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phaedrus | SOCRATES | All the great arts require discussion and high speculation about the truths of nature; hence come loftiness of thought and completeness of execution. And this, as I conceive, was the quality which, in addition to his natural gifts, Pericles acquired from his intercourse with Anaxagoras whom he happened to know. He was thus imbued with the higher philosophy, and attained the knowledge of Mind and the negative of Mind, which were favourite themes of Anaxagoras, and applied what suited his purpose to the art of speaking. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Explain. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | Rhetoric is like medicine. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | How so? |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | Why, because medicine has to define the nature of the body and rhetoric of the soul--if we would proceed, not empirically but scientifically, in the one case to impart health and strength by giving medicine and food, in the other to implant the conviction or virtue which you desire, by the right application of words and training. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | There, Socrates, I suspect that you are right. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | And do you think that you can know the nature of the soul intelligently without knowing the nature of the whole? |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Hippocrates the Asclepiad says that the nature even of the body can only be understood as a whole. (Compare Charmides.) |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | Yes, friend, and he was right:--still, we ought not to be content with the name of Hippocrates, but to examine and see whether his argument agrees with his conception of nature. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | I agree. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | Then consider what truth as well as Hippocrates says about this or about any other nature. Ought we not to consider first whether that which we wish to learn and to teach is a simple or multiform thing, and if simple, then to enquire what power it has of acting or being acted upon in relation to other things, and if multiform, then to number the forms; and see first in the case of one of them, and then in the case of all of them, what is that power of acting or being acted upon which makes each and all of them to be what they are? |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | You may very likely be right, Socrates. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | The method which proceeds without analysis is like the groping of a blind man. Yet, surely, he who is an artist ought not to admit of a comparison with the blind, or deaf. The rhetorician, who teaches his pupil to speak scientifically, will particularly set forth the nature of that being to which he addresses his speeches; and this, I conceive, to be the soul. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Certainly. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | His whole effort is directed to the soul; for in that he seeks to produce conviction. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Yes. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | Then clearly, Thrasymachus or any one else who teaches rhetoric in earnest will give an exact description of the nature of the soul; which will enable us to see whether she be single and same, or, like the body, multiform. That is what we should call showing the nature of the soul. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Exactly. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | He will explain, secondly, the mode in which she acts or is acted upon. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | True. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | Thirdly, having classified men and speeches, and their kinds and affections, and adapted them to one another, he will tell the reasons of his arrangement, and show why one soul is persuaded by a particular form of argument, and another not. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | You have hit upon a very good way. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | Yes, that is the true and only way in which any subject can be set forth or treated by rules of art, whether in speaking or writing. But the writers of the present day, at whose feet you have sat, craftily conceal the nature of the soul which they know quite well. Nor, until they adopt our method of reading and writing, can we admit that they write by rules of art? |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | What is our method? |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | I cannot give you the exact details; but I should like to tell you generally, as far as is in my power, how a man ought to proceed according to rules of art. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Let me hear. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | Oratory is the art of enchanting the soul, and therefore he who would be an orator has to learn the differences of human souls--they are so many and of such a nature, and from them come the differences between man and man. Having proceeded thus far in his analysis, he will next divide speeches into their different classes:--'Such and such persons,' he will say, are affected by this or that kind of speech in this or that way,' and he will tell you why. The pupil must have a good theoretical notion of them first, and then he must have experience of them in actual life, and be able to follow them with all his senses about him, or he will never get beyond the precepts of his masters. But when he understands what persons are persuaded by what arguments, and sees the person about whom he was speaking in the abstract actually before him, and knows that it is he, and can say to himself, 'This is the man or this is the character who ought to have a certain argument applied to him in order to convince him of a certain opinion;'--he who knows all this, and knows also when he should speak and when he should refrain, and when he should use pithy sayings, pathetic appeals, sensational effects, and all the other modes of speech which he has learned;--when, I say, he knows the times and seasons of all these things, then, and not till then, he is a perfect master of his art; but if he fail in any of these points, whether in speaking or teaching or writing them, and yet declares that he speaks by rules of art, he who says 'I don't believe you' has the better of him. Well, the teacher will say, is this, Phaedrus and Socrates, your account of the so-called art of rhetoric, or am I to look for another? |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | He must take this, Socrates, for there is no possibility of another, and yet the creation of such an art is not easy. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | Very true; and therefore let us consider this matter in every light, and see whether we cannot find a shorter and easier road; there is no use in taking a long rough roundabout way if there be a shorter and easier one. And I wish that you would try and remember whether you have heard from Lysias or any one else anything which might be of service to us. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | If trying would avail, then I might; but at the moment I can think of nothing. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | Suppose I tell you something which somebody who knows told me. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Certainly. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | May not 'the wolf,' as the proverb says, 'claim a hearing'? |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Do you say what can be said for him. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | He will argue that there is no use in putting a solemn face on these matters, or in going round and round, until you arrive at first principles; for, as I said at first, when the question is of justice and good, or is a question in which men are concerned who are just and good, either by nature or habit, he who would be a skilful rhetorician has no need of truth--for that in courts of law men literally care nothing about truth, but only about conviction: and this is based on probability, to which he who would be a skilful orator should therefore give his whole attention. And they say also that there are cases in which the actual facts, if they are improbable, ought to be withheld, and only the probabilities should be told either in accusation or defence, and that always in speaking, the orator should keep probability in view, and say good-bye to the truth. And the observance of this principle throughout a speech furnishes the whole art. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | That is what the professors of rhetoric do actually say, Socrates. I have not forgotten that we have quite briefly touched upon this matter already; with them the point is all-important. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | I dare say that you are familiar with Tisias. Does he not define probability to be that which the many think? |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Certainly, he does. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | I believe that he has a clever and ingenious case of this sort:--He supposes a feeble and valiant man to have assaulted a strong and cowardly one, and to have robbed him of his coat or of something or other; he is brought into court, and then Tisias says that both parties should tell lies: the coward should say that he was assaulted by more men than one; the other should prove that they were alone, and should argue thus: 'How could a weak man like me have assaulted a strong man like him?' The complainant will not like to confess his own cowardice, and will therefore invent some other lie which his adversary will thus gain an opportunity of refuting. And there are other devices of the same kind which have a place in the system. Am I not right, Phaedrus? |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Certainly. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | Bless me, what a wonderfully mysterious art is this which Tisias or some other gentleman, in whatever name or country he rejoices, has discovered. Shall we say a word to him or not? |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | What shall we say to him? |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | Let us tell him that, before he appeared, you and I were saying that the probability of which he speaks was engendered in the minds of the many by the likeness of the truth, and we had just been affirming that he who knew the truth would always know best how to discover the resemblances of the truth. If he has anything else to say about the art of speaking we should like to hear him; but if not, we are satisfied with our own view, that unless a man estimates the various characters of his hearers and is able to divide all things into classes and to comprehend them under single ideas, he will never be a skilful rhetorician even within the limits of human power. And this skill he will not attain without a great deal of trouble, which a good man ought to undergo, not for the sake of speaking and acting before men, but in order that he may be able to say what is acceptable to God and always to act acceptably to Him as far as in him lies; for there is a saying of wiser men than ourselves, that a man of sense should not try to please his fellow-servants (at least this should not be his first object) but his good and noble masters; and therefore if the way is long and circuitous, marvel not at this, for, where the end is great, there we may take the longer road, but not for lesser ends such as yours. Truly, the argument may say, Tisias, that if you do not mind going so far, rhetoric has a fair beginning here. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | I think, Socrates, that this is admirable, if only practicable. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | But even to fail in an honourable object is honourable. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | True. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | Enough appears to have been said by us of a true and false art of speaking. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Certainly. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | But there is something yet to be said of propriety and impropriety of writing. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Yes. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | Do you know how you can speak or act about rhetoric in a manner which will be acceptable to God? |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | No, indeed. Do you? |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | I have heard a tradition of the ancients, whether true or not they only know; although if we had found the truth ourselves, do you think that we should care much about the opinions of men? |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Your question needs no answer; but I wish that you would tell me what you say that you have heard. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | At the Egyptian city of Naucratis, there was a famous old god, whose name was Theuth; the bird which is called the Ibis is sacred to him, and he was the inventor of many arts, such as arithmetic and calculation and geometry and astronomy and draughts and dice, but his great discovery was the use of letters. Now in those days the god Thamus was the king of the whole country of Egypt; and he dwelt in that great city of Upper Egypt which the Hellenes call Egyptian Thebes, and the god himself is called by them Ammon. To him came Theuth and showed his inventions, desiring that the other Egyptians might be allowed to have the benefit of them; he enumerated them, and Thamus enquired about their several uses, and praised some of them and censured others, as he approved or disapproved of them. It would take a long time to repeat all that Thamus said to Theuth in praise or blame of the various arts. But when they came to letters, This, said Theuth, will make the Egyptians wiser and give them better memories; it is a specific both for the memory and for the wit. Thamus replied: O most ingenious Theuth, the parent or inventor of an art is not always the best judge of the utility or inutility of his own inventions to the users of them. And in this instance, you who are the father of letters, from a paternal love of your own children have been led to attribute to them a quality which they cannot have; for this discovery of yours will create forgetfulness in the learners' souls, because they will not use their memories; they will trust to the external written characters and not remember of themselves. The specific which you have discovered is an aid not to memory, but to reminiscence, and you give your disciples not truth, but only the semblance of truth; they will be hearers of many things and will have learned nothing; they will appear to be omniscient and will generally know nothing; they will be tiresome company, having the show of wisdom without the reality. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Yes, Socrates, you can easily invent tales of Egypt, or of any other country. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | There was a tradition in the temple of Dodona that oaks first gave prophetic utterances. The men of old, unlike in their simplicity to young philosophy, deemed that if they heard the truth even from 'oak or rock,' it was enough for them; whereas you seem to consider not whether a thing is or is not true, but who the speaker is and from what country the tale comes. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | I acknowledge the justice of your rebuke; and I think that the Theban is right in his view about letters. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | He would be a very simple person, and quite a stranger to the oracles of Thamus or Ammon, who should leave in writing or receive in writing any art under the idea that the written word would be intelligible or certain; or who deemed that writing was at all better than knowledge and recollection of the same matters? |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | That is most true. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | I cannot help feeling, Phaedrus, that writing is unfortunately like painting; for the creations of the painter have the attitude of life, and yet if you ask them a question they preserve a solemn silence. And the same may be said of speeches. You would imagine that they had intelligence, but if you want to know anything and put a question to one of them, the speaker always gives one unvarying answer. And when they have been once written down they are tumbled about anywhere among those who may or may not understand them, and know not to whom they should reply, to whom not: and, if they are maltreated or abused, they have no parent to protect them; and they cannot protect or defend themselves. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | That again is most true. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | Is there not another kind of word or speech far better than this, and having far greater power--a son of the same family, but lawfully begotten? |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Whom do you mean, and what is his origin? |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | I mean an intelligent word graven in the soul of the learner, which can defend itself, and knows when to speak and when to be silent. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | You mean the living word of knowledge which has a soul, and of which the written word is properly no more than an image? |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | Yes, of course that is what I mean. And now may I be allowed to ask you a question: Would a husbandman, who is a man of sense, take the seeds, which he values and which he wishes to bear fruit, and in sober seriousness plant them during the heat of summer, in some garden of Adonis, that he may rejoice when he sees them in eight days appearing in beauty? at least he would do so, if at all, only for the sake of amusement and pastime. But when he is in earnest he sows in fitting soil, and practises husbandry, and is satisfied if in eight months the seeds which he has sown arrive at perfection? |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Yes, Socrates, that will be his way when he is in earnest; he will do the other, as you say, only in play. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | And can we suppose that he who knows the just and good and honourable has less understanding, than the husbandman, about his own seeds? |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Certainly not. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | Then he will not seriously incline to 'write' his thoughts 'in water' with pen and ink, sowing words which can neither speak for themselves nor teach the truth adequately to others? |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | No, that is not likely. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | No, that is not likely--in the garden of letters he will sow and plant, but only for the sake of recreation and amusement; he will write them down as memorials to be treasured against the forgetfulness of old age, by himself, or by any other old man who is treading the same path. He will rejoice in beholding their tender growth; and while others are refreshing their souls with banqueting and the like, this will be the pastime in which his days are spent. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | A pastime, Socrates, as noble as the other is ignoble, the pastime of a man who can be amused by serious talk, and can discourse merrily about justice and the like. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | True, Phaedrus. But nobler far is the serious pursuit of the dialectician, who, finding a congenial soul, by the help of science sows and plants therein words which are able to help themselves and him who planted them, and are not unfruitful, but have in them a seed which others brought up in different soils render immortal, making the possessors of it happy to the utmost extent of human happiness. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Far nobler, certainly. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | And now, Phaedrus, having agreed upon the premises we may decide about the conclusion. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | About what conclusion? |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | About Lysias, whom we censured, and his art of writing, and his discourses, and the rhetorical skill or want of skill which was shown in them--these are the questions which we sought to determine, and they brought us to this point. And I think that we are now pretty well informed about the nature of art and its opposite. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Yes, I think with you; but I wish that you would repeat what was said. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | Until a man knows the truth of the several particulars of which he is writing or speaking, and is able to define them as they are, and having defined them again to divide them until they can be no longer divided, and until in like manner he is able to discern the nature of the soul, and discover the different modes of discourse which are adapted to different natures, and to arrange and dispose them in such a way that the simple form of speech may be addressed to the simpler nature, and the complex and composite to the more complex nature--until he has accomplished all this, he will be unable to handle arguments according to rules of art, as far as their nature allows them to be subjected to art, either for the purpose of teaching or persuading;--such is the view which is implied in the whole preceding argument. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Yes, that was our view, certainly. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | Secondly, as to the censure which was passed on the speaking or writing of discourses, and how they might be rightly or wrongly censured--did not our previous argument show--? |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Show what? |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | That whether Lysias or any other writer that ever was or will be, whether private man or statesman, proposes laws and so becomes the author of a political treatise, fancying that there is any great certainty and clearness in his performance, the fact of his so writing is only a disgrace to him, whatever men may say. For not to know the nature of justice and injustice, and good and evil, and not to be able to distinguish the dream from the reality, cannot in truth be otherwise than disgraceful to him, even though he have the applause of the whole world. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Certainly. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | But he who thinks that in the written word there is necessarily much which is not serious, and that neither poetry nor prose, spoken or written, is of any great value, if, like the compositions of the rhapsodes, they are only recited in order to be believed, and not with any view to criticism or instruction; and who thinks that even the best of writings are but a reminiscence of what we know, and that only in principles of justice and goodness and nobility taught and communicated orally for the sake of instruction and graven in the soul, which is the true way of writing, is there clearness and perfection and seriousness, and that such principles are a man's own and his legitimate offspring;--being, in the first place, the word which he finds in his own bosom; secondly, the brethren and descendants and relations of his idea which have been duly implanted by him in the souls of others;--and who cares for them and no others--this is the right sort of man; and you and I, Phaedrus, would pray that we may become like him. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | That is most assuredly my desire and prayer. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | And now the play is played out; and of rhetoric enough. Go and tell Lysias that to the fountain and school of the Nymphs we went down, and were bidden by them to convey a message to him and to other composers of speeches--to Homer and other writers of poems, whether set to music or not; and to Solon and others who have composed writings in the form of political discourses which they would term laws--to all of them we are to say that if their compositions are based on knowledge of the truth, and they can defend or prove them, when they are put to the test, by spoken arguments, which leave their writings poor in comparison of them, then they are to be called, not only poets, orators, legislators, but are worthy of a higher name, befitting the serious pursuit of their life. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | What name would you assign to them? |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | Wise, I may not call them; for that is a great name which belongs to God alone,--lovers of wisdom or philosophers is their modest and befitting title. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Very suitable. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | And he who cannot rise above his own compilations and compositions, which he has been long patching and piecing, adding some and taking away some, may be justly called poet or speech-maker or law-maker. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Certainly. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | Now go and tell this to your companion. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | But there is also a friend of yours who ought not to be forgotten. |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | Who is he? |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | Isocrates the fair:--What message will you send to him, and how shall we describe him? |
phaedrus | SOCRATES | Isocrates is still young, Phaedrus; but I am willing to hazard a prophecy concerning him. |
phaedrus | PHAEDRUS | What would you prophesy? |