of the auditory cortex as the early deaf, so they perform better with cochlear implants. It was also found that the visual cortex was activated only when the sounds that were received had potential meaning. For instance, the visual cortex activated for words but not for vowels. This activation is further evidence that cross modal plasticity is attention dependent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5366050", "title": "Speech perception", "section": "Section::::Research topics.:In language or hearing impairment.:Listeners with cochlear implants.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 1283, "text": "Cochlear implantation restores access to the acoustic signal in individuals with sensorineural hearing loss. The acoustic information conveyed by an implant is usually sufficient for implant users to properly recognize speech of people they know even without visual clues. For cochlear implant users, it is more difficult to understand unknown speakers and sounds. The perceptual abilities of children that received an implant after the age of two are significantly better than of those who were implanted in adulthood. A number of factors have been shown to influence perceptual performance, specifically: duration of deafness prior to implantation, age of onset of deafness, age at implantation (such age effects may be related to the Critical period hypothesis) and the duration of using an implant. There are differences between children with congenital and acquired deafness. Postlingually deaf children have better results than the prelingually deaf and adapt to a cochlear implant faster. In both children with cochlear implants and normal hearing, vowels and voice onset time becomes prevalent in development before the ability to discriminate the place of articulation. Several months following implantation, children with cochlear implants can normalize speech perception.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13308639", "title": "Cortical deafness", "section": "Section::::Treatment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 682, "text": "Cochlear or auditory brainstem implantation could also be treatment options. Electrical stimulation of the peripheral auditory system may result in improved sound perception or cortical remapping in patients with cortical deafness. However, hearing aids are an inappropriate answer for cases like these. Any auditory signal, regardless if has been amplified to normal or high intensities, is useless to a system unable to complete its processing. Ideally, patients should be directed toward resources to aid them in lip-reading, learning American Sign Language, as well as speech and occupational therapy. Patients should follow-up regularly to evaluate for any long-term recovery.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "418355", "title": "Babbling", "section": "Section::::Abnormal development.:Vocal babbling in deaf infants.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 457, "text": "A number of solutions have been used for hearing-impaired humans to gain auditory experience, one of which is hearing aids; they can be used to help infants reach babbling stages earlier. Cochlear implants have also been tested. Once the surgical implantation is complete, an infant has the opportunity to experience spoken language input. Once language has been heard, the infant begins to babble and speak in rhythmic patterns just as hearing infants do.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Coffee makes you urinate more. But you did take in less water all around(foods drinks etc) do you did not urinate much. Your body takes in enough water and secrates the useless amount via urination and other thinks. Try getting the same amount of water 2L only water and 1.8Lwater 200cc coffee you will urinate more with coffee one. You most likely did not take in enough watery substance when you had coffees and pops", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Your body only uses what it needs and gets rid of the excess. When it notices it has a whole bunch of water it doesn’t require it sends it straight through you. The reason this is good for you is toxins get diluted more and are flushed out faster. The downside is many of your essential vitamins and minerals will also be flushed out quickly. That’s why it’s important to eat nutritious food daily and not just once in a while.\n\nIn regards to your second question. You can get dehydrated easily if you only drink coffee and pop. Coffee and pop are what’s known as a diuretic. This means it causes more water to be excreted by your cells. This will initially cause frequent peeing but will quickly dehydrate you, at which point you’ll pee much less frequently.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "21789178", "title": "River mouth", "section": "Section::::Water motion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 290, "text": "The water from a river can enter the receiving body in a variety of different ways. The motion of a river is influenced by the relative density of the river compared to the receiving water, the rotation of the earth, and any ambient motion in the receiving water, such as tides or seiches.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4400374", "title": "Surface runoff", "section": "Section::::Generation.:Subsurface return flow.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 361, "text": "As it flows, the amount of runoff may be reduced in a number of possible ways: a small portion of it may evapotranspire; water may become temporarily stored in microtopographic depressions; and a portion of it may infiltrate as it flows overland. Any remaining surface water eventually flows into a receiving water body such as a river, lake, estuary or ocean.