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vblagoje

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{ "a_id": [ "c2f8bkh", "c28rr0u", "c28rrnc", "c28sk9f", "c28sslw", "c28sspr", "c28t97c", "c28tdzx", "c28ub2e", "c28vj4s", "c28w5t3", "c2f8bkh" ], "score": [ 2, 6, 168, 25, 47, 7, 2, 477, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "From \"The Matrix: Revolutions\" (the final battle between Neo and Smith) \n\nSmith: \"Why, Mr. Anderson? Why do you do it? Why get up? Why keep fighting? Do you believe you're fighting for something? For more than your survival? Can you tell me what it is? Do you even know? Is it freedom? Or truth? Perhaps peace? Could it be for love? Illusions, Mr. Anderson. Vagaries of perception. The temporary constructs of a feeble human intellect trying desperately to justify an existence that is without meaning or purpose. And all of them as artificial as the Matrix itself. Although, only a human mind could invent something as insipid as love. You must be able to see it, Mr. Anderson. You must know it by now. You can't win. It's pointless to keep fighting. Why, Mr. Anderson, Why? Why do you persist?\"\n\nNeo: \"Because I choose to.\"\n", "Edit: the following is not existentialism, it is [epistemology](_URL_2_).\n\nIt's a part of philosophy that deals with what it means to exist. What is real? How do you know you are real? How do you \"know\" anything? When does something become alive? Here's a philosophy based thought experiment known as the [Ship of Theseus](_URL_1_):\n\nYou have a large ship that goes out to sea every season to fish and travel. Every time the ship returns to port, a single slab of wood is replaced to make sure the boat stays in top condition. Eventually, you can completely reconstruct an entirely \"new\" ship with the parts of the \"old\" ship that have been replaced. \n\n*Which ship is the original ship?* At what point did one ship become the \"old\" and the other become the \"new\"? Was it when the first slab of wood was replaced? Or when the final slab of wood was nailed down to the \"new\" ship?\n\nThis kind of \"[logical paradox](_URL_0_)\" is what philosophers use to stretch their brain muscles. ~~Existentialism~~ epistemology (and philosophy) deals with these tricky questions of what it means to \"be\" and how we \"know\". ", "Existentialism is the belief that things like meaning, value, morality etc. are not inherent in the world around us. This differs from, say, traditional religious philosophy, which says such things come from God, and even many classical philosophies, which still argue that things have inherent value and meaning.\n\nWhile this may sound nihilistic (the belief that nothing has meaning or value at all ever), it isn't. Instead, an existentialist is tasked with defining these things for themselves. You must ask yourself what you find valuable, what you find right and wrong, etc.", "If you want a pizza, eat a pizza.", "Existentialism: Simply put, it's the belief that you create your *own* purpose in life. There is no destiny/fate, because that would rely on a 'purpose' defined by others.\n\nDefine your life's meaning.", "Existentialism is the idea that a person decides what is right and wrong and what gives their life meaning, as opposed to letting a god or religion decide for them.", "Wow, this sheds so much light on what I've been feeling these past few months.. especially \"Angst\" and \"Freedom\". There are times where I'm driving and realize, I could easily just swerve into the next lane and die, although I'm not depressed in the slightest bit but I realize I am capable of doing it and there's nothing stopping me. \n\nWhat are some good books to read to learn more about existentialism?", "([This](_URL_0_) is a good answer, but I figured I'd try for a more 5-year-old explanation.)\n\nYou know that game you play, where you keep asking \"Why?\" until your parents get annoyed? That's basically what a lot of philosophy is. We say that it's important to get good grades. A philosopher asks, \"Why?\". Then we say that it's because it's important to get a good job some day. But the philosopher just asks, \"Why?\" again. The label we give you as a philosopher depends on what you think the last answer is, where it's not possible to ask \"Why?\" any more.\n\nIf you think that you can just go on asking \"Why?\" forever, and there's never going to be a final answer, then you're a nihilist. You don't think that it's really true that it's important to get good grades, because there's nothing that says so.\n\nIf you think that the last answer is \"God says so\", then you're what we call a \"Divine Command\" theorist. You think that, ultimately, God is the one who decided it was good to get good grades.\n\nThere are lots of other possible answers. You might think it is something to do with the way people's minds work, or maybe even how the whole universe works. \n\nThe existentialist thinks you end at a different place than anyone else says. He thinks the last answer to the \"Why?\" game is just, \"Because you said so.\" He thinks that, in the end, *you* get to decide what is right and wrong, and what is important to your life. This isn't the same as nihilism, because there *is* a final answer. It's just that the final answer means that the whole thing was up to you all along. \n\nThis means that different things can be important to different people. You might ask Johnny and Billy whether it's important to get good grades, and they might disagree, but both be right. If Johnny says, \"It's important for me to get good grades, because I say so,\" then it's really true that it's important for him to get good grades. But if Billy says, \"It's not important for me to get good grades, because I say so,\" then that is true too.\n\nA lot of existentialists have more complicated versions of this. They might think that only certain people really understand their own minds well enough to know what is really important to them, or that it's a difficult process to make the decision of what's important to them. But the basic rule is that it is ultimately your own responsibility to decide what's important to you.\n\nEDIT: Nuwbs makes a really good point in the comments, that it's not quite true that you can just do whatever you want to. Most existentialists will say that the choice of what you decide is important is both really really hard, and really really important. A lot of what existentialists talk about is how to make that hard choice, and how to live once you've made that choice. In other words, how do you decide whether getting good grades is really important to you? And if you decide it *is* important, what does that mean about how you should act? (If you just decide grades are important because your mom said so, and you still don't really do your homework, you're not being a good existentialist.) Exactly how they answer those two questions is one of the main ways different existentialists disagree with each other.", "Existentialism is the branch of philosophy concerned with existence. \n\nExistentialists (philosophers who study existentialism) ask the question \"what does it mean to *be*?\". This often leads to discussions on the existence of god, meaning, free will, value, good, evil or anything else along those lines.\n\nThe goal of existentialism is to find out what it means to be a subjective person living in the world. In simpler terms, existentialists ask how our own history, lives and perceptions affect the way we interact with the world and how we think about ourselves in relation to the world.\n\nThere is no one existential philosophy. For example, though many existentialist philosophers philosophers are atheists such as Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre there are many who believed in God, the most notable being Soren Kierkegaard. This is just one of the many debates among different existential philosophers.\n\nIn the end, existentialism is concerned with how people interact with the world around them, and what this means for the \"big\" questions (like the ones listed in the first paragraph).\n\nI am a philosophy major who took a course called Existential Problems in Human Life. If you are really interested, I suggest starting with *The Stranger* by Albert Camus. It is an easy read and touches upon some of the most important questions in existential philosophy. If that is too long, try his essay \"The Myth of Sisyphus.\" As you read more you can branch out to other philosophers. Below is a list of existential philosophers, listed from easiest reading to hardest (in my humble opinion)\n\nCamus, Sartre, Nietzsche, Simon de Beauvoir, Kierkegaard, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Martin Heidegger.\n\nHopefully this helps! For a more detailed reading (once you hit the 1st grade!) check out [the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy article on existentialism](_URL_0_)", "Im not sure if this has been posted but ill just put this in here. A core idea of existentialism is that \"existence precedes essence\". What i mean by this is that man first exists, and then rises up in the world and defines himself.\n\nThere is no \"human nature\" or \"human essence\", only human behaviour.\n\nIt is liberating, because by each decision we make, we are saying that this is the way the world should be. \n\nProbably a bit of a hazy explanation somebody please correct me if i am mistaken on any points.", "The first day of my existentialism class, the proff gave an intro that went something along these lines:\n\n1. Life has no meaning beyond what we give it ourselves.\n2. It is assured that we're going to die and with that death the nullification of any meaning we might have found for ourselves.\n3. It is therefore safe to conclude that we are born knowing we're fucked from the get-go. \n\nOne thing that's noteworthy about existentialism is that it's one of only three schools of thought (the others being Marxism and American Pragmatism) that use the primacy of experience as a point of departure. That is, it starts with lived experience and works outward from there.\n\n(not a full definition by any means, just a few comments)", "From \"The Matrix: Revolutions\" (the final battle between Neo and Smith) \n\nSmith: \"Why, Mr. Anderson? Why do you do it? Why get up? Why keep fighting? Do you believe you're fighting for something? For more than your survival? Can you tell me what it is? Do you even know? Is it freedom? Or truth? Perhaps peace? Could it be for love? Illusions, Mr. Anderson. Vagaries of perception. The temporary constructs of a feeble human intellect trying desperately to justify an existence that is without meaning or purpose. And all of them as artificial as the Matrix itself. Although, only a human mind could invent something as insipid as love. You must be able to see it, Mr. Anderson. You must know it by now. You can't win. It's pointless to keep fighting. Why, Mr. Anderson, Why? Why do you persist?\"\n\nNeo: \"Because I choose to.\"\n" ] }

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[ [], [ "http://www.logicalparadoxes.info/", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship_of_Theseus", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology" ], [], [], [], [], [], [ "http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/j3aa8/what_is_existentialism_it_seems_like_a_lot_of/c28rrnc" ], [ "http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existentialism/" ], [], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "fa9w83y" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "Female agency is a complex matter and I cannot even pretend to address all aspects here, nor will I pretend to be an expert on this question. I will focus mainly on money and general mobility as the factors I’d consider most important. I hope this helps.\n\nFirst, it is important to note that our knowledge of Greek law is unfairly dominated by the relative “abundance” of sources for Athenian law. Athenian law treated women harshly, but may not have been representative of “the Greek world”. The extant law of Gortyn, for instance, treats women quite differently in some respects (for instance in cases of sexual assault) and the normative potential of women in the lower classes to act on their own behalf was probably always greater than that of daughters of wealthy families; agency also always increased with age.\n\nFundamentally, the increased mobility of the Hellenistic world caused stricter, traditional, local norms to soften (as may be familiar in the form of Perikles’ restrictive citizenship law). With mobility and more monetary, less land-based forms of wealth came the need to compromise in marriage contracts and ensure, in the interest of the wife’s family, that her property was protected to a greater extent, allowing her more economic freedom as a result. This mobility was due, among other things, to the kingdoms, the infusion of wealth they caused, the banking systems provided, and the professionalization and “internationalisation” of soldiers, engineers, doctors, performers, athletes, etc. that they fostered. As the Hellenistic world made the Greek cities wealthier, the number of festivals they held also increased, including night festivals, which allowed women more legitimate opportunities to leave the household. In the late Hellenistic period, women’s associations with not purely cultic functions also began to appear, along with their own financial administration, providing another space, in which women could have their own social circles and financial independence.\n\nAnother factor that contributes to the idea of a revolution is the increase in epigraphic culture in the Greek cities and the proliferation of honorific inscriptions. Elite women who controlled property are more tangible in this medium than before, because they engaged in the giving of benefactions to cities and temples, paying for sacrifices, buildings, games etc. In return, they were granted public honours or left dedicatory inscriptions, allowing us greater insight into their background. Funerary stele of elite women also show a greater emphasis on learning, with book rolls appearing for instance, so the value of educated daughters may generally have increased, though this was surely also a side-effect of increasing wealth.\n\nDue to the revitalisation of monarchy in the Hellenistic world, and potentially the influence of Near Eastern (e.g. Achaemenid) models of female (elite) agency, the role of the Hellenistic queens, such as Stratonike, Apama or Laodike, probably also played a part in this process of relaxing the limits imposed upon female agency, since they were experienced as powerful actors in politics not only among the elite, but also at ground level. The queens appear not only to have used their familial connections to conduct politics, but also to have supported more familial aspects of life through benefactions (such as providing dowries for poor women, supporting cults new couples sacrificed to, marking their own agency by means of gifts to prominent sanctuaries such as Delos, etc.). This in turn granted the familial sphere more prominence in the world and the queens provided models other elite women could follow.\n\nThat said, it is important to remember that not everything changed for the better. There were conservative moves as well, for instance the renewal of institutions for the control of decorum and decency (gynaikonomoi) in some cities, notably Athens, and the insistence on traditional rules especially in cities that had enough citizens and wealth enough to do so. Even in Ptolemaic Egypt women generally held very little land, the true mark of elite independence in Antiquity, and that is where their legal standing was probably best. Even in relation to just land dealings women really occur only occasionally, though there are, as always, exceptional cases, such as Eirene, who acted as an entrepreneur in her own right despite being a married woman. Overall, the level of women’s engagement in the economy on largely their own terms was nevertheless probably higher in the Hellenistic world, especially in Egypt, than in Classical Greece. Since women were still subject to *kyrios* approval for entering into substantial contracts under Greek law (as in Athenian law, though not under Egyptian), widows may have generally enjoyed the most freedom of action. This approval may, however, have become a mere formality at least in some cases.\n\nFinally, a general word of caution may be in order, since the wealth of papyrological evidence from Egypt that attests such female agency in concrete detail may be skewing the general view of how much women’s agency grew in the Hellenistic period, since Egypt had different legal traditions that created a second set of expectations Greek norms had to engage with. Egyptian evidence is thus not necessarily representative of the Hellenistic world, but comparable material does not really exist elsewhere. Our other written material mainly illuminates the world of elite, propertied women, so while it seems that their constraints relaxed on average – though certainly not everywhere – it is difficult to say the same for the lower classes; providing an actual statistical assessment of this question is prohibited by the material.\n\nOverall, I would therefore hardly speak of a revolution. The changes also hardly stemmed from any sort of structural awareness of an injustice that deserved to be rectified. The changes were a result of increasing wealth (especially in the form of coined money), greater mobility, and the ideological and political superstructure of the Hellenistic kingdoms.\n\n\n\n*Some reading:*\n\nChaniotis, Angelos, Age of Conquests, London 2018.\n\nPomeroy, Sarah B. Women in Hellenistic Egypt: from Alexander to Cleopatra, Detroit 1990.\n\nThe paper by Gillian Ramsey in Coşkun, Altay; McAuley, Alex (eds.), Seleukid royal women: creation, representation and distortion of Hellenistic queenship in the Seleukid empire, Stuttgart 2016.\n\nJames, Sharon L.; Dillon, Sheila (eds.), A Companion to Women in the Ancient World, Malden, MA 2012, esp. part 3.\n\nThompson, D., “The Hellenistic Family”, in: G. Bugh (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World, Cambridge 2006, 93-112." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ct89ytx" ], "score": [ 7 ], "text": [ "You don't need to go through a full sleep cycle to experience benefits from napping because your brain does different things at different stages of sleep. REM sleep (which takes about 1.5 hours) is important for making new connections in the brain and solving creative problems, but you don't need to do that in order to rest during the day. Shorter naps may allow to experience benefits of rest without the grogginess associated with longer nap times.\n\nPersonally I think naps are terrible and nothing is better than a full night's sleep. I was living life wrong when I used want to nap all the time. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d4w2u1u", "d4w2u8g", "d4w5wyu", "d4w683h", "d4w6ovs" ], "score": [ 9, 20, 3, 3, 3 ], "text": [ "You scout from the surface of the water with the snorkel, then when you see something you take a breath and dive down to check out what you saw. That way you dont have to hold your breath to scout and search.", "With a snorkel you can swim with your face in the water, checking out all the fishies and coral and still being able to breathe just fine. This is when you're at the surface of course. Snorkelers sometimes dive deeper, and the snorkel fills with water and they hold their breath. Then they return to the surface and blow the water out of the tube and continue breather, but they never have to actually surface with their face above water. What you're seeing is temporary. They only dive under the surface for a few seconds at a time for a photo op or something, for most of the time they are using the snorkel as intended.", "The snorkel is to \"surface swim\" back to the boat after you surface from diving. If you descend from a boat and then swim around for 45 min or so underwater with your scuba tank. When you surface you could be 100's of yards from the boat and because you have all the diving gear on you can't really swim and hold your face out of the water so you need a snorkel. ", "Other posters are right in general, but an additional piece of information is that it's just easier to swim with your face in the water. This is why SCUBA divers have a snorkle (see /u/denver989's comment), and why someone else might want one. Even if they planned on spending most of their time diving down, being on the surface floating/lazily swimming is much easier than keeping one's head above water.", "I'm a diver, although I haven't been in years. I was told it's a safety thing, so I've always had a snorkel attached to my mask when diving. For instance you're diving in the ocean off a boat and you surface farther away from the boat than you thought, and you might be low on air in the tank. So having a snorkel makes your swim to the boat safer because the swells in the ocean can really make it hard to swim without anything to help you breathe. That's really the only time I've ever used a snorkel when diving.\n" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c7s1396" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "_URL_1_\n\nPDF here: _URL_0_" ] }

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[ [ "http://www.america.gov/publications/books/history-outline.html", "http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/outlines/history-1994/" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "ed2q3hn" ], "score": [ 4 ], "text": [ "Technically yes due to [Alfvens frozen flux theorem](_URL_0_). We know that the solar wind (and hence solar flares) interact and move the magnetic field lines. Due to Alfvens theorem field lines are \"frozen\" to the fluid flow. So if you move the field lines you move the flow and vice versa. So technically a solar flare would have an effect on the fluid flow inside the Earth which in turn dictates the magnetic field. \n\nNo disaster movies here though it would be complete negligible due to the timescale of the event and how little it would change the flow in comparison to turbulent motion. " ] }

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[ [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfv%C3%A9n%27s_theorem" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "c647s68", "c6492hd" ], "score": [ 2, 10 ], "text": [ "Your question is a bit to vague.\n\nThe answer is that we don't know what we have not previously encountered. Unless you want to go \"star trek\", we cannot say what strange pathological things could happen to our bodies.\n\nIt is highly unlikely that with age our bodies would develop some totally new classification of pathology that we have no description for now in the broad classification of diseases. (i.e. neoplasm, infectious, toxic, immune disorder, inflammatory, genetic, psychologic, idiopathic, and anything else i might be missing, but i think i hit all my bases.)\n\nEdit - forgot the most obvious one - physical injury via trauma (including all types, weather physical, chemical, thermal, etc.)\n\nEdit 2 - As for new types of infectious diseases, sure, they happen all of the time. Every year the influenza virus mutates tremendously. HIV and ebola were unheard of 30 years ago. And bacteria constantly mutate into new forms that i guess you could consider \"new diseases\" in a way.", "One has to assume yes on diseases never encountered before, but there isn't much of a detailed list at this time. A couple of things to think about.\n\n1) Nuclear DNA damage\n\nThere is some debate over whether accumulated nuclear DNA damage is relevant to human aging beyond cancer risk over the present human life span. But if we extend life significantly then it'll eventually cause issues through metabolic dysregulation if nothing else - a whole range of possible conditions that could look like metabolic syndrome or something completely different based on loss of tissue homeostasis.\n\n_URL_2_\n\n2) Buildup of waste metabolic byproducts\n\nExtending life will have to involve removing metabolic waste products, e.g. lipofuscin consistuents, cross-linked compounds in the skin, etc. There are any number of these, all building up at different paces, and early rejuvenation therapies will probably only target the bare minimum, i.e. those that definitely cause age-related disease, and are building up rapidly. If you look at lysosomal storage diseases, which are caused by accelerated build up of some of these waste products, you'll get the idea of what might happen when you let compounds build up over a very long time that normally don't cause issues because they never reach pathological levels:\n\n_URL_4_\n\nAnother thing to look at is TTR amyloidosis, which is likely what kills supercentenarians who survive everything else, for an example of this pathology:\n\n_URL_3_\n\n3) Brain mysteries\n\nIts an open question as to what happens when you run a brain for a long, long time, even if the damage that causes aging is periodically repaired. The general consensus seems to be \"expect issues, probably with memory\" but I'm not aware of anyone who has anything other than speculation on this.\n\n4) Unforeseen genetic programs\n\nIs aging programmed to any degree at all, or is it just a reaction to damage? i.e. is there a clock anywhere that will cause things like stem cells to shut down over time, or is that shut down just due to epigenetic changes resulting from levels of damage? The evidence suggests the latter, but it's always possible that some programs exist somewhere.\n\n5) Issues with never-replaced cells and macromolecules\n\nSome of your cells are never replaced. Some of the actual machinery in those cells is also never replaced over a lifetime. Dealing with this isn't on the list of things to do for the first rejuvenation biotechnology:\n\n_URL_1_\n\nSo given radically longer lives, this may come back to be a real issue. e.g. see the nuclear pore macromolecules:\n\n_URL_0_\n\n6) Damage is aging\n\nSo a general framework for thinking about this is that aging is nothing more than the accumulation of damage and the flailing of systems ill-suited to cope with that damage. So anything that's going to happen over very long lives has to be triggered by some form of damage that isn't being repaired. \"Damage\" here could mean broken cellular mechanisms, accumulated waste chemicals, cell populations dying, etc." ] }

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[ [], [ "http://www.fightaging.org/archives/2012/02/some-cells-last-as-long-as-we-do---and-perhaps-so-do-some-of-the-proteins-within-those-cells.php", "http://www.fightaging.org/archives/2004/11/strategies-for-engineered-negligible-senescence.php", "http://www.fightaging.org/archives/2010/11/is-nuclear-dna-damage-a-cause-of-aging.php", "http://www.fightaging.org/archives/2010/09/sens-foundation-funds-research-into-a-therapy-for-ttr-amyloidosis.php", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysosomal_storage_disease" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "d8fiilz", "d8fv3d7" ], "score": [ 4, 3 ], "text": [ "I haven't read it, but I am inclined to do so. I'm nearly finished his *The Thirty Years War: Europe's Tragedy* and I've been really impressed by it. While one good book doesn't guarantee the quality of the others, especially as *Heart of Europe* ventures a bit beyond his usual comfort zone, I'm willing to trust the quality of his scholarship enough to give it a try. ", "Wilson has tackled a very large and complex subject, and he does so in a unique approach, combining chronological and topical approaches. Both have their advantages and disadvantages, and by explaining many things using these two different approaches, I find that Wilson has helped me understand things that would otherwise be difficult to appreciate. \n\nThe downside to this dual approach is that some topics seem to be impenetrable in the first few chapters, and repetitive in the last few chapters. But for such a complex topic, I can't really blame him. Overall I highly recommend this book, I really enjoyed it. \n\nThe TL;DR: The HRE is not the weak, ineffective, corrupt polity that many have made it up to be, but rather a highly adaptive and malleable one. To understand this is an arduous journey, but one that's worth it." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d1qcdrc", "d1qceua", "d1qcm71", "d1qdpz7", "d1qg74b", "d1qjcag", "d1qjiy2", "d1ql14d", "d1qlven", "d1qm9wr", "d1qmae0", "d1r6jp3", "d1razoo" ], "score": [ 68, 102, 40, 17, 4, 14, 10, 2, 4, 3, 2, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "if you know where to look, you can find tutorials on the internet. others learn by working with more experienced drug manufacturers. it really isn't that hard as long as you can get the basic starting materials.", "It doesn't really take skill; all you need is a \"recipe\" and the necessary equipment.\n\nDiscovering new compounds to get people high is where it takes skill. That's more the purview of designer drug manufacturers than meth cookers.", "There was a time where meth was made by US based lab techs, often in graduate school for chemistry. Those days are long gone. Buying laboratory grade the compounds necessary to make meth are regulated and monitored. Perhaps a lab tech might be able to sneak a bit of chemical to make a small batch to sell to a few trusted friends, but nothing to the volume of breaking bad. \n\nThen there some trained chemists working for the cartels were making them in Mexico other central/south American countries. Even that's not as common anymore. \n\nToday it's street level cookers using incredibly dirty supplies, such as drain cleaner for the lye, brake cleaner or starting fluid for the ether, etc to make it. That's why today's meth looks yellowish or even brown, and has a waxy/oily sheen, instead of the clean, almost glass like clarity. \n\nThere's a method known as \"shake and bake\" which can be made with a backpack's worth of stolen supplies from Walmart. They'll leave the fairly hazardous waste from the process the production for some poor untrained employee to clean up. \n\nSorry, I don't know much about krokodil, but I would bet it's production similar, low quality reagents made by someone who is too high to follow proper lab procedures.", "\"Chemists\"? \"Skills\"? Have you seen the average meth cook? \n\nThere are all sorts of ways to get information that would instruct anyone to do these things. Or, rather, a close approximation. Because they cannot get the necessary chemicals easily and without a paper trail, meth cooks and people making krokodil are using over the counter stuff mostly, and adding dangerous chemicals to mimic the effects of the actual chemicals used in the production of pharmaceutical grade drugs. Krokodil, for example, is a bastardization of desomorphine, which was a powerful pain killer, 8 to 10 times more potent than an equal dose of morphine. Home cooks use bad ingredients, tainted and dirty equipment, and have no way to filter out the phosphorous and iodine in the final product, therefore krokodil causes significantly more damage than an actual pharmaceutical grade dose of desomorphine would.", "Most of them aren't very skilled actually. A lot of the chemist type drugs that are out there are very impure and often it's the impurities that cause worse issues than the drug itself.\n\nAs for how they learn it is mostly passed from person to person. They call it cooking for a reason - they don;t understand the processes they are using they are just following a recipe that they learned from someone else.", "A serious answer: firstly desomorphine is not chemically complicated at all- mix heat, inject, rot, die. Nothing to it, you could make it with otc chemicals if I told you how. Very simple. \n\nMeth is a bit more complex, and there's not just one way- you can use methylamine like Walter White, or you can go p2p or you can use hypophosphic acid, etc etc. The expertise is sometimes gained off the internet, but I sincerely doubt any real meth cooks learn that way. In truth its an apprenticeship system, very informal, but you learn off someone who knows how. Prisons are advanced Chem symposiums where ideas get tossed around. Cooks improvise based on what they have and what they lack. The hells angels in Australia had access to one of the key precursors that the Americans couldn't get, so they shipped cooks out to give the Masterclass for payment in kind. Suddenly Australia had a meth epidemic. \n\nThere's a few ur textbooks floating around shulgins books, uncle festers cookbook etc- those are the base to a lot of what gets done. \n\nThere are trained chemists working for cartels in Mexico of course, and that's another source of expertise. \n\nThe popularity of meth really rose in California in the sixties, and while its shrouded in mystery my theory is that the expertise was handed to the Angels by people like ken Kesey and the hippie chemists like owsley. They ran with it and a great secret learning happened over the time between then and now. Meth is easy to cook, but it's very dangerous so idiot cooks don't last long. ", "Considering a new line of work OP?", "In some countries working as chemist for organized crime pays better then working at university.\nEspecially when organized crime make drugs on industrial scale, as opposed to typical meth or heroin \"cooking\" done by junkies.", "My cousin went to University for Chemical Engineering. Within a month he said he had enough knowledge to easily make ecstasy. I'm sure it works the same way with meth or krokodil.. It's not illegal to learn how to create certain chemical bonds. When it becomes illegal is when you're doing it to make drugs.\n\nAn easier way of thinking about this is: \"Illegal Drug Chemists\" start out as regular chemists, and then just fall into the illegal side of the business.", "Breaking Bad has people thinking that there is a meth empire out there where there are top notch chemists, using state of the art equipment to cook methamphetamine. \n\nThis couldn't be further from the truth. Your \"state of the art\" method labs are still extremely basic kitchens and extremely basic men with a recipe. In a giant method lab I have seen busted, there were miles of countertops (folding tables) in a warehouse and Mexican women wearing rubber gloves cooking meth. All using a simple recipe and a very simple method. Still probably a multi million dollar operation. ", "Something like krocodil can be make from a simple recipe and a list of easily obtained ingredients - no harder than cooking a meal.\n\nThe problem is that done on this level leaves the end product full of impurities (all the other chemicals in the pills you crushed up, all the dirt from working with manky equipment in a squat...) that do a huge amount of harm - something a junkie will ignore in the pursuit of another high, and why drugs like krocodil or meth are quite so harmful.\n\nDrugs like these are not a sane thing taken by people wanting to go clubbing at the weekend, they are a desperate existence for those sucked in with little care left to life beyond more drugs at whatever expense they come...", "Meth is actually REALLY easy to make. Like easier than making some cakes. It only has a few ingreadents, and the process is very simple. Also it is really hard to mess up any stage.\nSource: I am a chemist and part of my job is to take apart active clandestine meth labs. \n\nI have no idea about Krokodil though as I haven't been trained on how it is made, nor have I ever seen a production facility. ", "Some people have taken college level chemistry. Drugs aren't really special in the sense that they need a highly specialized skill set to produce (typically).... if you can follow a recipe and know how to work in a lab, you're 95% of the way there. Other people just blow themselves up." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c8eivef" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "The trade agreement would give tariff free access to the $1 billion wealthiest people on the planet. It would significantly lower the cost for businesses that are based in the USA and export to the EU and vice versa. \n\nIt is basically an attempt to compete with China both now and in the future, if EU and USA based firms can trade tariff free with each other it gives them a competitive advantage over Chinese business. So the idea is free trade, but the result is protectionism on a large scale." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ce9bjsr", "ce9buj3" ], "score": [ 2, 3 ], "text": [ "First off, there's a specific distinction in biology of a phenomenon called transcription, which is the copying of DNA into a messenger RNA molecule. This process is carried out by a complex protein called RNA polymerase. It has an error rate of about 1 in 10,000 bases, but there are also proofreading and error correction mechanisms that affect this.\n\nHowever, from your question, I assume you're meaning to sequence a genome. The way we currently sequence a genome is to take a bunch of DNA, chop it up into little pieces, multiply (PCR) the pieces so we have several copies and then sequence the little bits. Then after you sequence those bits, we use a computer to try to match up pieces of those bits to assemble an entire genome. A genome is basically a long string of A's T's G's and C's that make up the code of the DNA. During the human genome project, the government specified an error rate of no more than 1 in 10,000 bases. For reference, the human genome contains about 3 Billion base pairs, which means that there are about 300,000 incorrect bases in a genome.", "There are actually many instances of errors when transcribing a genome. When you're looking at sequencing something larger than say, 1kb of DNA, a common method is shotgun sequencing. While this can sequence entire chromosomes, it has to break them up into smaller parts and reassemble them after. There can be many gaps in the sequence after reassembly, usually at points of sequence repeats. Other errors in the output can pertain to base calls, insertions, deletions, no-calls and miscalls, all of which can have minor differences from the actual sequence.\n\nThere are plenty of formats for sequences. Plain text, FASTA, EMBL, GenBank or GCG, just to name a few. [This](_URL_1_) website shows several formats and what they look like. Formats for FASTA, for example, can be broken down into coding regions, nucleic acids, amino acids, non-coding RNA regions like tRNA or rRNA, each with their own file extension.\n\nThese files are called *chromatograms* and some have different extensions (such as .ab1 or .fsa) which require a program to run them. For viewing .ab1 chromatograms for routine sequencing I usually start with Chromas, but [here](_URL_0_) is a good list of available programs. After Chromas you need to input the sequence into a program that can manipulate the sequence, such as DNAman or any of the other programs available.\n\n > Is there a tool out there that does regular expression matching for every known genetic sequence of diseases or pretty much anything correlated to anything?\n\nThat would be nice, but you're assuming we are much further along than the current state of the science is. Only a small fraction of genes that cause human genetic disease have been identified. Within the human genome is an estimated total of 6000 genes that have a direct impact on the diagnosis and treatment of human genetic diseases. Also know that some diseases have many genes causing them, so it's not as easy as \"gene x = disease y\". I'm not sure of the exact number of genes identified, and I'm not aware of any programs that can scan your file for genetic diseases; to my knowledge this is still only done by professionals with the appropriate tools." ] }