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2835186", "title": "Osmotic concentration", "section": "Section::::Osmolarity vs. tonicity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 330, "text": "Penetrating solutes can diffuse through the cell membrane, causing momentary changes in cell volume as the solutes \"pull\" water molecules with them. Non-penetrating solutes cannot cross the cell membrane; therefore, the movement of water across the cell membrane (i.e., osmosis) must occur for the solutions to reach equilibrium.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18600440", "title": "Osmosis", "section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 509, "text": "When a cell is submerged in water, the water molecules pass through the cell membrane from an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration. For example, if the cell is submerged in saltwater, water molecules move out of the cell. If a cell is submerged in freshwater, water molecules move into the cell. When the membrane has a volume of pure water on both sides, water molecules pass in and out in each direction at exactly the same rate. There is no net flow of water through the membrane.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1183122", "title": "Water potential", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 956, "text": "Water potential integrates a variety of different potential drivers of water movement, which may operate in the same or different directions. Within complex biological systems, many potential factors may be operating simultaneously. For example, the addition of solutes lowers the potential (negative vector), while an increase in pressure increases the potential (positive vector). If flow is not restricted, water will move from an area of higher water potential to an area that is lower potential. A common example is water with a dissolved salt, such as sea water or the fluid in a living cell. These solutions have negative water potential, relative to the pure water reference. With no restriction on flow, water will move from the locus of greater potential (pure water) to the locus of lesser (the solution); flow proceeds until the difference in potential is equalized or balanced by another water potential factor, such as pressure or elevation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34808530", "title": "Intravoxel incoherent motion", "section": "Section::::Model.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 202, "text": "If blood water flows without changing direction (either because flow is slow or measurement time is short) while capillary segments are randomly and isotropically oriented (model 2), formula_3 becomes:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46812080", "title": "Carbon nanotubes for water transport", "section": "Section::::Surface Chemistry of CNT Water Transport.:Nanoconfined Water.:Diameter and Ion Exclusivity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 672, "text": "The water “wires” increase the water flux, since their ordering reduces the amount molecules can run into each other due to Brownian motion. These chains “densely fill” CNTs less than 1 nm wide and up to 0.1 mm long, forming a system that can mediate proton transfer. While they are highly ordered, the small number of molecules forming a chain prevents the decrease in entropy from being prohibitive, and it costs too much energy to insert a dipole-orientation defect. In these systems, many ions are simply too big to fit through the CNT membrane because their hydration shell’s diameter exceeds that of the CNT. Some ions can be drawn through by charging the membrane.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You don't really specify an era, so I'm just gonna talk about the 19th century and the Perry expedition as an example.\n\nWhile planning for the expedition, the US understood Japan as having two emperors, a religious emperor and a military emperor. They addressed the letter it was the mission of the expedition to deliver to the \"Japanese Emperor\", with the intent of giving it to the Shogun in Edo. This lead to some confusion at first. They would become more familiar with the situation given some time after the opening of the country.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "84509", "title": "Sengoku period", "section": "Section::::Summary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1332, "text": "During this period, although the Emperor of Japan was officially the ruler of his nation and every lord swore loyalty to him, he was largely a marginalized, ceremonial, and religious figure who delegated power to the \"shōgun\", a noble who was roughly equivalent to a general. In the years preceding this era the Shogunate gradually lost influence and control over the \"daimyōs\" (local lords). Although the Ashikaga shogunate had retained the structure of the Kamakura shogunate and instituted a warrior government based on the same social economic rights and obligations established by the Hōjō with the \"Jōei\" Code in 1232, it failed to win the loyalty of many \"daimyōs\", especially those whose domains were far from the capital, Kyoto. Many of these Lords began to fight uncontrollably with each other for control over land and influence over the shogunate. As trade with Ming China grew, the economy developed, and the use of money became widespread as markets and commercial cities appeared. This, combined with developments in agriculture and small-scale trading, led to the desire for greater local autonomy throughout all levels of the social hierarchy. As early as the beginning of the 15th century, the suffering caused by earthquakes and famines often served to trigger armed uprisings by farmers weary of debt and taxes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "84507", "title": "Tokugawa shogunate", "section": "Section::::Government.:Relations with the Emperor.