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[ [], [ "http://seqcore.brcf.med.umich.edu/usechrom.html", "http://www.genomatix.de/online_help/help/sequence_formats.html" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "ciawlr0", "ciawpfv" ], "score": [ 17, 5 ], "text": [ "Because alcohol is regulated by the ATF not the FDA. It looks like they're planning on requiring it soon though.", "Is alcohol a meaningful source of nutrients beyond calories?" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "fg5bucw" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "I don't know, on a physical level, how this system works. Frankly, I'm too tipsy to research it. However, I can answer some of this from a thermodynamics perspective:\n\nEnergy alone is not normally useful. It tends to become chaotically distributed everywhere. This is best demonstrated by heat, where the kinetic energy of atoms and molecules gets sort of distributed evenly between all of them and becomes useless. In order to use energy, we actually need to harness its transition into a more useless state.\n\nThe energy in sunlight is in a very useful state - we call this \"low-entropy\". Normally it just generates heat in small amounts, which is considered \"high-entropy\" and not very useful. The energy in a gas engine is fairly useful, as it is at high temperature, but could in theory be less useful than sunlight which is at even higher temperature.\n\nBasically, the get useful energy, we put a dam between energy in a more and less useful (lower and higher entropy) state. The warmth of the Earth is high entropy (as it is relatively low temperature) and so normally quite useless unless we find something of *even lower* temperature. Luckily for us, space is even lower temperature than the Earth, and so by putting a dam between the (relatively) low-entropy energy of Earth and the higher entropy of space, we can harness useful energy." ] }

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[ "https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/01/200129174512.htm" ]

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{ "a_id": [ "ct9pd5k", "ct9r4i1" ], "score": [ 10, 2 ], "text": [ "There are databases of where to look called DNS servers. They translate the web address to an IP address; which the computer understands and uses to send messages to.", "An IP address is the formal street address of your building (e.g. 4242 South 3rd ST). Your Web address is like an informal name that describes you and your location to the computer (e.g. The McDonald's on 3rd). When you type in a Web address, you're telling your computer to go to the McDonald's on 3rd. The computer then looks up the exact address of the McDonald's on 3rd (which is 4242 South 3rd St) from a DNS server and goes there. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d5ofsdr" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "I haven't ever heard of someone praising them. I have heard people enthused by the mystery of the order, and the various myths that have sprung up around it. \n\nTo compare them to terrorists is fallacious in the extreme, as well as anachronistic. They were an international organization, authorized by the pope to guard pilgrims on their way top the holy land. That they were a militant group does not equate them to terrorists, as they were not furthering their own goals, but were simply protecting what had already been conquered by the first crusaders (or attempting to reconquer, but that still falls within that job description).\n\nThey also became a sort of \"proto-bank\". Pilgrims would donate their belongings to the order, in exchange for a note of appraisal for what the items/land were worth. they could then exchange the note at any branch of the order. The production from the land they accrued, in addition to the belongings of deceased pilgrims made them incredibly rich. \n\nThey were also very secretive, with secret rituals and draconian rules, they drew suspicion like a magnet. That, and after living with the Muslims (often quite peaceably) for decades, they had picked up some eastern habits, they were eventually disbanded for heresy. \n\nThe charges were brought up by the king of France, Philip IV, who owed huge sums to the templars, and it is believed that his main goal was to destroy his debt while acquiring as much of their own wealth as he could, and the heresy was just a plausible excuse.\n\nAccording to legend, while on his execution pyre, the grand-master of the order cursed the king, his torturer, and the pope, and that they all died within a year. Combine that with the fact that most of the order fled to ground, it's easy to see why there are so many myths and legends about them." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c444txa" ], "score": [ 4 ], "text": [ "Check out the recent book *A Line in the Sand* by James Barr. He's one of the first English-language writers to look at the British/French power games in the levant, and he also take advantage of recently de-classified French sources which have been ignored to date. It's also very readable.\n\n" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cs2tln7" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "this isn't really the right forum, \n\n1: _URL_1_\n\n2: _URL_2_\n\n3: _URL_0_\n\n4: /r/outoftheloop\n" ] }

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[ [ "http://www.reddit.com/r/SubredditDrama/comments/39bqaa/its_happening_get_out_your_popcorn_fatpeoplehate/", "http://www.reddit.com/r/announcements/comments/39bpam/removing_harassing_subreddits/", "http://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/39dlst/serious_how_do_you_feel_about_reddits_ban_on/" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cy9ycz7" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "The [Lewis Gun](_URL_0_) had a 97 round pan magazine attached to the upper wing on a 'Foster Mounting' that allowed the pilot to pull the gun backwards and change the magazine. Bear in mind the rate of fire on the Lewis gun was around 500rpm and that gives the pilot around 12 seconds of firing time.\n\nThe SE.5a carried two spare magazines in the cockpit, and changing them in flight must have been an interesting operation! \n\n > I know that WWII planes often only carried enough ammo for something like 20 seconds of sustained fire, which considering the range of WWII planes isn't very much ammo at all.\n\nIts less about range and more about the weight of fire. The early models of Spitfire and Hurricane carried eight machine guns, with the SE.5a only carrying two - one of which was basically an infantry squad's light support weapon.\n\nThe British typically equipped their fighters with 300 to 350 rounds per gun, meaning they were carrying around 70kg of ammunition and firing 160 rounds per second with a mix of ball, AP, incendiary and tracer ammunition.\n\nEDIT: The rate of fire of the Lewis guns modified for use on aircraft was actually increased to 700-750 meaning the 97 round magazine would last about 8 seconds, not 12." ] }

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[ [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Aircraft_Factory_S.E.5#/media/File:SE5HighSeatBall.jpg" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "c4vw43y", "c4vwqvm" ], "score": [ 6, 2 ], "text": [ "The color of glow is dependent on temperature, not state. The glow you see is the [blackbody radiation](_URL_0_) from the metal. Since liquid mercury or gallium are only 300^o K or so, they don't glow very much in the visual spectrum. Additionally, since the radiation emitted is a function of T^4 , things around room temperature don't give off much radiation period. If you heated mercury to 1000^o K or so, it would glow. Likewise, if you poured molten iron into a ceramic crucible, the iron and the crucible would both glow the same color, despite one being solid and one being liquid.", "Most metals have to be quite hot in order to melt. It takes a high temperature to melt these metals because their metallic bonds are quite strong. Once the melting point is reached the blackbody radiation associated with that temperature has some intensity in the visible range, and you'll see a colour similar to glowing embers.\n\nElemental mercury has an electronic structure of [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 -- but it just so happens that the 6s orbital is severely contracted due to relativistic effects. This makes the final pair of 6s2 electrons very stable and rather inert. Consequently, the forces that hold the mercury atoms together are quite weak, and it is no longer necessary to heat mercury to a high temperature before it becomes a liquid. It's already a liquid before the temperature is high enough for the mercury to glow red.\n\nI'm not sure what is the main reason for gallium having a low melting point though." ] }

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[ [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-body_radiation" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "dfrmlo2", "dfs1b4g" ], "score": [ 141, 4 ], "text": [ "So while it isn't 100 percent focused on your question, you may find [this answer](_URL_2_) to be of interest, as it does touch heavily on the pro-natal policies of the Soviet Union during and following the war as they attempted to encourage procreation. Edit: I've gone and reposted it here with some small additions to touch on demographics after quickly checking through to see what my sources noted there, but I would just doubly note that hard numbers are *really* hard to come by for the period, and we only have estimates for some of them!\n\n----------\n\nLooking at natalist policies in the Soviet Union, especially with regards to abortion, we can see a *lot* of policy being driven by concerns about the birthrate, and its rise and fall. Especially at the time of the war, there was very explicit concerns raised about the issue and policies were changed and created with the explicit goal of raising it.\n\nIn the Russian Empire, and the first few years of Bolshevik rule in Russia, abortion was illegal. But, as in most places where the procedure is illegal though, the procedure was nevertheless popular, but insanely dangerous. One observer pre-1920 noted:\n\n > Within the past six months, among 100 to 150 young people under age 25, I have seen 15 to 20 percent of them making abortions without a doctor's help. They simply use household products: They drink bleach and other poisonous mixtures.\n\nThe decision to legalize the procedure, and make it simple to obtain, was almost entirely a practical decision. In 1920 they became legal if done by a doctor, essentially in acknowledgement that it would happen no matter what, so the state should do its best to make it safe. They were subsidized by the state, so free to the woman. In 1926, the abortion rate was 42.8 per 1000 working women, and 45.2 per 1000 'housewives' (compare to the US today, at [13.2 per 1000 women](_URL_0_). Modern Russia continues to be very high, at [37.4 per 1000 or so](_URL_1_))\n\nBut this wasn't to remain. As noted, the change was not because abortion was seen as *good*, but that legalizing it was a necessary evil and that the state would work to eliminate the underlying economic reasons driving women to have them. As it turned out, poor women were no more likely to be using this 'service though'. If anything, it was the better off women who were getting more abortions. Even worse, the birthrate in the USSR was falling precipitously, from 42.2 per 1000 in 1928 to 31.0 in 1932, according to a government study released in 1934. Thus the law changed in 1936 when policies started to return to pushing more 'traditional' gender roles for women, and included restricting abortion again - it required a medical reason now. As before though, just because it is illegal doesn't mean women don't seek them. After 1936, \"back-alley\" abortions were on the rise, and they certainly carried additional risks with them, and penalties for obtaining one meant injured women would only be further harmed by not seeking treatment:\n\n > Women who became infected during these procedures or who sought assistance for heavy bleeding were often interrogated at the hospital before they were treated, as the authorities attempted to learn the names of underground abortionists. Abortionists were punished with one or two years’ imprisonment if they were physicians and at least three if they were not. The woman herself received a reprimand for her first offense and a fine if caught again. \n\nAbortion statistics aren't readily available for this period, but my book notes that as the birth rate didn't seem to change much - rising briefly through 1937 when it reached 39.6 per 1000 but again beginning to decline until leveling out at 33.6 per 1000 in 1940, the same rate as 1936 when the law went into effect - as the laws became restrictive again, this would imply women weren't especially deterred by the law and continued to seek them at the same rate as before (see 1926 numbers), if not higher. There was no ready access to, nor education regarding, other means of birth control (Aside from abortion as birth control, by far most common being 'coitus interruptus'), so it was really the only means of family planning available to women. \n\nThe massive population losses that occurred in the early 1940s further increased pro-natal policy planning, but with both carrots and sticks. Laws to assist so called \"war widows\" (referring not simply to women who lost husbands, but women who lost the *potential* for a husband due to the decline in the male population) both in raising their children as single mothers as well as having children in the first place.\n\nSoviet propaganda campaigns to encourage motherhood predated the war even, but the massive calamity of course kicked it into overdrive. During the war, there was a definite decline in the birthrate due to \"general decline in the reproductive health of mothers, as reflected in the high rate of premature births\", as characterized by the People’s Commissar of Public Health G.A. Miterev, and Soviet leadership worked hard to try to turn that around, with their clear awareness that to see further decline would imperil the ability of the USSR to bounce back in the long term.\n\nPrograms and incentives to encourage motherhood existed, such as awards for bearing a certain number of children and various state assistance programs for both married single mothers, while legal penalties were either added or increased, most especially with the Family Law of 1944, which further penalized abortion and increasingly penalized divorce as well. The shortage of men also meant a very important shift, in which the Soviets worked to try and both destigmatize single-motherhood by increasing state benefits they could receive and featuring mothers of ambiguous marital status in propaganda, while also tacitly encourage even *married* men to sleep around by preventing the single mothers from suing the father for child support, and making it harder for their irate wives to divorce them. The result being that many men would have numerous affairs, and even unmarried men would often bounce from relationship to relationship.\n\nNow as to your question, which is basically whether or not the Soviets were successful in reversing the trend during the war years? Well, not terribly. There *was* a definite boost in the fertility rate immediately after the war years, but it was rather short lived, and quickly began to decline again. Here is a table of the fertility rates of the US and USSR, which allows for a comparison of the 'Baby Boom' in America, for the period in question:\n\nYear | USA Total Fertility | USSR Total Fertility | - | Year | USA Total Fertility | USSR Total Fertility\n---|---|----|---|---|----|----|\n1926| 2,909| 5,566 | - |1944| 2,567| 1,942\n1927| 2,827| 5,418 | - |1945| 2,491| 1,762\n1928| 2,656| 5,318 | - |1946| 2,942| 2,868\n1929| 2,524| 4,985 | - |1947| 3,273| 3,232\n1930| 2,508| 4,826 | - | 1948| 3,108| 3,079\n1931| 2,376| 4,255 | - | 1949| 3,110| 3,007\n1932| 2,288| 3,573 | - | 1950| 3,090| 2,851\n1933| 2,147| 3,621 | - | 1951| 3,268| 2,914\n1934| 2,204| 2,904 | - | 1952| 3,357| 2,898\n1935| 2,163| 3,263 | - | 1954| 3,541| 2,974\n1936| 2,119| 3,652 | - | 1955| 3,578| 2,909\n1937| 2,147| 4,308 | - | 1956| 3,688| 2,899\n1938| 2,199| 4,351 | - | 1957| 3,767| 2,903\n1939| 2,154| 3,964 | - | 1958| 3,703| 2,940\n1940| 2,301| 3,752 | - | 1959| 3,712| 2,903\n1941| 2,399| 3,742 | - | 1960| 3,653| 2,940\n1942| 2,628| 2,933 | - | 1961| 3,627| 2,879\n1943| 2,718| 2,366 | - | 1962| 3,471| 2,755\n\nSo as you can see, they did bounce, with a sharp - and important - increase in 1946 and 1947, but certainly didn't regain pre-war levels like we see in the US, and even bigger, while they had been far higher than the US before the war, the total fertility rate is now noticeably lower (with a minor exception being, when broken into age cohorts, a higher rate in the USSR for women over 30) and stabilized much quicker within a few years of the war (stabilized being a relative term. there would be later drops). So all in all, yes, there was a brief boom that we can see, and it likely was quite important as far as the stability of Soviet population numbers go, but it wasn't as long lasting as we see in the US, puttering out somewhat quickly.\n\nEdit: Fixed the table to it is easier to see without having to scroll", "Russia's fertility rates were declining [since peaking](_URL_3_) close to 7 children per woman in the 1920s ([English version](_URL_4_) of the graph from that article).\n\nThe number of births fell from above 4 million annually (the famine years excepted) during the 1930s, to not more than 3 million during 1946-1960, and declining to a temporary trough of below 2 million by the mid-1960s before growing again through to the late 1980s (after which they collapsed again).\n\n[Russia Births 1946-2016](_URL_5_)\n\n[Russia Total Fertility Rate 1946-2016](_URL_1_)\n\n(Data sourced from: *Rosstat, the Russian State Statistics service; from the [Human Fertility Database](_URL_6_); and the book [Demographic History of Russia 1927-1959](_URL_7_) by Andreev et al.*)\n\nSo yes, Russia didn't see a baby boom like Western Europe and the US did after WW2, relative to the 1920s/30s, but this was largely a function of its [demographic transition](_URL_0_) - the tendency of countries to transition from high birth/death rates to lower birth/death rates as they develop - than of anything specifically related to the war. In contrast, Western Europe and the US had already undergone their demographic transitions several decades ago.\n\nThis demographic transition seems to have due to typical factors, such as rising industrialization/urbanization rates and the decline in infant mortality rates (here is a graph [from 1900-2015](_URL_2_) compiled from various sources). Abortion was re-legalized in the USSR in 1955, but does not seem to have played a major role in the falling fertility rates." ] }

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[ [ "http://www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/data_stats/", "http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/policy/world-abortion-policies-2013.shtml", "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/5jj4u6/what_were_the_main_differences_and_their/dbgp3wk/" ], [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic_transition", "http://www.unzcloud.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/russia-tfr-1946-2016.png", "http://ic.pics.livejournal.com/genby/30544598/789677/789677_original.png", "http://demoscope.ru/weekly/2008/0353/tema01.php", "http://www.unzcloud.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/demohistory1925-2005.jpg", "http://www.unzcloud.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/russia-births-deaths-1946-2016.png", "http://www.humanfertility.org/cgi-bin/country.php?country=RUS", "http://demoscope.ru/weekly/knigi/andr_dars_khar/adk.html" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "dtqd105", "dtqewnx", "dtqlbna", "dtqoymq" ], "score": [ 40, 2, 5, 2 ], "text": [ "They may have different idealogies, but from the perspective of global politics, they are on the same side. North Korea and China, and to an extent, Russia, all are not supporters of a world where the USA is a military leader/policing nation.\n\nPut simply, North Korea provides a buffer between China's border and US military bases in South Korea. If North Korea were to fall or be integrated into a USA leaning South Korea, the USA could set up bases, observatories etc much closer to China's border, and that is a big no no for China, as it gives the USA way too much potential information gathering that China doesn't approve of\n\nFurthermore, China wants to be the leader in Asia. Without supporting NK and having it fall, China's position as the dominant power in Asia would be threatened by US friendly nations such as SK and Japan\n", "Why would he not do that? China supported then and today as a buffer state between them and South Korea with the US military presence. \n\nNorth Korea had two friendly neighbors China and Soviet Union. The independent on trade with both especially support from the Soviets.\n\nThe other countries in the region is South Korea, Japan and Taiwan that they did not friends with when they all are in practice US allies.\n\nSo even if you don't like what China does it would be stupid to criticize them publicly to potentially destroy your trade and other relations with them. You could criticize them privately to tire to get the to change. Public criticism could get some political support when you stand by you ides internal and with other communist states but at what cost? North Korean leaders are not stupid. \n\nI suspect the fact that China declared war on another communist neighbor Vietnam in 1979, where Deng Xiaoping also was in the leading role, showed them that China is not a benevolent neighbor. The reson for the war was the Vietnamese invaded Cambodia that was controlled by the Chinese-backed Khmer Rouge. Vietnam was primary supported by the Soviets just before the war the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance was terminated by China that put the army on the Soviet border on emergency war alert and was prepared for war with them if the intervened in Vietnam.\n\nIt might not have been likely with a war but the knowledge of that and the lack of Soviet protection of Vietnam is a good motivation to be friendly with China.\n", "Overlapping interests. China wanted a buffer between it and the West (SK and the US military) and a potential economic partner. NK wanted a powerful ally and economic partner. \n\nUnfortunately for China the Kim’s are not great partners in any way other than simple necessity. ", "Firstly your assumption that either party (lol) actually lives by their espoused political ideologies, is a joke. They're power and money hungry. Have absolute power, no regard for human life, international law or intellectual property rights. How can they NOT get along? They have tons of similar interests as nations, not the least of which is finding new ways to fuck over America or make Trump look stupid. Those two make great bedfellows. The ideologies you speak of, are just that. Things to be spoken of. They don't live a communist revolutionary dream just like normal Americans don't live the capitalistic American dream of wealth and freedom" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d1o27v1", "d1o2afc", "d1o2utw", "d1o7a4z", "d1o9cvp", "d1oa06a" ], "score": [ 229, 70, 43, 21, 3, 2 ], "text": [ "Basically, to the dog it sounds like a wounded animal and so the dog gets a sort of \"thrill of the hunt.\"", "I was told the squeak mimics the sounds of small prey, ie: rabbit, and being descendants of wolves, It's their instinct to hunt. That being said, they could also probably just like the sound of squeaking. That seems logical to me too.", "Because dogs love to murder small animals and squeeky toys sound like the distressed cries of a small animal being murdered.", "My dog pays exactly 0 attention to any squeaky toys of any kind and has killed squirrels, rabbits, chickens, etc. Guess he's all about the real thing ", "Sounds like a crying wounded animal. Your dog likes that sound because it satisfies his desire to kill and eat prey. ", "It stimulates their prey drive, by sounding like a hurt animal, and it gives a primal gratification to be killing it. Some dogs have higher prey drive than others, which is why some don't go for it. Sighthounds (because they were bred to be hunters) tend to have high prey drive while toy dogs tend to be on the lower end. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cd8qxrn", "cd8r9hx" ], "score": [ 5, 11 ], "text": [ "I don't know how far back you want to go, but UV-vis and IR spectrometers have been around for quite a while, and those are immensely useful.\n\nBefore those, it's based on a lot of hard work and deduction based around chemical reactions. An example is how [Fischer determined the structure of glucose](_URL_0_) with nothing but a polarimeter.", "Chemistry goes way back. \n\nJons Jacob Berzelius was the man I consider the true father of chemistry. He had a thing for blowing air on hot rocks, and measured the weight changes very carefully. He figured out that things always happened in proportions... 2:1, 1:1; 1:4. With Dalton's concept of atoms, and Lavoisier's hot new discovery of oxygen (well, like 20 years earlier, things were slower before the Internet), he was able to figure out that various atoms had various weights, and that they hook together in various proportions.\n\nOnce you have those three concepts, stoichiometry is not far behind. From there, you can do elemental analysis (burning things and weighing the various products, knowing how many oxygens go in per everything else) you can start systematically going through every known compound to figure out what it's made of.\n\nThis has its limits. In ~1828, a chemist named woehler published his compound for silver cyanate. His contemporary, a fellow named Liebig, was all \"listen schmuck, you can't have done it right, because I already found that compound. It's called silver fulminate, it's got the same ratios, and it's totally different! Why don't you move to Norway with the rest of the saps?\" We'll, long story short, Liebig was a jerk, and woehler had stumbled on the concept of isomerism, which was the first clue that how the atoms were connected was as important as their ratios.\n\nThis process goes on and on. Before long people are shining lights through materials to look for gaps in the rainbow- spectral lines- and using that. With every discovery comes a new tool, X-rays, infrared, ultraviolet, all of them have a niche and the sad result is that us poor chemists have to do a whole lot of work ;)" ] }

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[ [ "http://chemistry2.csudh.edu/rpendarvis/monosacch.html" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "c5g2rgw" ], "score": [ 11 ], "text": [ "Art Nouveau is a pretty, delicate, girly, mostly interior style of decorating and art. Late 1800s. Think of Rivendell from Lord of the Rings, basically. If an elf would use it, it's probably Art Nouveau. Lots of whiplash curves. Alphonse Mucha posters. \n\nArt Deco, on the other hand, is the kind of stuff you see on Ayn Rand book covers. Lots of metallic stuff, very hard geometrical lines and so on. Or like, the type of skyscraper that a Dick Tracy, noir film, private investigator's offices would be in. Think the Chrysler Building, the Empire State building and so on. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dp16i5t" ], "score": [ 5 ], "text": [ "I would argue that you're both wrong.\n\n > it was actually only a military conflict since it was never declared a war by Congress.\n\nThat's a terribly American-centric view of the war and of war in general. Had North Vietnam declared war on the United States would it not have constituted a war if Congress had failed to reciprocate? Revolutionary and civil wars (and the Vietnam war had elements of both) rarely involve formal \"declarations of war.\"\n\n > Until then he holds that it was a full fledged war and not a conflict\n\nWar is a subset of conflict. The reason why there is a preference for the terminology of \"conflict\" is precisely because \"war\" has legalistic objections surrounding issues like, for example, the treatment of detainees.\n\nIt's for that reason that over the course of the 20th century you've seen a shift from the Third Geneva Convention in 1929, that is, officially, \"Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, Geneva July 27, 1929\" to the universal adoption of the terminology of the [Universal Law of Armed Conflict.](_URL_0_) The use of the terminology of \"war\" and \"declarations of war\" (which are a historical rarity over the past two centuries) was too easy for states to abuse, particularly after the experience of WWII where it was almost universally abused by all sides to one extent or another (the incomparable extreme of course being the holocaust.)\n\nIf you want an academic article citing discussion of this, you could start here, as an example: _URL_1_" ] }

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[ [ "https://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/law1_final.pdf", "https://www.jstor.org/stable/1601299?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "e2r7zn0" ], "score": [ 4 ], "text": [ "So the Bourbon kings' use of a white banner as their standard was quite controversial, even unpopular, during the 19th Century. But I can't speak to whether any of this was due to the white flag's association with surrender. In all my sources that discuss the white Bourbon flag, it was unpopular not for what it was, but for what it wasn't: the tricolor.\n\n(Also worth noting: there are several variations on the \"white flag\" that were used, including a pure white version and one containing fleurs-de-lis on the white field.)\n\nThe issues arises on three major occasions in 19th Century French history.\n\nOne is in 1814-15, when King Louis XVIII is restored (twice) to the French throne. On both occasions, he insisted on using the white banner of French kings of old — white symbolizing purity. But the tricolor had been France's flag for more than two decades, and had been the flag under which the French armies had won victory after victory. \"The white flag of legitimacy, not the tricolor of the Revolution (including the constitutional monarchy of 1789-92) and the Empire, as to be the flag of Louis's reign,\" writes Louis's biographer Philip Mansel (177). \"The first mistakes had already begun.\"\n\nWhile some royalists preferred the white flag, and many other French people doubtless didn't care, significant shares of the population took it as an insult. Joseph Fouché, an intelligent if unscrupulous bureaucrat who served both Napoleon and the Bourbons in key roles, warned early on that the tricolor was \"little understood\" by the Bourbons and \"is only apparently a frivolous\" matter. \"The color of the flag,\" Fouché said, \"will decide the color of the reign.\" Louis ordered soldiers to burn their tricolors, as well their regimental eagle standards — provoking several instances of mutiny (Austin, 51; Jardin and Tudesq, 8). Louis persisted, and on the basis of English and Prussian arms managed to keep his throne despite this. \n\nThe second moment came in 1830, when a popular revolution overthrew Louis's younger brother Charles X and replaced him with the duc d'Orléans, a more liberal Bourbon cousin named Louis-Philippe. In the midst of the \"Three Glorious Days\" that overthrew Charles, a young journalist and activist named Adolphe Thiers grew up a manifesto calling on Louis-Philippe to replace Charles. It was only eight sentences long, so I'll reproduce it in full:\n\n > Charles X can never again enter Paris; he has caused the blood of the people to be shed.\n > \n > The republic would expose us to frightful divisions; it would embroil us with Europe.\n > \n > The duc d'Orléans is a prince devoted to the cause of the Revolution.\n > \n > The duc d'Orléans has never fought against us.\n > \n > The duc d'Orléans was at [Jemmapes](_URL_2_). \n > \n > **The duc d'Orléans has carried the tricolor under fire; the duc d'Orléans alone can carry it again; we want no others.**\n > \n > The duc d'Orléans has declared himself; he accepts [the Charter](_URL_1_) as we have always wanted it.\n > \n > It is from the French people that he will hold his crown. (From Price, 163)\n\nThis was a little over-ambitious — Louis-Philippe was still quite on the fence about becoming king — but it shows the importance people placed on the tricolor. A few days later, on the verge of assuming power, Louis-Philippe needed to win over the support of the Parisian crowds, so he traveled to the Hôtel de Ville of Paris for a famous scene with the aged Marquis de Lafayette:\n\n > Louis-Philippe promised to uphold the guarantees of public liberties... This was enough to satisfy Lafayette, who shook his hand. However, through the open windows loud shouts of 'Long live the republic!' and 'Down with the duc d'Orléans!' could be heard from the Place de Grève. At that moment Lafayette revealed once again his genius for the symbolic populist gesture. He took hold of one end of a large tricolor flag lying in the hall, gave the other end to Louis-Philippe, and the two of them advanced with it on to the balcony. At first the people only cried 'Long live Lafayette!', but when he dramatically embraced Louis-Philippe they gave both men a prolonged ovation. (Price, 175)\n\nIt was the support for the tricolor, and the symbolism it contained, that helped make Louis-Philippe king.\n\nThe tricolor would remain France's flag throughout Louis-Philippe's reign (dubbed the \"July Monarchy,\" after the July revolution that brought him to power), the short-lived Second Republic, and Napoleon III's Second Empire. The white flag enters the picture for a third and final time in the 1870s, after Napoleon III's downfall. A provisional government had been elected, with a dominant majority of monarchists — though the monarchists were crucially divided between those supporting restoring Louis-Philippe's heirs and those who wanted to bring back the Bourbons in the form of Charle's grandson, the [Comte de Chambord](_URL_0_). The two sides, after much acrimony, struck a deal: the childless Chambord would become king, and Louis-Philippe's grandson would become Chambord's heir.\n\n\"What their plan did not consider,\" writes historian Frederick Brown, \"was the obduracy of Chambord.\" Chambord insisted that the white flag of the Bourbons once again become France's flag. \"'[That flag] has always been for me inseparable from the absent fatherland; it flew over my cradle, I want it to shade my tomb,' he declared in a statement published on July 6 by the royalist newspaper *L'Union.* '[Under that flag] the unification of the nation was achieved; with it your fathers, led by mine, conquered Alsace-Lorraine [in 1697]... In the glorious folds of this unblemished standard I shall bring you order and victory!'\" (41-2)\n\nChambord's supporters pleaded with him to change his mind, but \"rational heads could not prevail upon him to bend.\" The white flag was so unpopular that even many legitimists refused to contemplate abolishing the tricolor now. There were around 180 \"legitimists\" — supporters of an old-style monarchy under the Bourbons — in the Assembly at that point (out of 638 deputies). But after Chambord's ultimatum became known, a majority of them \"dissociated themselves from his manifesto.\" Only around 80 stuck behind Chambord. The rest, Brown writes, \"finding revolution and anachronism almost equally objectionable... pledged allegiance to the Republican tricolor but yearned for a policy of ambiguous complexion — something neither lily white nor true blue.\" (Brown, 42)\n\nNone of these sources, in their discussions of the white flag, mention anything about people objecting to it because of its association with being a flag of truce or surrender. That's not to say there weren't those objections, and my sources mention the topic in passing while discussing broader political concerns. \n\nIf anyone has sources that discuss the fights over the French flag in the 19th Century, I would very much like to read them!\n\n**Sources**\n\n- Austin, Paul Britten. *1815: The Return of Napoleon*. Barnsley: Frontline Books, 2002.\n- Brown, Frederick. *For the Soul of France: Culture Wars in the Age of Dreyfus.* New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010.\n- Jardin, André, and André-Jean Tudesq. *Restoration & Reaction: 1815-1848.* Translated by Elborg Forster. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.\n- Mansel, Philip. *Louis XVIII.* Rev. ed. Phoenix Mill: Sutton, 1999.\n- Price, Munro. *The Perilous Crown: France between Revolutions.* London: Macmillan, 2007." ] }

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[ [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri%2C_Count_of_Chambord", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charter_of_1814", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Jemappes" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cc85f22", "cc85fo9", "cc85xsv", "cc864vq", "cc867rz", "cc86ba2" ], "score": [ 14, 24, 6, 5, 3, 2 ], "text": [ "Some do, some don't. It depends entirely on the jurisdiction. In the US, for example, [up to 40% of those released from prison after being wrongfully incarcerated receive no compensation.](_URL_0_)", "In South Africa , you receive your freedom back. ", "It really depends on the situation in the US. If there was evidence of malicious prosecution (some willful violations of discovery, or ethical breaches by the state) you have a better shot.\n\nIf some new factor comes to light - sudden confession by someone else, the ability to test for DNA as tech improves - then you likely just get to walk and have your record cleared.", "Does marriage count?", "In the United States, 29 states have compensation statutes. \n\n\n_URL_0_\n\n\nThese statutes are not always uniformly enforced, and sometimes people are denied compensation for reasons like prior criminal charges or having pled guilty to the crime. ", "Canada doesn't have any legal obligation to pay but does anyways in most cases. " ] }

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[ [ "http://edition.cnn.com/2012/03/25/justice/wrongful-conviction-payments/index.html" ], [], [], [], [ "http://edition.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/us/table.wrongful.convictions/" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "dn8ztwd", "dn918k5", "dn95nt1", "dn95q30" ], "score": [ 2, 2, 2, 4 ], "text": [ "I'm going to ignore the example, but it's probably not true that you *can* hold two opposing ideas at the same time, far as the brain is concerned. The network of our neurons can be thought of as a map of attachments to ideas that are interrelated, and given the complexity of these interrelationships a contradictory idea isn't easily inserted into this map without a big rearrangement. The brain doesn't like to do this though, and cognitive dissonance results. This cognitive dissonance serves multiple functions, but most relative to your question is the fact that it results in odd connections (justifications) that make the contradictory idea *seem* logical to the subject. So for example, I think it was Oliver Sacks who wrote about a patient with a stroke (or a serious seizure) who could no longer identify his mother because the neurons that connected her face to his emotional attachment to her had been severed. The justification that his brain created to bridge the gap had him accusing his mother of being an imposter, even though he had no real reason to believe so. This ridiculous assumption was somehow less work? less problematic? than the idea that something was wrong with his sensory information.\n\nTLDR; the brain creates justifications for conflicted ideas because it doesn't like to adjust its assumptions about reality.", "I don't think doublethink is truly possible either, short of a neurological abnormality. What I often see is people who act CONTRARY to their beliefs but rationalize this behavior via some screwy explanation..but subconsciously its motivated by fear of negative peer pressure or fear of change. ", "People don't hold conflicting views, it's just that most ideas are gross generalizations, and there are exceptions to every rule. Most of the time when someone seems to hold \"opposing views\", he is either lying, or he is in an argument, and his opponent is trying to discredit him by taking everything literally. For example:\n\n\"Do you think cars should keep the speed limit?\" -- > \"yes\"\n\n\"But that would mean ambulances can't go faster either in an emergency\" -- > \"ambulances can go faster when it's an emergency and it's safe to do so\"\n\n\"but you just said...\"", "I don't think it would be especially difficult, although I might be misunderstanding the nature of your question. The ability to hold two different opinions within your mind or consciousness is a ripe example of mental maturity, in my opinion. Ultimately all opinions are not true, simply on the basis of the fact that all thoughts and therefore spoken words are only half of the truth. If that doesn't seem to make sense, let me explain. No thought can explain something fully. A thought is, in its essence, a viewpoint. A perspective. And all perspectives or viewpoints are one-sided. Any situation, circumstance, condition, person, place, or thing, can be thought of and seen in many different lights and perspectives. However, what many people seem to miss is that every single one of these is accurate. You can say, \"The world is full of horrible people\" and your statement would be correct. But your friend could counteract your argument by saying, \"That's not so, I know many good hearted and genuine people\" and he would also be speaking the truth. And you can do this with anything. Ultimately, the way we see and experience everything is dependent upon the way we look at it. If we change the way we look at something, suddenly, it's different to us. And so, being able to hold two different opinions without create conflict within your mind is not impossible, but simply dependent on whether or not you realize that nothing exists \"as fact\" if you will. Everything can be thought of in a new way and so look different to us. Someone who is able to \"Doublethink\" is someone who realizes that there are two (or more) sides to everything, and that every one of them has some truth to it. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dik79f4", "dik7hbm" ], "score": [ 26, 3 ], "text": [ "A star is basically a massive continuous H-bomb in space. The thermonuclear reaction at the center is constantly trying to blow it apart. Gravity pushes back in the other direction. Forcing the star's mass towards the center.\n\nAs a star burns up its hydrogen fuel it starts to fuse heavier atoms. That seriously amps up the energy output, and the star swells to a huge size. After it burns out its supply of iron there's nothing left to fuel the fusion reaction, and gravity takes over. The star's still gigantic mass collapses in on itself, and if there's enough it it, causes a catastrophic explosion. On last truly apocalyptic fusion bang that blows the whole thing into a trillion pieces.", "Thats not exactly how it works. Stars are constantly in an equilibrium between gravity pushing inwards and the force of nuclear fusion pushing outwards. Fusing heavier energy requires more heat and pressure to push the atoms together, so when a star runs out of lighter elements to fuse and doesnt have enough gravity pushing in to fuse the heavier elements they collapse. This collapse increases the heat and pressure in the core and allows fusion to briefly start again. Fusion of heavier elements produces too much outwards energy and overcomes the force of gravity and BOOM.\n\nEdit* keep in mind this is only one possible outcomes for a stars death. If it gets massive enough for gravity to win and the core starts to fuse an element that doesn't return energy on its fusion(iron) then it will collapse into a black hole. Its also possible for only the outer part of the star to be blown off while the inner core collapses into a dense white dwarf. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cftx6vc" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "Several nations claim to inheritance to the Kievan Rus. The Vikings did indeed sail down through Russia's many rivers and settle in several areas, Kievan Rus being the most well known. Although it is debated whether the founders were Slavs or Varangians (I imagine it was both). It was perhaps the first powerful state in that part of Eastern Europe. The Rus kingdom spread beyond modern day Ukraine and into modern Russia, thus both nations can claim successorship from Kievan Rus. \n\nThe principalities set up by the Kievan Rus were largely left intact by the Mongols. Muscovy rose to prominence under the Mongols and it is this principality, under the Grand Duke of Moscovy, Ivan (later the Terrible) that united the others and finally defeated the Horde, making way for the Russian Empire. (_URL_0_) (_URL_1_)" ] }

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[ [ "http://russiapedia.rt.com/russian-history/early-days/", "http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Kievan.html" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cjl7m99", "cjlisao" ], "score": [ 41, 4 ], "text": [ "There's parts of your question that I'll leave up to people far more educated than myself on the subject to answer, but I'll try to clear up some misconceptions.\n\nFirstly, you state that \"in 100 years it was all gone.\" That's not quite true: the entire eastern portion of the empire survived on the as the Byzantine Empire for almost another thousand years. However, the Western Empire rolled over and died completely. Also, Roman power returned to Italy during Justinian's reign, albeit briefly and weakly thanks to the plague and the Lombard invasion. \n\nSecondly, the empire of 375, while appearing in terms of territory similar to that of Rome's golden age, was far from the days of Augustus. Plague, famine, and constant war during the Crisis of the Third Century had diminished the population of the West, already less urbanized than the eastern part of the Empire, quite substantially. Furthermore, the empire was suffering from attacks and settlement by Germanic peoples like the Goths around the late 4th century: far before end of the Western empire, these \"barbarians\" came to dominate much of the military and part of the government as well. So, in fact, the final Romans' grandparents wouldn't have been born into the great empire you might be misled by a map into believing still existed. Most of those outer regions soon became extensively settled by \"barbarians\" like the Goths, Franks, and Burgundians, and were semi-autonomous if not independent in all but name anyway.\n\nThat being said, the Western Empire wasn't in an un-salvageable state at the beginning of the fourth century. When the province of Africa, a vital, rich, and mostly undisturbed region fell to the Vandals, everything really started to fall apart. \n\nFinally, I'll give a stab at you asking what people formerly part of the empire would have thought. I'll say, first of all, that it's difficult to determine what the common man would have thought: it's not like he had the ability or the will to express himself. However, the \"barbarian\" rule in certain parts of the empire, such as Italy, really wasn't that bad and not too much of a disruption from Roman rule. Rulers like Theodoric consciously tried to preserve Roman traditions and were respectful of the native culture. In Iberia, the formerly Roman populace had tensions with the Visigoths, who followed Arian Christianity as opposed the the mainstream Chalcedonian beliefs. In Carthage I know that the Vandals had some mildly prosperous trade and that the region was still rich enough to be Justinian's most valuable conquest, indicating the people were probably still doing alright for themselves. \n\nSources:\n\nA History of the Byzantine State and Society, Warren Treadgold\n\nByzantium, The Early Centuries, John Norwich\n\nHistory of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Edward Gibbon. (has more than a few issues...)\n\n\nI wish I could answer certain parts of your question more in-depth, but my specialty in is Byzantine history, which often lightly sweeps over the events in the Western Empire during late Antiquity. I think your questions are pretty good ones, though it's difficult for anyone to answer some of them. I'm looking forward to seeing one of our resident Roman experts try to take a crack at doing so! \n", "On the subject of Gothic Italy and Vandal Africa: in both cases these states can look from our perspective as post-Roman, i.e. whatever rose up inside the ruins of a fallen empire. As per your question, we might expect that in both cases there might be at least some nostalgia or regret for the empire that had gone. But in both cases there seems to have been a strong theme of Roman-ness and continuity with the forms Roman rule that gave legitimacy and stability to both regimes. James O'Donnell's Ruin of the Roman Empire, a book I really think quite good, advances this Roman continuity as the key to getting why these two states flourished (and why they proved such trouble for Justinian). Theoderic ruled very much as the emperors before him had done, and in the case of his immediate predecessors, his version of roman rule was much more effective. The Vandal case, although less well sourced than Theoderic, has similar outlines. In both cases when Justinian's armies arrived in the sixth century, ostensibly to bring these \"Roman\" places back into the empire to which they rightly belonged, the local populations treated Justinian's forces more like foreign invaders than fellow-countrymen come to rescue them from the barbarians. In Italy this stark resistance to the empire on the part of the \"Roman\" inhabitants of Italy explains why the Gothic war dragged on so long. In North Africa the Vandal regime fell quite quickly, but low level (guerrilla, to use the wrong term) resistance ensured that Constantinople would not have an easy time holding on to this conquest. I know that O'Donnell's book is controversial on these points, but if he's correct, or close to it, then the implication for your question seems to be that view the empire as something sadly lost, the citizens of the western successor states were much more likely to see Roman-ness as ongoing and the emperor in Constantinople as a dangerous foreign aggressor. " ] }

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[ "http://www.utexas.edu/courses/ancientfilmCC304/lecture21/images/3.jpg", "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Roman_Empires_476AD.svg" ]

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{ "a_id": [ "ff922de", "ffa95f9" ], "score": [ 12, 10 ], "text": [ "This is quite similar to [a question asked recently](_URL_1_) by /u/michelecaravaggio that I began drafting an answer to, so helpfully I can kill two birds with one stone here! Admittedly, I'm only really capable of taking the narrative up to the early Republic, before the KMT came to power in 1927, so hopefully someone with a much better grasp of the 20th century's dynamics of race and nationhood like /u/drdickles may be available to step in.\n\nThe concept of race is not at all alien to modern China, and there is indeed a character for it (which always makes things easier), 族 (Mandarin *zu*, Cantonese *zuk*, Hokkien *chok*, Hakka *chhuk*), often found in contemporary usage in the compound 種族 (Mandarin *zhongzu*, Cantonese *zong zuk*, Hokkien *cheng chok*, Hakka *chung chhuk*), itself at times compounded into 種族歧視, 'racism'.\n\nThe emergence of this concept is a bit murky, and there has been disagreement over when exactly conceptions of ethnicity became common across China. The crucial thing, though, is that there's a relative consensus that the first people to broadly accept the nootion of 'essentialist' ethnic identities were not the majority Han Chinese, but rather the Manchus. Manchu conceptions of ethnicity are again a source of controversy: those influenced by Mark C. Elliott's study of the provincial Banners err on the side of the Manchus having had a concept of ethnicity from at least the early 17th century, which was made a protected identity following the Banner reforms of the Qianlong reign, while those operating under the framework suggested by Pamela Crossley's study of imperial ideology prefer to view ethnicity as the product of the Qianlong Emperor's promotion of a new, essentialist mode of emperorship. Edward J.M. Rhoads, in his study of the development of Manchu and (to a lesser extent) Han identities in the period between the end of the Taiping War and the Northern Expedition, notes that even then, Manchu identity was still a shifting concept until the post-imperial governments equivocated it with Banner enrolment. And that's just for Manchu identity! While Han identity did change alongside Manchu identity, the move towards genuinely accepting a more 'essentialist' view of that identity began very much in the 19th century.\n\nI've recently discussed the shifting basis of Manchu identity [in this answer](_URL_0_). It may seem that discussions of Manchu identity are not directly relevant to the issue of Han identity, but as Crossley and Rhoads both suggest, ethnic policy towards one group almost invariably had bearings on the conception of others. For example, the Banner reforms of the Qianlong period recategorised most of the Hanjun (Han-martial or Military Han) portion of the Banners as either Manchus (if from Liaodong) or Han (if not), and while this liminal group had never been a major part of the population of the empire as a whole, this does point to a policy in which hybrid identities like those of the Hanjun would not be tolerated, and instead the empire's peoples would be increasingly lumped into immutable overarching categories, or as Crossley terms them, 'constituencies'. In her view, as with James Millward in *Beyond the Pass*, the main five constituencies were the Manchus, Han, Mongols, Tibetans and Muslims.\n\nThe exact basis for defining these was still somewhat unclear. To some extent, it was linguistic – Manchus speaking and reading Manchu, Han Chinese (in all its too-often-forgotten varieties), Mongols Mongolian, Tibetans Tibetan, and Muslims Chaghatai Turkic and sometimes Arabic. To some extent it was religious – Manchus were mostly shamanists, Han were (supposed to be) Confucians, Mongols and Tibetans practiced Yellow Hat Buddhism, and Muslims were, well, Muslims. However, both of these sorts of idealised identity construction were difficult to reconcile with the realities of identity on the ground. Manchus were increasingly Sinophone, Muslim enclaves in China tended to speak the Chinese variety of their particular locale rather than a Turkic language, and of course there are all the varieties of Chinese that were and are spoken across the vast expanse that is China proper. Shamanism seems to have declined outside the imperial court, Han were often Mahayana Buddhists, some Mongols further west were Muslims, the Red Hat sects of Tibetan Buddhism retained a presence in the Tibetan diaspora in Sichuan, and, Islam being a diverse religion despite modern stereotypes, by the 19th century orthodox Sunnism had to wrestle with growing Sufi sectarianism. The response from the Qing court was partly Procrustean, such as through military campaigns to suppress troublesome religious minorities, be they rebelling secret societies among the Han, the Jahriyya Sufi movement among the Hui, or the Bön- and Red Hat-practicing Jinchuan, a Tibetan diaspora group in Sichuan.\n\nBut aside from trying to force these groups to conform to certain cultural expectations, there was also a move towards altering the basis of identity itself. As with most Qing ethnic policy, this began with the Manchus but percolated down. In Crossley's analysis, this is first evident with Qianlong-era texts stressing the immutable, bloodline-derived nature of Manchu identity, including the 1743 *Ode to Mukden* (ᡥᠠᠨ ‍‍ᡳ ᠠᡵᠠᡥᠠ ᠮᡠᡴᡩᡝᠨ ‍‍ᡳ ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ *Han-i araha Mukden-i fu bithe*) and the 1783 *Discourses on Manchu Origins* (滿洲源流考 *Manzhou yuanliu kao*), which nonetheless still called on contemporary Manchus to at least perform their ethnic roles through, for example, revival of linguistic practice. My linked answer above goes into a bit more detail on this front, though at the time I wrote it I had overlooked the continued promotion of Manchu despite its gradual diminution as a point of ideological significance.\n\nBut let's turn our attention to China's numerically (and now politically) dominant ethnic group, the Han. During much of the Qing period, the Han conception of ethnicity was in very much a transitional state. The late Ming, when China's frontiers were decidedly closed off thanks to fortifications and embargoes against the steppe peoples, saw the emergence of a degree of ethnic essentialism, with its fiercest proponent being the political philosopher Wang Fuzhi, who lived through the Manchu conquest of China in the 1640s-60s. Under the Ming, he had confidently asserted that 'civilisation' and 'barbarism' were physically separated by cosmic design, and implicitly denied the transformative agenda of Mencian Neo-Confucianism.\n\nAt the same time, though, such essentialism was always a minority position, and under the Qing that sort of belief in cultural transformation remained standard. The Yongzheng Emperor's 1729 *Discourse on Righteousness to Dispel Confusion* (大義覺迷錄 *Dayi juemi lu*), aimed at a Han Chinese audience sceptical of Qing acculturation, stressed that by virtue of coming to rule China, the Qing had acculturated to its ways (in the original text, 'Manchu' appears only twice, referring both times to the pre-conquest state). However, just six years later, the Qianlong Emperor proscribed the text and began asserting hard boundaries between the imperial constituencies, as illustrated above. \n\nHowever, despite officially declaring his opposition to his father's programme of *gaitu guiliu* towards the indigenous peoples of Taiwan and southern China, a programme which very much played into the hands of Neo-Confucian transformative ideas, the Qianlong Emperor failed to completely halt attempts to 'civilise' (or perhaps more accurately 'make Han') the indigenous peoples of China's southern liminal zones. As put by William T. Rowe, notions of transformation were still evident from the 1820s (here, he comments on ethnographic interest in indigenous peoples being motivated by a rather Rousseau-like notion of 'noble savage' predecessors):\n\n > if these savages were indeed the ancestors of Han Chinese, was it not remotely possible that something had been lost as well as gained in the course of the civilizing process? This was suggested by one Chinese observer of Taiwanese aborigines in the 1820s. Deeply affected by the cultural malaise of the troubled Daoguang era, with its economic depression, recurrent natural disasters, and ominous threat of European expansion, he argued that the rampant commercialization of contemporary society had corrupted our [sic] inherent propriety and that we [sic] should “get back to fundamentals, like the ancients,” along the model presented by these noble primitives.\n\nRowe also cites two divergent examples of Sinophone groups who either sought to shed or obtain distinct identities during the close of the Early Modern period: the Tanka and the Hakka. The Tanka 'boat people' of Fujian and Guangdong plied the provinces' coastal waters thanks to a lack of good farmland, but many sought to obtain landed property, a crucial affirmation of Han status, and thereby gain, within a couple of generations, formal recognition as Han by their peers. The Hakka, on the other hand, also faced with economic hardship, though possessing somewhat stronger linguistic unity than the Tanka, gained a much more palpable sense of subgroup identity, distinct from the Yue-speaking Punti of Guangdong and Guangxi and the Min-speakers of Fujian, and maintained this sense of identity in spite of broad migration to Taiwan and Southeast Asia. The existence of Tanka and Hakka 'otherness' well into the 1860s does suggest that neither a singular notion of 'Han', nor one based purely on heritage and bloodline, was necessarily dominant at this point.", "/u/EnclavedMicrostate provided an excellent write up on identity development up to roughly the fall of the Qing. I'll add a bit more about the development of identity during the Republican and how minority groups were separated (or included) along the Han during the CCP period.\n\nNationality and race development after the fall of the Qing was greatly exacerbated by the continual education of elite children in foreign nations. The foremost choice for many Chinese intellectuals to send their children would be Japan. Now, someone could write an entire write-up on this question put replace Chinese with Japanese, and you'll get some similarities and some differences. Japanese ideas of nationalism and race are well documented during the late Meiji-Imperial period. But both Japanese and Chinese ideas of nationhood and race were fundamentally altered by Western thought and practice (the influence of minstrel shows on Japanese intellectuals throughout the mid-1800s is notable). As you may know, the late 1800s is when European colonization really kicks off, and ideas like Social Darwinism (1870s) began altering the way people and governments viewed themselves and 'the other;' that exotic, but barbarian group of humans which would come to make up the \"white man's burden.\" \n\nBy the 1920s, Chinese literati picked up on the notions of Social Darwinism and alike ideologies and began applying this to themselves. China had a lot of justifying to do during this time period. In 1800 they were the center of the Confucian order, lead by the *appointee* of Heaven himself, the emperor! Yet in 1842 they were defeated by Britain. Then again in 1860... Then another run in, in 1900... But the worst of it all was they were defeated by the Japanese in 1895! A former fringe member of the Confucian world. And the First Sino-Japanese war came directly after China's misled Self Strengthening Movement, influenced by Confucian ideals that ultimately overruled more ambitious and innovative leaders such as Li Hongzhang.\n\nThe fundamental ideals of Sun Yat-sen's revolutionary ideas included ethnic unity (an idea that will later influence the Maoists). In fact, the flag waved during the 1911 Xinhai Revolution looked like [this](_URL_2_). A lot of this was influenced by Woodrow Wilson's ideas of self-determination which were popular around the world for obvious reasons. It promoted the unity between what was officially recognized as the five major ethnic groups compromising China: The Han, Manchus, Mongols, Hui, and Tibetans. The acceptance of more minority groups inside China would evolve as time went on. Today, the CCP recognizes 55 minority groups. In the early years, the communists generally stayed dedicated to ideas of ethnic equality. To this very day the CCP's \"on paper\" theory is dedicated to equality. But under Chiang and beyond, this was very different practically.\n\nChina was, in many ways, like a lost child during the 1920-40s, fighting bullies (Japan) and disease (constant civil war). Throughout it all, China still had no definitive answer as to where they placed in the world. This is an important concept. Many early anthropologists made it a point to categorize humans into three separate sections, you may have seen it before: Civilized (Western), Semi-Civilized (the Far East, perhaps Russia as well), and Barbarian (Africans, SE Asians, etc.). It was unacceptable to Chinese elites that China fell under a category below another ethnic group, though for most this was regretfully acknowledged. By this time, more and more Chinese students were being sent beyond Japan, mainly to America, but also France or Britain, or even Germany (Chinese and Japanese liked Germany for many reasons, as they represented a bulwark against British and French colonialism). Tasking themselves with the objective of justifying China's relevancy in the modern world, a lot of propaganda was produced in various *manhua* and other media that showed that China... well, China didn't have much but at least they weren't India or an African state! The main point among the propaganda was comparisons between Chinese and any subjugated nation culture. [For example](_URL_1_) (view page 8-9), Africa was a heavy target . Extremely backward in Chinese eyes, and broken under European conquest, Chinese artists pointed out that China may have fallen victim to Western imperialism, but held onto its independence. \n\n The formation of China as a nation-state in Western terms is also pervasive by the 1920s. Not every elite was so open to the ideas of Social Darwinism, as more leftist ideas filtered into China from Russia and Europe. Consider the following quotes:\n\n > So long as there are nation-states (*guojia*), we must uphold nationalism (*minzu zhuyi*)... We are concerned not just for our own Han race, but for the other victimized nations, whose lands have been conquered, rights usurped, and people enslaved... A true nationalist is one who extends his sympathy to others who have suffered from the same (national) excruciation - Zhang Taiyan\n\n & #x200B;\n\n > The more I considered \\[China's problems\\], the more I thought, and then the more I grieved: the reason that **our** China is unlike foreign countries \\[*waiguo*\\] and indeed is bullied by these countries must have a good explanation. So I went to investigate \\[the histories of\\] other countries, and guess what? China is not the only country in this world being bullied by foreign countries! Look at Poland, Egypt, the Jews, India, Burma, Vietnam, and so on: they have all already been destroyed and turned into dependencies \\[*miezuo shuguo le*\\] - Chen Duxiu, co-founder of CCP\n\nThere is a lot of sense of nationalism and unity in these quotes. It shows that the new class of intellectuals in China were exploring, searching for a reason as to why China had fallen so low. Ultimately these ideas are the ones that greatly influence modern (contemporary) China's ideologies on race and nationhood.\n\nUpon taking control of the mainland in 1949, the communists expanded on the [importance of ethnic unity](_URL_0_). Under Mao, the various ethnic groups of China would become one big, happy family. Indeed, many researchers and historians have noted that under Mao, Han attitude towards minority groups tended to be more broadminded. Projects like the *Youhui Zengci,* which could be translated as Affirmative Action, began in 1949 and continues to this day. During the Jiangxi Soviet and Yan'an days the CCP was also active in integrating and giving high independence to minorities.\n\nBut things took a turn again in the 1960s. Following a more Soviet-influenced approach to minorities in a nation, the CCP began developing ideas of \"different races united under common tongue, common culture and common economic base.\" I.e., Cantonese children will now learn Mandarin in school rather than Cantonese and so on. This has led to the rapid dismantling of many minority groups within China, and many languages (or dialects) slowly die in China. But still, being a recognized minority has its benefits in Mao and modern China. They are often given special treatment on moral, religious, cultural and other issues that the government does not extend to the Han. Despite this, critics argue that this \"enables selective social control and formal structures for political inclusion or cooptation of groups which otherwise might alienate themselves from the system.\" To this day the status and survival of many minority groups in China is tenuous at best." ] }