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 504, "text": "Regardless of the political title of the Emperor, the \"shōguns\" of the Tokugawa family controlled Japan. The of Japan was a task given by the Imperial Court in Kyoto to the Tokugawa family, which returned to the court in the Meiji Restoration. While the Emperor officially had the prerogative of appointing the \"shōgun\", he had virtually no say in state affairs. The shogunate appointed a liaison, the \"Kyoto Shoshidai\" (\"Shogun's Representative in Kyoto\"), to deal with the Emperor, court and nobility.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "164945", "title": "Edo period", "section": "Section::::Consolidation of the shogunate.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 577, "text": "The Tokugawa shogunate not only consolidated their control over a reunified Japan, they also had unprecedented power over the emperor, the court, all \"daimyō\" and the religious orders. The emperor was held up as the ultimate source of political sanction for the \"shōgun\", who ostensibly was the vassal of the imperial family. The Tokugawa helped the imperial family recapture its old glory by rebuilding its palaces and granting it new lands. To ensure a close tie between the imperial clan and the Tokugawa family, Ieyasu's granddaughter was made an imperial consort in 1619.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10110", "title": "Emperor of Japan", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 905, "text": "The role of the Emperor of Japan has historically alternated between a largely ceremonial symbolic role and that of an actual imperial ruler. Since the establishment of the first shogunate in 1199, the emperors have rarely taken on a role as supreme battlefield commander, unlike many Western monarchs. Japanese emperors have nearly always been controlled by external political forces, to varying degrees. For example, between 1192 and 1867, the \"shōguns\", or their \"shikken\" regents in Kamakura (1203–1333), were the \"de facto\" rulers of Japan, although they were nominally appointed by the emperor. After the Meiji Restoration in 1867, the emperor was the embodiment of all sovereign power in the realm, as enshrined in the Meiji Constitution of 1889. Since the enactment of the 1947 Constitution, the role of emperor has been to act as a ceremonial head of state without even nominal political powers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "84507", "title": "Tokugawa shogunate", "section": "Section::::Government.:Relations with the Emperor.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 478, "text": "Towards the end of the shogunate, however, after centuries of the Emperor having very little say in state affairs and being secluded in his Kyoto palace, and in the wake of the reigning \"shōgun\", Tokugawa Iemochi, marrying the sister of Emperor Kōmei (r. 1846–1867), in 1862, the Imperial Court in Kyoto began to enjoy increased political influence. The Emperor would occasionally be consulted on various policies and the shogun even made a visit to Kyoto to visit the Emperor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20960029", "title": "Emperor Meiji", "section": "Section::::Legacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 513, "text": "Emperor Meiji also appears in the 2003 film \"The Last Samurai\", portrayed by Nakamura Shichinosuke II. In the film The Last Samurai the Emperor is represented as a weak, easy to handle man without hinting at the risk of coup d'etat, having the pressure of the rebel shogunates that had economic interests with the United States. The Emperor's determination is only shown at the end of the movie when he enforces his ideas by breaking the treaty with the Americans, after consolidating his power after the battle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2921680", "title": "Controversies regarding the role of the Emperor of Japan", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 282, "text": "There have been several controversies regarding the role and the status of the Emperor of Japan. This is due in part to the variety of roles the Emperor has historically filled, as well as the competition for power with other parts of Japanese society at several points in history.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yes; namely under changes of inertial frames in relativity (Lorentz transformations) E and B fields mix into eachother.\n\nSuper minimal example to show this: static charge, there's only an E field. You change reference frame, it gets moving and therefore part of the E has turned into a B. \n\nSaid in modern words, this implies E and B must be part (components) of a larger object that \"transforms well\" under Lorentz transformations, that is to say it doesn't mix into anything else, just into itself. This object is the Maxwell tensor F.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Yes! In fact Einstein's original paper on special relativity is \"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies\" (well it's actually \"Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper,\" but you get the point). A short description is that electrostatics (Gauss's Law) plus special relativity (the Lorentz transformation) give you electrodynamics, that is, electricity and magnetism (ok, you need a few other things like the superposition principle). If you're interested this is the approach, Edward Purcell, who won a Nobel prize for his work on nuclear magnetic resonance which is the technology behind MRI machines, wrote an introductory (at the college level) book on E & M that teaches magnetism as a result of electrostatics and relativity. It's a really beautiful book that enjoys a great reputation among students and physicists.\n\nIt's worth pointing out that viewing magnetism as emerging from electricity and relativity is of course ahistorical.