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[ [ "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/eqmiya/the_manchu_ruled_china_for_centuries_well_into/fev4r8o/", "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/erm13p/did_the_chinese_ever_develop_an_idea_of_race/" ], [ "https://chineseposters.net/themes/national-minorities.php", "https://visualizingcultures.mit.edu/modern_sketch_03/ms_gallery08.html", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China#/media/File:Flag_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931928).svg" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cryi6gx", "cryjl9u", "cryux4h" ], "score": [ 6, 17, 2 ], "text": [ "Spain didn't expel the Jews until 1492, and Portugal in 1497. They were among the last western European kingdoms to do so, as England had done so in 1290 and France twice--once in the 13th century and once in the 14th.\n\nI certainly don't have a comprehensive answer to your question, apart from confirming that you're right--it has happened many times.", "Important note, the Babylonians did not expel the Jews from their [the Babylonians'] land as the Spanish, French, Portuguese, and English did. The Babylonians conquered Judea (the land of the Jews) and expelled them from there TO Babylonia, although it should be noted that mostly the Judean elite was expelled while the peasantry largely remained.", "Side question. It at least seems as if pogroms were relatively common occurrence in Eastern Europe, but did any of those nations (e.g. Commonwealth, Russia) at any point actively try expel the Jews?" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d1i6gvn", "d1i6kmg", "d1i7r3g", "d1i8r9m", "d1ib4nr", "d1icbu6", "d1ici48", "d1inzl7" ], "score": [ 2, 41, 12, 5, 7, 2, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "Right-wing politics supports inequality of wealth as a natural and normal thing. Fascism links government closely to big businesses. Hence the right-wing connection.", "The wings are an incomplete portrait of political spectrum, since an accurate description also needs to include the vertical authoritarian/libertarian axis. Communism falls under authoritarian left while anarchism is libertarian left. Conversely, fascism would fall under authoritarian right while something like Objectivism would be libertarian right.\n\nNot using that scale, however, there is a concept in sociopolitical studies known as horseshoe theory, which dictates that the farther an ideology drifts from center, the more it comes to resemble the opposite end of the spectrum.", "In addition to what others say, a core part of fascism is nationalism, which is also embraced by the right e.g. Third-Reich, American Exceptionalism. \n\nFor what it's worth, there is a [book](_URL_0_) that argues your point. ", "It is a myth that the right wing strives for smaller government. They strive to shrink it in some areas and grow it in others. This ties in directly with fascism regimes typically claiming to be protecting \"the moral character\" of the nation they are in. That's where the racism/sexism/homophobia/etc of fascist regimes comes from. They claim the moral or religious high ground and enforce it. And the only way to enforce these moral declarations is by increasing governmental power and decreasing privacy. If you look at a lot of traditionally right-wing backed moral legislation (in America anyway), such as anti-sodomy laws, regulations regarding what a doctor can and cannot say in regards to abortions, or the current trend around what genders can enter what bathrooms, are all big increases in governmental power and a loss of privacy for civilians. In the examples I provided, enforcement of these laws would require knowing what is going on in the bedroom of consenting adults for anti-sodomy laws, the government inserting itself into private doctor/patient conversations for aborition regulations, and the government checking what gender someone is. That's all big government.\n", "The terms 'left' and 'right' originate from the Roman Senate, where the plebeians gathered on the left and the land-owners opposite. French revolutionaries of the 18th century, generally neo-classicists, imitated this arrangement. So 'left' became associated with government by the mass of the people and 'right' became associated with the property-owning classes.\n\nSince both fascism and communism each degenerated into vicious totalitarianism during the 20th century, the words have little real meaning. Whether your government is far-left or far-right makes little difference when you're being hauled off to the concentration camp by the Gestapo or the gulag by the KGB.", "its nice to add that facism and nazism specially disgusted and had alot of hatred toward communists, many communist joined the jews, gypsys, disabled etc that were part of the \"holocaust list\"", "When talking about Communism being completely tied to internationalism, one has to be careful and remember that there are many strains of thought within the Communist tent. Stalinism is very nationalistic. Stalin rejected Trotsky's call for an international revolution and desired to build \"socialism in one country.\" Furthermore, Stalin promoted \"revolutionary patriotism\" and incorporated the Russian and Slavic historical identities into state propaganda, especially during World War II. Remember, the eastern front is remembered as the \"Great Patriotic War\" in Russia. \n\nThis blending of Communism and nationalism can be seen in modern times in North Korea. The Juche system (\"self-reliance\") is hardly internationalist, although it has its roots in Communism. Many political scientists have argued in the past that North Korea has reverted into a race-based, nationalistic neo-monarchism. This can be surmised by pointing out that references to Communism, socialism, Lenin, and Marx have largely been purged from state propaganda and documents like the constitution. \n\nI would even argue that there's some inklings of \"internationalism\" in Fascism and Nazism. In their quest to prove the existence of the Aryan master race, Nazi officials like Himmler \"explored\" the history of Aryanism by looking towards places like Persia and India. This, of course, was mystic mumbo jumbo, but certain peoples and races were elevated to Aryan status that were not German. Hitler called the Japanese honorary Aryans; Nazi racist scientists said that the British too were of an Aryan character because their status as an island nation suggested that the British were a sort of \"pure breed.\"\n\nMussolini began his political career as a socialist. Fascism and Nazism have a very hostile relationship with aristocracy and monarchism, favoring the more middle-class bourgeoisie and workers to any sort of ascendant upper class.", "\"The term left wing originated with the seating arrangement of the French National Assembly of 1791. The deputies representing the Third Estate, the ordinary people, were seated to the left of the president’s chair on an elevated section called the Mountain, while the nobility, the Second Estate, sat on the right side of the chamber. Between them sat a mass of deputies, known as the Plain, who did not belong to any particular faction.\n\nOriginally most members of the French National Assembly seated on the left were moderate reformers who called for a constitutional monarchy and a unicameral legislature for France. On the right sat the delegates who supported the more conservative royalist, aristocratic, and clerical interests. But the Left/Right labels took on new meanings during the course of the French Revolution, which began in 1789. The Left became increasingly radicalized as Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794), Louis Saint-Just (1764–1794), Jean-Paul Marat (1743–1793), and the powerful Jacobin clubs (the most famous political group of the French Revolution) gained influence\"\n\n_URL_0_\n\nBecause of this left became a byword for anti-Monarchism and later anti-Authoritarianism. Similarly, right went from monarchism to authoritarianism.\n\nIn the time of Marx a left-authoritarian would be a contradiction. Over time the terms \"left\" and \"right\" became more associated with political parties ideologies than with freedom vs. authoritarianism. That's why you can have someone call themselves a \"Right-wing small government Republican\" today and no one bats an eye. Marx would dismiss their concept of freedom as ridiculously narrow." ] }

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[ [], [], [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Fascism" ], [], [], [], [], [ "http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Left_Wing.aspx" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "daruc1n" ], "score": [ 101 ], "text": [ "Many of them were killed, many of them were sold into slavery, and many of them undoubtedly lived out there lives scarred by the horror that they witnessed. The city of Carthage itself remained devoid of urban settlement, despite the fact that it is a really good spot for a city, until it was designated as a location for a Roman colony by Julius Caesar. No doubt this colonization itself (and the earlier colonizations of North Africa) caused great hardship to the local people. I'm saying this because I really don't want to sugarcoat the process of empire for Rome, which is quite easy to do given what the next paragraph will be. The description of the sack of Carthage in Appian's *Punica*, particularly section 26, is quite horrifying--one particular detail that sticks out is that one street was so slippery with blood that the Romans could not pursue fleeing enemies down it. That being said.\n\nRome never, or at least never unambiguously, pursued a their policy of conquest on the level of population (what one might call \"genocide\"). There was obviously mass slaughter, but it was always towards a particular end, and not the end itself. So there was never a real attempt to \"de-Punify\" North Africa, as once the area itself was conquered, there wasn't really a point. And so despite the wars the area itself remained overwhelmingly \"native\" in origin, which means that the participants in the enormous prosperity of the province in later times would also have been overwhelmingly native. During the imperial period, North Africa became one of the great lynchpins of the empire and its economy, Carthage became one of the largest cities (perhaps equal to Antioch and Alexandria) and some of the most spectacular remainders of the Roman period are found there. Carthage was also one of the great cultural centers of the empire, and in Late Antiquity was in many ways the heart of the Latin Christian world.\n\nThe wealth of the province has been known about for some time, but the original assumption, bolstered by apocalyptic visions such as Appian's, was that it was a thoroughly Roman sort of place, with the old culture stamped out or at least relegated to the rural and poor. More recently this image has been turned inside out, and many of the indications that were used to show thorough Romanization have been convincingly demonstrated to show the opposite. For example, the Capitolium is a particular temple form modeled off of the Capitoline temple in Rome and basically only appears in Italy and North Africa. It was long thought to be a sign of imperial imposition, but recent scholarship by archaeologists such as Andrew Wilson and Naomi Norman have argued pretty convincingly that, for one, in Africa they were built on local initiative, and for two, they are best interpreted within an *African* cultural context. After all, the Carthaginians had their *own* triad of Tanit, Bel and Eshmun, and there are tons of Tanit related imagery throughout the period.\n\nSo the broad answer to your question is that despite the brutality of conquest, the Carthaginian people were the determinant influence on Roman North Africa, which became one of the most prosperous areas of the empire.\n\nMy big influence here is David Mattingly, particularly his *Imperialism, Power, and Identity: Experiencing the Roman Empire*. He is mostly interested in the enduring divisions and conflict in post-conquest provincial society, which I am mostly eliding over." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ck65ivy", "ck65loc", "ck65py4", "ck67h9s", "ck69dmj", "ck69oye", "ck6arbz", "ck6gpbx", "ck6m0ch", "ck6t5oc" ], "score": [ 63, 8, 40, 8, 41, 11, 29, 4, 3, 2 ], "text": [ "Well I think you could blame the Quinn thing on corrupt subreddits. Also the pictures are never related, we aren't on r/gonewild :-P", "Because the drama that fueled that situation was mostly in part due to maintaining journalistic integrity, while certain parts of it had feminism briefly injected. It dealt with a lot of touchy subjects, whereas for celebrity nudes we're all so immune to seeing them it's just like \"oh, so that's what they look like.\"", "Well the main point about the Quinn thing was the danger of doxxing/a witch hunt. There is/was a lot of anger directed at her, and users on reddit and other places on the internet have been know for finding out private information about people, sending them death threats via PMs via PM or their phone, sending SWAT teams to their homes, accusing people of doing made up crimes etc. \n\nOne of the [few reddit rules](/rules) forbids the sharing of private information, or even gathering that information by going through a users post history to prevent exactly that.\n\nSince none of those people are in direct danger and their PI isn't being shared, it seems like it's up to the moderators of a subreddit to remove that content. And some subreddits have been doing exactly that, either because it's not appropriate for the subreddit or out of respect for the women who's pictures are being shared. ([See the other ELI5 thread on this topic](_URL_1_)).\n\n/r/gaming was in the midst of that controversy, so it might interest you to read [their statement](_URL_0_) about that situation and why they did what they did.", "Because people think celebrities are fair game. If you're famous for being in movies then we're entitled to see every aspect of your life or something. If someone stole your nudes, it's your fault for taking them.", "Those celebrities didn't fuck el_chupacupcake or the rest of the mods.", "Because no reddit admins know celebrities; a few /r/gaming admins knew Quinn and other targeted gaming journalists. ", "Sorry, late to the discussion.\n\nWho is Zoe Quinn?", "because each subreddit has its own rules. NSFW and all the rest could have said we don't want the leaked nudes and blanket banned them, just as /r/Games blanket banned anyone talking about the Zoe Quinn drama ", "Who is/was Zoe Quinn and what's the story behind that drama?", "Admins arent in cahoots with Mr.4chan." ] }

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[ [], [], [ "http://www.reddit.com/r/gaming/comments/2dzrlv/on_zoe_quinn_censorship_doxxing_and_general/", "http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/2f3wy4/eli5_how_did_all_of_these_celebrities_nude/ck5xqmb?context=1" ], [], [], [], [], [], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "dnm26rk", "dnmboze" ], "score": [ 7, 2 ], "text": [ "The M10 was a unique vehicle, and wasn't converted from anything that was already produced.\n\nThe original prototype of what would become the M10, the [T35](_URL_0_), was just an M4A2 Sherman with a different, open-topped cast turret mounting a 3-inch gun. The armor on the upper hull was later changed to sloped plates, creating the [T35E1](_URL_1_). These two prototypes were delivered at the same time, in April 1942. To reduce the weight of the vehicle, the armor on the upper hull was reduced from 1 1/2 inches to 3/4 inch thick. The T35E1, standardized as the M10, entered production in September 1942 with a different turret, constructed of welded armor plate. Both the head of the Tank Destroyer Force, Major General Andrew Bruce, and the head of the Armored Force, Major General Jacob L. Devers, were not particularly pleased with the M10. It was as heavy as a standard Sherman, no faster, and had only slightly better firepower. Bruce favored his pet project, the T49, which would later become the T70, standardized as the M18, or Hellcat. It was light (with the requisite thin armor), and extremely fast, two of the qualities his Force found paramount\n\nThe armor on the lower hull of the M10 was the same as on a normal Sherman; 2 inches on the front, 1 1/2 inches on the sides and rear, and 1/2 inch on the floor. The M10 lacked the additional 1/2 inch thick belly plate under the driver's and assistant driver's positions that provided them additional protection from antitank mines, presumably to reduce weight. The M36 tank destroyers, as they were converted from existing M10s, featured the same armor protection. Bruce did not favor this vehicle either, as it was heavier and slower than even the M10.", "The American pre-war military doctrine predicted two types of units involved in anti-tank warfare. One was the static towed anti-tank gun, which would in theory work as a defensive tool in the event of an enemy armoured breakthrough. After the anti-tank gun units repelled the attack, Tank Destroyers were designed to mount a counter-attack against the enemy armoured units and rout them - in such a doctrine, sufficient armament and speed are the key elements, and armour protection is secondary. \n\nSource: FM-100-5 Field Service Regulations, G.C. Marshall for US Army, 1941" ] }

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[ [ "https://imgur.com/a/rH1Mc", "https://imgur.com/a/UPoji" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "dc6dq4o" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "As far as I know, there are no significant differences in the measurement. We did transpiration measurements on olive leafs with the LiCor 6400-XT and we always took the leafs and brought them to the device. Although I was just the 'picker' during these measurements, I was wondering too. My advisor claimed to have made reference measurements and there were no differences regarding olive leafs. The whole process from cutting the leafs and transporting them to the device took 2 minutes maximum at 40 degrees Celsius and very high vapor pressure deficits. However, I could imagine other species like tomato that lose their turgor instantly and close their stomata immediately. Porometer measurements were always executed at the living plant in that specific experiment." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cypjkjh" ], "score": [ 4 ], "text": [ "One reason is the strategic use of lesser enemies against greater enemies. \n\nAnother is that al-Qaeda is a gigantic organization with lots of franchises. Some groups start independently and then declare allegiance to al-Qaeda in an effort to secure prestige, expertise, funding, weapons, etc and while ideologically similar are methodologically different. At one point ISIS was an al-Qaeda franchise (hence why they were called al-Qaeda in Irag for a time) that did take advice from the head office until they broke off to do things their own way.\n\nBin Laden in particular was actually quite against the idea of Muslims murdering other Muslims (it's a big sin in Islam to do that anyway) even if they were of different sects. His strategy was to win the hearts and minds of other Muslims and loudly shouting \"Fuck you, apostate scum! Shi'ites are infidels that deserve to die!\" has a tendency to promote sectarian violence. Bin Laden thought getting the US out of the Middle East was more important than homogenizing Islam. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c52az0m", "c52bm14", "c52bpxr", "c52buhn", "c52dmeq", "c52dt2k", "c52q0bd" ], "score": [ 47, 22, 9, 5, 3, 3, 2 ], "text": [ "Your examples are things that ancient people did get scared by that we do not. Getting killed by wild beasts is a fluke nowadays, and while we are still afraid of twisted aristocrats, they take a different form in our imaginations than vampires and mummies. The monsters we're really afraid of are aliens, robots, serial killers, perverts, cults, conspiracies, and zombies.", "You can find a story of a werewolf in the *Satyricon*, and it's very odd. Very odd. The werewolf story contains my favorite ever example of the flexibility of Latin w/r/t prefixes: \"circummixit.\" The werewolf pees on his clothes in a circle (mixit -- > he pees, circum-- > around) after stripping down, in order to turn them to stone, so that they won't be stolen while he's wolfing about. Much smarter than just ripping through them, if you ask me.\n\n\n*The Golden Ass* has a lot of supernatural stuff in it as well, including witches, harpies, people being turned into animals by salves...it's neat.\n\nThe *Aeneid* has some things which are meant to be terrifying, like demon-queens of Hell, ghostly versions of beasts vanquished by heroes like Hercules, things like that.", "How ancient are we talking about? The vampire myth has been around for a *long* time.", "Most of the monsters that you talk about have their roots (in our culture at least) in victorian England. (They show up in other places, but their direct descendants for us are from that time).\n\n*The Mummy!* dates [from 1827](_URL_2_!)\n*Dracula* dates [from 1897](_URL_3_)\nWerewolves were also featured in Dracula.\nI'd add in *Frankenstein*, published in [1823](_URL_0_) as being in the same vein.\n\nGenerally, you can look at each of these allegorically, dramatizing the fears of the era. Vampires and Werewolves both seem to symbolize fear over the growing force of women in the era, with men feeling emasculated by foreigners and that their sisters, daughters and wives are at risk of being abducted or seduced by the things that a Victorian man was not (romantic or passionate).\n\nMummies and Frankenstein's Monster seem to represent a kind of fear over technology--things that should be left undiscovered. Mummies had ancient magic and Frankenstein's Monster was powered by electricity, suggested a discomfort with new technology.\n\nBoth discomfort over the increased sexual choice afforded to women and fear of new technology remain relevant topics in today's culture, which probably helps to explain the existing popularity of these characters. Aliens probably fit in with mummies or Frankenstein's Monster.\n\n > Did the other ancient cultures have their own monsters, if so what were they?\n\nWell, a few examples: \n[Minotaurs](_URL_4_)--which don't figure in today's literature almost at all, which Wikipedia claims represent a distancing of Greeks from a more religious past.\n[Centaurs](_URL_5_)--which appear in Medieval folk art. Probably represent fear of conquering outsiders.\n[Yūrei](_URL_1_)--Japanese. These are similar to Ghosts. Here, they represent fear of losing touch with tradition.\n\n\nGenerally, things were feared that were new or unexplained or terribly dangerous, like certain animals. In addition, some metaphysical stuff crept in, but was pretty uncommon compared to today. You spend a lot more time worried about wolves when you're a shepherd than you do about zombies.", "Here's a good example of a ghost story that appears in Plutarch's [Life of Cimon](_URL_0_):\n\n > There was left one orphan of this house, called Damon, surnamed Peripoltas, in beauty and greatness of spirit surpassing all of his age, but rude and undisciplined in temper. A Roman captain of a company that wintered in Chaeronea became passionately fond of this youth, who was now pretty nearly grown a man. And finding all his approaches, his gifts, his entreaties, alike repulsed, he showed violent inclinations to assault Damon. Our native Chaeronea was then in a distressed condition, too small and too poor to meet with anything but neglect. Damon, being sensible of this, and looking upon himself as injured already, resolved to inflict punishment. Accordingly, he and sixteen of his companions conspired against the captain; but that the design might be managed without any danger of being discovered, they all daubed their faces at night with soot. Thus disguised and inflamed with wine, they set upon him by break of day, as he was sacrificing in the market-place; and having killed him, and several others that were with him, they fled out of the city, which was extremely alarmed and troubled at the murder. The council assembled immediately, and pronounced sentence of death against Damon and his accomplices. This they did to justify the city to the Romans. But that evening, as the magistrates were at supper together, according to the custom, Damon and his confederates, breaking into the hall, killed them, and then fled again out of the town. About this time, Lucius Lucullus chanced to be passing that way with a body of troops, upon some expedition, and this disaster having but recently happened, he stayed to examine the matter. Upon inquiry, he found the city was in no wise faulty, but rather that they themselves had suffered; therefore he drew out the soldiers, and carried them away with him. Yet Damon continuing to ravage the country all about, the citizens, by messages and decrees, in appearance favourable, enticed him into the city, and upon his return, made him Gymnasiarch; but afterwards as he was anointing himself in the vapour baths, they set upon him and killed him. For a long while after apparitions continuing to be seen, and groans to be heard in that place, so our fathers have told us, they ordered the gates of the baths to be built up; and even to this day those who live in the neighbourhood believe that they sometimes see spectres and hear alarming sounds. The posterity of Damon, of whom some still remain, mostly in Phocis, near the town of Stiris, are called Asbolomeni, that is, in the Aeolian idiom, men daubed with soot: because Damon was thus besmeared when he committed this murder. \n\nIn ancient Greece the heroes of the bronze age seem to have performed a function quite similar to modern ghosts, as Martin Nilsson explains in his book [Greek Folk Religion](_URL_2_):\n\n > Ghost stories like those current even in our day were current in antiquity also. In literature they do not appear until the Roman age. Their apparent absence in the classical age is deceptive. Ghosts went by the name of heroes, and genuine ghost stories are related of the heroes. I have mentioned the hero of Temesa, to whom the inhabitants were compelled to sacrifice yearly the fairest virgin of their town until a well-known pugilist by the sheer force of his fists drove him into the sea; and Orestes, whom no Athenian liked to meet by night because he was likely to give him a thrashing and to rob him of his clothes.\n\nIf you're looking for more fun examples, I can recommend the book [Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds: A Sourcebook](_URL_1_).", "The myths surrounding werewolves, vampires, witches, etc, have been around for a very long time. There's multiple accounts of people in the Medieval Era being executed because they were suspected of being werewolves. Everyone knows about witch trials throughout history where suspected witches were burned at the stake. People fear what they do not understand. They didn't understand why their sheep kept getting killed or disappearing, so they feared werewolves were behind it. They didn't understand why people in a village were becoming ill, so they feared witches were the cause. These fears sometimes led to a lot of people getting executed. I am not an expert in this area, though, so maybe an actual expert in this field will pop in here and give you more details. ", "A lot of cultures had Lords of the Underworld, like the Greek Hades or the Aztec Mictlantecuhtli, who could be scary to small children. In Mesopotamia, there were evil wind demons, like Pazuzu from the Third dynasty of Ur, (2112 to 2004 BC) who slowly evolved into a less frightening form. By the Late Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian period, Pazuzu amulets were often used to protect women in child birth from even more malevolant evil spirits. " ] }

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[ [], [], [], [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C5%ABrei", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mummy", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dracula", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minotaur", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centaur" ], [ "http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/cimon.html", "http://www.amazon.com/Magic-Witchcraft-Ghosts-Greek-Worlds/dp/0195151232/ref=sr_1_15?ie=UTF8&qid=1340066029&sr=8-15&keywords=ancient+classical+ghosts", "http://www.amazon.com/Greek-Folk-Religion-Martin-Nilsson/dp/0812210344/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1340066169&sr=8-1&keywords=greek+folk+religion" ], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "do6bb9r" ], "score": [ 5 ], "text": [ "Because bonding isn't as simple as there being \"free\" bondable electrons.\n\nEach electron populates an \"orbital\", or energy state, that has a particular \"shape\" and definition. \nI don't know the exact orbital shell of Sulfur off the top of my head, but it's likely that the particular arrangement and geometry of its bonding electrons isn't able to support those structures in a stable way.\n\nAlso, it's most likely to do with how freaking electronegative Flourine is (the highest on the scale at 3.98, aka: The best element at attracting an electron density to itself)\n\nI expect the SF6 molecule to have a very complicated and convoluted bonding geometry.\n\nEDIT: \n[See the hexaflouride wiki page](_URL_0_), it's a complex formed with heavy elements with lots of electrons. Flourine is, most likely, just brute-forcing its way into a stable orbital pair in the looser outer orbitals of these larger atoms." ] }

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[ [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexafluoride#Binary_hexafluorides" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "c83vd5s", "c83vvho" ], "score": [ 3, 2 ], "text": [ "Your pics look like straight lines. What spirals?", "Sorry, I don't see what you're describing" ] }

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[ "http://imgur.com/a/thNRs" ]

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{ "a_id": [ "cahafn5", "cahgn6v", "cahjf2e" ], "score": [ 9, 3, 4 ], "text": [ "It depends on how your computer freezes. I've had plenty of freezes where the sound gets frozen too and puts out a rather nasty stream of sound.\n\nTypically though, unless it's the program MAKING the sound that's crashing, your computer is hung up on some other program, and all of its resources are frozen trying to resolve the problem.", "I can't give a definitive answer, but I can give a couple of ideas.\n\n* Media applications often use large buffers containing several seconds worth of audio, so even if the application completely freezes it will be able to continue uninterrupted until the buffer runs out, at which point the audio will either stop or start repeating.\n* Applications can inform the operating system that they are processing time-sensitive media ([MMCSS](_URL_0_) for Windows; not sure about others), which will boost the priority of the thread, so it will be able to continue processing normally while everything else is bogged down.", "Programs can break down different tasks into independent pieces called threads. In a game one thread could be responsible for playing the music, while another is responsible for game logic, and another is responsible for drawing (rendering) everything you see, etc. Threads are one of the things that lets a multiple core processor do more than one thing at once. Sometimes when the computer or a program freezes it is actually just one of the threads that has a problem, the rest are free to continue functioning." ] }

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[ [], [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimedia_Class_Scheduler_Service" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cqhrz4b" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "Although it is long out of print, Robert Smelser's biography *Robert Ley: Hitler's Labor Leader* is a good introduction to the *Deutsche Arbeitsfront*, the state body that governed labor affairs and replaced trade unions. The ability of the NSDAP to recruit among certain segments of labor in the Weimar Republic is covered in the anthology *The Rise of National Socialism and the Working Classes in Weimar Germany*. Conversely, the anthology *Business and Industry in Nazi Germany* examines the role of capital within the Third Reich. Richard Overy's *The Nazi Economic Recovery 1932-1938* is a good overview of the Third Reich's peacetime economy and the structural strains created by its particular form of recovery. Finally, although it sounds like fodder for the likes of American far right conservatives, *Soldiers of Labor: Labor Service in Nazi Germany and New Deal America, 1933-1945* by Kiran Klaus Patel is a comparative history of the *Reichsarbeitsdienst* (RAD) and the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) examining issues like masculinity, collective identity, and tacks a transnational approach to the issue of labor's relationship to the state. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c3k9w0g", "c3kb01p", "c3kb8wf" ], "score": [ 5, 3, 2 ], "text": [ "They developed specific physiologies from their repeated lickings that prevent things like immediate gagging, but that doesn't exclude them.\n\nFor example, a cat will occasionally throw up a hairball. This is the exact hair that they licked off themselves. It's just stored in the digestive tract until a good time to hack it up all at once.\n\nPerhaps if human licked themselves more often, we'd develop similar physiologies.", "My roommate's Siamese cat asphyxiated from a hairball :| ", "You have not seen my cat, have you?" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cscdi5o", "csce036" ], "score": [ 2, 3 ], "text": [ "They were not covered by flood insurance because they didn't *purchase* it. I assure you that it was available to them. If the insurance company felt it was impossible to happen, they would have happily sold it to them since there was such a low risk of a claim.\n\nWhat happened, I think, is when they purchased the home, the lender didn't *require* flood insurance since it was in a low-risk area.\n", "By the sound of it, if you had purchased the same flood insurance as the home owners, with the same terms, you would not have actually been covered. If the insurance company is saying, \"You would have been covered if you had flood insurance\", they are probably just taking your word for it that a flood occurred. They have no reason to look further and specify that your situation would not have been covered under their usual flood insurance terms, because (when they are talking to you) they really only have to get across the point that you aren't covered, because you definitely didn't have flood insurance. Only when they are talking to the home owners do they look further and then see, oh wait, it doesn't meet our criteria for a flood." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cju3f2v" ], "score": [ 4 ], "text": [ "Hypothetically between about 2 and 6 hours for either an ELISA or for a genetic test via PCR under ideal conditions. \n\nThere may be some freaky kits to let you do it a bit faster but that is unlikely for ebola. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dcr0def" ], "score": [ 6 ], "text": [ "White is a combination of all the colors of the visible spectrum. In screens, all colors are mixed using red, green and blue subpixels. So to get white, you have to turn on all three at the same intensity. Thus you get three times as much light as you would for a solid blue color." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c40gvky", "c40j9mx", "c40l4so", "c40lq78" ], "score": [ 24, 2, 6, 3 ], "text": [ "From, the perspective of an origin of life researcher, life must be considered as a continuum. Some things are clearly living or not, rocks versus cats, but may things fall in between. Viruses are most certainly alive, they can't reproduce by themselves, but then again neither can a human (you need 2). My preferred distinction is to consider most organisms as cellular life and viruses as capsidated life (though non capsid viruses do exist). \n\nWhere the line truely blurrs, is when you start looking into the chemistry of self replicating systems and the origin of life. Is an enzyme that can make more copies of itself alive? And well, all you can really say is that its more alive than a rock, but less alive than a cat. \n\nThe real challenge is determining suitable tests for whether life is present somewhere, such as mars. The last lander sent to mars that tested for life had a criteria such that an internal combustion engine would be considered alive.\n\nSo when we do decide to draw a line and say this is alive and this is not, it is going to be based on measurable quantities that can be determined through relatively simple experiments. Not on ambiguities involving wheter we should consider something to be alive if it can't reproduce on its own.\n\n", "Pretty much with viruses. There is some debate on the issue, but viruses lack the ability to self replicate (they need the cellular machinery of a truly living organism). So prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) are the simplest forms of life.", "Define \"living\". \n\nA quartz crystal is not alive. A bluejay is alive. Fire is not alive. A bacterium is alive. Is a virus alive? Is a prion alive?\n\nWhat about end of life? I routinely dissect mice for my project. I give them an anesthetic. I wait for all reflexes to go away. At this point, if I left the mouse alone, it would most likely recover just fine. But I then open up their chest cavity. I take as much blood as I can get, about 1/3 to 1/2 of what is in a mouse. I then wash out their lungs with saline, remove the lungs for histology, and cut other bits out for study. The heart is still beating after this. The diaphragm will contract, trying to suck air into lungs that are sitting in a jar of fixative about 2-3 feet away. I then give it a hangman's fracture to finish it off....and the legs will kick. I know, gruesome, but there's a point....\n\nWhen did the mouse die?\n\nBiology is a continuum, and we try to impose hard and fast categories on it. What species is it? Is it alive? When did life start? When did life end? When did that species diverge? When is something diseased? Is a specific organism a pathogen or a symbiont?\n\nSometimes, the distinction is clear, like quartz crystal vs bluejay. Sometimes, it's not so clear, like \"are chihuahuas and mastiffs really the same species?\" Sometimes it's damn near impossible to answer, like \"Is a prion alive?\" And sometimes it's almost pointless to ask, like \"When does life begin?\"\n\nLook at [this](_URL_0_) bar. Where does it turn black? At what precise point? What about 0.5mm to the left? Is that black? Why are the two points different? If they are the same, were you wrong the first time? \n\nCertain biological questions are the same way. Biology is messy, and that's why we have error bars. Physicists hate that, in my experience.\n\nIs it possible the defining line will change in the future? That assumes we have a defining line right now.", "There is no line. \n\nLife is a category, a box, a label. It's important not to give a label more authority than simply as an organizational tool. Take Pluto... nothing changed when it was re-labeled. Calling a virus living or non-living doesn't change what it does. \n\nLabels are tools to simplify conversation, education, and explanation. If I say a virus is alive, and you say it's not... that doesn't matter. What matters is that if we're working on them, we understand how they work, not how they're classified.\n\nBlack and Whites like that are more a topic for legal and philosophical debate. Reality is far more intricate and interesting than the artificial labels we put on it." ] }

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[ [], [], [ "http://i.imgur.com/aQ2Ji.jpg" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "coc94m0", "coc9gan" ], "score": [ 6, 3 ], "text": [ "Maybe because back then you could actually make money on records. These days releasing a record serves the purpose of getting your music out there and getting fans excited to see you live. Performing live is where the moneys at and when artists are on the road, they don't have the time to work on new records.", "In the 50's and 60's bands didn't tour like they do now. Primary sources of income were record sales and bands would occasionally play a festival or live show. To maximize sales, bands released multiple albums a year, today the opposite is true. Bands release one album every few years and maximize the ticket sales and advertising for that album until sales begin to droop at which time the band releases another album." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "crds4i7", "crdskiu", "crdt0lt", "crdtpt1", "cre0iae" ], "score": [ 5, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "You're only looking at the first piece of this question (although you're quite right about it). \n \nThe law of gravitation tells us that the force due to gravitational acceleration is equal to the gravitational constant x mass of the first object x mass of the second object / the distance between the objects squared. **F = G x m1 x m2 / r^2**. \n \nIf we let the first object, **m1**, be the Earth, then it seems obvious that a more massive second object will experience a greater force towards the Earth versus a smaller second object. This is entirely correct. \n \nHowever, the *other* piece of the puzzle is to remember that force = mass x acceleration --- > **F = m x a**. Although the force would be larger for a more massive object, the acceleration would be proportionately smaller, so that it balances out. \n \nMathematically, you can show this by setting **m2 x a2 = G x m1 x m2 / r^2**, and also **m3 x a3 = G x m1 x m3 / r^2**. If you solve for the acceleration of each object, you'll see that it's only dependent on the mass of the Earth, m1. \n \n* and as TraumaMonkey pointed out below, the Earth will also accelerate a tiny bit towards the other objects.", "While the amount of force a hammer experiences is greater than what a feather experiences, in a great cosmic coincidence (perhaps?), the increased force experienced by the hammer is offset exactly by the larger inertia of the hammer, so the two objects end up accelerating at exactly the same rate because each of their respective inertias ensures that is the case. They each experience different magnitudes of gravitational attraction, but having different masses and correspondingly different inertias, they each require different amounts of force to accelerate at the same rate. It turns out gravity and inertia are 1:1 proportional exactly, so 2 objects, regardless of their mass that are both in the same gravitational field (at the same distance from its center) accelerate at the same rate.\n\nDoes this help?\n\nEDIT: I didn't really read your question. Sorry. As other posters said, the Earth is very very very immeasurably perturbed/attracted to the hammer more than the feather. But the effect is so tiny you can disregard it as existing, practically. But your example of whale/petunias versus asteroid is a good one and in fact the whale will also accelerate the asteroid toward itself more than the petunias, and if you set it up right so as to get an effect that is large enough to be measured, then the whale will hit its asteroid first, all things being equal.", "Short answer: \nA bigger mass gives proportionally more gravitational force, which goes into the equation F=m*a. \nAcceleration is therefore a=F/m. Since F and m are proportional, acceleration will be the same in a given gravitational field.", "Imagine dropping three identical bowling balls. They hit the ground at the same time, right? Now tie two of them together with a tiny piece of string and do it again. The tiny piece of string won't make a difference, so they'll all hit the ground at the same time again even though two bowling balls tied together with a tiny piece of string weigh twice as much as one bowling ball.", "The earth pulls harder on the hammer, but it's also harder to accelerate the hammer because it has more inertial mass: F=ma. If the force has grown in exactly the same proportion as the inertial mass, then the acceleration will be unchanged. \n\nBy the way, it wasn't intuitively obvious that inertial mass and gravitational mass had to be the same, and so this was the subject of considerable experimental test." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c8i9hdl", "c8id1ki" ], "score": [ 2, 2 ], "text": [ "Are you talking about the OSI-Model as in the computer interconnection model?\n\nOh damn, it's been a while since school. As far as I remember, it is pretty much a (succesful) attempt to standardize how low-level stuff (your USB/Bluetooth/FireWire/DSL/T1 protocols, basically.) ends up interfacing with your applications, and the other way around.\n\nHow it does that gets increadibly complicated, but unless you're gonna use it in your work (in which case, you should have better resources than reddit) it won't matter that much.\n\nOne thing to note though, is that the OSI model is ABSTRACT! The whole thing is just to standardize how hardware and software worked together.", "One way to think about the OSI model is like a factory line that's producing some widget. Each part of the factory line concerns itself with one aspect of the production, and hands it off down the line.\n\nNetwork communication works in phases like this factory line would.\n\nSo layer 1, the physical layer, is about how things are connected physically.\n\nLayer 2 deals with MAC addresses, which you can think of as unique names for each computer or network device. This is basically how each of these physical devices can find and identify each other.\n\nIf you're at least a little familiar with networking, you probably know about IP addresses. Your computer has one and so do other devices connected to a network. Layer 3 of OSI basically pairs up these devices MAC addresses – their unique names – with an IP address. You can think of IP addresses like any kind of mailing address a person would have.\nNow that each computer and network device has both their unique name and address, the devices are ready to start communicating (i.e. sending data to each other).\n\nLayer 4 deals with moving the actual data between these devices. These data are sent in \"packets\" which are basically what they sound like – bundles of data.\n\nAs far as I remember layers 5 and 6 don't really do much or aren't really used.\n\nLayer 7 is where stuff happens with the data that's been received.\n\nI'm a bit rusty but hopefully this was helpful!" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cu0wn36", "cu0wslm", "cu0xein", "cu1345u", "cu144xx" ], "score": [ 15, 9, 3, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "You're confusing deep and dark. Deep us anything unindexable. Settings pages, email inboxes, databases.\n\nDark is where shady, illegal, or exceedingly discreet or private stuff happens.", "Why would they? People's searches are a great way to track them. Shutting it off would shut down access", "Because shutting down the dark web is hard. Here's what they can do (assuming they have full political power)...\n\n* Find and block the IP addresses of the websites that are creating illegal activity. (Time consuming)\n* Have ISP's create a whitelist so you can only access websites they approve of.\n* Block all secure communications (HTTPS/SSL, SSH, etc.), and monitor your traffic.\n\nIn the USA, the federal government will never do any of those options. And you can't shutdown the whole darkweb because it's made up of too many networks and computers (just like the web).", "Most typical internet users do not even know how to access the Dark Web. And to try to restrict it would be akin to a censorship. Also, from what I understand, the US Military also uses the Dark Web to conduct certain operations, and uses the traffic of its users to hide amongst the crowd.", "I heard about this on NPR's Fresh Air. The whole interview was pretty interesting ([transcript here](_URL_0_)).\n\nHere's the relevant part which I think is a good answer:\n\n > GROSS: So I want to get back to the fact that Tor, which stands for The Onion Network, which is a highly encrypted network - and this is where a lot of the black-market websites are, a lot of their child pornography and other pornography is. This was a network created by the U.S. government largely to help - I think to help people in authoritarian countries communicate and not be censored. So, you know, the same kind of encryption that's helping, you know, the good guys is also helping criminals in their criminal activity.\n\n > BARTLETT: That's absolutely right. And you can't have one without the other. This is the great dilemma. It's the very same systems of encryption, whether it's the Tor browser or any of the other systems of encryptions we use. The stuff that the child pornographers use to keep themselves away from the authorities is exactly the same software that's being used by whistleblowers, that's being used by Democratic activists, that's being used by civil liberties groups. And so the great difficulty is how - if you try too hard to undermine those systems of privacy and encryption that are being used by the bad guys because you're only worried about them, you are also going to adversely affect all the people that use it for social benefit. And that's one of the reasons why in the end, we are going to have to work out a way of living with some of this bad stuff. Because the benefits of Internet freedom and of Internet privacy are so enormous - not just in this country, not just in democracies but especially in brutal dictatorships all around the world. And so if we want those people to have protection and privacy, unfortunately it means that some bad people are going to use it for ill as well. But we shouldn't destroy the whole system simply as a result of the behavior of the bad guys.\n" ] }

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[ [], [], [], [], [ "http://www.npr.org/templates/transcript/transcript.php?storyId=411476653" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cl9eryw" ], "score": [ 6 ], "text": [ "If I understand you right, you are asking why at a large distances from a flashlight, you can't see the an object being illuminated by the flashlight beam, but if you turn and look directly into the flashlight from the same distance, you can see that it's on. The difference here is that to see the object under the flashlight beam's illumination, the light from the flashlight has to reflect into your eye. Most objects are no where near 100% reflective. The object only reflects some of the light into your eye - not enough for you to register. The rest of the light gets absorbed by the object and converted to heat, gets scattered in a direction other than the direction of your eye, or gets transmitted through. For instance, a simple, flat, mirror is about 95% reflective, but only in the mirror direction. If you are looking at the mirror at some angle other than the mirror angle with respect to the light source, than you will only receive less than 1% of the light incident on the mirror. If you align yourself with the mirror angle, you will indeed see the light of the flashlight coming off the mirror if you can see it by looking directly at the flashlight." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dw6o9dm", "dw6obrp", "dw6oe8v" ], "score": [ 2, 7, 2 ], "text": [ "I'm 40 and I'm here having always wondered the same thing, so don't think age is an issue! ", "So, for the big skyscraper cranes or \"tower\" crane, the center pillar the crane rests on can be jacked up - it grows \"up\" with the building. They'll use a smaller but somewhat portable (or assembled on site) boom crane to assemble the tower crane. Then the tower crane gets jacked up as the building grows. \n\nThen, once the building is done, the tower crane will lift up a smaller boom crane to the roof. The boom crane disassembles and lowers the pieces of the tower crane. Remember, the ability of a crane to lift \"up\" from its own level is limited by the length of its own boom and how far it can elevate it. All the smaller crane has to do is reach just above the component of the tower crane, which if they're both on or just above the roof isn't far. \n\nBut to lower the tower crane components to street level, that's just lots and lots of cable. Sometimes due to practical considerations, there might be a second boom crane halfway down or something. Roof crane lowers tower crane components halfway, 2nd crane lowers to street.\n\n[Outside of really tall skyscrapers though, boom cranes at street level are usually tall enough to reach the tower crane.](_URL_0_) So why not just build with the boom crane on the street? It won't have the lifting capacity of the tower crane. Also it won't be able to hold as much weight out from its center of rotation. The counterweights for the street level boom crane are mounted on the back of the crane itself. The tower crane's counterweights are suspended quite far out. Also, you have to have a lot of bracing for the street crane. The tower crane's stability is anchored by the building itself. \n", "That's basically it, only that smaller cranes build bigger cranes.\n\nYou usually build the big cranes because you want some very heavy stuff lifted that can't be lifted by mobile cranes. However, the stationary cranes consist of several smaller and lighter parts which can be lifted by a mobile crane and fixed together.\n\nSo big cranes is constructed on site from several parts. The parts are lifted up by smaller weaker and mobile cranes." ] }

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[ [], [ "https://youtu.be/LUQalhFFnOE?t=126" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "chghpal", "chgnqy1", "chgofa0" ], "score": [ 7, 2, 3 ], "text": [ "Names that describe geographical location? Well in California I can think of many, there's Oceanside, Riverside, Long Beach, Seaside, Quartz Hill. And with the Spanish heritage, California is not limited to English names, there are some in Spanish too: Arroyo Grande (big spring), Morro Bay (bluff), Cerritos (little hills), La Mesa (plateau). In indigenous languages there's Mojave, which means [beside the water](_URL_0_).\n\nBut I guess they're not common in the Americas because towns in Europe didn't document their founding (I can recall Rome has a myth of being founded); and in the newly discovered territories they colonists tried to leave their personal mark on the towns being founded (family name, crown, religious, or even the new version of were they came).", "Also, keep in mind that there are many towns and cities in the Americas whose names are corruptions of Native American names for the locations and that those names frequently are descriptive of their locations. For instance, the name of Saco, Maine is derived from an Eastern Abenaki term meaning \"land where the river comes out.\"^1\n\n1. William Bright, *Native American Placenames of the United States* (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004) [Link to Google Book] (_URL_0_)", "I can only speak for France, but in the early modern era, the central government decided that for ease of administration, no two villages would be allowed to have the same name. Most French towns that are named (Village)-sur-Mer or (Village)-sur-(river) tacked on that suffix in that era to comply with this decree. In the ensuing centuries, towns have been renamed or abandoned, so many of these villages lost their \"twin\" town with the same name, but retain the suffix anyway.\n\nSource: \"The Discovery of France\" by Graham Robb" ] }

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[ [ "http://www.bigorrin.org/mojave_kids.htm" ], [ "http://books.google.com/books?id=5XfxzCm1qa4C&pg=PA413&lpg=PA413&dq=saco+maine+etymology&source=bl&ots=ZSkDs2fowp&sig=_E_vi0qWVAfPt_IQeebRFdL_ol8&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ubhxU_zHDdWxyASrv4CgCQ&ved=0CFcQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=saco%20maine%20etymology&f=false" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cfm3gi5", "cfm7r0n" ], "score": [ 2, 3 ], "text": [ "If you don't like sour candy... there's more for me.", "It's just preference. I like the tingle sour candy or lemons give me. The flavor and tingly feelings are an experience." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cmejqki" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "In most cases it is water in the oil boiling away. The oil itself would boil at a much higher temperature." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cdjmmtx", "cdjpp0x", "cdjsx0o" ], "score": [ 11, 2, 3 ], "text": [ "Yes, GPS jamming is possible - as with any radio communications, you just need to fill the relevant frequencies with enough \"junk\" to drown out the actual signal.\n\nIt's also possible to spoof GPS signals, by creating a much more powerful signal that overrides the normal one. This can be used to convince a receiver that it is somewhere else than it actually is - examples of possible uses include misdirecting planes/ships to another destination, by carefully changing the signals you send it over time.\n\nIn both cases, yes, the area you cover would be limited by your transmission power.", "Dannei gave a good answer. I'm an engineer and I used to work on anti-jamming devices for the military. We built devices that would prevent enemy jamming equipment from effecting our military's GPS devices. ", "You didn't ask, but it's important from a historical point of view if you're interested in GPS. When GPS was first deployed, there was a function known as Selective Availability, which means that the US Government could intentionally block the GPS signal to all users except those who had authorised receivers. The basic idea was that it would cause all \"civilian\" receivers to be inaccurate, so it'd be useless for tracking. This functionality was turned off permanently during the Clinton administration and new Satellites are incapable of using it.\n" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "e9k5zyr", "e9k64i4" ], "score": [ 29, 13 ], "text": [ "Mostly from migratory Birds. A duck that goes from Lake to Lake will often carry eggs on its feet. All it takes is a few and with them traveling so much it's about the only way that you can have a species of fish that spans multiple areas. Otherwise every Lake would end up with a unique species due to a lack of genetic mixing. Some are also intentionally introduced by fisherman or government projects.", "The general answer is that either humans transported the fish there (intentionally or accidentally) or that the fish arrived as eggs clinging to the legs of waterfowl. \n\nThat said, although experts generally accept that dispersal by waterfowl is the most likely reason, it hasn't been formally proven - in other words, though it's probably right, no one has shown that it's true, as opposed to being plausible and probable.\n\n > Dispersal of fish eggs by water birds was overall the most frequent explanation online and in the questionnaire. In the scientific literature, however, we found hardly any empirical research on passive fish egg dispersal. \n\n--[Colonizing Islands of water on dry land—on the passive dispersal of fish eggs by birds](_URL_0_)" ] }