\nMaxwell's synthesis of the subject was published in 1865, forty years before Einstein's paper, but classical electrodynamics is consistent with special relativity (unlike Newtonian mechanics for example). Indeed, the laws of classical electrodynamics directly led to Einstein's theory of special relativity, hence the name of the paper.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "58686423", "title": "Introduction to electromagnetism", "section": "Section::::Magnetic field and force.:Magnetic field.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 867, "text": "The modern (post-Einstein) interpretation is that the magnetic field is equivalent to the electric field, but in a different reference frame. Since magnetic fields can be interpreted as electric fields in a different reference frame (and vice versa), special relativity connects the two fields. One postulate of special relativity is length contraction, and because of that, the charge density in the wire increases, so a current-carrying wire viewed in a moving reference frame experiences a length-contracted coulomb force as compared to the wire in a stationary frame. This force is called the magnetic force, and the associated field is the magnetic field. The direction of the magnetic force can be derived from the right-hand rule such that the force is perpendicular to both the direction of motion of the current (or charged particle) and the magnetic field.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36563", "title": "Magnetic field", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 553, "text": "The twentieth century extended electrodynamics to include relativity and quantum mechanics. Albert Einstein, in his paper of 1905 that established relativity, showed that both the electric and magnetic fields are part of the same phenomena viewed from different reference frames. (See moving magnet and conductor problem for details about the thought experiment that eventually helped Albert Einstein to develop special relativity.) Finally, the emergent field of quantum mechanics was merged with electrodynamics to form quantum electrodynamics (QED).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "65888", "title": "Electromagnetic induction", "section": "Section::::Theory.:Faraday's law and relativity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 252, "text": "Einstein noticed that the two situations both corresponded to a relative movement between a conductor and a magnet, and the outcome was unaffected by which one was moving. This was one of the principal paths that led him to develop special relativity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19716", "title": "Magnetism", "section": "Section::::Magnetism, electricity, and special relativity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 932, "text": "As a consequence of Einstein's theory of special relativity, electricity and magnetism are fundamentally interlinked. Both magnetism lacking electricity, and electricity without magnetism, are inconsistent with special relativity, due to such effects as length contraction, time dilation, and the fact that the magnetic force is velocity-dependent. However, when both electricity and magnetism are taken into account, the resulting theory (electromagnetism) is fully consistent with special relativity. In particular, a phenomenon that appears purely electric or purely magnetic to one observer may be a mix of both to another, or more generally the relative contributions of electricity and magnetism are dependent on the frame of reference. Thus, special relativity \"mixes\" electricity and magnetism into a single, inseparable phenomenon called electromagnetism, analogous to how relativity \"mixes\" space and time into spacetime.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16855603", "title": "Classical electromagnetism and special relativity", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 630, "text": "The theory of special relativity plays an important role in the modern theory of classical electromagnetism. First of all, it gives formulas for how electromagnetic objects, in particular the electric and magnetic fields, are altered under a Lorentz transformation from one inertial frame of reference to another. Secondly, it sheds light on the relationship between electricity and magnetism, showing that frame of reference determines if an observation follows electrostatic or magnetic laws. Third, it motivates a compact and convenient notation for the laws of electromagnetism, namely the \"manifestly covariant\" tensor form.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9532", "title": "Electromagnetism", "section": "Section::::Classical electrodynamics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 473, "text": "In addition, relativity theory implies that in moving frames of reference, a magnetic field transforms to a field with a nonzero electric component and conversely, a moving electric field transforms to a nonzero magnetic component, thus firmly showing that the phenomena are two sides of the same coin. Hence the term \"electromagnetism\". (For more information, see Classical electromagnetism and special relativity and Covariant formulation of classical electromagnetism.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "932217", "title": "Classical unified field theories", "section": "Section::::Einstein's geometric approaches.