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[ [], [ "https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/faf.12270" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "d060v22" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "\"Real\" orange Fanta has sugar and orange juice in it. US orange Fanta has neither of those substances, to save money, and it's really orange, rather than yellower. Interestingly, in Mexico they use the same formula as in the EU, so it's really not a geographic thing. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d32u7fn", "d32u8ho", "d32u8r9", "d32uiyw" ], "score": [ 2, 4, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "A typical prayer lasts about 3-5 minutes; you could easily orient yourself towards Mecca for such a short time.\n\nAs for Ramadan, you just pick a time period to practice as a day, just like they do now, and use that for your fasting times.", "Their religion has come up with special rules to adapt over time. Children, old people and the sick dont have to fast. People in special occupations or life threatening conditions are allowed to eat. And mecca is on earth. So just pray facing earth and youre good. If you can time your bows when you pass the middle east I think you get bonus points.", "I'm not sure but as far as I know no Muslim has gone to space. For Ramadan they could just work on Mecca time irrespective of if they can see the sun from where they are.", "Not many people have been in space, so I very much doubt this issue has come up. \n\nIt is an interesting question. I would think the facing Mecca would be as simple as facing toward roughly where it is on the earth below you, or toward Earth if you are on another planet/moon. \nThat could take calculations if you aren't on our moon.\n\nAs for Ramadan, It would make sense to base your fasting on a digital clock that is based on the time zone you live in, or possible whenever the sun isn't visible to you, wherever you are. \n\nIn any case, it would be impractical, possibly dangerous, and definitely a pain in the ass. \n\nAs for whether the Qu'ran talking about this, there is no way in hell that it does. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d9f4nqu" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "it may be a sign of wealth to have some expensive whiskey around and to be able to enjoy an expensive lifestyle. I can't tell you if there are really people how have alcohol in their offices, but it is a move hollywood makes to show that a person is rich and successful." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d0p4t3g" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "It's pretty hard to give an ELI5 explanation, as you will see with the fairly elucidating Wikipedia explanation of the etymology. \n\nThe word sine derives from Latin sinus (\"bend\", \"bay\", \"the hanging fold of the upper part of a toga\", \"the bosom of a garment\"). The use of sinus originates in twelfth-century European translations of the Arabic word jaib (\"pocket\" or \"fold\").[29] This was in turn based on a misreading of the Arabic written form j-y-b, which itself originated as a transliteration from Sanskrit, of either jyā (the standard Sanskrit term for the sine) or the synonymous jīvā (both literally meaning \"bowstring\").[30]\nThe word tangent comes from Latin tangens meaning \"touching\", since the line touches the circle of unit radius, whereas secant stems from Latin secans — \"cutting\" — since the line cuts the circle.[31]\nThe prefix \"co-\" (in \"cosine\", \"cotangent\", \"cosecant\") is found in Edmund Gunter's Canon triangulorum (1620), which defines the cosinus as an abbreviation for the sinus complementi (sine of the complementary angle) and proceeds to define the cotangens similarly." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c6dp5vv", "c6dpj5o", "c6dpvfy", "c6dqv9b", "c6dwa7r", "c6dwfbn" ], "score": [ 8, 4, 3, 2, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "This grease is designed to stay in place and keep your bicycle's gears well lubricated for a long time between reapplication.\n\nThis stickiness is a good thing and is a desirable product of modern chemistry.\n\nFun Fact: in the \"old days\" gears would have to be re-lubricated on a frequent basis.", "1. Grease is actually a very interesting substance. Is usually consists of a lubricant and thickening agent. In terms of bike chain grease, you use a lubricant on the chain and then dust becomes the thickener. The grease will stick to your hands, but not like you think.Basically one end of the grease molecule is polarizes while the other is not and the non-polarized end is chemically attracted to the non-polarized oils on your skin. It also has to do with the pores and ridges in your skin and the viscosity of the grease. The grease gets into these area and its own viscosity keeps it from flowing _URL_0_ get it off your skin, don't use hand soap, use dish or even laundry detergent. The chemical structures of these soaps are a little different than hand soaps. They actually bond to the grease and pull it away from the skin.\n2. The grease sticks to the bike chain in a similar manner as skin. The cool thing about grease though is the effects of shear. As the bike chain travels and curls around the chain wheels, the pieces rub together and there is a shear force of the grease. Once enough shear force is applied, the grease's viscosity drops down close to the base lubricant's. This means the grease will stick to the parts when it is not needed and will lubricate when it is needed.", "If you pour oil or grease into water it will clump together so that the smallest amount of oil is in contact with the water. This is because things like oil and grease are \"Hydrophobic\" which means that they really don't like water and won't dissolve in it and try to get away from it. \n\nHydrophobic grease and oil make great lubricants because they won't dissolve in hydrophilic liquids (liquids that love water.) When you get grease stuck on your hands its tough to get off because it doesn't want to stick to the water that you're trying to wash it off with!\n\nIf you want to get rid of grease you can use things called surfactants (for example, detergents) which are made up of tiny little compounds that look like tadpoles. The \"head\" of the tadpole is hydrophilic while the \"tail\" is hydrophobic, the head wants to be with the water while the tail wants to be with the grease, they attach themselves to both the grease and the water and when you wash the surfactants away they take the grease with them.", "It likes to stick to the oil already on your hands (and the metal on your chain), but doesn't like to stick to itself. So it's great for lubing up stuff. \n\nI use [Facial Scrub](_URL_0_) to get chain grease off, it works better than WD40, dishwashing detergent, varsol, or gasoline. 30 seconds under the tap under warm water scrubbing and boom, its off. And it even doubles as facial cleanser! ", "You're using the wrong solvent. Water and oil/grease aren't miscible, which means water is a lousy way to try and wash oil/grease off something else.\n\nTry some rubbing alcohol.\n\nOr, if you only do it once every couple of years, Acetone.\n\nAcetone is in some nail polish removers, or you can just buy it at the hardware store. But be aware that it's highly flammable if the fumes build up, and it's not real good for your skin (you'll be able to tell). But it's amazing stuff for cutting grease.", "It's not hard at all if you use the correct liquid to get it off. Try Simple Green or GoJo, you will be amazed how easy that stuff just comes right the heck off." ] }

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[ [], [ "out.To" ], [], [ "http://www.stives.com/Facial-Products/Fresh-Skin/Invigorating-Apricot-Scrub/" ], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "djua42s" ], "score": [ 6 ], "text": [ "In the example you cited, bacteria. There is a non-animal source for every vitamin we need." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "crrww44", "crs0im2", "crs8bxi", "crs8zwb", "crsoamz" ], "score": [ 1554, 61, 46, 23, 4 ], "text": [ "Because it *is* liquidy. The screen uses something called a \"liquid crystal\", which is a layer of a special liquid sandwiched between two pieces of glass or plastic (or one piece of glass and one piece of plastic). \n\nThis liquid is what forms the image, by changing how it interacts with polarized light depending on the electric field applied.", "Tiny little needles that pivot when voltage is applied, blocks and unblocks the backlight. Red, green and blue colors are subpixel filters that can change the overall pixel, generally 2^32 different colors to your eyes (color depth). When you push on the screen, you are moving or pivoting the tiny little needles a little bit to change it's subpixel colors, which changes the overall color. It looks liquidy because that's what a screen is, an array of liquid crystals. Some monitors have a thin plastic film to allow pressure to disrupt the colors, while others use glass to prohibit a small area from being pressurized and damaging the array.", "If your screen is an LCD, then that would be why: LCD = Liquid Crystal Display. Applying pressure to a point on your screen, whether front or back, causes the liquid crystals to disperse away from that point.\n\nPlease stop pressing your fingers against your monitor.", "I learned they can sort of heal themselves too.\n\nAt work a few years ago someone was carrying a monitor and their belt buckle dug into it causing a ~1\" x 6\" black spot in the middle of the monitor. Since it was worthless for testing I took it and used it as a 2nd monitor. Over time the damaged spot started to work again as the liquid from the top filled it back up.", "_URL_0_\n\nThe liquid in your monitor blocks light because of the way its molecules are arranged. Applying pressure to the monitor disturbs the arrangement of the molecules (as does the electric current in your monitor), causing them to block light." ] }

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[ [], [], [], [], [ "https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jiejNAUwcQ8" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "ccwu8yy", "ccwudqd", "ccwufqm" ], "score": [ 2, 5, 3 ], "text": [ "There are several.\n\n_URL_0_", "Their called River Sharks and they exist.\n\n_URL_1_\n\nBut basically the problem is that it is difficult for a species to live in both freshwater and salt water it requires really specific adaptation. This is called Euryhaline _URL_0_ and is relatively rare in nature. For large carnivorous it's especially difficult to hunt in fresh water because of the size of the prey. In the ocean your not restricted by the depth of of the water, but in river the walk can be much shallower which doesn't support as large animals and make shark body less adaptable to the environment.", "It's not the body shape, but the way they regulate fluids.\n\nThere are 2 types of \"fish\" loosely. Freshwater (FW) and Saltwater (SW). Some can live in both for either short or long periods.\n\nWe also need to understand that blood, has a certain amount of \"salt\" in it -- ions, that help with everything from transporting wastes (pee) to oxygen.\n\nIn SW, the salt in the water is higher than salt in the fish's body. So, the body loses water and must drink constantly to keep the salt and water balanced. \n\nIn FW the animal (fish/shark) has a higher concentration of salt in its body than in the water around it. So, the body is constantly absorbing water, and the fish needs to pee constantly.\n\nIn sharks, as primitive animals, they don't regulate these fluids well (or, let's say, they can't do it actively) unlike the bony fishes who've adapted to do this and thus have adapted to FW or SW." ] }

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[ [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freshwater_shark" ], [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euryhaline", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_shark" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cru3k22", "cru8pi2", "cru9k1r", "crupipq", "crur12r", "cruv6p1" ], "score": [ 20, 20, 7, 2, 2, 3 ], "text": [ "Probably to make it seem at least a tiny bit legitimate. Like \"see, we didn't even get 100% of the votes, we're totally a democracy.\" ", "If you vote for someone that isn't part of the regime, and the regime ends up with 100% of all the votes, that is clearly incorrect, and most probably rigged. This would increase the chance of people standing up to the regime to question the legitimacy of the vote, and the government/dictator.\n\nHowever, if there is a small percentage of votes that go against the regime, then it seems as though everyone around you has voted for, and not against. This makes you part of a minority, so you'll keep quiet about voting for others to make sure that you don't get imprisoned/killed for not voting for the regime.", "Typically, there is actually a choice on the ballot paper; it's just not a real choice. [Here is a particularly blatant example from the German elections of 1936](_URL_0_): the choices are to either vote for Hitler, or to spoil your ballot paper. The official result was 98.8% for the Nazis, and 1.2% were spoiled. Unmarked papers were counted as votes for the Nazis.", "So that all those who *did* vote for the supreme leader can wonder what happened to the 1% of people that didnt.\n\n\"Oh man, I wonder how bad those *other* people got it?\"", "Because if one where to vote against him and the score would be a 100% it would be obvious to that person that its a lie. So the do 99% to make it legit. ", "I was born in a communist country so I can shed some light on it:\n\nIt's because the voting in the elections in overt dictatorships is paradoxically not what you rig. It is the rules governing **which candidates you can vote for** which are rigged. What you might not realize is that in authoritarian and totalitarian countries very often the pretense of \"legitimacy\" is maintained to an absurd level as means of population control - so even though it is a de-facto dictatorship people will still be expected to show up during election day, cast votes, be corrected if they cast it incorrectly, then the votes will be counted, verified ... everything as if it was all proper free democratic election. It's actually quite hilarious when you look back at it.\n\nWhen that happens and you have only one list of candidates from the main party the only way to express dissent is to not got to an election or cast an invalid vote. The problem is that very often the regulations state that since there's only one list then even an empty vote can be counted as a vote for the approved candidates! Essentially since you show up at the voting booth, put your signature down on the list you the only way you could avoid voting is to not put the ballot into the urn.\n\nSince you have to sign in before voting there typically is plenty of repression against people who don't come to vote - they lose jobs, get arrested on fake charges etc. Once you sign in you get a ballot and often will go into a private stall (!) to \"choose your candidate\" but then you come out and the urn is in the middle of the room so that it can be observed. If you don't put your ballot in people who supervise the elections know somethings up.\n\nAnd then - like I said - even if you scribble all over the ballot it might still count depending on the rules but in most places it didn't matter since people were so terrorized that once they were forced to go and vote they just put their mark by whatever name was \"proper\" and came back home.\n\nSo the only way for people to actually not be able to cast a vote which counts would be to do something really stupid like honestly mark too many names or for the people in the commission to lose some ballots - legitimately.\n\n------\n\nThe elections which **were rigged like you wouldn't believe** are typically the elections which lead up to establishing of an authoritarian or totalitarian regime. In my home country - communist Poland- it would be the 1947 referendums and elections.\n\nIn Germany it theoretically would be the March 1933 election since the next one in November 1933 was after the Enabling Acts and had just NSDAP on the list but there was not so much widespread fraud as much as generally the SA and NSDAP trying to terrorize the opposition since Nazis were put in charge of essentially the only federal state in Germany that counted - Prussia - in 1932 following what can only be described as a putsch/coup by the ruling conservatives in Berlin against socialist government of Prussia. The election in November 1933 was on the other hand a very orderly election with some people simply not showing up in protest so even though the attendance was say 50% the votes were 99.5% for NSDAP - minus some lost ballots.\n\nAll fair :]\n\n" ] }

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[ [], [], [ "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Wahlzettel-3.-Reich.jpg/440px-Wahlzettel-3.-Reich.jpg" ], [], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cig3g8o", "cig3gy9", "cig40xp", "cig4zsj", "cig5ccr", "cig75cz", "cig9tmp", "cig9uw5", "cigago3", "cigavfg", "cigaxik", "cigazvt", "cigb57x", "cigb5cb", "cigbc5f", "cigbdct", "cigbyl0", "cigcc0c", "cigdwaa", "cige2q1", "cigevag", "ciggngs", "ciggpxq", "cighmp7", "cigi97g", "ciginr5", "cigj0yt", "cigjmpj", "cigl60v", "ciglz5c", "cign7t3", "cignjvv", "cigp196", "cigpnpv", "cigv5rv" ], "score": [ 3, 2353, 97, 216, 4, 4, 19, 2, 9, 2, 10, 9, 2, 5, 3, 86, 3, 10, 3, 30, 11, 3, 3, 5, 12, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "Your local DOT to better understand traffic in that area. They then use that information to adjust traffic lights or make decisions to better the safety of the community. ", "They're very simple and cheap methods to gather traffic data for road and traffic planning. They're generally put down by local government and/or highways agencies, or companies working under contract to them. Potential questions they could be asking:\n\n* There are planned road works on this road. How much traffic will we need to account for to divert on to other roads?\n* There are high rates of accidents near this point. How fast are people generally travelling?*\n* The signals down the road are often getting jammed up. How many cars regularly pass this area?\n* Are large numbers of people using this side street as a cut-through to avoid a main road?\n* Are the traffic signals further down the road creating enough natural gaps for pedestrians to cross, or do we need a specific pedestrian crossing here?\n\nIn short, those tubes are an extremely cheap and effective way of measuring lots of things about traffic for planning purposes. There's also no potentially identifying information collected, so nobody tends to care about being monitored by them. \n\n[Edit]\n\n*To answer a very common followup question, these lines are usually put down in pairs a few yards apart so that speed can be measured. Measuring speed with a single line is indeed very unreliable because of varying wheelbase lengths, but with two lines you're literally measuring the time to travel between two points which is exactly what speed is. ", "Anyone have a picture of them? I'm not sure what the things are you're talking about.", "Mazca got pretty much all of it correct. However in our town our local PD puts it out to see how fast cars are going, at what times of day do cars go the fastest, and what types of cars are travelling through. This helps plan out where cops should patrol and enforce speed at.\n\nSource: work with the local PD and just set ours up yesterday.", "What would happen if I repeatedly drive back and forth on them for 10 minutes?", "Also, major corporate retailers do intense amounts of research and metrics before deciding to occupy a new location. One of the things they will often have done is a traffic count in front of prospective locations. How many cars per hour, how many each hour, and how many each way. You could have forty thousand cars per hour in front of your property, but if they are all on the other side of a divided street with no easy access to your site in the morning, your coffee joint might not do so well.", "Side notes for fans: Bill gates started his business life by creating a program to count cars with such a system (look for \"Traf-O-Data\", his company)", "There are also sensors/counters in the road and those white boxes on poles near the road are also counters/sensors. The ones in the road use the magnetic field of your car, which varies from model to model, to determine traffic volume and speed by recognizing and calculating from sensor A to sensor B a bit down the road. I'm not sure the method of the boxes.", "If one hose is across the road they are counting traffic. If two hoses are across the road they are taking speed measurements. Yes. It's true.", "Omg I have always wanted to ask that question when I see them, but always forget to ask or find it out. \n\nThanks for this ELI5", "can someone link to an image of what OP is talking about", "What the fuck are those? I've never seen them before.", "I work in real estate. We primarily deal with commercial transactions and traffic counts are very important number. It basically gives you an estimate of how many people are going to see your sign/store. The higher the traffic count, the more potential customers you have.", "I dont know what OP is referring to, can someone post a picture or something?", "Always wanted to know this. Thanks, OP/MVP", "Traffic analyst for the Georgia DOT here. It's part of my job to determine where to lay these tubes throughout the state. In Georgia, at least, most of those tubes are put down by the state DOTs or contractors working for the state. Every state in the country is required to annually submit a report to the USDOT through HPMS (Highway Performance Monitoring System). The HPMS report can determine the allocation funding to each state from the federal government for highway improvement and maintenance. Traffic counts are about half of this report. The tubes can also be put at specific locations that are being studied for possible improvements. The tubes and system that runs them can actually differentiate 19 different types of vehicles including: motorcycles, cars, light trucks, and all the different varieties of single-unit trucks (dump trucks, box trucks, wreckers, etc), and combo-unit trucks (tankers, logging trucks, and all varieties 18-wheelers). The way you can tell if they are counting solely volume or volume and vehicle type is if there are one or two tubes laid across the road. ", "I always thought the road people put them there, and counted how many cars went over them, and if there was enough, they would pave that road. So i convinced my older sister (i was 10) to drive back and forth over it several hundred times. The road didnt get paved.", "I can actually answer this one, since I'm a highway engineer. They are generally placed there by the state's DOT, a private contractor, or some other agency. They count cars continuously and with more accuracy than a human could do (as an intern I used to get sent out to manually do smaller traffic counts in 4 to 8 hour increments-it sucked). We use the data to assess current traffic conditions, improve light timing, predict future conditions, and try to see if there is anything significant to note about traffic patterns (peak hours when lights might need to change cycle length, etc). The data is generally available through the DOT. For example Indiana has their data on a nice little map :)\n\n_URL_0_", "The first version of this was called the Traf-o-Data. It was invented by Bill Gates before he started Microsoft. The new versions are probably just updated versions of his original. So everytime you run over a hose, Bill is probably getting paid.", "It looks like most of this has been answered but I used to work for the my states dept of transportation. \n\nAs stated in the top comment these are used to collect data for a multitude of possible reasons. \n\nIf you see two of these spaced only a few feet apart they are actually taking speed data as well. \n\n\nIn my experience they are primarily used for two reasons. 1. They are expecting to start construction and need data on how many vehicles pass through. 2. They are considering changing the speed limit. \n\nA few fun facts just because I have all of this useless knowledge about roads:\n- The lines between lanes and the ones that designate passing zones are 10 feet long and are spaced 30 feet apart. \n- The paint gets its reflectivity from glass beads that are sprayed onto the wet paint right after it is sprayed. \n- Painting lines is way harder than you'd think. \n- Buzz strips are made from multiple layers of thermoplastic. Depending on your states department this can either be put down in liquid form. Or the funner way they come in strips and you get to use cool propane torches to heat the road and the thermoplastic. \n- Reflectors are placed 40 feet apart. \n- If you look down an edit ramp from the wrong direction they'll show red. From the correct direction they are white. \n- If you see a blue reflector in the road that means that a fire hydrant is on the side of the road at that location. Firefighters use these especially at night. \n\nI've probably got more but these are what I can think of now. \n", "i use the data in my day to day work to calculate delays due to road construction and for things like planning for future projects (e.g. determining the number of lanes needed at a new signal/roundabout). we also go out and physically sit at intersections and count vehicles for turn movements, take video and do the same in our cubicles or as a coworker built, using a radar detector to count cars as well.\n\n(i work in traffic for a state DOT)", "In my city, they're used to count through traffic on a route to determine if a red light camera will actually make money. They need a certain volume of traffic in order for a camera to actually be profitable. I mean, they could just look at the statistics for where the most accidents are, but their goal is not to reduce accidents. It's to make money.\n\nIf you have photo-enforcement in your city, that's probably why they're counting.", "As well as counting, they can calculate the speed of the vehicles. If they find people speeding, speed bumps and other garbage can be installed on the road.\n\nTLDR: drive slow over these to avoid shitty roads.", "I work with reports for these, we call them ATCs (Automatic Traffic Counters). The tubes are pressurised and count vehicles when they drive over one tube and find the direction when they drive over the other tube, then figure out what vehicle type it is when the back end drives over it using various axle lengths. They can sometimes be fairly accurate at finding vehicles, but sometimes they can't if the road surface is bad or there's queueing/busy traffic. They can also identify speeds, so clients can find out how many break the speed limit when approaching something such as a level crossing.", "I actually design and make these things. here is the short explanation:\n \nRoad tubes are used to detect vehicle axles by sensing air pluses that are created by each axle (tire) strike of the tube in the roadway. This air pulse is sensed by the unit and is recorded or processed to create volume, speed, or axle classification data. While one road tube is used to collect volume, two road tubes can be used to collect speed and class data.\n\nI can go into great detail about the specifics if anyone wants to know more. ", "the city puts them there to gather statistical information about traffic in order to find ways of improvements", "They count and classify vehicles. There's tons of uses for this data, one of which is pavement design. Basically the life of a pavement is expressed in number of ESAs (Equivalent Standard Axles) that can drive over it before it fails. 1 ESA is basically equivalent to a double tyred axle on a truck. Because pavements fail with cumulative loading not overloading (though overloading has a big impact because the damage follows a 4th power of the load) the number of trucks is important. \n\nIn damage terms, cars do sweet F.A. to the strength of the road, but the polish the surface while trucks root the pavement structure (triaxles do both when they turn though, they're nasty). Overloaded trucks really fuck over the pavement which is why most places heavily police this.\nIf the road structure gets wrecked it has to be rebuilt (takes ages, really expensive), if it gets polished smooth you just have to resurface it (takes less time, cost a lot, but nowhere near as much)", "One of the reason, I believe it is not explained yet as far as i can see, is the utilization of roads. Road traffic is a dynamic matter. Such counting helps to adjust the traffic light duration, the interacting with other traffic lights and avoid traffic jam.\nAnother way to do that, is counting by persons. I think, it would give more flexibility of what to count - as example, how many cars straight, how many cars make a left or right turn and how many ugly cars - but that depends on the counter and becomes an area of fuzzy logic.", "Data entry here--I count cars using a camera and custom keypad. Those cords count how many cars go through one direction of traffic. This is what's known as a \"volume count\" because it doesn't specify class or weight of the vehicle. Usually if it's volume they're after, it's to accompany the road to any changes that may or already have occurred. Sometimes it's just to keep the road paved regularly, and sometimes it's used to know how many people go into a businesses's parking lot. It's incredibly cheap compared to what I do, which accounts for direction, class, weight. Compliance to red lights, pedestrians, ect.", "Placed there by either the state highway dept, or the city roads dept. Whomever has responsibility for managing that road. \n\nThe data is used to plan future road improvements. To beg hopelessly for funds to maintain the existing roads, and to do other road and traffic management", "I always assumed they were a cheap way to gather data on traffic speed. Going by the use of two lines I figured they would measure the time between contacts.", "They are used to count traffic. There are two types that use two tubes. When both tubes go completly across the road, they are trying to count vehicles regardless of the number of axles, comparing the frequency of bumps between the tubes lets the system determine if one vehicle with four axles passed over or two vehicles with two axles.\n\nThe other type, where one tube goes halfway, is used to count traffic in both directions.", "They're devices that collect data about the roadways that are completely ignored in the Midwest. ", "The count the amount, speed and direction of traffic.\n\nThey are placed by an engineering firm on behalf of the city/local government to determine if the area needs speed bumps or other traffic calming upgrades. (stop lights, etc)", "They're used to measure traffic volume before a construction project which will require detours. They take the measurements and then use them to determine the proper routes for the detours. " ] }

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[ [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [ "http://dotmaps.indot.in.gov/apps/trafficcounts/" ], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "d01go26", "d01ip7k", "d01wc6e" ], "score": [ 13, 4, 2 ], "text": [ "**Yes, it's the face structure.**\n\nHumans are quite good at recognising small details in faces. Our brains are \"programmed\" that way.\n\nMen and women typically have different facial characteristics. To an alien or another animal we all look the same, but we can usually tell the difference.", "As @Locust377 explained, facial structure plays a role. However it is notable that Drag Queens [structure their makeup differently](_URL_0_) than a natural woman to accentuate more effeminate features to vast extremes.", "As a gay guy who's dabbled - yes, the facial structure is problematic. You can, and most Drag artists do, structure your makeup to brighten and darken specific lines (corners of the forehead, cheeks, jawline) in order to make yourself look more Female, but it's very much an art form.\n\nMost high-profile drag artists do not attempt to blend in, they go for big hair and loud colours. Other redditors have given great examples you can check out. What I go for is called \"Fishy\" drag - it focuses on blending in with female appearance to either fully appear female or, at the least, make others uncertain - \"There's something fishy about that girl.\"\n\nThere's a lot more to it than facial structure and makeup for the whole look - glasses can make your face seem more round, hair frames it differently for different styles, different dresses can hide a flat chest and accentuate hips, etc. But you'll notice you have a harder time identifying men in drag from different cultures (the Stereotypical Thailand as an example) as you're not used to their subtle differences in structure.\n\nEdit: Grammar" ] }

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[ [], [ "https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/236x/3e/08/32/3e083277fc8776d9e4ed629267b4377a.jpg" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "f818c79" ], "score": [ 9 ], "text": [ "So: Let's get the fundamental idea out of the way. In a database, you'd like to store data in one place, and one place only. You don't want to have it so that a single piece of information appears in multiple places in the database, nor do you want your database to be unable to process requests that \"don't fit\" in to the database: like being unable to store the information about four children, because you assumed that each parent only has three at most. The aim of the game is that each data appears once, and that the data you're storing is connected in a somewhat logical fashion. \n\n\nSo, What are the normal forms?\n\n***1NF***\n\nThis is essentially just a sanity check: does your database make any sort of sense fundamentally?\n\nA database in 1NF will follow the following 4 rules:\n\n1. Each column only stores 1 value. You f.i won't have a column storing a phone number *and* address: you'd have two columns - one storing phone numbers, and one storing addresses. \n\n2. Each column only deals with a single domain of data. If your column is named \"Phone numbers\" you would expect every single row in that column to be a phone number. If your \"phone numbers\" column has a row that has \"123, Street Avenue Rd\" then you have a problem. This is a pretty common sense rule: Columns store what they say they are storing. \n\n3. Columns in a table have unique names. This is also pretty common sense, if two columns in a table are named \"phone numbers\" how will the database system know which one you're asking for?\n\n4. The order of the data entered does not matter. It doesn't matter if entry \"12\" appears before entry \"9\", or if \"John Smith\" is before or after \"Samantha White\". Your database either does not care, or has a column specifically specifying what the order should be (like Date of birth or Alphabetical). You can sort afterwards as you need the data. \n\n\nSo, that's all fairly understandable.\n\n***2NF***\n\nThe second normal form essentially makes sure that data in a table is identified with the *entire* primary key. \n\nA database in 2NF if:\n\n1. it is in 1NF\n\n2. It does not contain any partial dependencies. \n\nPartial dependencies are when some columns are identified by *part* of a composite primary key, but not *all* of it.\n\nLet's for instance take a simple example I nicked from the internet. \n\nYou're storing some information about student grades. \n\n|Student Id|Subject ID|Student Name|Grade|\n:--|:--|:--|:--|\n|1|40|John|70|\n|1|45|John|80|\n|2|40|AAron|60|\n|3|29|Lisa|80|\n\n\nYou have a composite primary key from (student id, subject id). In order to uniquely identify a grade you must specify a student, and a subject - since students can be in many subjects and subjects can be attended by many students. \n\nHowever, notice \"name\" here, which identifies the name of the student. That doesn't depend on the subject, only the student ID. This is partial dependency: a column (student name) is uniquely identified by part of the primary key (The student ID). This column will be the same no matter what subject this student is learning.\n\nThe solution here is simply dropping the \"name\" column and adding it to the \"Students\" table, where it presumably only depends on the student ID: as so.\n\nTable Grades \n\n|Student Id|Subject ID|Grade|\n:--|:--|:--|:--|\n|1|40|70|\n|1|45|80|\n|2|40|60|\n|3|29|80|\n\nTable Students\n\n|Student Id|Name|DOB|\n:--|:--|:--|:--|\n|1|John|12-5-1997|\n|2|AAron|30-1-1998|\n|3|Lisa|20-10-1997|\n\n\n***3NF***\n\nA table is in 3NF if\n\n1. It is in 2NF\n\n2. It doesn't have transitive dependency. \n\nTransitive dependency is when a column is dependent on a different column that *isn't* a primary key. If a column is dependent on some information in the database, it *must* be dependent on a primary key. \n\n\n***BCNF***\n\nThis is a bit tricky, but is essentially a stronger version of 3.\n\na BCNF database follows:\n\n1. It is in 3NF\n\n2. for any dependency A → B, A should be a super key.\n\nWhat it essentially says is that if B depends on A, then A is a super-key. A super-key is any value or set of values that can be used to uniquely identify a row. It's fairly rare that a 3NF table is not of BCNF, but I suggest you try to look further in to it on your own.\n\n\n***4NF***\n\nA database is in 4NF if\n\n* it is in BCNF\n\n* There are no multi value dependencies.\n\nA multi value dependency is essentially where two independent columns both depend on the same primary key.\n\nImagine a table that includes kids and pets of someone. \n\n|Id|Name|Kid|Pet|\n:--|:--|:--|:--|\n|1|John|Jennifer|Sparkles|\n|1|John|Billy|Sparkles|\n|2|AAron|null|Minny|\n|2|AAron|null|Blubbers|\n|2|AAron|null|Doggo|\n|3|Lisa|Sarah|Cuddles|\n|3|Lisa|Sarah|Junebug|\n|3|Lisa|Joey|Cuddles|\n|3|Lisa|Joey|Junebug|\n\n\nNotice how we're just splurging unwanted rows, because we are trying to include each kid/pet combination for each employee. Lisa has two kids and two pets, but gets four rows because we must list each kid and each pet. \n\nA better solution would be having a \"kids\" table and \"Pets\" table, so that kids and pets can independently depend on the person in question instead of having to try and share a single dependency." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ce9dfwm" ], "score": [ 7 ], "text": [ "Short selling.\n\nAt the beginning of the trading day, the Dukes have a fake, unreleased forecast report saying that there will be a shortage of oranges, and therefore the price of frozen concentrated orange juice (FCOJ) will go up.\n\nThe Dukes' goal is to buy as much FCOJ as they can before the report is released and take advantage of the price increase.\n\nLewis instead waits for the price to go way high and then starts *selling* FCOJ he doesn't even own. Basically, he's borrowing shares and promising to buy them back later.\n\nThe real crop report comes out, saying there is no shortage of oranges. The price of FCOJ tanks, and Lewis finishes his short sale by buying back the shares he has to own to cover his earlier sale.\n\nLewis sold high and bought low, in that order. The Dukes bought high, much more than they could actually afford, and what they own now is worthless, so they can't pay back the exchange (the \"margin call\"). This bankrupts them.\n\n_URL_0_" ] }

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[ [ "http://www.popmodal.com/video/1277/Trading-Places-Final-Exchange-Scene-amp-Explanation" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "d3ieedn" ], "score": [ 11 ], "text": [ "You're right that entanglement doesn't seem weird if you just assume that the outcome was determined at the point when the particles were entangled. This was once a major interpretation of quantum mechanics, which I'll call \"local hidden variables.\" Unfortunately, it turns out that this interpretation leads to different experimental consequences than quantum mechanics, and experiments seem to show that quantum mechanics is correct. This is in contrast to \"Copenhagen\"-like interpretations, which claim that it doesn't make sense to assign one or the other coin to \"heads\" or \"tails\" until they are measured. This is the usual picture of what you call \"quantum weirdness,\" though as you point out entanglement can't be used to communicate. \n\nLet me go over why local hidden variables do not work using a thought experiment (I'm using an edited version of a previous post of mine here). the TL;DR is that using very basic assumptions of probabilities, you can't assign the same kinds of probabilities to a local hidden variable theory that you can assign with a quantum mechanical theory, and experiments have shown that quantum mechanics is correct in these cases.\n\nThe thought experiment involves a pair of electrons with entangled spins. After being created at the same point, the electrons go in opposite directions towards two detectors, A and B. Unless there is some way for them to communicate \"at a distance,\" they cannot send any information to each other after they are separated. When A and B measure the spin of their individual electrons along any axis, they always get either \"up\" or \"down\" with 50% probability each. However, if they measure their spins along the same direction, they always get opposite values from each other.\n\nLet's try to explain this using a probability theory, like flipping a coin. If we could solve the classical dynamics of a flipped coin exactly, we could always predict whether it is heads or tails. However, we don't have this info, so we assign some probability P and 1-P of it being heads and tails respectively (probability of heads + probability of tails = 1 of course, you must get some answer). After flipping the same coin many times, you'll be able to reconstruct the probability P. For a fair coin, P = .5, but you could have a rigged coin where P is anything between 0 and 1.\n\nCorrespondingly, we assume that the two spins have some definite function telling them what their \"actual\" spin is at any angle, which was determined when they were created, but we can't figure it out. However, we can replace the exact values with some probabilities which successive experiments will converge to. Let's assume that A and B both only measure their particles along the angles 0°, 120°, and 240° with respect to the z-axis. We assume that A has some unknown probabilities for measuring spin up for her particle at these angles:\n\nP(A=up,0°) = X\n\nP(A=up,120°) = Y\n\nP(A=up,240°) = Z\n\nwhere X, Y, and Z are between 0 and 1, and of course, P(A=down,0°) = 1 - P(A=up,0°) = 1 - X, etc., since each probability must add to one (with certainty, either up or down will be measured). Finally, since the distribution for particle B needs to be opposite that for A (the two electron spins are perfectly anticorrelated in any given direction), we have\n\nP(B=down,0°) = X\n\nP(B=down,120°) = Y\n\nP(B=down,240°) = Z.\n\nOk, so we've set up a theory, and we can now try to fit experiments to this. Notice, importantly, that we have to specify all three angles for both particles, because the angles can be changed en route between when the particles are created and detected - unless the particles \"know\" what is going on somewhere else, they need to have all of the above information specified at the start.\n\nLet's ask a simple question. What is the total probability that the A and B spins have opposite spins across any two distinct angles? That is, P = P(A at 0° opposite of B at 120°) + P(A at 0° opposite of B at 240°) + P(A at 120° opposite of B at 240°). This is:\n\nP = XY + (1-X)(1-Y) + XZ + (1-X)(1-Z) + YZ + (1-Y)(1-Z).\n\nI hope it's clear how I computed this probability from the above definitions. After some simple algebra:\n\nP = 1 + 2XYZ + 2(1-X)(1-Y)(1-Z) ≥ 1.\n\nHere, the final inequality follows because X, Y, and Z are between 0 and 1 since they are probabilities, so both terms are just positive numbers. This is called a Bell inequality, and **it is totally independent of what X, Y, and Z are**. It applies for any hidden variable theory given the assumptions I've made throughout (mostly locality).\n\nOf course, the punchline is the quantum calculation, which agrees with experiment:\n\nP_quantum = 3/4 < 1.\n\nQED. No matter what probability distribution you give me, whatever values of X, Y, and Z, it will fail to describe quantum mechanics and experiments.\n\nHow do we reconcile this? One easy way is to allow FTL communication. Maybe the particles know what the detector will measure infinitesimally before they reach it, and they change their distribution then. Maybe the particles communicate with each other faster than light to make their probabilities change. \n\nThe other way is not to assign probabilities to events which aren't measured, so you do not have any sort of probability distribution like I wrote above. Essentially, each \"classical\" probability P(A at 0° opposite of B at 120°) assumes that there is some probabilities assigned to the 240° angles, but in local quantum mechanics, you simply don't assign values to the unmeasured angle. But this is precisely the \"weirdness\" that local hidden variables is trying to get rid of." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cf13toi", "cf1h985" ], "score": [ 6, 5 ], "text": [ "So this one is actually pretty well documented with Google Searches:\n\n_URL_0_\n\n**Foods that aid skin care:** These foods increase overall skin health\n\nVitamin A,E, & C rich foods\n\nZinc & Selenium\n\nProper Hydration\n\n\n**Foods that may worsen acne**\n\nMilk which comes from cows that have hormone supplements, there is still on going research into how these hormones given to cows affect humans, especially adolescent women. \n\nExcessive simple sugars which can raise insulin levels will degrade overall skin health. Increased androgens stimulate sebum production and clog pores.\n\n\nDisclaimer: Generally speaking the foods I've listed here deal with overall skin health, and are not acne specific. \n", "There are a few studies that point to the relationship between a hyperglycaemic (high sugar) diet and milk consumption with certain hormonal responses that stimulate the sebaceous glands in your face. For example: _URL_0_\nThis is an interesting study that suggests a link between milk consumption and a pile of insulin-related problems, including acne:\n_URL_1_\n\nEssentially, spiking your insulin can aggravate your acne, and doing this over a long period of time is linked to worsening symptoms" ] }

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[ [ "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2836431/" ], [ "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19709092", "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21335995" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "c3mxoq7" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "As a note, we don't generally measure against *absolute* brain size, but we note that most animals fall along a fit of brain size to body mass ratio. Some animals lying above or below this line (humans being reasonably well above it, if I recall correctly) seem to indicate more or less intelligence. Sorry on a mobile device so can't link, but check out wiki for brain to body ratio" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cilzyjx", "cim01kk", "cim07c1" ], "score": [ 5, 9, 2 ], "text": [ "In America, employers are required to provide health insurance for employees since we can't get our shit together with a single payer system like the rest of the First World. Hobby Lobby is a company owned by conservative Christians that believe birth control is a sin. Our Supreme Court just decided that Hobby Lobby--and other companies owned by people who have a religious problem with birth control--do not need to provide health insurance that covers birth control for their employees.\n\nSo now what? Do Jehova's Witness employers need to provide insurance that covers blood transfusions? Do Scientologist employers need to provide insurance that covers mental health issues? Do Christian Science employers need to provide any health insurance at all? At this time, nobody knows the legal answers to these questions.", "The new Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) requires some private corporations to offer specific healthcare options to their employees. The required coverage includes prophylactics and birth control pills, some of which can be used to induce abortion (i.e. the \"morning after\" pill). \n\nHobby Lobby is a Christian-owned privately-held business that objected to this part of the law on religious grounds. Generally in the US, there are no religious exceptions granted for generally applicable laws: even if your religion expressly condones slavery, you are not allowed to buy, sell or own slaves in the US (at least since 1865). \n\nA law passed in 1993, tendentiously named \"The Religious Freedom Restoration Act,\" requires the government to refrain from infringing on people's (or businesses') religious freedom unless a) doing so serves a compelling government interest and b) there is no \"less restrictive\" method available to achieve the same end. \n\nYesterday's Supreme Court decision simply applied the RFRA law, and didn't reach the deeper constitutional questions implicated by the case. \n\n**TL;DR - It is the RFRA law that opens the door for religious exceptions to US public laws, not the SCOTUS decision.** ", "Hobby Lobby is a corporation that claims it that the Affordable Care Act violates it's right to freedom of religion. Hobby Lobby doesn't want to provide certain types of birth control within their healthcare plan, and the ACA says they have to. This is related to the Citizens United Case, wherein the Supreme Cort ruled that limiting corporate campaign contributions infringed on a corporation's freedom of speech." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "f67koyc", "f67oysu" ], "score": [ 2, 8 ], "text": [ "Yes, it is possible to replace a heart with a continual flow pump. However, little research has been done and the only example I know is an impoverished South American man who missed a follow-up appointment because he “felt fine” despite his heart having completely died by the time he could be contacted. Therefore it is difficult to know all the pros and cons.", "Continuous flow pumps are used routinely in any surgery requiring cardiopulmonary bypass - congenital heart defect repairs in children, valve replacement surgeries in adults, and so on. These pumps are quite large and are operated by a specialist with (in the United States) a specialized college degree. The longer-term extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) pump can replace heart and lung function for a considerable period of time - up to a few months if required. Both of these pumps provide continuous flow but also come with some significant challenges and incur substantial risk.\n\nThere are a number of implantable pumps that can take over some portion of heart function. The Berlin Heart Excor device provides pulsatile flow, but requires an external drive unit about the size of a rolling suitcase. The HeartMate is an implantable impeller device that provides continuous flow. Its support equipment is considerably smaller. There are newer devices hitting the market all the time, many of which are considerably smaller and more portable than devices only a few years older. Collectively, these are called ventricular assist devices.\n\nThere is considerable debate regarding the need for pulsatile flow. It is claimed that continuous flow interferes with the kidney’s ability to regulate blood pressure. There does appear to be some evidence for long term kidney injury without pulsatile flow, but there are many individuals who have been supported by continuous flow devices for protracted periods without major loss of renal function. \n\nThe advantages to continuous flow are mainly in that it is mechanically much simpler to provide continuous flow rather than pulsatile flow. The power requirements generally are less, and the devices themselves can be made much smaller." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c1vpqld", "c1vpr4b", "c1vsu6k" ], "score": [ 2, 6, 2 ], "text": [ "I experience similar things when I've been exposed to sunshine (or other strong light) from one side only. Might have something to do with the photopsins being bleached and not yet replenished. But you have this all the time?\n\n[See here for example.](_URL_0_)", "This was asked last week … *twice.* [Here's the one that survived](_URL_0_), I think.", "Howdy. I have this exact same issue. I see red, yellow or blue hues at different times between my eyes.\n\nI am extremely near sighted (prescription is -11.00), and asked my optometrist about it. He said its caused by the fluid in your eye (it has a more proper name) shifting and applying pressure to the cones or rods in your eye. So the color varies depending on what is is pushing on.\n\nIf you see light flashing (i describe it as looking at a helicopter below with a light shining below it and the rotors causing the flashes), thats the fluid causing pressure on the eye stem(insert more proper name) itself.\n\nMy optometrist said it wasn't a normal occurrence, but that it was not a problem that would require corrective action. Being so near sighted I am at risk for retina detachment which gives the effect of a window shade being pulled down on your eye and will require corrective action.\n\nI normally only notice it now when I look at scenes containing a lot of white." ] }

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[ [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cone_cell" ], [ "http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/hcedy/for_as_long_as_ive_remembered_vision_my_left_eye/" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "ccenf75", "ccg28cj" ], "score": [ 2, 2 ], "text": [ "I'm not entirely sure of your question. All sensory nerve endings do eventually end up in the CNS (even though each sense may go through different tracts/paths to get to where they end up), where sensory information is processed. \n\nIn the case of the hand in particular, you have the Ulnar nerve that innervates your hand and receives sensory input. It originates from the mess of afferent/efferent signals carried by your spinal cord. All sensory nerves of the upper/lower limbs originate from a [spinal nerve](_URL_0_) which then send information toward the brain (afferent). So if you get some sort of sensory information from your hands, the signal gets carried from your hand, back to your spinal cord, up toward your brain where it gets processed. There are multiple synapses from nerve ending at the tip of your fingers to the sensory processing in the cortex.\n\nNot sure if that answers your question well enough with respect to the optic nerve (I don't understand what your question is with regards to that)\n\n", "Short Answer: Like in the optic nerve, there is some abstraction of information from touch receptors before it enters the BRAIN as stated in the title of this question. However, the information entering the cells in the spine is \"pure\" and correspond to individual touch receptors.\n\nI am assuming by \"like in the optic nerve\" you are referring to the fact that each photoceptor is not represented by a neuron in the CNS in that retinal ganglion cells (the output cells of the retina) receive input via many photoreceptors via bipolar and amacrine cells that facilitate a degree of visual data abstraction.\n\nIn response to your question (as you talk about the hand, I am assuming you refer to discriminative somatosensation - \"fine touch\" that e.g. allows object identification).\n\nCells that detect this type of touch are called dorsal root ganglion cells, that have long axons that have specialised endings, such as Pacinian corpuscles, Merkel disks, Ruffini's and Meissner's corpuscles - these allow the transduction of e.g. the edge of a coin pressing your finger.\n\nThese axons travel from the finger to the CNS - more specifically to the dorsal root of the grey matter of the spinal cord, where their cell bodies lie. Here they are represented accurately in that each cell body corresponds to one touch receptor . These DRG cells are pseudo-unipolar and have efferent axons that stretch up the white matter (the posterior column) to terminate in a part of the medulla called the cuneate nucleus (in the case of the arm). Here, there are interneurones etc. that allow \"cross talk\" between neurones, and the data becomes more \"abstract\" through e.g. lateral inhibition, a process by which a strong stimulus in one area overrides nearby areas due to it's strength, allowing pinpointing of this area. This repeats in higher areas as second order neurones travel from the cuneate nucleus to the Ventral Posterior Lateral area of the thalamus, and then finally to the somatosensory cortex via third order neurones. \n\nThe somatosensory cortex is divided into four main areas - area 3a is probably the most important for touch; here, while data has been abstracted by processing at the three levels described, action potentials are reserved in specific areas that correspond to specific regions of the body. The other areas are far more complex, and projections to the secondary somatosensory cortex are even more poorly understood; for example neurones in areas 1 and 2 of S1 respond to e.g. edges, moving pinpoints etc.\n\nTL;DR - \"CNS\" i.e. spinal cord receives faithful, topographic information from touch sensors, which is transferred to the brain - the cortex receives relatively topographic information, but single neurones DO NOT correspond to single touch receptors as there is some degree of information spread and convergence before it reaches the brain.\n\n" ] }

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[ [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinal_nerve" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "ch5ceui", "ch5whz6" ], "score": [ 3, 2 ], "text": [ "Most baking is about the gelatinization of starch (from flour). This is what forms the crumb in bread and firms up the foam structure of cakes (the foam coming from the action of leavening agents like baking soda/powder). Each little piece of flour is basically a tiny starch granule. When it is heated sufficiently it will gelatinize and become soft and pliable.\n\nStarch gelatinization occurs over a range of temperatures, finishing at around 95 deg. C. During the process the starch will usually absorb water. Also, the presence and quantity of other substances such as fats, sugars, proteins, etc. will affect the temperatature and degree of gelatinization.\n\nNote that when a baked good goes \"stale\" that's usually the gelatinized starch reverting to its granulated form.", "While starch gelatinization is one factor, it alone does not account for the formation of a solid baked good. Starch gelatinization also occurs in liquid gravies. Other important factors include the removal of moisture from the batter by heating, as well as the denaturing of proteins from ingredients such as eggs.\n\nTo understand how moisture removal effects this, think of the analogy of a patch of mud. When the sun dries it, it goes from a runny state to a hard, dry state.\n\nProtein denaturation, in the case of baking caused by heat, is the same phenomenon that happens when cooking an egg and seeing the egg white go from liquid to solid.\n\nTemperature requirements for protein denaturation vary with the type of protein, and dehydration effects tend to increase with an increase in temperature, but also depend on other factors such as pan shape and size as well as the other ingredients in the batter." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cat55a5", "cat7wv0" ], "score": [ 12, 2 ], "text": [ "Cost of things are proportional to the cost of their base materials. Things like electronics become cheaper because they are used in technology that allows you to make NEW technology (like whats used in electronics) faster, smaller and cheaper. \n\nSo, the reason why a washing machine or car raises price with inflation is because the raw materials like steel, aluminum, and plastic are also rising in price with inflation and supply and demand. But, you cant develop new technology to \"make\" more steel or plastic faster, cheaper or smaller, you have to acquire it the old fashioned way. \n\n", "I question whether your premise is even correct. ELI5, is it true that appliances and cars have not shared in better manufacturing processes leading to lowered prices and more features?\n\n[This site]( _URL_1_) lists prices of standard electrical goods that were largely out of my family's economic reach in the 1960's. These days, pretty much anybody (in the first world), can afford any of these as needed/wanted. Growing up, color TVs, residential dishwashers, side-by-side refrigerators, deep freezers, and new cars were all pretty much reserved for the more wealthy families in a neighborhood.\n\nIf you look at an [inflation calculator]( _URL_0_), $100 in 1965 is the rough equivalent of $739.51 today. That $500 refrigerator of 1968 would cost $3346.91 today, . . . except it doesn't. $1200-$1600 will get a decent one and $500-$750 will get a standard freezer on top model with features like an ice maker that really weren't even available to any but the very wealthiest in the sixties.\n\nSimilarly, cars now have airbags, ABS breaks, GPS systems and last 3x as long as there 1960's counterparts, yet cost a similar amount of percentage of annual salary, (or less). Again, using the inflation calculator, we see that a $2500 car in 1968 is roughly annalogous to a $17K car today, yet today's car will likely last 250k miles, rather than being junk at 120k, will protect occupants in a crash far better than anything from the '60s or '70s, and has tires that might easily last 60-80k, rather than 10-20k.\n\n \n\n\n" ] }

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[ [], [ "http://www.usinflationcalculator.com/", "http://www.thepeoplehistory.com/60selectrical.html" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "d40w41t" ], "score": [ 75 ], "text": [ "The US government refused to support CSK after WW2? What? The US sent a whopping $4 billion to him within two years after the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War. The US gave him military hardware and trained his troops. The US airlifted Nationalists forces to liberated areas, including Manchuria, and also stationed US troops in strategic areas. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cd10cfl" ], "score": [ 4 ], "text": [ "A \"normal\" blood panel sodium level is ~140 mmol/L, sea water has a salt concentration of ~600 mol/L, so it has about 4.3 times as sodium as blood.\n\nAs I understand it, as your salt intake increases, the concentrations in your urine will rise without you needing to increase your water intake, until it hits the maximum concetration level you kindeys are capable of filtering at.\n\nHowever, different sources had different levels: one said [~280 mmol/L](_URL_0_), another said [~500 mmol/L](_URL_1_) while noting that one human subject managed to hit 610 mmol/L in his urine.\n\nWhile it's expected that there be generic variants that result in more or less efficient kidneys, this seems like an overly wide variation to me" ] }

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[ [ "http://jap.physiology.org/content/14/6/1036.abstract", "http://books.google.ca/books?id=ym3EAGvhwVsC&amp;pg=PA342&amp;lpg=PA342&amp;dq=limiting+isorrheic+concentration+of+sodium&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=yjrhUUR1jH&amp;sig=Lb7mM0-0OyPiuvGWs8kdwvHRIpw&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=nbBtUp-mIcTn2wXi2oCADg&amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;q=500&amp;f=false" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "d5brmzs", "d5brygz", "d5byfy9", "d5c026y" ], "score": [ 6, 6, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "It would cost more to produce a smoke alarm which emitted two different signals. The goal is an alarm which works for a low cost. So it is cheaper to produce one with one alarm sound. If it goes off, look around for a fire. If no fire, change the battery.", "Where i live the annoying thing is that it beeps once every 30 ? minutes or so when the battery is empty. \n\nIf there really is smoke, it will beep continuously. So i think i could recognize the difference :)", "so you change the battery before it is completely out and unable to make any noise in a fire.", "OP you need to verify that you're talking about your smoke alarm, not a carbon monoxide detector. Carbon Monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas that can be deadly. \n\nI've never seen an alarm that gives off the same noise when it is low on battery and when it detects smoke or CO, or one that could go off from an insect walking over it. When low on battery they'll give off one beep every few minutes, when detecting something they give off a continuous alarm. \n\nIf you're hearing the latter, and it's coming from a carbon monoxide detector you should leave your house and call the non emergency line to get the fire department to check for carbon monoxide and verify that you actually have a bad alarm and aren't putting yourself at risk. " ] }

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[ [], [], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "c6v5de5", "c6v64kl", "c6v7f07", "c6v7ltm", "c6vnas7" ], "score": [ 7, 2, 2, 6, 2 ], "text": [ "Up the butt.", "I imagine there are crooked guards that sell to the prisoners. I can't imagine any other way. Just my speculation.", "TV tells me the guards do it.", "Corrupt guards, family members during visits, in with supply shipments... Even simply thrown over the fence, if its not being watched closely. \n\nSource: I used to be a corrections officer.", "There is a book called \"Games Convicts Play\" that explains this in a lot more detail, and if you are really interested, I would suggest that you read it. It is a short and easy read. \n\nIt comes down to this. I am a bored long term inmate. You are a newly hired guard. You come into the prison and one day forget to pick up your keys off the desk when you go to use the bathroom. I have been watching you and waiting for my chance. I grab the keys and put them in my pocket. The second you come out of the bathroom, I walk up to you and slide the keys into your hand. I whisper to you, \"Man, that could have cost your job, but I got your back. You are one of the cool ones here.\"\n\nThings go by for a couple of weeks. You start to think you have an inmate that has been around for awhile and will make sure you don't screw up too badly. You can talk to me because I know the personality of the guards that have been around for awhile and will keep you on their good side. \n\nI come up to you one Friday, all upset. You know me and trust me, so you ask me what is going on. I tell you that it is my daughter's birthday on Tuesday and that I missed the mail window by five minutes and that bitch in the mail room is such a hard ass she wouldn't take my daughter's birthday card. I tell you that the next mail room is Monday and then her card would be late. We both agree that the woman in the mail room is a bitch, and you would like to help, but you are getting off in ten minutes. I tell you that I bet you could make it to a mailbox on your way home that has a late pickup. \n\nYou agree because I have helped you out once or twice. I even saved your job once. You figure no harm done and no one will ever figure it out. Unknown to you, there was a sealed envelope inside the envelope containing the birthday card. In that envelope was a letter to be sent to a former inmate. This letter described your losing account of your keys and your mailing the letter. \n\nA week later, I come up to you and tell you that I have to come clean. I sent a letter to a former inmate, something that I am not allowed to do. The only way I can keep doing this is if I have the letters sent to your address and then you bring the letters to me. If you comply, I have you in my pocket and can pretty much get you to do anything. I may go for months or even years before I have that first letter sent to your home. \n\nIf you refuse, I tell you that I have no choice but to have that letter sent to the warden. I tell you that I may go to max custody if I am not there already (in which case I have nothing to lose), but you will lose your job and may even face jail time. Again, I have you in my pocket, but in this case, I need to use you fast. I tell you that the only way you have out of this is to get marijuana sent to your house and have you bring it to me. If I don't get the marijuana in less than a week, I will have the letter sent to the warden. Then no marijuana shows up at your house. I accuse you of stealing my drugs and tell you that I am going to tell the warden that too. Now you may feel as though you have to buy me drugs and sneak them in. \n\nThere are some holes in this story so I don't go to prison, but that is about how the play works. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c9c2o5i" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "You might start [at the American Memory collection](_URL_1_). The way to think about this is that Abolition=immediate end of slavery because slavery is bad (usually on moral grounds, ie Fredrick Douglass and William Lloyd Garrison) while Anti-Slavery=ending slavery for the US. An antislavery person might think Africans are inferior and so ending slavery might stop their population growth in the US. They might see it as a policy problem, and be willing to be gradual. There are better examples when you look at the stances of politicians. Even Jefferson can seem like an antislavery person at times (later in life). See Ron Takaki's [A Different Mirror](_URL_0_)." ] }