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 943, "text": "Einstein tried to form a generalized theory of gravitation that would unify the gravitational and electromagnetic forces (and perhaps others), guided by a belief in a single origin for the entire set of physical laws. These attempts initially concentrated on additional geometric notions such as vierbeins and \"distant parallelism\", but eventually centered around treating both the metric tensor and the affine connection as fundamental fields. (Because they are not independent, the metric-affine theory was somewhat complicated.) In general relativity, these fields are symmetric (in the matrix sense), but since antisymmetry seemed essential for electromagnetism, the symmetry requirement was relaxed for one or both fields. Einstein's proposed unified-field equations (fundamental laws of physics) were generally derived from a variational principle expressed in terms of the Riemann curvature tensor for the presumed space-time manifold.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There were attempts. In some ways that's what the proprietary colonies were, and their owners were the Lords Proprietors \n\n*spelling", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "William Penn's father lent the King of England so much money during the three Anglo Dutch wars in the mid-1600's. There was no way the King of England could pay these loans back, so he granted William Penn, a large tract of land that became the colony of Pennsylvania. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I've got a literal answer to your question of an \"indigenous aristocracy\", but it was long before secession or independence. Walter Ralegh created a Croatan Indian man named Manteo as the first peer of American land. \n\nHe was styled Baron Manteo, Lord of Roanoke and Dasamongueponke, and I can't help but find the whole thing hilarious. Something about the English making a peer of a Native man - as if they were conferring a huge honour - and then depending solely on Native assistance to survive really does it for me. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "For one they didn't want to create any titles that would have been eligible for representation in the House of Lords which was quite powerful back then.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I have wondered about this as well, and have asked a number of people and never gotten a straight answer. For example, William Penn was given Pennsylvania, but he just got the land, he wasn't created the Earl of Pennsylvania. The only answer I can come up with is carters, that the lords were against it because they didn't want to dilute their power, and the king didn't want to piss them off.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Some guesses. I am sure some of all of these are contributing factors.\n\n1) Despite being a corrupt system (ie buying titles) most people within the english aristocracy saw the nobility as being connected to their land and the lineage. Creating a new aristocracy structure at of whole cloth would undermine that illusion that the aristocracy was \"natural\"\n\n2) Many of the folks that setled the north openly rejected the aristocracy. They moved to boston explicitly to get away from it.\n\n3) granting noble titles to colonists would mean that they would have to give those people a position in parlement and thus equal status within the government.\n\n4) colonists were sent to america not to extend the realm, but to extract natural resources and value from the land. there is a built in impermanence to colonization. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Titles and the like aren't just something that can be created. the Crown is technically able to enfeoff anyone, but the nature of monarchies is that they are heavily bound by custom and the social order.\n\nIf you wonder why one never developed, there is nothing \"natural\" about the creation of a feudal society. Some societies are feudal, some aren't.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Not to mention that the sort of Americans who had amassed the lands and wealth to qualify to be ennobled were all slaveholders, like George Washington, who was among the richest men in North America. The Whig aristocrats who advised 18th Century British Monarchs, who while not doing anything to stop slavery and often profiting to varying extents from, did find it somewhat 'icky' ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The original rules for South Carolina drawn up by John Locke, though never implemented, included hereditary peerage, though different in name from Englands.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Feudal societies existed in Europe because land was limited. In America, there was no way to keep peasants working on manors when there was plenty of land for them to take for themselves.\n\nNinja edit: I'm not a professional historian ,but I believe this is what Carl Degler argued.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There was some landed aristocracy earlier on. In its 1663 charter, the Province of Carolina was distributed to eight Lords Proprietors for helping Charles II reclaim the throne. However, after Cary's Rebellion and conflicts with Native Americans in the early 1700's, the colony split into North and South Carolina, and the Proprietors sold their their interests back to the Crown, making NC and SC royal colonies.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "804003", "title": "The Establishment", "section": "Section::::United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 589, "text": "The United States lacks titled nobility unlike Commonwealth countries. However there are various prominent American families that have held disproportionate wealth and wielded disproportionate political power not too dissimilar to that of titled nobility. Many of these families often have ties to older East Coast cities such as Boston, New York City, Philadelphia and Newport, Rhode Island. One such group of interconnected elite families is the Boston Brahmins. Many in the East Coast establishment have ties to Ivy League colleges and to prep schools in New England and the Northeast.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7007814", "title": "American upper class", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 410, "text": "The American upper class is a social group within the United States consisting of people who have the highest social rank, primarily due to the use of their wealth to achieve social status. These criteria differ from those of the traditional \"upper class\" in Britain and the rest of Europe, which favor landed gentry and aristocracy (although European class distinctions have been weakening in recent times). \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "164153", "title": "Alexis de Tocqueville", "section": "Section::::\"Democracy in America\".:On majority rule and mediocrity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 616, "text": "Beyond the eradication of old-world aristocracy, ordinary Americans also refused to defer to those possessing, as Tocqueville put it, superior talent and intelligence and these natural elites could not enjoy much share in political power as a result. Ordinary Americans enjoyed too much power and claimed too great a voice in the public sphere to defer to intellectual superiors. This culture promoted a relatively pronounced equality, Tocqueville argued, but the same mores and opinions that ensured such equality also promoted mediocrity. Those who possessed true virtue and talent were left with limited choices.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58031", "title": "Bourgeoisie", "section": "Section::::Denotations.:France and French-speaking countries.:\"Haute bourgeoisie\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 664, "text": "These families exude an aura of nobility, which prevents them from certain marriages or occupations. They only differ from nobility in that due to circumstances, the lack of opportunity, and/or political regime, they have not been ennobled. These people nevertheless live a lavish lifestyle, enjoying the company of the great artists of the time. In France, the families of the \"haute bourgeoisie\" are also referred to as \"les 200 familles\", a term coined in the first half of the 20th century. Michel Pinçon and Monique Pinçon-Charlot studied the lifestyle of the French bourgeoisie, and how they boldly guard their world from the \"nouveau riche\", or newly rich.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "282220", "title": "Colonial history of the United States", "section": "Section::::Colonial life.:British colonial government.:Political culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 139, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 139, "end_character": 752, "text": "Third, the American colonies were exceptional in the world because of the representation of many different interest groups in political decision-making. The American political culture was open to economic, social, religious, ethnic, and geographical interests, with merchants, landlords, petty farmers, artisans, Anglicans, Presbyterians, Quakers, Germans, Scotch Irish, Yankees, Yorkers, and many other identifiable groups taking part. Elected representatives learned to listen to these interests because 90% of the men in the lower houses lived in their districts, unlike England where it was common to have an absentee member of Parliament. All of this was very unlike Europe, where aristocratic families and the established church were in control.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "312898", "title": "American exceptionalism", "section": "Section::::Basis of arguments.:Mobility and welfare.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 658, "text": "BULLET::::- Status—as in most countries, family standing and riches were often a means to remain in a higher social circle. America was notably unusual due to an accepted wisdom that anyone—from poor immigrants upwards—who worked hard, could aspire to similar standing, regardless of circumstances of birth. This aspiration is commonly called living the American dream. Birth details were not taken as a social barrier to the upper echelons or high political status in American culture. This stood in contrast to other countries where many larger offices were socially determined, and usually hard to enter without being born into the suitable social group.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20541235", "title": "Noblesse Oblige (book)", "section": "Section::::Contents.:\"The English Aristocracy\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 1359, "text": "Nancy Mitford writes in the first essay that the English aristocracy is the only real aristocracy left in the world today, even if it may seem to be on the verge of decadence: it has political power through the House of Lords and real social position through the Queen. Then she explains the order of precedence of dukes, marquesses, earls, viscounts, barons, members of a noble family, young sons, baronets, knights and knights of the Garter. Accused of being a snob, she quotes from Professor Alan Ross of Birmingham University who points out that “it is solely by their language that the upper classes nowadays are distinguished since they are neither cleaner, richer, nor better-educated than anybody else\". Miss Mitford says Professor Ross invented the U and non-U English useful formula. Though she doesn't agree completely with the Professor's list, she adopts his classification system, and adds a few suggestions of her own. She gives many examples of U and non-U usage and thoroughly explains the aristocracy saying, for example, dukes are rather new creations, the purpose of the aristocrat is most emphatically not to work for money, and nobility in England is based on title and not on bloodline. The ancestors of the lords spent months abroad, buying pictures and statues, which they cheerfully sell in order to spend months abroad, she writes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]