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[ [ "http://books.google.com/books?id=kRuOPwAACAAJ&amp;dq=a+different+mirror&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=59dkUbefB4LoiAKGnYDAAg&amp;ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA", "http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/browse/ListSome.php?category=African%20American%20History" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "e8zgrdt" ], "score": [ 11 ], "text": [ "Whether a longitudinal wave is a \"sound\" or a \"vibration\" is a matter of scale. We can't hear sound on the order of 10Hz (wavelength of about 30 meters) but we can feel it. Similarly, a 1cm insect couldn't \"hear\" sounds where the wavelength is much larger than their body, but could feel them. From the perspective of subjective experience the difference may be irrelevant, and can never really be known to us anyway.\n\nA few insects have organs similar to human ears, i.e., tympani / eardrums, such as crickets. Most others detect vibrations with external cilli, somewhat similar to the \"hairs\" in a human's inner ear. Each of these organs can detect vibrations on the same order of magnitude as their size. \n\nThere's a chart of frequency ranges for various animals on this Wikipedia page:\n\n[_URL_0_](_URL_0_)\n\nNo insects are listed, but physiologicaly insects would be most similar to the bat, shifted upward as their size decreases.\n" ] }

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[ [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearing_range" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "d4kiuwk", "d4kiwsq", "d4kj1vk", "d4kk246", "d4klefc", "d4kp9xv", "d4kqk81", "d4krs5x", "d4l6j47", "d4liya6", "d4lorjs", "d4lp7yc", "d4lp95u", "d4lpkei", "d4lq7n1", "d4lqgb9", "d4lqivm", "d4lqp6n", "d4lrfw0", "d4lrowp", "d4ltcvo", "d4ltdo0", "d4ltn19", "d4lu78s", "d4lupcj", "d4lvjbf", "d4lvom2", "d4lvqd1", "d4lvu50", "d4lvz65", "d4lws31", "d4lwtk9", "d4lx4yu", "d4lx73x" ], "score": [ 2, 20, 31, 56, 12, 10, 4, 21, 2, 2, 42, 2, 13, 5, 10, 2, 12, 3, 2, 8, 2, 3, 2, 2, 2, 6, 3, 2, 2, 2, 7, 3, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "The markets have been doing some funny things as of late (Canada), I'm assuming in anticipation of this vote. What type of economic impact will this have on an international scale? ", "Can someone explain what \"LEAVING THE EUROPEAN UNION\" means apart from the fact that the UK will have its own currency? Will their treaty arrangements also change?", "Speaking for all of /r/soccer, will Australia be accepted into the next euros in case of a brexit ? ", "Why is this vote happening and why should I care/not care as someone who doesn't live in UK?", "What protections are there against voter fraud? \n \nThis is inspired by a conversation with my German boss, this is his first UK vote and he's appalled by the lack of security on it. \n \nHis questions are: \n - They never checked who lived at my address, I just sent them an email and they believe it. Except that they still sent me a poll card for my landlord as well (who doesn't live there), so now I have an extra vote. \n - They don't do ID checks when voting, so I could just walk back to the polling station this evening and use my landlords card to vote twice. \n - What's to stop someone registering a bunch of fake votes and using them to swing the vote for remain/exit as they prefer? \n \nI couldn't answer his questions at all.", "If all (or most) economists are saying that leaving would weaken Britain and negatively impact the rest of the wold, then why would someone possibly vote to leave the EU? What good would come from it?", "I'm curious how the Scottish Nat'l Party can advocate for staying in the EU while at the same time it supports independence from the UK. As someone not in the UK, this seems a bit contradictory to me so would love to get some insight from someone who better understands the nuances. ", "why is this happening?", "Can citizens of other commonwealth countries vote on this issue as well? Or is it \"You can vote if you have a commonwealth passport but live in the UK\"?\n\nOr am I understanding wrong?\n\nAlso, slightly different question, but on the wikipedia page for the commonwealth, how come Australia and NZ have the right to vote, but Canada doesn't? What's different about these countries?\n\nEdit: Sorry, the commonwealth citizens page _URL_0_", "Why is the pound dropping in value as the leave votes increase?", "Could someone explain it super-basic to me?\n\nWhat happens if they leave?\nWhat happens if they stay?", "Watching the live threat as results come in by districts (or whatever they're called) and a lot of smaller districts are voting to leave. Is the final vote going to be raw popular vote or will there some sort of wacky electoral college sort of thing going on?", "Why are people saying Cameron is toast if Britain exits? Why blame him for the results of a democratic election? Does it mean that the party he's part of will disown him for failing to guide the country to a position where the public wants to stay? Perhaps people believe that the country will suffer greatly in the event of an exit, and he won't be able to manage it?\n\nWhat's the deal?", "Could someone explain what the current % drop in the £'s value means for the local/global economy please?\n\n(This was asked in /r/europe and someone answered \"as bad as 1929\" essentially, is that true?)", "Why is a complex foreign policy issue such as leaving the EU put up to a popular vote? Why is it not up to parliament?", "All the commentators and the Remain campaign make it a huge selling point that there is no going back if Britain leaves the EU.\n\nIs that true? If public opinion changes, why can't they just have another referendum?", "[Why is the north all for remain, while the south is mostly leave but spotted with remain](_URL_0_)?\n\n\nI'm into GIS and statistical mapping, so this is cool to me. \n\nMy guesses: (1) Income, (2) Rural vs City, (3) ethnic/sentiments and historical relationships.\n\n\nIf it is (3) then, probably, this was bound to happen, and I'm glad it is by a peaceful vote rather than some nasty fighting or even worse sodden negativity hidden behind passive aggressiveness.\n\nEDIT: < 3 mods, thanks for being wise, and I got the colors backwards.", "How come London is so much more in favor of remaining than the rest of the country?", "Can someone explain. Why is the pound dropping value quickly from just initial results ", "What are the advantages of the UK leaving the EU?", "What does this mean for us in the USA and should i care?", "Can, at any point in this, the Queen step in and stop this? Can she unilaterally decide to stay in the European Union, regardless of the vote result? ", "Why *exactly* has the stock market and the value of the pound dropped?", "How will this affect the United States?\n", "How will the EU win/lose with the UK leaving?", "Is there a \"do-over\" option here? Like, let's say the British economy just *completely* tanks and the British people get tired of hearing \"TOLD YA SOOOOOOO\" from the vast majority of the world's economists.\n\nCould they just hold an emergency 2nd referendum to like, hit the reset button and pretend it all never happened? Does the basic structure of international governance allow for something like that?", "I am a college student in the US who will graduate next May. Should I be concerned about a recession in the US or anything else that will affect job prospects after I graduate?", "Don't have time to read everything...\n1. Does this referendum guarantee government action or will they just ignore it and say \"cool but we're staying anyway\"?\n2. Is > 50% all that is needed to exit?", "...can somebody explain like I'm *four?*", "A lot of people are saying David Cameron will resign.\n\nWhy would he need to resign? Did he say \"If this measure passes I will resign?\"", "Can someone explain what this means? What is the EU? What does it mean that the UK left? What changes about the UK now?", "I've been seeing all these tweets on the #Brexit tag saying \"racism will win\" and such if this goes through. How does the UK leaving the EU mean anything of the sort?\n\n_URL_0_", "How the fuck has leave succeeded? Is it just because I'm a naïve young londoner. It feels as though I have talked to potentially 1 or maybe 2 serious brexiters in the last month, out of the ~500 I've interacted with. I see nothing but remain posters and support on social media. It appeared an almost predictable result of stay. I was banking on it, and now I am heartbroken, not only a the decision of my country but at the fact I wasn't able to vote. My age group (16-17) I feel are one the most significant demographics. I am angry that the votes cast yesterday and resultant decision to leave alienates me and is so grossly unrepresentative of me and my peers. The result has such a huge effect on us and our futures, yet we had little to no say. \n\nApologies for the rant, but the real question I have is, am I just so grossly disillusioned that I failed to grasp that this is what my country wants? Is it just old northerners (mass generalisation) who want to leave and regain some semblance of imperial superiority? How has this happened mainly, I am so so angry and a little confused. The remain campaign had such clear direction and support from my albeit limited perspective. \n\nTL;DR wtf happened?", "Why is Japanese Yen rising rapidly as the polling result coming out?" ] }

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[ "https://www.reddit.com/r/worldnews/comments/4pdpht/today_the_united_kingdom_decides_whether_to/", "https://www.reddit.com/r/OutOfTheLoop/comments/4pfkrl/brexit_ask_everything_you_want_to_know_about_the/", "https://www.reddit.com/r/unitedkingdom/comments/470kz3/eu_referendum_brexit_megathread_resource/" ]

[ [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_citizen" ], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [ "http://www.bbc.com/news/politics/eu_referendum/results" ], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [ "http://i.imgur.com/wZME48I.png" ], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cypxy64" ], "score": [ 7 ], "text": [ "Am I correct in assuming that by written Egyptian you are referring to Egyptian hieroglyphics in particular? And not to later Egyptian adaptations of other scripts/languages?\n\n[New Kingdom Egypt](_URL_1_) (c.1500-1000 BCE) was a garrison power in the Levant alongside their military rivals, the Hittites. Both Egyptian records and archaeological sites in the Levant (including Modern Israel and the Palestinian Territories) corroborate this, and multiple extant archaeological sites therein contain examples of hieroglyphics.\n\nHowever, most modern [scholarly attempts to date the composition of the Hebrew Scriptures](_URL_0_) - which mostly diverge markedly from the supposed dates of composition the text itself alleges - suggest that written composition (as opposed to the likely earlier oral composition) occurred after this period of Egyptian hegemony from the 8th through 1st Centuries BCE, when Egypt was either weakened, divided, dominated by outside powers, or a combination of the three.\n\nAlthough many of the people living in the Levant at the time certainly had dealings with the Egyptians and probably knew their language at least in terms of speaking ability, writing/reading ability is another matter and if it occurred would certainly have been more limited. Additionally, hieroglyphics were a less efficient script than others present in the Middle East at this time so adopting them may not have made much sense. It is also important to note that much of the Hebrew Scripture was not written in the Levant at all, but in Babylon.\n\nThe Christian Scriptures emerged long after the end of Egyptian prominence, so it is unnecessary to address them here." ] }

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[ [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dating_the_Bible", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "ce4gaaw" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "After reading your question and explanation, I can only come up with one plausible explanation. \n\nThe Civil War was a war fought (essentially) over the equality and humanity of African-Americans. The North argued that blacks shared certain common rights with whites, where the South disagreed (this is a *major* oversimplification, mind you). But then if we examine the final settlement of the Civil War/Reconstruction conflict, we see that blacks have actually gained little. They enjoyed temporary political equality, but things like Grandfather Clauses and Poll Taxes destroyed many black's political representation. Then, Jim Crow reestablished blacks as secondary citizens. Finally, the sharecropping system (and southern culture in general) placed blacks back into virtual slavery and servitude. So what did the North really gain from the War? They ended chattel slavery, and little else (I would argue thats all they really wanted). \n\nBut look, if your friends have these beliefs, just ask them why exactly they say the crazy shit they say. Then youll know, why they say the crazy shit they say. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ckirefl", "ckirqej" ], "score": [ 2, 4 ], "text": [ "Because there are lawsuits doesn't mean that there will be victorious lawsuits. \n\nTheir argument is that Google is forming a monopoly on internet services, and needs to be stopped under anti-trust laws (funny how nobody's filing similar suits against ISPs, though, huh?)", "When a company becomes big and powerful enough to exert control of all the elements of an industry, it will monopolize that industry unless stopped by the political system in which it operates. Monopolies destroy one of the essential facets of capitalism; competition. Competition is the best way yet discovered to cause businesses to innovate, work hard and grow thereby increasing the wealth of a nation and raising the standard of living for the general population." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c84yrl6" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "Very difficult.\n I am a programmer and once tried to make my own text to speech program. Its difficult because for a text to speech software you need to either record a database of every word in the dictionary in every possible tone (which is really not efficient because it s very expensive and time consuming since you need one voice actor to say words perfectly all day long) or you need to build a perfect phonetic alphabet and create rules to stitch these phonetics together in forming words. The main problem arising not from the words themselves but when you try to stitch them together. We humans don't always follow our own grammar rules when speak because we want to maintain a natural tone. This makes it hard for the computer to mimic because then we would need to create rules for the computer to follow for every exception in our grammar which unfortunately, isn't all written in books. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cm7325y" ], "score": [ 4 ], "text": [ "Technically yes, but the difference would almost certainly be negligible. \n\nSnow [according to here](_URL_1_) is about 5-20% of the density of water. So if you have 6 feet of snow, you will end up with 3.6-14.4 inches of water. Meanwhile, the [Great lakes have a tidal variation of less than 5cm or ~2 inches](_URL_0_) which is apparently masked by wind and barometric pressure causing lake level variations. So losing 3.6 inches, or even 14.4 inches would probably be unnoticeable. \n\nAlso, as best as I can tell, the Great lakes have a greater surface area compared to the area blanketed by the snow, so the loss would be even less (if they were twice the size, the depth decrease would be cut in half and so on)\n\nSo yes, if you have precise enough instruments (based on the second link, they have that level of precision), they would measurably lose that volume of water. But in reality, having precise enough instruments and reducing the data isn't very useful so we almost certainly don't have them monitoring the Great Lakes water level. " ] }

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[ [ "http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/gltides.html", "http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/or/snow/?cid=nrcs142p2_046155" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "ejda578" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "Sorry, we don't allow \"throughout history\" questions. It's not that your question was bad; it's that these kinds of questions tend to produce threads that are collections of disjointed, partial, inadequate responses. If you have a question about a specific historical event, period, or person, feel free to rewrite your question and submit it again. If you don't want to rewrite it, you might try submitting it to /r/history, /r/askhistory, or /r/tellmeafact.\n\nGood luck!" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dkyh66r" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "Regarding the power banks it have become very popular with lithium ion batteries which can put out a lot of power. The disadvantage to this is that they may overheat and cause a fire. It may be that the battery is damaged and a heating it during normal operation might bring two internal wires too close together. The lower pressure in the cabin is not helping either as it can make the internals of the battery to change a bit more then usual. When these batteries catch fire you can not stop it but have to let it burn out. All the heat, fuel and oxidizer is stored inside so a fire extinguisher will not help. And a small fire on an airplane can quickly become a death trap as it may take tens of minutes for the airplane to land so you can evacuate. So be careful when using batteries on airplanes and try to do all your charging at the airport. You do not want to be the first one to cause an aircraft disaster because you were charging your phone, people who smoke in the bathroom have already done it.\n\nAs for using your electronic devices this is usually fine withing some constraints. Most airliners are instructing their flight attendants to even ignore airplane mode as it does not matter and some are even installing wifi on the airplanes. Putting your phone in airplane mode does however save battery life as the phone usually turns the radio to maximum in order to get some signal but still fails. The only time you are not allowed to use your phone is when the airplane is taking off or landing or if you are annoying other passenger or the flight attendants. Most airplane crashes happen close to the ground. So to make evacuations easier passengers are asked to pay attention during these periods of the flight. In theory reading books or sleeping is just as bad as playing on your phone but there are cultural and historical reasons why the rules are as they are. If you were told to turn off your phone in the middle of a flight it is likely that you were annoying people around you." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ciy1j3j" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "Right I was writing this on my phone, cobbling it together from a bibliography for late medieval kingship and nobility, last night so I've rewritten and reposted it. \n\nBefore continuing it should be said that any comprehensive study of warfare and 'life' in early fifteenth-century France requires an examination of England and Burgundy as well. France was in the process of a civil war between two powerful factions (the Burgundians and the Armagnacs) which had led to two high-profile political assassinations (Louis II, duke of Orleans, in 1407 and John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, in 1419), the French king, Charles VI was mentally frail and prone to bouts of madness which had allowed first Louis then John to impose themselves as powerful regents.\n\nIn 1415 Henry V had launched his famous *chevauchée* which would culminate in the Battle of Agincourt and the capture of numerous members of the French high nobility (including Charles, duke of Orleans) and the death of many others (including John I, duke of Alençon). Henry's campaigns greatly weakened the French control over Normandy but the impasse was not likely to be broken until, in 1419, the future Charles VII, currently known as the Dauphin Charles, was implicated in the murder of John the Fearless. John's son, Philip the Good, concluded an alliance with Henry V which would culminate in the Treaty of Troyes (1420) where Henry V married the daughter of Charles VI and it was agreed that Henry would become Charles's heir and the Dauphin Charles was disinherited (nominally for his involvement in the death of John the Fearless). For the first time the crowns of England and France would be ruled by one man: Henry V. However, on 31 August 1422 Henry V died and three weeks later Charles VI followed him to the grave. Suddenly the situation was complicated. Henry VI of England was only nine months old and the Dauphin Charles had gathered his supporters and established a base in the south. Following a crushing defeat at Verneuil (1424) Charles was driven back and Orleans was besieged by the English commanders.\n\nIn 1429, the French fortunes turned. Joan of Arc appeared at Chinon, was investigated at Poitiers, and dispatched with the French army under Raoul de Gaucourt to relieve the siege of Orleans. Here Joan's mission was apparently vindicated by God and suddenly there were a spate of French victories (Orleans, Jargeau, Beaugency, and Patay). On the political front Charles was crowned king of France at Reims on 17 July 1429, a ceremony in which Joan of Arc was instrumental, and secured the support of Arthur de Richemont who became the Constable of the French army. The English incursions against the duchy of Brittany had persuaded the duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, to begin making reconcilatory motions towards Charles VII.\n\n[Joan was captured in 1430 and tried and executed as a heretic and schismatic in 1431](_URL_3_). In 1435 at the Congress of Arras, Charles VII and Philip the Good and the entire balance of the war changed. The conciliatory nature of Henry VI of England did not assist matters, and Charles's innovative military reforms (the *compagnies d’ordonnance*) gave him a martial edge over the English. A combined strategy of siege warfare and bribery led to the rapid fall of English strongholds in Gascony and Normandy and after Battle of Castillon (1453) the French were the victors of the Hundred Years War. Now the matter of internal cohesion arose. In 1440, the dukes of Bourbon and Alençon, joined by members of the lower nobility and mercenary companies, had rebelled against Charles (a rebellion known as the Praguerie) and endangered the successes won after 1429. The Praguerie had been brutally put down by Arthur de Richemont, but the tensions were simmering throughout the French nobility. With Gascony and, even worse, Normandy now back under Charles's control. Many of Charles's key supporters had fled Normandy with the English triumph and abandoned immense wealth in lands and goods, while those who had remained were perceived as *collaborateurs*. Matters were exacerbated by the need to deal with Joan of Arc's condemnation and execution as a heretic and schismatic. Joan had been instrumental in Charles's crowning and put the legitimacy of his reign in question, yet Joan had been tried by the Masters of the University of Paris and burned in Rouen, the heart of English power in Normandy. Moreover, Joan was loathed by the Burgundians, the French had actually written her out of their narratives during the negotiations leading to the Treaty of Arras (1435). To reopen the trial of Joan would stir up tensions at a key point in Charles's reign, thus the trial was one of Nullification and not Rehabilitation (the trial record itself and the dead were condemned). However, we have now reached the end of my knowledge and interest in French politics and history and should anyone wish to add more then feel free.\n\nThere are some fascinating case studies but if your knowledge of medieval France is only cursory then I would highly recommend heading first and foremost to the *New Cambridge Medieval History* series. I'm not sure what you mean by 'life', if you're interested in warfare I assume high politics but you'll need to tell me if you're interested in anything else.\n\n**General Surveys:**\n\n[New Cambridge Medieval History](_URL_4_), 7 Vol., Cambridge, 1995-2005, vols iv-vii.\n\n\nCowell, A., *The Medieval Warrior Aristocracy: Gifts, Violence, Performance, and the Sacred*, Cambridge, 2007.\n\nDuby, G., *The Chivalrous Society*, Berkley, 1977. | *France in the Middle Ages 987–1460: From Hugh Capet to Joan of Arc*, trans. J. Vale, Oxford, 1991.\n\n(ed.) Duggan, A.J., *Nobles and Nobility in Medieval Europe: Concepts, Origins, Transformations*, Woodbridge, 2001.\n\nKaeuper, R., *Chivalry and Violence in Medieval Europe*, Oxford, 1999. | *Holy Warriors: The Religious Ideology of Chivalry*, Philadelphia, 2009.\n\nKeen, M.H., *Chivalry*, London, 1984.\n\n**Pre-Fourteenth-Century Context and Historiography**\n\nBouchard, C.B., *\"Strong of Body, Brave and Noble\": Chivalry and Society in Medieval France*, New York, 1998. | *Those of my Blood: Constructing Noble Families in Medieval Francia*, Philadelphia, 2001.\n\nCaron, M.-T., *Noblesse et pouvoir royal en France (XIIIe–XVIe siècle)*, Paris, 1994.\n\nCrouch, D., *The Birth of Nobility: Constructing Aristocracy in England and France, 900-1300*, Harlow, 2005.\n\nFlori, J., *L’Idéologie de glaive*, Genève, 1983. | *L’Essor de la chevalerie*, Genève, 1986.\n\n**Fourteenth- and Fifteenth-Century:**\n\nAllmand, C.T., *War, literature and politics in the late middle ages*, Liverpool, 1976. | (ed.) *War, Government and Power in Late Medieval France*, Liverpool, 2000.\n\n(eds) Bates, D. and Curry, A., *England and Normandy in the Middle Ages*, London, 1994.\n\nBlockmans W. and Prevenier, W., *The Promised Lands. The Low Countries under Burgundian rule, 1369–1530*, Philadelphia, 1999.\n\nBoulton, d'A., *The Knights of the Crown*, Woodbridge, 1987. | 'The Order of the Golden Fleece and the Creation of Burgundian National Identity', in *The Ideology of Burgundy*.\n\nBrown, A., *The Valois dukes of Burgundy*, Oxford, 2001.\n\nCurry, A. *The Hundred Years War*, London, 1993. | (eds) with Hughes, M., *Arms, Armies and Fortifications in the Hundred Years War*, Oxford, 1994. | 'Two Kingdoms One King: The Treaty of Troyes (1420) and the Creation of a Double Monarchy of England and France', in *'The Contending Kingdoms': France and England 1420-1700*, ed. G. Richardson, London, 2008, pp.23-41.\n\nDevries, K., *Joan of Arc: A Military Leader*, Stroud, 1999.\n\nGriffiths, R.A., *The Reign of Henry VI: The Exercise of Royal Authority, 1422-1461*, London, 1981.\n\nHuizinga, J., *The Autumn of the Middle Ages*, Chicago, 1996.\n\n This is another 'old' text written in the 1920s.\n It should be read with the 'New Huizinga' article, below.\n\nKeen, M.H., 'The End of the Hundred Years War: Lancastrian France and Lancastrian England', in *England and Her Neighbours 1066-1453*, eds M. Jones and M.G.A. Vale, London, 2003, pp.297-311.\n\nMargolis, N., *An Introduction to Christine de Pizan*, Florida, 2011.\n\nPaviot, J. 'Burgundy and the Crusade', in *Crusading in the Fifteenth-Century: Message and Impact*, ed. N. Housley, Basingstoke, 2004, pp.70-80.\n\nPeters, E. and Simons, W.P., ‘The new Huizinga and the old Middle Ages’, *Speculum* 74 (1999), pp.587–620.\n\nSolon, P.D., 'Popular Response to Standing Military Forces in Fifteenth-Century France', *Studies in the Renaissance*, Vol. 19 (1972), pp.78-111.\n\nTaylor, C.D., *Chivalry and the Ideals of Knighthood in France during the Hundred Years War*, Cambridge, 2013. [Preface available here](_URL_1_) and [introduction available here](_URL_0_).\n\nVale, M.G.A., *Charles VII*, London, 1974. | *War and Chivalry: Warfare and Aristocratic Culture in England, France and Burgundy at the End of the Middle Ages*, London, 1981.\n\nVaughn, R., *Charles the Bold*, 2^nd ed., intro. W. Paravicini, Woodbridge, 2002. | *Philip the Good*, 2^nd ed., intro. G. Small, Woodbridge, 2002. | *John the Fearless*, 2 Vol., Woodbridge, 2005.\n\n(eds) Villalon, L.J.A. and Kagay, D.J., *The Hundred Years War: A Wider Focus*, Leiden, 2004. | *The Hundred Years War (Part II). Different Vistas*, Leiden, 2008.\n\nWalsh, R.J., 'Charles the Bold and the crusade: politics and propaganda', *Journal of Medieval History* 3 (1977), pp.53-87. | *Charles the Bold and Italy 1467–1477: politics and personnel*, Liverpool, 2005.\n\nWood, C.T., *Joan of Arc and Richard III: Sex, Saints and Government in the Middle Ages*, Oxford, 1988. \n\n**Primary Sources** (in translation)\n\nBrown, A. and Small, G., *Court and Civic Society in the Burgundian Low Countries c.1420-1530*, Manchester, 2008.\n\nTaylor, C.D., *Joan of Arc: La Pucelle*, Manchester, 2006. [Introduction available here](_URL_2_)" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c4b8xfk", "c4b8xyv", "c4bawqj", "c4bepca" ], "score": [ 3, 12, 6, 2 ], "text": [ "Because there's a lot of programs that were written by people that got Cs in CompSci 100.\n\nRobust error handling takes a lot of work. Beyond that, if you can't avoid the bug in the first place, that means you didn't recognize the error was going to occur - figuring out what is an \"error-free state\" requires you to know what the errors might be. If you can determine you're in a state with an error, you should fix the error *there* rather than wait for a crash.", "Some kinds of errors are relatively benign, kind of like you getting a papercut. You either grimace and continue what you're doing, or you take a few moments to put on a bandaid. Either way, it doesn't much impact your life.\n\nOther kinds of errors are critical, sort of like a heart attack, or getting shot in the guts. When these kinds of injuries happen, you have to get medical treatment, ASAP. Nothing else is more important. You could be in the middle of some billion dollar business negotiation, but it doesn't matter, you have to get to a hospital, NOW.\n\nSimilarly, computer errors can be relatively benign, such as \"can't find that file\", or \"couldn't connect to _URL_0_\". These are recoverable, and application developers have planned for their occurrence.\n\nBut the critical errors are things that application developers didn't plan for. They never foresaw an error of that sort. And so when one of them happens, there's no code to handle the error. The application goes into heart attack mode, and the operating system, or OS, kills the application (the OS is a lot less willing to deliver life support than an emergency room is).", "Applications that *know* they're in an error state can and almost always do just handle it gracefully and return to an error free state. The problem comes in when an error the programmers didn't plan for happens, so the application can't be aware of it.", "Many applications can, and do so all the time without you noticing.\n\nIt is only when the errors are so bad they can't be fixed that you have any idea an error has even occurred." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cou8f7k" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "The borders in question were sites of cross border raids and shellings in both directions for years, until an uneasy peace settled in as a result of larger conflicts. Today the borders are constantly patrolled. The border between Jordan and Israel was mostly quiet after 1967, and no major flare-ups until the peace treaty in 1993. Syria withdrew forces several km after 1973 and its border was mostly patrolled by the UN on the Syrian side, and the Israelis on theirs. When Israel finally withdrew from South Lebanon, the UN took on a role as an observation force (mostly ineffective) while Israel constantly patrols the border. The consensus between the two sides is that they have little to gain from bombing eachother, and are mostly in favor of an uneasy peace as opposed to another conflict." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d2a1dzr" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "I've never experienced this. Are you a drummer?" ] }

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